Hardware, Estimating, and Mill Design

WINDOW SASH HARDWARE — SASH TRIM FOR DOUBLE-HUNG WINDOWS — TRIMMINGS FOR PIVOTED AND CASEMENT SASH

60. Sash Pulleys.—The pulleys for the counterbalancing of double-hung, or sliding, windows, while apparently unimportant pieces of hardware, are worthy of much consideration in their selection, and in the preparation of the specifications care should be exercised to provide the best pulley consistent with the character of the work. It is good practice to furnish the millmen with a sample of the pulleys that are to be used, so that the frame will be properly mortised to receive them when the sash are hung. By this method, the necessity of exposing the case to the weather during the erection of the structure is obviated.

Fig. 67

The common grades of sash pulleys are rough and cheap, and may be used for unimportant work and light sashes. For heavier sashes and important work, however, a better grade of larger and heavier construction should be used. It is important in specifying sash pulleys to stipulate the size of the pulley and to specify the diameter of the axle; also to state whether brass or bronze wheels and bronze faces are desired. Pulleys are supplied in 1¾-, 2-, 2¼-, 2½-, and 3-inch diameters. The required diameter of the pulley is determined by the thickness of the pulley stile and the diameter of the sash weight required to balance the sash.

Fig. 68

Fig. 69

The cases in which the pulleys are mounted in the cheaper grades are made of cast-iron, while in the better grades they are made of stamped metal. High-grade pulleys constructed of stamped metal are also provided; these are put together either by riveting the two faces of the pulley or by electrically welding them. The construction of a built-up steel pulley is illustrated in Fig. 67. The cases enclosing the pulleys are made of cast-iron, as illustrated in Fig. 68 (a), or they are constructed of stamped metal, as shown at (b). The ends of the facing of the case are made square, rounded, or auger-shaped, and are finished either rough, polished, or lacquered, or are faced with brass or bronze of any finish desired. The pulleys illustrated in Fig. 69 (a) are so constructed that the mortise in the frame may be readily formed by a special boring machine carrying three or four bits. This machine bores holes of a size to fit the several cylindrical portions of the stamped-metal case, as at a, a, a diagram of the mortising in the frame being illustrated at (b).

Fig. 70

The better grades of pulleys may be procured with semi-steel, brass, or bronze wheels, and with plain axles or with ball or roller bearings. In the cheaper grades of sash pulleys, the axles are formed of common wire, while in the better grades they are made of either steel or gun metal ⅜ inch in diameter. In the best pulleys, the wheels are turned, to insure smoothness of motion, and are made with grooves for cord, ribbon, or chain. All steel pulleys built up as illustrated in Fig. 67 are of recent invention; they run smoothly, and are very easily applied. These pulleys are also made with ball or roller bearings, and may be obtained at a reasonable price.

Fig. 71

There is a special type of sash pulleys that may be used for twin and triple windows, where it is necessary to form a narrow mullion between the windows. This pulley is known as the Grant overhead sash pulley, and is used as illustrated in Fig. 70. At (a) is a twin-window arrangement, showing the sash on the two sides double-hung, each sash being counterbalanced by means of one counterweight. By this means, the frame mullion between the two sashes can be made as narrow as 2 inches, which is an advantage where the maximum amount of daylight opening is desired. Frequently, in triple windows, the center sash, as well as the two side sashes, is made double-hung. In such a case, the arrangement of the overhead pulleys would be as shown in Fig. 70 (b). These pulleys provide a convenient means for arranging double-hung windows of this type, but sufficient room must be left in the head of the window to allow for the insertion of this pulley and the travel of the sash counterweights. The construction of this type of overhead pulley with roller bearings is shown in Fig. 71.

61. Determination of Size of Sash or Frame Pulleys.—The architect’s specifications should stipulate the diameter of the sash pulleys to be used in the work, and this item requires careful consideration. Where care is not exercised in this regard, either the pulleys will be so small that the weight will rub against the pulley stile, or they will be so large that the weight will rub the jamb casing on the opposite side of the pocket. Standard sash pulleys are made in sizes from 1¾ to 3 inches in diameter, varying by quarter inches. In determining the diameter of the pulley required for a particular window frame, a good rule is to multiply the thickness of the pulley stile by 2.25; thus, a ⅞-inch stile would require a 2-inch pulley; a 1⅛-inch stile, a 2½-inch pulley; and a 1⅜-inch stile, a 3-inch pulley. It is best to specify that pulleys for metallic frames shall be of the larger size, namely, 3 inches in diameter; and also that these pulleys shall have ⅜-inch axles.

62. Sash Cords and Chains.—The sash cords by which the sashes are attached to the counterweights in double-hung windows are usually furnished by the carpenter, and are so specified. However, they may be specified under hardware. The specification for the sash cord should state both the size and the maker’s name, and for good standard work Sansom Spot or Silver Lake sash cords are the best that can be procured. Table VI will be found convenient in determining the diameter of the cord and the consequent size by number, as well as the size of the sash pulley.

TABLE VI

STANDARD SIZE OF SASH CORD FOR PULLEYS

Sash chains are made in the form illustrated in Fig. 72, and may be had either in steel, red metal, or bronze. The sash chains in the market are usually made in four sizes, being numbered from 0 to 3. The makers, however, have no agreement regarding these standards, so that the numbering is not uniform; one manufacturer’s No. 0 chain may be his heaviest make, while a chain of the same number furnished by another maker may be the lightest chain that he manufactures. In order to provide against this discrepancy when specifying, it is well to name the maker of the chain. The lightest sash chain will support sashes weighing from 40 to 75 pounds, while the heaviest will carry sashes that weigh from 150 to 250 pounds.

Fig. 72

Fig. 73

63. Sash Balances.—By the use of sash balances, one of which is shown in Fig. 73, there is no necessity for weight boxes, counterweights, etc. The contrivance illustrated has been manufactured for many years, and the original intention was to have it displace the sash pulley, cord, and weight for double-hung windows. Installing spring sash pulleys costs more than the older method of hanging by means of counterweights. They are constructed with a long, spiral spring enclosed by a drum, on which the tape a, Fig. 73, winds and thus raises the sash. The coil spring in this balance is made of either light or heavy material, according to the weight of the sash it is intended to counterbalance. They are seldom used, however, except where there is insufficient room for sash weights. The steel tape is liable to be twisted and broken by jarring in operating the sash, and for general use it has been found that the most positive action is secured by pulleys and weights.

64. Weight of Sash and Glass.—In estimating the weight of window sash, in order that the size of the counterweights or of the spring counterbalance may be determined, the weight of the glass per square foot may be taken as follows: Plate glass, 3½ pounds; double-thick glass, 1½ pounds; and single-thick glass, 1 pound. To find the weight of the wooden sash, add together the height and the width of the sash, in feet, and multiply by 2.1 for 2¼-inch sash, by 1.67 for 1¾-inch sash, and by 1.33 for 1⅜-inch sash. The several sizes of sash given indicate the thickness of the sash frame. While these data for determining the weight of sash are not exact, they are sufficiently accurate to fix the size of the sash cords and pulleys and to estimate the weight required to counterbalance them. The best practice in counterbalance sashes, however, is to weigh the sash after it has been glazed; in this manner the exact weight and size of the counterweights required can be determined. The approximate weights of ordinary glazed sash are usually given in the catalogs of manufacturers of sash weights, pulleys, etc., and will be found convenient in determining the approximate weight of sash weights without making the calculations just described when estimating.

65. Sash Locks, or Fasts.—There are many different makes of sash locks for double-hung sash in the market. In Fig. 74 are shown several of the older type of sash locks that have been used extensively. The lock shown at (a) is known as the Champion; that at (b), as the Ives, and that at (c), as the Boston. This type of sash lock, the construction of which is apparent from the illustration, has given satisfaction for a number of years.

Fig. 74

Fig. 75

Fig. 76

A newer type of sash lock is that illustrated in Figs. 75 and 76. In Fig. 75 is shown a sash lock known as the Fitch. This lock is made by several manufacturers, and can be procured in all finishes of iron for the cheaper class of buildings, and also in bronze metal for high-class work. It is composed of a helical cam, which is fastened to the top of the meeting rail of the lower sash and engages with a hook, or lug, that is secured to the bottom of the upper sash. The operation of this fastener is rapid, and the rotary movement draws the two sashes together horizontally and forces them in opposite directions vertically. In this way, it holds the sash fast and prevents rattling and air leaks. It also has an advantage in that it cannot be moved by inserting a knife blade between the sashes from the outside. The Yale screw sash fast illustrated in Fig. 76 is an excellent piece of hardware. It accomplishes the same results as the Fitch lock; namely, drawing the sash together by the tightening of a thumb nut on a fine-pitched screw. This nut operates against a semicircular-shaped upright hook, or lug, on the lower sash, thus developing great pressure in the desired direction. While this sash fastener takes somewhat longer to operate than the Fitch, it repays by providing greater security.

66. Sash Lifts.—While sash lifts are not required for the cheapest work, as the window can be raised by pushing against the parting rail or against the mullions, nevertheless they are made to sell at such reasonable prices that it would seem advisable to place them on the lower sash of all buildings, no matter how unimportant.

Fig. 77

Fig. 78

Fig. 79

The common type of sash lift illustrated in Fig. 77 is known as the hook sash lift. This lift is extensively used, and can be procured in any grade or weight, in either cast-iron, steel, or bronze metal, and in any finish desired.

The flush sash lift, the general type of which is shown in Fig. 78, makes a better appearance than the hook lift, and is considerably stronger, from the fact that the casing forming the grip is let into the lower rail of the sash, and the strain is taken by this, rather than by the screws. These lifts are made in either steel or bronze, and in all finishes; they can also be had ornamented to correspond with the lock trim.

For heavy sashes, such as those in public and commercial buildings, the bar sash lift illustrated in Fig. 79 is the best. This type of lift should always be used for heavy sash. A sash lift similar to the type shown at (a) is sometimes fastened to the under side of the meeting rail of the upper sash for the purpose of lowering the sash.

Fig. 80

Fig. 81

67. Sash Sockets and Pole Hooks.—In buildings having high ceilings, where the top sash is some distance from the floor, as is likely to occur in institutions, schools, and factories, it is necessary to provide “pull-down” poles for the purpose of raising and lowering the upper sash. The hooks used on the ends of such poles, which are made of some tough wood, are as illustrated in Fig. 80. Unless the upper sash is furnished with metal plates that have a hole, or aperture, the pole will be used against the mullion or upper rail of the window sash and thus mar the woodwork. The plates, or metal sockets, to engage the sash and pull-down poles, are illustrated in Fig. 81. They may be had in all metals and finishes and in several sizes.

Fig. 82

68. Stop-Screws.—The stop-bead screws, or washers, or, as they are more commonly known, the window-stop, or bead, adjusters, types of which are illustrated in Figs. 82 and 83, are necessary hardware adjuncts to the window trim for buildings of the better class. In ordinary work, these stops are secured to the frame by nailing, but when they are fastened in this manner, the stop-beads are disfigured if it is necessary to remove them. A cheap and good way of fastening these stop-beads is to use ordinary round-headed screws. While these adjusters answer the purpose very well, they do not allow for the adjustment of the stop-bead sidewise, so as to take up any shrinkage that might occur in the sash and prevent it from rattling, as well as making it air-tight.

Fig. 83

To overcome this deficiency, a surface washer, as illustrated in Fig. 82, was originated. The surface washer was ordinarily made about ⅝ inch in diameter, and was provided with one large hole about ⅜ inch in diameter or with two smaller holes placed side by side horizontally across the stop. By this means, the proper adjusting of the stop-bead was provided for, the washer covering the opening, or hole, through the stop. However, the defect in this method consisted in the marring of the finished stop when adjustment was required, for the washer left its imprint on the woodwork, and, when shifted, this would show.

The best form of stop-bead washer is illustrated in Fig. 83, and is known as the Taplin adjusting screw and countersunk cup washer. This device is composed of a sunken, or cup, washer with a slotted or horizontal hole in its base frame, so as to allow about a ³/₁₆-inch adjustment. This adjustment, as can be clearly seen from the figure, is made without marring, or disfiguring, the stop-bead in any way. These countersunk washers may be had in bronze or steel, those made of steel being finished to match the hardware, as desired.

Fig. 84

69. Sash Centers.—When a transom sash is hung at the top or the bottom, regular hinge butts may be used; but where a sash is pivoted at the center, either on the sides or at the top and bottom, a pivoted arrangement, termed a sash center, is needed. For large sash or heavy transoms, and especially for those that are exterior sash, the rabbeted center should be used. This type of center is illustrated in Fig. 84; its construction gives great strength and completely closes the joint against light and water.

An excellent type of center, known as the Howarth sash center, is illustrated in Fig. 85, the method by which it is attached to the frame and sash being clearly indicated. By this arrangement, the two parts of the center fold, or butt, against each other and form a tight joint, the stop-bead for the sash at the top and bottom being arranged as indicated at a a.

Fig. 85

There is a sash center, known as the Tabor, that is constructed as shown in Fig. 86. This center is used for very large sash that are vertically pivoted; that is, arranged with a center at the top and bottom. Such sash as these are used extensively in office buildings, because, by their use, the entire window may be thrown open at one time. The Tabor device consists of a special sub-sill, which engages with a ribbed joint strip placed on the bottom of the sash. By this means, a weather-tight joint is secured, and the sash is firmly locked in a closed position. By throwing a lever, the sash is raised above the astragal, or sub-sill, and can then be operated. The top rail is supplied with a filling strip having an irregular joint at the intersection with the sash, and is held firmly by a coil spring encircling the top pivot.

In Fig. 87 are shown several sash centers of the common type. These possess no particular merit, but are much used for common work.

Fig. 86

Fig. 87

70. Transom Lifts.—The transom lift illustrated in Fig. 88 is distinctly an American device for operating and fastening the transom lights over doors. This device is used extensively in hotel and office buildings. It is made in various styles and sizes necessary to meet the several requirements. The transom lift consists of a vertical sliding rod that is placed on the door jambs, as at a, with an arm at the top connecting it with the sash, as at b. Near the bottom is a clamp, or grip, that holds the bar a in any desired position. By a vertical movement of the rod, the sash is caused to swing. Transom lifts may be had for transom sashes that are pivoted at the center or for those which are hinged at the top or the bottom. At (a) and (b) in Fig. 88 are shown the types of transom lifts for center-pivoted sash; the former arranged so that the sash pitches outwards, while in the latter the sash pitches inwards. At (c), the device is shown where the sash is hinged at the top, while at (d) the sash is hinged at the bottom. The several kinds of transom lifts made by the various manufacturers are practically alike, except for variations in the form of the grip, or clamp. The range of sizes and quality of transom lifts is large. The commercial article may be obtained in steel, copper or bronze plated, or in bronze or brass. They are made in ¼-, ⁵/₁₆-, ⅜-, and ½-inch sizes, the size being determined by the weight of the sash and the degree of rigidity and solidity desired to be obtained and expressed. For good work, the ⅜" and ½" diameters are used. The rods may be obtained in lengths of from 3 to 12 feet. In specifying or ordering transom lifts, the rod should always be sufficiently long to reach within 5 feet of the floor.

Fig. 88

Fig. 89

71. Transom Catches.—In Fig. 89 are illustrated types of transom spring catches, or bolts. These devices are provided in the several forms shown to meet various conditions. Those shown at (a), (b), and (c) have a ring, or eye, in the handle, to which an operating cord may be suspended, or into which a pull-down hook may be inserted, to operate the sash. The transom catch at (d) is made expressly for operation by means of a pull-down hook. In very wide windows, for the purpose of limiting the opening of the sash, these catches should be used in conjunction with chains instead of with transom lifts.

72. Transom Chains.—In Fig. 90 are illustrated several types of transom chains. The chains shown at (a) and (b) are suitable for sashes weighing not more than 25 pounds, while that at (c) is sufficiently strong for sashes weighing over 25 pounds. These chains are fastened to cleats furnished with countersunk screw holes for securing readily to the frame and sash. When the sash is hinged at the bottom, these chains are used to limit the opening of the sash. They are sometimes employed as an additional guard, to prevent the sash from falling in case the sash lifter becomes broken. The ordinary lengths of sash chains range from 8 to 24 inches, the latter length being sufficient for the opening of the largest sash.

Fig. 90

73. Casement Trim.—The term casement applies properly to any hinged sash. It is, however, usually limited to windows that have a sill set some distance above the floor. Where the casement sash extends to the floor, the term French window is generally applied, although frequently the terms are confused. In designing casement windows, the details of the hardware should be such that the casements can be made weather-tight; and in laying out the full-sized details for the mill work for a casement sash and frame, the available hardware should be studied, so that the woodwork may be arranged to conform to it.

74. Casement Bolts and Fasts.—Casement sash may be provided with any good form of top and bottom bolts or hinged sash fasteners, but these should be supplemented by a good latch or cupboard catch at the center. Special turnbuckles, or casement fasts, constructed as shown in Fig. 91, are on the market. All of the catches shown will securely fasten the sash, but the types shown at (a) and (d), Fig. 91, will draw the sash tightly against the frame when the buckle, or fast, is drawn in place. In countries where casement sash are in general use, the necessary fastenings, including the top and bottom bolts, are embodied in one structure, as described in the following article.

Fig. 91

75. Cremorne Bolts.—In the best work, the Cremorne bolt is used for casement windows. This device consists of a vertical rod divided at or about the middle of its length, thus making two pieces, and is operated by a knob, or handle, at that point. Types of ornamental Cremorne bolts are illustrated in Fig. 92. As shown, the upper and lower ends of the rods, or bolts, slide vertically and in opposite directions, being operated by the turning of the knob, or handle. These bolts are furnished with suitable strikes, either of the plate or the box form, which are attached to the window at the top or the bottom. Since the ends of the bolts are beveled, they press the two sashes tightly together and against the sash frame when they are thrown in. A single movement of the knob, or lever handle, is sufficient to release both bolts.

Fig. 92

76. Espagnolette Bolts.—In Fig. 93 is shown the Espagnolette bolt, which is similar in construction to the Cremorne bolt. This bolt consists of a vertical rod, but instead of being in two pieces, as in the Cremorne bolt, it is in one piece. This rod has hooks at each end, and, by a rotary motion, engages pins, or plates, in the window frame and thus draws the sashes together and against the frame. These bolts are usually operated by a pendant handle, which, when lifted to a horizontal position, will release the rod so that it may be rotated to fasten or to release the sash. For very high sash, a supplemental design may be used by providing a tapered hook on the opposite sash for the pendant. The Espagnolette bolt is usually heavier than the Cremorne and exerts more power in forcing the sashes against the frame; it is also more expensive. Both bolts, however, are available for use on doors as well as on windows, and lend themselves admirably to decorative treatment, as shown in the illustrations.

Fig. 93

The same care should be exercised in the selection of these bolts as for other hardware, and when ordering them, full-sized details should accompany the order, showing sections through the top rail and head-jamb, the bottom rail, the sill, and the lock stile. The exact measurement of the height and the width of the openings should also be given, and the information should state whether the sash swings inwards or outwards. The hand of the active leaf, as well as the height of the handle from the floor, should also be given. In Fig. 94 are shown sections through a casement sash, illustrating the conditions requiring the use of Espagnolette bolts, and, as just stated, sections similar to these should be furnished the dealer, or manufacturer, so that these bolts will fit the construction when they are delivered.

Fig. 94

Fig. 95

Fig. 96

77. Casement Adjusters.—In order to hold pivoted or hinged sash in a partly open position, it is necessary to use casement-sash adjusters. These adjusters, and the method of applying them, are illustrated in Fig. 95. In this figure is shown the adjuster applied to a sash pivoted at the top and the bottom, but the device can as well be applied to a casement sash hinged at the sides.

There are many forms of casement-sash adjusters, the common types being illustrated in Fig. 96. They are arranged for sash that open either inwards or outwards, and may be applied to either pivoted or hinged sash. Most casement-sash adjusters usually consist of a rod or a bar attached to the sash by a hinged or pivoted joint. The rod passes through a clamp on the frame, or sill, and this rod, when the clamp is tightened, holds the sash firmly in any desired position.

78. Window and Shutter Operating Devices.—The sash-operating device is provided for the purpose of controlling a number of sash in a line by one piece of mechanism. Frequently, divided sashes are arranged side by side in skylights, clearstories, and monitors. These windows are usually some distance from the floor, and the operating device must be so arranged that it can be worked conveniently. The device illustrated in Fig. 97 is known as the Lovell window and shutter operating device, and consists of two longitudinal sections of pipe shafting a connected to cog racks b at the end. These cog racks in turn engage with a cog, or wheel, shaft c, as indicated in the figure. Connecting arms d, with swivel joints at each end, are arranged between the pipe shafts and the sash. The ends connected to the sash are secured to the same by means of plates and wood screws, and the swivel joint at the other end is provided with a sleeve, or socket, that is secured to the pipe shafts with a setscrew. The commendable feature of this device is that it is operated by a straight push or pull of the arm, instead of a twist, as in some other devices on the market. When the chain, or rope, around the large chain wheel is pulled, the cog is turned, and as it engages the racks, it thrusts one pipe horizontally in one direction and the other in an opposite direction. By this means, the connecting arms to the sash approach one another and lengthen the distance between the shafting and the sash, which movement tends to push the sash open, the sash being closed by the opposite operation. By this device as much as 500 feet of sash may be operated by one wheel, or “power,” as it is called. This chain wheel, or power, may be located either in the center or at the terminals, and by careful adjustment will simultaneously close all the sashes tight against the frame.

Fig. 97

DOOR HARDWARE AND ITS APPLICATION — SHUTTER HARDWARE — CABINET TRIM — DESIGN AND SPECIFICATION OF HARDWARE FOR BUILDINGS — HARDWARE OF SPECIAL DESIGN — HARDWARE SPECIFICATIONS — SELECTION, ESTIMATION, AND APPLICATION OF HARDWARE — SCHEDULES AND DRAWINGS FOR THE HARDWARE CONTRACTOR — GLASS AND GLAZING

79. Door Pulls.—In Fig. 98 are illustrated two well-known types of door pulls. The pull shown at (a) consists of a handle that is usually mounted on a plate and attached to either storm or single-acting doors, although, occasionally, this type is used on double-acting doors with the word “push” or “pull” inscribed on the plate. When used on double-acting doors, the door pull has a tendency to obviate the habit of persons placing their hands on the moldings near the glass when operating the door, but is subject to the objection of inviting a pull to open the door even with the word “push” inscribed on the plate.

Fig. 98

Door pulls are made in various metals, both in plain and ornamental design, some of the latter being very elaborate, as will be observed from Fig. 99.

80. Kick Plates.—A kick plate is a modern device that may be applied to the bottom of doors to protect the woodwork from injury and wear, being used chiefly for double-acting doors and doors of public buildings. These plates are frequently made of sheet metal, but are much handsomer when made of cast metal and ornamented to harmonize with other metal work of the door.

Fig. 99

Kick plates should completely cover the bottom rail of the door, but if cost is the controlling factor, they may be cut down in height so that a margin of wood the same width as the side, or lock, stile shows above the plate. For instance, if the bottom rail is 12 inches in height and the stile is 5 inches wide, the kick plate should be 7 inches high. In all cases, kick plates should extend the full width of the door, allowing enough margin, when used on double-acting-doors, for the rounding of the edges. When used on single-acting doors having rabbeted jambs, the rabbet of both jambs should be deducted from the length of the kick plate. A typical kick plate of plain pattern is shown in Fig. 100. Such plates are generally sold at a square-inch price.

Fig. 100

Fig. 101

81. Push Plates.—On double-acting or single-acting doors, such as storm and duplex doors, push plates are used to protect the woodwork against soiling and wear from handling. These plates are made in various sizes, and are either plain or ornamented to harmonize with the other hardware. To obtain good results, push plates should be as wide as the lock stile, where possible, and from 12 to 30 inches long, according to conditions and use. Plates 20 inches or less in length should be placed on the door so that the distance from the floor to the center of the plate is about 4 feet 6 inches; for larger plates the distance from the floor to the top of the plate should be 5 feet. If used in connection with a cylinder dead lock, the plate should be cut or drilled, preferably near the bottom, to allow the cylinder of the lock to pass through the plate. The plain type of push plate is illustrated in Fig. 101 (a), while one of more ornamental design is shown at (b).

82. Sign Plates.—Although metallic plates with lettering are not usually included in the hardware specifications, they find extensive use in hotels, banks, and other public buildings. The inscriptions available cover every possible demand, including titles of officers, names of rooms, etc. Sign plates of various sizes can be procured in the following finishes: Bronze, brass, or nickel with either sunken or raised black letters; bronze or brass with black background or matte; white porcelain plate with blue, red, or gilt letters; and blue porcelain with white letters. Two typical sign plates are shown in Fig. 102.

Fig. 102

83. Door Stops and Holders.—Since door checks and double-acting doors have come into more extensive use, the necessity of holding doors open has created a demand for door stops and holders. The door stop is a device for limiting the backward swing of a door. This device may also be constructed so as to perform the additional function of holding the door in an open position; it is then known as a door holder.

Fig. 103

The ordinary door stop is simply a wooden knob with rubber tip, or ring, that may be fastened to the floor or a baseboard, and is usually made up in the forms shown in Fig. 103. Better grades made of iron or bronze are also available. These come in various shapes, as shown in Fig. 104. Frequently, as shown at a, a hook for fastening the door in an open position is combined with the door stop.

Fig. 104

Fig. 105

The door stop with the hook holdback is not always convenient to use, so that the automatic holdback, or door holder shown in Fig. 105 is sometimes employed. This holder can be disengaged by a pull on the handle of the door and automatically catches the door in an entire open position.

Where it is desired to hold a door in any position or to release it quickly, the rubber-tipped holder shown in Fig. 106 should be used; this device is easily operated and controlled by the foot.

Fig. 106

Fig. 107

84. Chain Door Fastener.—The type of chain fastener illustrated in Fig. 107 is generally used on exterior residence doors. This device allows the occupants to open the door partly without permitting entrance. It consists of a heavy chain, one end of which is attached to a plate, which in turn is fastened to the jamb with screws. The other end of the chain carries a ball or a hook that may be inserted in the slot of the long plate, which is attached to the door. By this means, the door may be opened only slightly, until the ball of the chain is released from the slot.

Fig. 108

Fig. 109

85. Door Bolts.—A large variety of door bolts is now on the market. These bolts are made in all sizes, in wrought steel, cast iron, brass, and bronze, and may be procured in any finish desired. The several types of bolts used in common practice are illustrated in Figs. 108 and 109. In Fig. 108 (a) is shown a type of barrel bolt; at (b) is shown what is known as a cased bolt; and at (c) is shown a necked bolt. Fig. 109 (a) shows a spring bolt, (b) a spring-necked bolt, and (c) a type of shutter bolt. Various types of mortise bolts are illustrated in Fig. 110.

Fig. 110

Fig. 111

Fig. 112

Fig. 113

Fig. 114

86. Chain Bolts and Foot-Bolts.—A type of rim bolt used chiefly to secure the standing leaf of double doors is shown in Fig. 111. These bolts are made in various sizes, finishes, and grades, and in both plain and ornamental design. In the figure, the chain bolt is shown at (a), while the foot-bolt is illustrated at (b).

87. Flush Bolts.—Bolts that are intended to perform the same function as chain bolts and foot-bolts, but are sunk into the stile of the door flush with its surface or edge, are known as flush bolts. These bolts, which are illustrated in Figs. 112 and 113, are made in various styles, grades, and finishes, from the smaller kinds for cabinet purposes to the large, double-mortise extension bolt. A flush bolt with a knob is shown in Fig. 114, while a heavy, T-handle extension bolt is shown in Fig. 115.

Fig. 115

88. Door Springs and Checks.—During recent years considerable improvement has been noticeable in the construction of the devices known as door springs and checks. Formerly, the common torsion rod and coil springs, which are illustrated in Fig. 116, at (a) and (b), respectively, were the only articles of this kind available. These devices have been in extensive use for many years, and have performed the work of closing the door, but not without the unnecessary bang and slam made by the door when striking the jambs. This was overcome to some extent, however, by the introduction of the air-check, which depends on the use of an air cushion to resist the force of the spring. In effect, each check is a small air pump.

Prominent among the older type of air-checks is the Eclipse made by Sargent & Co. This check is clearly illustrated in Fig. 117. At (a) and (b) are shown two methods of applying the Eclipse air-checks. In (a), the spring-check that closes the door is shown at a attached to the door, while its lever-arm is fastened to the door casing. The cylinder b is also secured to the door, and the piston c, operating in the cylinder, is applied to the door casing. At (b), the parts are differently arranged. The spring-check occupies the same relative position as shown in (a), its lever-arm being shown at a, while the piston c is fastened to the door and the cylinder b affixed to the head-jamb of the door frame. Either method is adapted for inside doors, but that shown at (b) is preferable for doors opening outwards, on account of fewer parts being exposed; the spring-check and its lever-arms, in this case, being the only parts exposed to the weather. In construction these checks consist of a cylinder b with a polished interior, in which works the piston c. On the end of the piston there is provided a cup made of leather that has previously been soaked in oil. By the insertion of the piston into the cylinder as the door closes, there is a tendency to compress the air in the cylinder, thus forming an air cushion with air outlet at the caps. These outlets can be regulated by turning, or screwing, the cap to the right or the left, as the case may require.

Fig. 116

Fig. 117

Devices of this kind, however, did not prove satisfactory until the introduction of the Yale-Blount, or hydraulic, combined spring and check, which is shown in Fig. 118. In this device, the coil spring a, shown in (b), is enclosed in the vertical portion of the check, the regulating of the tension being accomplished by turning the ratchet sleeve b with a wrench made for that purpose. The check enclosed in the horizontal part consists of a metallic piston c, without packing, that moves in a tightly sealed metallic cylinder containing a lubricating and non-freezing liquid. The movement of the door in closing depends on the escape of the liquid through a by-pass from one end of the cylinder to the center, this by-pass being controlled by a small valve that may be readily adjusted to produce any desired action of the door and thus permit the door to be closed silently, with a smooth, steady motion, and without rebound. Since the introduction of the Yale-Blount type of check and spring combined, other manufacturers are making similar styles, the most prominent being the Bardsley, the Corbin, the Sargent, and the Ogden.

Fig. 118

89. Sliding-Door Hangers and Track.—The first sliding-doors were usually carried on sheaves, or rollers, located at the bottom of a door, these rollers traveling on a metal track, which was either inserted in the floor or placed on its surface. This system, however, has been displaced by the more modern sliding-door hanger, which suspends the door from the top. The carriers containing the rollers, or wheels, run on an overhead track placed in a recess formed for that purpose above the soffit of the doorway.

The use of the overhead hanger requires a special construction of the head-jamb, not only to provide space for the overhead track, but also to furnish proper support for the brackets securing the same. It is therefore a good plan to determine in advance the type of hanger to be used, in order that the framing and other details of the doorway may be made to conform to it. The most important features to be considered in the selection of sliding-door hangers are the strength and stiffness of track, the provision for adjusting and reducing friction and noise, the strength and quality of the several parts, and the facility with which these parts can be fitted in place and adjusted when in use.

In order to overcome noise, the original overhead hanger was made with wooden track, which was placed on each side of the recess. On this track rolled the wheels in pairs, being generally riveted to an axle and having a space between them. The frame of the hanger traveled on the axle from end to end, to overcome friction, the adjustment being only in the hanger frame. Of this type of door hanger, the Prindle, the Stearns, the Warner, the Ives, and the Richards were the most widely used. The Ives improved wooden-track, house-door hanger is illustrated in Fig. 119.

Fig. 119

Another form of sliding-door hanger, which is considered an improvement over the type just described, consists of the single or side steel-track hanger of the Lane or the Richards make. These sliding-door hangers are constructed entirely of steel, and the hanger proper has frictionless bearings, on the principle of the wooden-track hangers, but with one wheel to each hanger, running on a steel track fastened to one side of the recess. This combination is quite an improvement over the old-style hanger, and can be placed in position more readily. The wheels of these hangers, as shown in Fig. 120, are constructed of two plates of steel, between which is placed a fiber wheel that is held in position by through rivets. The fiber portion of the wheel comes in contact with the track, while the plates act only as flanges, thus tending to reduce the noise caused by the operation of the door.

Fig. 120

Fig. 121

The hangers most extensively used at present are the trolley type, of which the Coburn is the original and the best of the various kinds. The track, a typical section of which is shown in Fig. 121, is made of sheet steel, which is bent or folded into various forms, depending on the particular make. The carrier is contained in the interior of the track. The several features of this type of track and hanger are illustrated in Figs. 122, 123, and 124, which likewise show the method of attachment and the detail construction of the door head, or soffit, necessary to receive these tracks and hangers.

This type of sliding-door trolley track is also sometimes lined with wood placed in the steel trough, or track, as shown in Fig. 125. This makes the device absolutely noiseless, although the regular types operate with very little noise. Besides the Coburn trolley and track, there are the Richard and the McCabe. Both of these makes possess merit. The trolleys, or carriers, are constructed with both fiber and iron wheels, with ball bearings, running on a wooden or metal track, according to the type.

Fig. 122

Fig. 123

Fig. 124

Fig. 125

Fig. 126

This type of hanger and track is made in all sizes, from the smallest, for hanging small bookcase doors, up to the very largest, for warehouse doors. As shown in Fig. 126, trolley hangers are made for doors of special design, such as accordion and parallel doors used to close up large openings. They are also made for elevator doors, freight-car doors, barn doors, and automatic fire-doors, with special construction to suit the various purposes.

Fig. 127

In factory and similar buildings, it frequently happens that one portion must be separated from another by brick fire-walls and that the openings in these walls have to be closed with tin-covered doors as required by the National Board of Fire Underwriters, the object being to reduce the fire hazard. Wherever possible, these doors are made sliding and arranged so as to close automatically, being hung on a slanting track with an incline of ¾ inch to the foot, and also counterbalanced with weights so that the door will stand at any point, as shown in Fig. 127. The cord or rope attached to the weights passes over a pulley and is attached to the door with a fusible link, as at a, which, in case of fire gives way and allows the door to close automatically.

The doors are usually constructed of seasoned white pine or similar non-resinous wood, using three thicknesses of ⅞-inch matched boards, the outside layers to be vertical and inner layers horizontal and thoroughly fastened together with wrought-iron clinch nails, driven in flush and well clinched. The doors are then covered with 14" × 20" IC bright charcoal tin plates of not less than 107 pounds to a box of 112 sheets. All joints are locked ½ inch, without soldering, and nailed under the seams.

The track for these doors is best made of round-edge bar iron or tire steel, ⅜ in. × 3½ in., being bolted to the wall with through bolts having nut and flanged washer on the opposite side, and held from the wall by cast-iron track brackets. The hangers are of wrought iron, ⅜ in. × 3½ in., provided with roller-bearing wheels and are attached to the door with at least two bolts. The binders are of wrought metal, ⅜ in. × 3½ in., with angle flange at back end to notch in the wall and so arranged as to grip and force the door against the wall when closed. In connection with this, a wedge is placed at the end of the lower chafing strip, and, when the door is closed, engages with the stay roll so that the door will be held close to the wall on the opposite side. Two chafing strips of ¾-inch, half-oval metal are placed on back of door with 1" × ⅛" flat strips of same length in front and bolted through the door. Bumper shoes are also used to prevent the binders from mutilating or damaging the tin covering at the points that strike the binders.

90. Door Knockers.—Although the medieval door knockers have been replaced by the modern door and electric bell, they are still used occasionally for decorative purposes, and, when required, they should be selected and specified with the finishing hardware. Door knockers are made in various styles, sizes, and finishes—in iron, brass, or bronze—to match the several designs expressed in hardware. The elaborateness of the designs of this somewhat ornamental piece of hardware is shown in Fig. 128.

Fig. 128

Fig. 129

91. Water-Closet Door Trim.—The construction of water closets in public buildings has brought forth special hardware to meet the various conditions of convenience, simplicity, and hard usage. In ordinary work, the doors of water-closet compartments are secured with a hook or a barrel bolt, while in the better class of work, as in hotels and public places of this character, mortised thumb or knob bolts or, better, indicator bolts are used.

Indicator bolts, as shown in Fig. 129, made both mortise and rim, are available for water-closet doors. In either case, the bolts are mortised into or placed on the inside of the door with the indicator case on the outside. The indicator dial has a spindle on the back, and this engages with the knob that operates the bolt. When the bolt is thrown, the indicator shows the word “Engaged,” and when turned back, the word “Open” appears.

Fig. 130

A simple form of fastening for water-closet doors is shown in Fig. 130, which illustrates the flush, or half-mortise, knob bolt at (a), and the water-closet rim latch at (b). The rim slide bolt is also used for securing water-closet doors. All of these bolts are available for wooden partitions, and may be had for marble or slate work, when special strikes and bolts for fastening will be required.

Jamb door stops are seldom required for water-closet doors hung to wooden partitions, but when needed there is to be had a simple stop with a rubber tip that will answer all purposes. Where stops are required for doors hung to marble partitions the type shown in Fig. 131 may be used. This stop has a clamp device that is attached to the marble slab by bolts and it will be observed forms a combination stop and strike for the latch or bolt.

Fig. 131

Fig. 132

Other water-closet specialties, which are not illustrated here but which are sometimes specified under hardware, are: Coat-and-hat hooks, cigar holders, cigar and paper holders combined, and toilet-paper holders. Each can be procured to secure to either wood or marble, as required.

92. Screen-Door Latches.—There is a light latch manufactured, either rim or mortise, for use on screen doors. It consists of a knob latch similar to a mortise latch or cupboard turn, but in addition to a hub, as in the former, it is furnished with a spindle and a pair of knobs, or lever handles. Latches for screen doors are also constructed with “stop-work,” so that they cannot be operated from the outside except by the means of a key. This latter latch is generally of the mortise type, having escutcheons on both sides.

93. Elevator Latches.—Locks or latches for use on doors of elevator shafts are usually operated by a key from the outside and by a flush lever handle from the inside. The latch illustrated in Fig. 132 consists of a pivoted arm with a hook at its end to engage with a strike on the jamb. This type of latch is the one generally employed.

Fig. 133

94. Secret Gate Latch.—In Fig. 133 is shown a secret gate latch, which is used for office gates. Latches of this kind may be had in either the rim or the mortise type. They usually consist of a spring bolt that cannot be operated except by a concealed button or similar device. In the type of latch shown in the figure, the concealed button that controls the latch is located on the lower edge. The knob shown is fixed and does not operate the latch.

95. Ornamental Nails and Studs.—Although the constructive necessity for ornamental studs and nail heads has disappeared under modern methods of wooden construction, they are still used for purposes of decoration, and a great variety may be had. Several stock designs are illustrated in Fig. 134. These nails and studs are made of various metals and in many finishes, having a projecting spur on the back that, when driven into the wood, firmly attaches the ornamental head in place. They contribute effectively to the decoration of important doors, especially extension doors of churches and public buildings.

96. Hand and Bevel of Doors.—Many locks and butts used at the present time are made reversible; that is, they can be used for either right- or left-hand doors. Others are not, and must therefore be specified as right hand or left hand. In this latter class are included loose-joint butts and most locks, the operation of which is different on one side than on the other. All locks with beveled fronts are not reversible, and their use should be avoided where no real need of them exists.

A reversible lock is one having a beveled latch bolt that can be turned over, or reversed, at will, to make its bevel face the opposite direction. This is usually accomplished by removing the cap of the lock and turning over the latch bolt.

Fig. 134

In order that hardware may be ordered intelligently, the hand and bevel of the door should be given where the hardware is not interchangeable, or reversible. Rules to determine the hand of doors have, therefore, been established by the manufacturers of hardware, so that the information may be founded on a uniform basis. Reference to Fig. 135 will materially assist in the interpretation of these rules.

CUPBOARD AND CELL LOCKS

Fig. 135

1. The hand of a door is always determined from the outside.

2. The outside is the street side of an entrance door, the corridor side of a room door, and the room side of a closet door. The outside of a communicating door, from room to room, is the side from which, when the door is closed, the butts are not visible. The outside of a pair of twin doors is the space between them. This rule applies to sliding-doors as well as hinged doors.

3. If, on standing outside of a door, the butts are on the right, it is a right-hand door; if on the left, it is a left-hand door.

4. If, on standing outside, the door opens from you, or inwards, it takes a lock with regular bevel bolt; if it opens outwards, it takes a lock with reverse bevel bolt.

5. A door is beveled when its edge is not at a right angle with its surface, and in this case the front of a mortise lock must be beveled to correspond. This bevel is expressed by stating the thickness of door and the distance that one edge drops back of the other. The standard bevel is ⅛ inch in 2¼ inches, as shown in Fig. 136.

Fig. 136

6. The bevel of a lock is a term used both with mortise and rim locks to indicate the direction in which the bevel of the latch bolt is inclined. If inclined outwards, as for doors opening inwards, it is a regular bevel bolt; if inclined inwards, as for doors opening outwards, it is a reverse bevel bolt (except as to cabinet locks, which, being commonly used on doors opening outwards, are regularly made with reverse bevel bolts, unless otherwise specified).

Mortise locks used with double doors having either rabbeted or astragal joints, must have fronts of corresponding sectional form. To avoid the extra cost of special patterns, the edges, or joints, of such doors should conform to established lock standards. The standard rabbet, or step, in the edge of doors is ½ inch, and the standard astragal joint has a ¾-inch bead.

The proper bevel of a door, if any is needed, is determined by the size of butt and the width of the door, as shown in Fig. 137. The inner corner of the door travels on a radius with the center at the center of the pin of the butt, and must have a clearance to swing free of the jamb casing. This may be obtained by beveling the edge of the door, or, if its edge is left square, by leaving sufficient clearance between the door and its jamb. If the door is of fair width and the butt does not need to be very wide to clear the trim, it will be found that a square edge may be used without resorting to an unduly open joint, thus permitting the use of locks with regular front; that is, not beveled.

Fig. 137

97. Shutter Fasteners, or Adjusters.—The most convenient fastener for shutters, or blinds, is the Zimmerman, or Walling, type, as shown in Fig. 138. These fasteners or adjusters secure the shutter in the closed, the open, and several intermediate positions, and are made both japanned and galvanized. They can be used with all styles of hinges, although they are generally combined with regular butts or with the New York blind hinge.

Fig. 138

Fig. 139

98. Shutter Rings.—In Fig. 139 is shown a shutter ring. Rings should always be used on solid shutters to close them; the shutter being solid, furnishes in itself no edge which can be clasped in closing, which is not the case with slatted blinds. These shutter rings are tinned or galvanized to prevent rusting, although they may also be obtained japanned. A better type of shutter ring is that having an eye riveted to a plate, which in turn is attached to the shutter with several screws.

99. Shutter Bolts.—Bolts are used for securing both slatted and solid shutters, but are chiefly intended for the solid shutter, which is used for protection. Shutter bolts are made of wrought steel in various sizes, from 6 to 16 inches long, and are to be had either japanned or galvanized. While the same shutter bolts are used on slatted blinds for keeping the blinds in a closed position, they afford little protection, as they can usually be operated through the slats. Common types of shutter bolts are illustrated in Fig. 140. At (a) is shown the ordinary wrought-steel shutter bolt, while the one shown at (b) is practically the same bolt with a lock attachment at a.

100. Shutter Workers.—The shutter worker known as the Mallory is an exceptionally good article for hanging shutters. The lower hinge is made in box form, enclosing the gear necessary to operate the blind; a square shaft connects this with a lever handle, or crank, fastened to the casing inside the building, thus allowing the user to operate the shutter from the inside without opening the sash or screen. The cog gearing in the lower hinge will hold the shutter in the closed, the open, or any desired intermediate position without the use of any other device.

Fig. 140

101. Turnbuckles.—The device shown in Fig. 141 is known as a turnbuckle; it is employed for fastening shutters in an open position against a building. Turnbuckles are made of cast-iron or of wrought steel, and for use on either frame or brick buildings. They may be used in connection with all styles of hinges, and are generally employed on buildings that are exposed to exceedingly strong winds.

Fig. 141

102. Hinge Butts and Hinges.—For cabinetwork, small, light hinge butts are used. These may be obtained in either bronze or steel, with or without ball tips, and in various sizes. The steel butts of this type are more commonly used, as they can be procured in all finishes, but for high-grade work, bronze metal is always employed. The usual type of cabinet hinge butt is illustrated in Fig. 142.

Fig. 142

Fig. 143

A surface hinge is sometimes used in place of a butt, in order to eliminate the fitting to the woodwork that is necessary where butts are used.

103. Cupboard Latches.—A convenient fastening for cupboard doors, consisting of a pivoted latch actuated by a projecting knob, is shown in Fig. 143. This type of latch is furnished with two forms of strikes, one for application on the edge and the other for application on the surface of the jamb or door.

This figure shows a stock sample of this type of latch, but the student should carefully note that whenever possible such garish or gaudy ornament should always be avoided in all classes of hardware. Good taste is always better satisfied with simple and direct treatment as shown in Fig. 144; but where ornate styles are adopted, the character of the ornament should be artistically expressed as exemplified in Figs. 128, 134, 153, 155, 157, etc.

Fig. 144

104. Cupboard Catches.—The cupboard catch differs from the cupboard latch just described, although it is intended for the same purpose. The usual cupboard catch consists of a spring bolt that is operated by a slide knob. It is made in various designs, sizes, and shapes, in both the rim and flush varieties. Figs. 144 and 145 show several types of cupboard catches.

Fig. 145

105. Cupboard Turn.—There is a piece of hardware intended for the same purpose as the cupboard catch, known as the cupboard turn. It is operated by a rotating knob instead of the slide, and is considered the best rim article used for this purpose.

106. Cupboard Buttons.—The cupboard button is an old device, but is little used at the present time, except for the cheapest work. Various types of these buttons are illustrated in Fig. 146. They are made with or without plates, as shown, and may be had in either iron or brass.

Fig. 146

107. Elbow Catches.—A convenient fastening that is in quite general use for the standing leaf of double doors is illustrated in Fig. 147, from which the operation may readily be understood. This device, which is commonly known as an elbow catch, fastens the doors automatically; it is easily operated in opening the doors, and thus does away with the old-style hook and eye. The strike of the catch should be placed beneath the shelf where possible, using the catch inverted.

Fig. 147

Fig. 148

108. Bookcase Bolt.—The bookcase bolt, shown in Fig. 148, is an automatic fastening device that is mortised into the soffit of cabinets or bookcases having double doors. It is arranged in such a position as to engage with the top of one door, and is operated by the act of closing the other door, which carries the lock, so that both doors are fastened or released by a single action.

Fig. 149

109. Lever Cupboard Catches.—Another piece of hardware used for securing light doors, or leaves, such as are used in cupboards, bookcases, and wardrobes, is illustrated in Fig. 149. This fastening is very simple and convenient. It consists of a bar that is pivoted to a plate and extends through the door, its inner end being hooked to engage with a strike.

Fig. 150

Fig. 151

110. Drawer Pulls.—The drawer pull is a familiar article of cupboard hardware, the usual type being illustrated in Fig. 150. This article can be obtained in iron, steel, brass, or bronze, in various styles and shapes, and in all finishes. Drawer pulls with label plates are extensively used. A type of this drawer pull is shown in Fig. 151.

111. Drop Drawer Pulls.—For cabinetwork, the drop drawer pull, as illustrated in Fig. 152 (a), is used almost entirely. The drop pull is made both plain and ornamented, examples of each style being shown in Figs. 152 (a) and (b) and 153.

Fig. 152

Fig. 153

Fig. 154

112. Cabinet Locks.—The type of lock illustrated in Fig. 154 is used on cabinetwork of every description, and can be procured for all classes of construction. These locks are made in rim, flush, and mortise styles, with keys having either plain or ornamental bows.

113. Cabinet Escutcheons.—In order to form a finish and protect the woodwork near the keyhole, the cabinet escutcheon plate is used. These plates are made in various sizes and styles of ornamentation, some designs of which are illustrated in Fig. 155.

Fig. 155

114. Card Frames, or Label Plates.—An article known as the card frame, or label plate, is used extensively to placard drawers or cupboards to designate their contents. These plates are made in various sizes, and may be procured in bronze and iron and in the usual patterns shown in Fig. 156.

Fig. 156

115. Hinge and Corner Plates.—The hinge and corner plate is an article used solely for decorative purposes on cabinetwork. The variety of designs and sizes now available is such that special patterns are rarely necessary. These plates may be obtained from the hardware dealer in all of the usual metals and in all finishes.

116. Proprietary Hardware.—The manufacturers of hardware have assembled an extensive collection of standard designs in the various styles of ornament, from which fitting selections can be made for almost every use without danger of repetition and without fear that the design selected may become hackneyed by too general use. Therefore, before incurring the great expense entailed by the adoption of special designs, it is advisable that a careful examination of catalog designs be made. Where, however, it is decided to adopt some special design, the facilities of the manufacturer can be effectively utilized to secure the best results at the least cost and with the minimum amount of trouble to the architect or the owner.

Of all of the subordinate elements of interior decoration, there is none that offers a larger opportunity for effective results and for the exercise of personal taste than the metal work of the hardware for doors and windows, whether elaborate and costly, or simple and inexpensive. The knobs, plates, and hinges of a door compel attention by the prominence of their position. If they are inappropriate and unpleasing, they obtrude, while if artistic and in harmony with their surroundings, they attract and provide a finish unobtainable in other ways.

The impress of individuality marks all of the important work of the successful architect, and may be extended properly to the subordinate details of decoration, especially where it is essential that these harmonize with the general scheme. Hence, in some cases, the architect furnishes the designs for the hardware to correspond with the architectural treatment of the building. As, in the case of emblematic hardware, these individual designs involve the additional expense of special drawings, models, and patterns, the plan is seldom resorted to, except where the question of cost is subordinate to that of perfection of result.

117. For many years hardware has been generally regarded as an indifferent detail that could be safely left to the carpenter contractor to select and supply. Even when specified, it has been usually described in a very loose and vague manner, doubtless owing to the technical character of the information required and the difficulty entailed on a busy architect in obtaining and formulating it for use. Where, therefore, the conditions are such that an exact and carefully detailed hardware specification cannot be prepared, the only satisfactory plan is to exclude the finishing hardware from the specifications prepared for the building and reserve it for selection by the architect and the owner.

118. Emblematic Hardware.—Occasionally, it is found desirable to indicate the character or use of a building by introducing one or more appropriate emblems in the design or ornament of the hardware. This is especially true of structures for lodges, clubs, societies, and other organizations, in which case the emblems of regalia, badges, etc. are available for the motif of the design. In municipal, state, or government buildings, the coat of arms or public seal may be introduced in decorating the hardware, and in buildings for railroad companies, banks, etc., the monogram, seal, or name of the corporation is frequently reproduced.

Fig. 157

In all instances, the device selected is usually introduced as the central ornament of the door knob. This ornament is also repeated on escutcheon and push plates, and generally on the larger pieces of metal work; and while it may constitute the sole feature of decoration, it usually has associated with it a border or other ornament.

Fig. 158

The use of emblematic hardware involves the use of special designs and patterns, and thus entails a considerably greater cost than the use of standard patterns. In Fig. 157 are shown several standard ornamental designs, while in Fig. 158 are shown pieces of lock trim ornamented with heraldic, or emblematic, designs.

119. The methods of specifying builders’ hardware differ considerably. Some architects generalize and use the same form of specification for buildings of all classes, while others are more specific, and itemize all the hardware for the entire operation, giving, besides the description, the catalog number and finish.

The first method is not considered good practice, and, though it involves little work on the part of the architect, it rarely produces the best results. Thus, wherever possible, the specification should be complete and comprehensive, giving a full description of all the hardware in the building.

120. Formerly, builders’ hardware could only be obtained in a few styles, and there was not much choice regarding its physical construction and mechanical operation, so that its selection could be left to the contractor or builder. Specification, therefore, usually included little more than a mere statement that the necessary hardware should be furnished and that it should be of good quality.

In recent years, however, the revolution accomplished in the designing and making of builders’ hardware has elevated it to an important place in decorative art, and, simultaneously, the creating of new and higher mechanical grades has radically changed the requirements in specifications relating to this subject.

121. A few standard forms of hardware specifications that should secure good results will now be considered. For convenience of reference, these several forms are marked I, II, and III. The first two forms are probably as good general forms of hardware specifications as can be written, but, while they answer the purpose in some instances, they should not be used where it is intended to have the general contract include all the hardware, or where it is possible to prepare an itemized specification such as that given in Form III. The numbering of the paragraphs in these forms is continuous with this Section, but in practice they generally start with 1.

FORM I

(See General Conditions)

Note.—Under the head of General Conditions preceding all specifications furnished to contractors by the architect, a series of binding requirements, reservations, and stipulations are specifically stated, and it is most essential that the contractor carefully peruse them, as he is bound by them as well as by the clauses under the heading of Hardware Specifications.

122. Rough Hardware.—Provide all the rough hardware, such as nails, screws, sash weights, pulleys, chain or cord, anchors, screw bolts, and all other material in this line necessary for the completion of the operation.

123. Finishing, or Builders’, Hardware.—All fastenings and metal trimmings used on doors, windows, transoms, closets, cabinets, pantries, etc. will be furnished by the owner and delivered at the building in the quantities and at the times reasonably needed by the contractor, he to apply the same under the direction and to the satisfaction of the architect.

The contractor is to be responsible for all hardware after delivery and until the completion of the building. He shall hang all doors, properly fit all locks, etc., and return them to their original packages until after completion of the painting or finishing, when he shall place them permanently. All knobs shall be covered with Canton flannel, to protect them from injury, and all keys are to be cared for until the building is delivered to the owner. The contractor shall place all keys in their locks or deliver them to the architect with tags attached, indicating where they belong.

The contractor shall furnish the manufacturer or dealer furnishing the hardware with details of woodwork or information that may be necessary in order to understand the requirements and to harmonize the hardware with the cabinetwork, and, where interferences are discovered, to have them adjusted before the hardware is delivered.

FORM II

(See General Conditions)

124. Rough Hardware.—Same as in Form I.

125. Finishing, or Builders’, Hardware.—The contractor shall include in his estimate the sum of _____ dollars ($____) for the purchase of the finishing hardware, which is to be selected by the architect or owner and charged to the contractor. If the hardware costs less than the stipulated amount, the difference shall be deducted from his contract price; if it costs more than herein contemplated, the owner will pay to the contractor the additional amount.

The above hardware is to include all fastenings and metal trimmings used on doors, windows, transoms, closets, cabinets, pantries, etc., and will be delivered at the building in the quantities and at the times reasonably required by the contractor, he to apply the same under the direction and to the satisfaction of the architect.

FORM III

(See General Conditions)

126. Front-Entrance Doors.—Provide for the front-entrance doors, cylinder, mortise, front-door lock and three 5" × 5" loose-pin, ball-tip butts for each door; also flush extension bolts 12 inches and 24 inches long.

127. Vestibule Doors.—Provide for the vestibule doors, cylinder, vestibule latch, keyed similar to the front door, and three 5" × 5" loose-pin, ball-tip butts; also flush bolts, the same as specified for entrance doors.

128. Side-Entrance and Rear Doors.—Provide for the side-entrance and rear doors, locks and butts the same as specified for the front-entrance doors. Exterior basement and kitchen doors to have 5-inch, three-bolt or 4¼-inch, three-tumbler lock and mortise bolt; also three 4½" × 4½" butts for each door.

129. Sliding-Doors.—Provide for all sliding-doors, Coburn trolley hangers; double doors to have locks with astragal fronts, and single doors to have flat-front locks.

130. Double-Acting Doors.—Provide for the doors where indicated double-acting in the plans, Bommer spring hinges or floor pivots of suitable size; also push plates, door holders, dead lock, and kick plates.

131. Miscellaneous Doors.—Provide for all other doors on first floor, 4¼-inch mortise lock with metal knobs and combined escutcheons; also three 4" × 4" loose-pin, ball-tipped butts for each door.

132. Doors on Second Floor.—Provide for all the doors on the second floor, 4¼-inch mortise locks with metal knobs and combined escutcheons; chamber-entrance and bathroom doors to have in addition a mortise bolt. Also provide for these doors, three 4" × 4" loose-pin, ball-tipped butts for each door.

133. Doors in Attic and Basement.—Provide for the doors in attic and basement, 3½-inch mortise locks, pottery knobs, and escutcheons; also two 3½" × 3½" butts for each door.

134. Transoms.—All transoms throughout are to be hinged at the top or the bottom or pivoted (as indicated in the plans), and are to have ⁵/₁₆-inch transom lifts to extend to within 5 feet of the floor.

135. Double-Hung Windows.—The double-hung windows on the first floor are to have approved sash locks and two flush lifts; those on the second floor, in the attic, and in the basement are to have approved sash locks and two flush or hook lifts to each sash. All window stops are to be secured with flush adjusting stop-screws placed not more than 14 inches apart.

136. Casement Windows and Hinged Sash.—Provide for the casement in the lavatory and on the second floor, 3" × 3" tight-joint butts and suitable casement fasteners and adjusters. The basement sash are to be hinged at the top with wrought butts and are to have bolts and hooks and eyes to hold them open.

137. French Windows.—Provide for the French windows in the dining room, 4" × 4" butts, three to each window sash. Also provide for these windows, flush bolts, 12 inches and 24 inches on standing leaf, and mortise turnbuckles.[1]

138. Bookcases and China Closets.—Provide for the doors of the bookcases and china closets, 3" × 3" ball-tip butts, two to each door; also locks and keyplates or mortise latches and knobs, and bolts for double doors. All drawers to have drop drawer pulls, two to each drawer over 20 inches wide.

139. Pantries, Dressers, and Linen Closets.—The doors of the pantries, dressers, and linen closets are to be provided with 3" × 3" butts, together with elbow catches or surface bolts for double doors. Also provide rim cupboard catches or mortise latches with knobs. All drawers over 20 inches wide are to have two drawer pulls. Flour bins are to be hinged at the side or at the bottom, so as to tilt, and are to be supplied with 3" × 3" wrought butts and bar pull or with large T-handled cupboard turn. Place in each closet one (or two) rows of brass-plated wire coat-and-hat hooks (or, bronze-plated cast coat-and-hat hooks) to extend around all sides; these hooks are to be placed not over 12 inches nor closer than 8 inches apart. Furnish rubber-tipped, wooden-base knobs for all doors.

140. Quality and Finish.—All of the above hardware is to be of Blank & Co.’s manufacture, except butts for interior doors, which are to be the Stanley Work product. All the hardware on the first floor, except kitchen and service portion, is to be plain, cast-bronze metal of the design known as ____, and ____ finish. The hardware of the second floor is to be of steel, in plain design and ____ finish. The hardware of the bathroom is to be of plain bronze metal, nickel-plated, while the basement, kitchen, and attic hardware is to be plain steel in ____ finish.

141. Miscellaneous Hardware.—The contractor shall furnish and apply all hardware necessary to complete the building, under the direction and subject to the approval of the architect.

142. The preceding specification is intended to meet the requirements of a residence, but may be changed so as to apply to other buildings by adding to the several items or by omitting some of them. In following the specifications just given, the specification writer should exercise great care in selecting the hardware required, using the best that can be obtained with the money to be expended. In all instances, the name, design, quality, and finish desired should be stipulated.

143. No other material entering into the construction of a building will pay a larger return in satisfaction, comfort, and permanent economy for the time and care devoted to its selection than the finishing hardware. The range of choice and quality has become too great for the selection to be left to the general contractor under an omnibus specification, and the practice of according to it the benefit of careful and discriminating selection by the architect or client, or both in consultation, is rapidly becoming general. Hardware has become a factor of utmost importance in the interior decorative scheme of the modern building, and its selection demands at least the care accorded to other elements of interior decoration.

The method that should be employed in the selection and purchase of hardware depends primarily on the existing conditions. If the building is intended for the purpose of sale or renting, or if cheapness is the dominating factor, then a competitive method may be expedient; but if the client intends it for personal occupancy or for permanent ownership, then competitive bidding is sometimes not productive of the best results.

In all cases, a preliminary examination should be made of the makes and grades of the commercial hardware available, and the amount that it is desired to expend on this item should be decided on. The process of selection is greatly facilitated by the elimination of articles outside of the grades selected. When the maker’s grade of goods has been decided on, the next step is to select in detail the articles, designs, and finishes to be used in each room, floor, or division of the building, making such notes of the decisions so reached as will be convenient in framing the hardware specification, or schedule.

144. Allowance for Finishing Hardware.—Architects are constantly called on to prepare preliminary estimates on proposed buildings, to assist clients to determine whether they can afford to build. For this purpose, the architect possesses an approximate knowledge of the cost of excavation, masonry, woodwork, etc., so that the necessary expenditure may be computed with a fair degree of accuracy. Builders’ hardware, however, does not readily admit of accurate preliminary estimating, and in many cases the architect merely specifies the sum to be expended for finishing hardware, stating that selections are to be made by himself or his client later, as the work progresses. This system is found in many instances to be satisfactory to all—architect, client, and builder.

The cost of the hardware usually bears a fairly constant ratio to the total cost of various types of buildings. The following figures, which are based on experience, indicate the range in this ratio under ordinary conditions. This schedule gives the ratio of cost of finishing hardware to the total cost of the building, land excluded.

145. Taking Off Hardware.—The compilation of the estimate schedule of finishing hardware for a building must be made from the architect’s plans and specifications. Therefore, where possible, this work should be done by a hardware expert or salesman, or by some person who has the ability to read drawings easily and accurately and who is capable of exercising thoroughness in every detail of the work. The first step should be to study the specifications relating to the general work, and especially that portion relating to hardware and carpenter work, to see whether the latter embodies facts that affect the hardware. If such is the case, notes should be made of the fact, and in many cases, by following this rule, miscellaneous information can be gathered that will be invaluable to the contractor and will prevent much doubt as to requirements. The drawings should then be examined, to gain familiarity with the building, the arrangement of the interior, and other details. Having thus acquired a general understanding of the whole subject, the compilation of the quantities may begin.

146. The list of hardware should be compiled in a systematic manner, beginning at a definite point in the building and progressing through the several rooms and floors in a definite order. This will insure the inclusion of every part of the building and the careful consideration of every opening or other place where hardware is required. For example, in the case of a residence, it is customary to commence at the front entrance, including the front and vestibule doors, passing thence to the hall, taking each room on the first floor in due order, passing to the second floor and taking each room on it in like order, and so on until each floor is covered. The attic and basement are usually left until last, because they require a simpler class of goods. The same general system can be followed in the case of hotels, office buildings, apartment houses, etc., the essential point being that an orderly method be followed. The rooms should always be taken in natural sequence, and all openings of similar character totaled and again counted on the drawing, so that the chances of omission are minimized.

147. In the case of doors, it is necessary to make note of the size and thickness, the hand, and the bevel, or rabbet, as required, using in all cases three butts on all exterior doors, and also three butts on all interior doors 7 feet or more high. The size of the butts should in all instances be sufficient to cause the door to clear the trim. The width of stiles and the general construction of the doors should be noted, paying particular attention to the front-entrance doors, as architects sometimes design these regardless of the hardware that is to be used on them. Frequently, a careful scaling and scrutinizing of elaborately designed doors will show a shelf effect returning back to the lock stile, covering nearly half its width, just about where the lock should be placed. Such defects can be remedied easily, if observed in time, by directing the architect’s attention to them.

In the case of sliding-doors, it should be noted whether they are single or double, what is to be the character of the hanger, or rail, and the length of the run, and whether the door has a flat or a half-round astragal. The width of the stile and the size of the friction strip should also be noted, so that the hardware will not conflict with the woodwork, molding, etc., as, where necessary, special backsets can be procured on sliding-door locks to overcome this trouble.

Where double-acting doors are shown, always take note of the thickness, width, and height, also of the width of the lock stile and the height of the bottom rail, so that, if push plates or kick plates are required, the suitable dimensions for them can readily be estimated. The dead locks for these doors should be ordered with oval fronts for single doors and oval fronts and strikes for double doors, to allow for neat fitting to the rounded edge of the doors. Where kick plates are required for double doors of this character, flush bolts should be mortised into the edge of the door, so that the lower bolt will not interfere with the kick plates.

148. In stating the information for windows, full details are needed as to whether they are single- or double-hung, French casement, stationary, or ordinary casement. Double-hung windows 20 inches or less in width require only one sash lift. Extra-wide windows, such as those over 36 inches, should have either bar lifts or two extra-heavy hook sash lifts. The window stops should be studied in detail, so as to estimate the number of screws that will be required for each window. In the case of French windows, it is well to determine the height, the width of the stile, whether the joints are rabbeted, beveled, or flat, the hand, and whether the windows swing in or out; detail cross-sections through head-jambs, casing, and lock stiles should also be procured if possible. In casement sash, the pivoting should be noted, so as to determine whether it is vertical or horizontal; the swing should also be observed, and if the sash are to be hinged, determine whether the hinges should be placed at the top, the bottom, or the sides. As in the consideration of doors, the thicknesses and sizes of all casements should always be noted. Sections through the jambs, trim, and stiles should be taken at the points where the hardware is to be applied.

149. In order to determine the kind and length of the lifters to be used on the transoms, it is necessary to note the distance from the floor to the center of each transom, also whether they are to be pivoted or hinged from the bottom or the top, and how they are to swing. The cross-section through side jambs and casings should always be ascertained, in order to see that the hardware will be suitable to meet the conditions of the trim.

150. It is necessary to learn all details of the pantry, including the thickness and height of doors, whether they are double or single, and the number of each kind. Note all drawers; those under 20 inches in width require only one pull. The details of the flour bins should be examined to determine whether they are to be hinged at the bottom and are to tilt, or whether they are to be curved on plan and are to be hinged at the side, as each condition requires different hardware.

151. Where unavoidable interferences are discovered, or where the plans and specifications are obscure or defective, a note of the facts should be made, and when all such matters have been collected, they should be submitted to the architect for his decision as a basis for final determination.

152. Application of Hardware.—Owing to the fact that hardware has become more intricate in its manufacture and therefore more complicated in its construction, it is found that the proper amount of intelligence is not always exercised in its application. Frequently it is applied so carelessly that the hardware practically loses its most essential features. In the case of mortise-lock sets, all of the better grades are made with easy springs, so that the door will close gently and surely. However, this one feature alone is sometimes obliterated by careless application. The trouble in this direction is principally caused by the carpenter fitting the lock into the door untrue, and then screwing the escutcheons to the doors out of plumb and alinement. This causes the knob shanks, when rotated, to bind, or stick, in the sleeve, or collar, of the escutcheon, thereby holding back the latch bolt after the latch is withdrawn into the lock case. It is also found that proper adjustment is seldom given to the knobs and spindles passing through the escutcheons. In many cases when the hardware is applied carelessly, the owner, not knowing the real cause of the trouble, condemns the best hardware as being cheap and unsatisfactory.

In the application of cylinder locks for either front doors or office doors, it is found that a great amount of inexperience is shown by the average mechanic. In some cases, the locks are inverted, with the cylinder below the knobs, when it is designed to be above; also, sometimes, in reversing a front-door lock with night work, good judgment is not always used.

153. Such troubles as those just described can be easily overcome, and if the methods of applying hardware that follow are strictly adhered to, satisfactory operation will be assured.

Reversing the ordinary mortise, or rim, lock requires no special ability on the part of the workman, as the operation consists of merely taking off the cap and turning over the latch bolt. Where, however, a mortise lock is to be applied, care must be exercised so that it will work properly. First fit the lock into the door at the proper height from the floor, making the mortise large enough for the lock to enter easily. Bore the holes for the knob and the key, and insert the screws in the lock face and drive them home. Now take the escutcheons, or roses, and knobs and apply them to the door, carefully adjusting the knobs and spindles so that there is only slight play in the length. Then true up both escutcheons, by holding one with the thumb and the other with the fingers. When this much is accomplished, turn the knobs right and left to see whether they work properly; if they bind in the collar, adjust the escutcheons a trifle, vertically or horizontally, until the knobs rotate back to the original position in both directions without binding. By using a scratch awl and punch carefully, the exact center of each screw hole may be located, and by holding the awl perfectly true the screws will be started true. The escutcheons may now be released and the screws driven home. If this method is carefully followed, workmen will find that the latch bolt will work properly in almost every case. Always try the knob, when the application is completed, by rotating both to the right and to the left, and if found to bind, always make the proper adjustment before leaving the work.

154. In fitting strikes to the jambs, it is suggested that the workman locate them as low as possible, to conform to the locks, leaving the margin in the strike below the lock bolts. Doors in new buildings are liable to sag slightly, and if proper allowance is not made, the strikes may have to be readjusted, sometimes even before the contract is completed.

It is also necessary for the carpenter or superintendent to caution the painters not to paint or varnish any hardware, especially the lock faces, as this will also retard the operation of the latch bolt. As previously stated, the hardware should be fitted to the work and then replaced in the original packages, so as to protect it from abuse and damage, applying it permanently only after the painting is completed.

155. In applying cylinder, or front-door, locks, the conditions are still more difficult to overcome. When reversing cylinder locks that have swivel spindles, unscrew the cap and reverse the latch bolt; also, reverse the hubs, that is, the parts of the lock through which the spindles pass. Cylinder locks should always be mortised into the door at the proper height from the floor, and the holes for the cylinders and knob spindles then made. Insert the lock into the mortise, but do not put screws into the face; then apply the escutcheons and adjust the knob, taking care that the swivel of the spindle centers at the joint in the split hub. Now proceed to screw in the cylinder to its full extent, so that the cylinder collar is held rigidly between the cylinder and the escutcheon, and the cylinder is perfectly vertical. Then set the cylinder adjusting screw, and insert the wooden screws in lock face and drive them home with the screwdriver. Hold and adjust the escutcheon so that the knob will rotate back and forth automatically without friction, starting the screw holes with an awl. If the doors are made of hardwood, an automatic drill will have to be used to bore the screw holes. In such a case, follow the directions just given regarding escutcheons; then start the holes with a scratch awl while still holding the escutcheons, and enlarge the holes with the drill. Screws that are off center, when driven home into the countersinking, will surely draw the escutcheon so that the knobs will bind and thus destroy the most desirable feature of the lock.

156. Mechanics will find that the better the grade of the hardware, the more care must be taken in its application. Hardware for fine buildings is generally furnished with high, or bracket-bearing, collars on escutcheons and screwless knobs for adjustment without washers. These are fitted and turned carefully, so that there is very little play between knob shanks and collars, and for this reason they bind more readily when improperly applied. The mechanic should try the lock in every possible way before leaving the work. He should set the stop in the lock face, to be sure that swivel spindles are adjusted properly, and also insert the key in the cylinder, to see whether it operates smoothly while operating both bolts.

157. Hardware Schedules.—The contractor for the hardware usually takes off his own bill of material from the general drawings and the specifications furnished by the architect. However, the architect will sometimes supply the hardware schedule and obtain prices for the same direct from the dealer, thus saving the owner the general contractor’s profit and insuring bids based on material of uniform character and quality. It is well, therefore, to give some thought to the preparation of the schedule, so as to insure a good classification and to avoid omissions.

In drafting a schedule of hardware required for a building, it must be compiled from a copy of the hardware specifications and a list of all openings, cabinets, etc. that has been taken from the drawings. The schedule should be subdivided primarily into building sections, such as first floor, second floor, etc. as headings. Under these headings, each opening or group of openings in each room or division should be listed. Under the name of each opening or series of openings should be grouped all the hardware required, itemizing each and every article necessary and stating the quantity, numbers, sizes, or dimensions, design, and finish.

Schedules thus prepared are readily priced for estimating, and such classification eliminates the possibilities of omissions. Besides, the order can be executed by the manufacturer in exact conformity with the instructions, the hardware for each opening can be combined in a separate package, and each package clearly labeled to indicate its contents and the room or opening to which it belongs. The following shows a typical form of schedule:

The foregoing schedule is merely intended as an example of a classified, brief, and at the same time comprehensive hardware schedule. A schedule of this kind shows, almost at a glance, the nature of the hardware to be supplied, and if prepared by the architect, should tend to procure bids based on uniform requirements.

158. Detail Drawings for the Hardware Contractor.—In some architects’ offices, it is the practice to provide, on a single detail sheet, cross-sections of every type of door stile in the building. The time required to make such a drawing is slight, while the results accomplished are most useful. Copies of this drawing are furnished to the contractors for the cabinet trim and to the hardware contractor, so that each of them will have identical information and that the work will assemble properly when the hardware is put in place.

Such drawings should show the dimensions of the transverse sections of the vertical stile, or lock stile for each door, also the overlapping, if any, of panel moldings, together with the shape of bevels, rabbets, astragals, and any other details affecting the size and location of locks, hinges, butts, etc. The hand of the doors is usually, and better, indicated on the floor plans. A further argument is that the character and dimensions are liable to be overlooked when arranging the paneling of doors; whereas, both should be considered. The use of narrow stiles, special rabbets, and astragals, shelf effects, friction strips, etc. is resorted to without sufficiently considering the disadvantages that result from the contracted space in which the lock and its trim must be placed. Where the items just mentioned are proposed, the architect should ascertain what locks are available and should provide space for those selected. Special locks are always expensive, while a cramped space precludes the best construction.

159. Single- and Double-Thick Common Glass.—In the manufacture of the ordinary window glass used in building construction, the glass is first blown in cylindrical form and then cut and flattened, after which it is reduced to salable sizes for shipment. Owing to this method of manufacture, the percentage of first-quality glass is small, the larger proportion of the product being second or third quality. All glass of this kind is wavy or uneven and also has a slight bow, or curve, to its length that is impossible to overcome when making. The only difference in the qualities of common glass is in the amount of the imperfections that it contains. These imperfections consist of bull’s-eyes, blisters, scratches, and streaks that distort objects seen through the glass.

The better grade of common glass is manufactured in what are called continuous tanks, which are heated by natural gas. This glass is put up in boxes containing 50 square feet. Single-thick glass runs from thirteen to fifteen lights to 1 inch of thickness, and double thick from eight to ten lights to the inch. Single-thick glass above 20 in. × 24 in. in size should not be used except for work of a speculative nature. The ability to distinguish single and double thick and the various qualities of glass can only be acquired by observation. In judging glass, it is well to remember that small lights free from defects or uneven surfaces may be obtained much more easily than large ones.

160. Ground, or Sand-Blast Glass.—Common or plate glass, the surface of which is made obscure by the process of grinding, is called ground glass. This treatment, however, does not injure the diffusing qualities of the glass.

The sand-blast process of treating glass produces results similar to grinding. As the name implies, sand is blown against the glass under high pressure and thus makes numerous small cuttings on its surface, producing the appearance of ground glass.

Fig. 159

161. Chipped Glass.—The glass illustrated in Fig. 159 is called chipped glass, and is manufactured in the following manner: The glass is first given a coat of glue and is then placed in a heated receptacle; this process tends to contract and curl the glue, so that when it dislodges itself from the glass, the cohesion will draw or chip off particles of glass, leaving the surface uneven and showing a design similar to that on a frosted window light. Chipped glass can be procured in either the single or the double process (i. e., with a single or a double chipping); and these processes are adaptable to either sheet or plate glass, white or colored.

Fig. 160

162. Figured Rolled Glass.—Glass known generally as figured rolled glass is manufactured for use in offices, public buildings, and private residences where a glass is required to intercept the vision and still diffuse the light. This glass has practically supplanted the varicolored cathedral glass previously used, because of its obscurity without reducing the quantity of light. Figured rolled glass is made in various artistic designs, several of which are illustrated in Fig. 160, and is ⅛ and ³/₁₆ inch in thickness. This glass is inexpensive; the prices range from 15 to 25 cents per square foot.

163. Plate Glass.—The process of manufacturing plate glass is radically different from that of common sheet glass. The latter is blown, while the former is cast in large sheets and placed in annealing ovens to cool. When taken from the ovens the glass is rough and opaque, but it is afterwards ground and polished to make it transparent, the polishing being the most delicate process in its manufacture. Plate glass glistens like a mirror and reflects like one; objects seen through it are sharp and clean-cut; it has no imperfections or wavy effects, and does not distort and deform objects as does sheet glass.

164. Beveled Plate Glass.—The term beveled plate is applied to plate glass the edges of which are ground and polished to form a bevel, or border, around the glass. Plate glass finished in this manner is much used for glazing entrance doors and for ornamental work. The additional cost for beveling is slight compared with the effect resulting therefrom.

165. Floor and Skylight Glass.—Floor glass is made only from rough rolled or hammered glass in ½-, ¾-, and 1-inch thicknesses. The prices range from 30 cents to $1 per foot, according to the thickness.

Skylight glass is similar to floor glass, but can be procured in ⅛-, ³/₁₆-, ¼-, and ⅜-inch thicknesses, and in either ribbed or roughened surfaces. This glass is inexpensive, the prices ranging from 8 to 15 cents per square foot. Large quantities of skylight glass are used for mills, skylights, and various other purposes, but it is not used as a fire-retardant, as wire glass has entirely superseded it for this purpose.

166. Wire Glass.—Glass with wire embedded therein, as illustrated in Fig. 161, is made either ribbed, rough-rolled, “maze” design, or clear, polished plate. The wire netting is embedded in its center during the process of manufacture, thus producing a very strong glass that is a good fire-retardant. The temperature at which the wire is embedded in the molten glass insures cohesion between the metallic netting and the glass, and the two materials become as one; thus, if the glass is broken by shock, by intense heat, or from some other cause, it remains practically intact. Wire glass combines the strength of the wire netting and the glass plate, and the wire is so thoroughly covered as to obviate the possibility of rust or corrosion. This glass possesses extraordinary strength; a piece ¼ inch thick is as strong as ordinary glass of twice that thickness. When wire glass is broken, it will not scatter like plate or skylight glass; consequently, it finds extensive use for overhead work, where falling glass due to accidental breakage would be a source of danger.

Fig. 161

Wire glass is made ¼, ⅜, and ½ inch thick, and up to 40 inches wide and 100 inches long. This glass is sold at from 30 to 40 cents per square foot for rough, ribbed, or maze pattern, according to the thickness, while polished wire glass costs either 60 cents, 95 cents, or $1.25 per square foot, according to the dimension of the light. Wire glass is practically burglar-proof and missile-proof, and when set in approved metallic frames forms a most efficient fire-retardant window. In its use as a fire-stop, it possesses advantage in that it does not hide the incipient blaze like steel-plate or tin-lined shutters. Windows glazed with wire glass require no shutters for protection, but an opening may be made in it by a blow from a fire-ax. Wire glass as a fire-retardant is approved by the various boards of fire underwriters, and it may be used for windows, skylights, and other exterior openings exposed to fire hazard.

Fig. 162

167. Prisms, or Prismatic Glass.—When a ray of light passes from air to glass, it undergoes the change in direction called refraction. The knowledge of this property of light is utilized in the design of prismatic glass, an example of which is illustrated in Fig. 162. Prisms are made of clear crystal glass, with the outer side usually plain. The inner side, however, is formed into prisms of a great variety of angles made to suit the several conditions under which the lights may be used. Prism plates are made in two styles: Pressed prism plates, which are composed of 4- or 5-inch pressed lenses that are glazed together with a drawn zinc or copper bar, the several bars forming a frame being brazed together electrically, and rolled, or sheet, prisms, which are first rolled in large sheets and then cut to size.

Under average conditions, the direct light from the sky entering a room through sheet or plate glass strikes the floor within a few feet of the window and is mostly absorbed. For this reason, the rear part of the room is dark. By the installation of prisms at the window openings, however, the direction of the entering light is changed and projected horizontally into the room. Prisms do not create light; they simply distribute and diffuse the excess light at the window. Under certain conditions the effective light in a room may be increased fifty times by the installation of prisms. In Fig. 163, the arrows a show the direction of the lowest rays from the sky over the cornice of the opposite building, striking the prism plate at the floors. These arrows also indicate vertical rays, striking canopies and skylights, while the arrows b show the directions of the rays just mentioned after passing through the prism plate; also, the manner in which the light rays are projected into the building.

Fig. 163

168. Vault Lights for Basement, or Cellar, Lighting.—Where the sidewalk and the basement ceiling are nearly on a level, basement rooms can be successfully lighted by the installation of vault lights, or glass pavement tile. The ordinary method is to use plain, round, or square lenses, which are set in iron or concrete in iron frames, as illustrated in Figs. 164 and 165, though vault lights are now made with the supporting material of reinforced concrete. Where the ceiling is low or the room at all deep, the system in which plain lenses are used is unsatisfactory, as the direct light from the sky in passing through the lens strikes the floor immediately underneath.

Fig. 164

Fig. 165

Fig. 166

Fig. 167

The more modern method is to use prism tile set in the necessary frames. The prism receives the direct light from the sky on the upper face and turns, or refracts, it back into the basement, as illustrated in Fig. 166. Where the head-beam or other obstructions interfere with the deflection of light direct from the prism, it becomes necessary to use in connection with the skylight or canopy just described an independent vertical frame of window prisms of varying angles. These prisms intercept the light from the pavement tiles and project it into the basement, thus utilizing the light to the maximum advantage.

169. Glazier’s Points.—A necessary adjunct in glazing with putty is the sheet-zinc, triangular glazier’s points, as illustrated in Fig. 167. These points are made in six sizes, which range from No. 000, the largest, to No. 3, the smallest. They are also made in somewhat similar shape, called sharps, but this type is not so popular as the triangle point.

170. Grades of Putty.—Putty is usually graded as follows: Commercial, a very cheap grade; pure, a medium grade; and strictly pure, the best grade, which is made of pure whiting ground in linseed oil. The cheaper grades are made in the same manner, but with an amount of adulteration, either in oils or whiting, commensurate with the cost. Therefore, the cheaper the putty, the more it is adulterated, and none but strictly pure should be used when good results are desired.

White-lead putty is in a class by itself, and costs about twice as much as strictly pure whiting putty; but where permanent glazing is required, its use will show handsome returns on the investment.

ESTIMATING AND CALCULATING QUANTITIES (PART 1) — INTRODUCTION

1. Scope of Subject.—The art of estimating is very important both to the architect and to the builder; to the latter, in that he must employ some systematic method of estimating in order to carry on his business successfully, and to the former for the reason that he should at all times be able to estimate the cost of the buildings that he designs.

The science—for such it is—of fixing prices on a piece of work in any branch of the building trades must be based on an extended experience. With a little practice, any one can learn to take off the quantities of materials, but when it comes to determining the rates, only persons having extensive and varied knowledge of building and costs of various details can accurately estimate the time and labor required to complete the work. In order, then, that the duties and requirements of a practical estimator may be thoroughly understood, a number of detailed estimates will be given in this Section as guides. It should be remembered, however, that as the prices of materials and labor vary from those assumed, so will the estimates vary. The information given in detail should be considered only as a general guide in analyzing the elements that enter into the constructive problems in each department of the building trades. In this way it will be possible to determine intelligently the various unit costs. The estimates given are, in general, net figures, and do not include any contractor’s profit.

2. Qualifications of the Estimator.—In the United States, there are no standard or definite rules on estimating that hold good in every section. The builders of each locality have their own ideas and customs regarding the subject. This fact, together with the difference in the cost of labor in various parts of the country and the fluctuations in the market price of materials, requires, as before remarked, that a competent estimator be a man of long and varied experience in the business. There are, however, certain practical rules and suggestions that will materially assist in taking off the quantities and in valuing the labor required for any building operation. These points will therefore be taken up and considered in detail in this Section.

3. Important Factors.—The prime considerations in making an estimate are accuracy and time. To these ends the estimator must systematize his efforts, and endeavor to do a maximum amount of work in a minimum amount of time. This, however, should not be done at the expense of accuracy, for accuracy is the most important factor and is only insured when the figures are carefully checked. The estimator, therefore, while avoiding too great refinements in calculation, should aim at correctness rather than at speed in doing the work. Very frequently do the effects of haste and inaccuracy in estimating the cost of a structure become evident when it is too late to remedy the errors, resulting sometimes in the financial ruin of the builder that trusts too implicitly in the estimator’s figures.

A record should be kept of all estimates made, as this kind of information is most valuable and establishes a precedent on which to base subsequent estimates, as well as a check on the work at hand.

APPROXIMATE ESTIMATING — ACCURATE ESTIMATING SCHEDULE — EXCAVATION — ACTUAL COST OF EXCAVATION — CONTRACTOR’S METHOD OF FIGURING EXCAVATION — DITCH WORK — CALCULATING THE VOLUME OF AN EXCAVATION — CONCRETE WORK — DATA ON REINFORCED-CONCRETE BUILDING — CEMENT CELLAR FLOORS — CONCRETE BUILDING BLOCKS — MASONRY — DATA ON RUBBLE MASONRY — DATA ON FLAGSTONES AND CURBING — DATA ON ASHLAR AND CUT STONE — ADDITIONAL METHOD OF ESTIMATING ASHLAR — BRICKWORK — DATA ON BRICKWORK — ESTIMATING BRICKWORK — TERRA-COTTA WORK — TILING — MACKITE — CARPENTRY — ROOFING — ROOF MENSURATION — PLASTERING — LATHING — JOINERY — JOINERY DATA AND EXAMPLES OF ESTIMATING COSTS — STRUCTURAL STEEL — HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEM — PLUMBING AND GAS-FITTING — PLUMBING — GAS-FITTING — PAINTING AND PAPERING — PAINTING — DATA ON PAINTING — PAPERING — GLAZING

4. In order to make a preliminary estimate, before the plans of a structure are drawn, but after the general dimensions of the proposed building have been determined, architects and builders sometimes employ a method of approximate estimating, by which the cost is figured at so much per cubic foot of the building, the rate varying according to its character and the finish required. The method is also considerably used by insurance companies in fixing the amount to be placed on a building. It should be borne in mind that this method gives the approximate cost only, and should never be used in figuring the contract price of a building. This estimate, however, may be used to advantage in checking the accurate estimate, with which it will frequently be found to agree remarkably well.

TABLE I

COST OF BUILDINGS PER CUBIC FOOT

Table I shows the approximate cost per cubic foot of various kinds of structures. In computing the contents of a building, there is no uniformity in practice, but no great error will be made in figuring the solid contents from floor of cellar to ridge of roof.

OUTLINE OF THE WORK

5. The drawings and specifications of a structure are the guides that the estimator must follow in making his computations. All measurements necessary for calculating the quantity of the materials required are obtained from the drawings; and all information in regard to the character of the workmanship and the quality of the materials to be used is furnished by the specifications.

In compiling a schedule, there are three stages to the operation: (1) Taking the dimensions for each of the various classes of work; (2) computing and collecting the quantities; and (3) estimating the cost.

In carrying out the first of these steps, each of its subdivisions should be considered in the order in which the work will be executed in the building. This order is about as follows:

The third step, estimating the cost, may be subdivided into cost of labor and cost of material. The latter can be definitely fixed by an examination of lists giving current prices of materials; while the former must be based on a fixed rate of wages per day for the various classes of workmen.

The second and third branches of the work, being closely connected with the first, will be partly considered in connection with it, and, later, in detail in the complete example on estimating.

6. There are so many items to be considered in a careful estimate, that the estimator should have a list of those coming under each of the main headings already given, and in compiling a schedule he should follow this order. The following list, which is arranged to assist in making an estimate on a dwelling house, will serve as an example of the general method that should be adopted:

CARPENTRY

JOINERY

HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEM

PLUMBING AND GAS-FITTING

PAINTING AND PAPERING

7. Excavation is generally measured by the cubic yard, although, in a few localities, measurement by the perch is still in use. If the latter method is adopted, it should be stated just what is meant by a perch, as this varies considerably in different parts of the country.

Before fixing the price for excavation, it is advisable to investigate the character of the soil by making boring tests. Where there is rock to be blasted in making the excavation, a special price should be given in the estimate. If the ground is wet, rendering pumping necessary, provision should be made for the cost of the extra labor needed. The disposition to be made of the excavated material should also be considered; if it must be hauled a long distance, the cost will be much greater than if the soil can be wasted near by. To aid in estimating the actual cost, it is convenient and approximately correct to consider 1 cubic yard of ordinary earth as a load for an ordinary two-horse wagon.

In making calculations of the amount of material to be removed, care should be taken to note the existing levels of the ground and those required by the drawings. The excavation should be figured (and made) at least 1 foot greater than the size of the foundation, so as to provide room for setting the masonry, pointing, etc.

Excavation for pipes, drains, etc. should be at least 9 inches wider than the diameter of the pipe to be laid therein. If the soil in which the excavation is to be made is of a loose and sandy nature that is liable to crumble and slide, a slope, say of 3 inches horizontal to 1 foot vertical, should be allowed on both sides of the trenches. If the latter are of considerable depth, it is sometimes necessary to curb or shore up the sides, in which case an allowance should be made in the estimate for the lumber required. If piles are required, they should be figured at so much per linear foot, driven.

8. In order that an idea may be formed of the actual cost of excavating various kinds of soils, figures based on work actually performed are here given. On this work, for a day of 8 hours, a laborer was paid $2, and a driver with a two-horse team, $4.

As a rule, one laborer can excavate about 7 cubic yards of sandy soil in 8 hours. Thus, at the rate of 25 cents per hour, the cost of excavating this kind of soil is about 28½ cents per cubic yard, provided the material is wasted around the building. To this figure, however, must be added 4 or 5 cents to cover the foreman’s wages, the exact amount depending on the number of men under the foreman. This brings the total cost per cubic yard to about 33 cents.

When the material has to be carted away, the cost is further increased. A team with a driver can haul away about 20 cubic yards of soil in a day if the haul is only about ½ mile. In order to do this, however, an extra wagon must be at hand so that the laborers can be loading one wagon while the team is hauling away the other. Thus, the cost of hauling 1 cubic yard of excavated material ½ mile is 20 cents. The total cost, therefore, of excavating 1 cubic yard of sandy soil and hauling it ½ mile is 33 + 20 = 53 cents.

9. If the soil is compact gravel, the cost of excavating, including the foreman’s time, will be from 34 to 65 cents per cubic yard, depending on its hardness. It costs about the same to haul compact gravel as it does to haul sandy soil.

The exact cost of excavating wet soil cannot be given, as the conditions encountered may vary in each case. In a stated time, a laborer will excavate nearly as much wet material as dry material, but the conditions of sheet piling and pumping out water makes the price uncertain.

Such excavation is usually carried on at a cost of from 75 cents to $1.25 per cubic yard.

In excavating rock, three men—one rockman and two laborers—usually work together. For a day of 8 hours, the rockman receives $3 and each laborer gets $2. Together, therefore, the wages of the three amounts to $7 a day. These men will excavate about 6 cubic yards of rock in 1 day, making the rock excavation cost $1.17 per cubic yard. To this must be added the cost of explosives, which is about 10 cents per cubic yard, and the wear on tools. This latter expense can hardly be estimated, but may also be considered as 10 cents per cubic yard, thus bringing the total cost of rock excavation up to $1.37 per cubic yard for rock wasted at the building.

10. To sum up, excavation in sandy soil wasted around the building costs 33 cents per cubic yard; if hauled ½ mile, it costs 53 cents per cubic yard. If the soil is compact gravel and is wasted around the building, excavation costs from 34 to 65 cents per cubic yard; if hauled ½ mile, from 54 to 85 cents per cubic yard. Wet excavation with no piling or pumping costs about the same as dry; with piling and pumping, it costs from 75 cents to $1.25 per cubic yard. Rock work costs $1.37 per cubic yard if wasted around the building. These figures do not include the contractor’s profit.

11. Besides the actual cost of excavation, the contractor, in estimating, must include such items as office expenses, builder’s profits, etc. The following method of figuring, which is employed by the estimator of a large contracting firm in the eastern part of the United States, will therefore be found useful. As in the preceding case, the prices will be found to vary in different localities; therefore, the figures given should only be used as a guide in estimating.

The prices are based on labor at $2 per day of 8 hours and a two-horse team and driver at $5 per day of 8 hours. The excavation is assumed to be made in ground varying from made ground to a moderately stiff clay. The prices do not include the cost of shoring or pumping, and are based on the assumption that there is no frost of any account while operations are being carried out. Four classes of excavation are recognized:

1. Excavation in trenches up to 5 feet deep, excavated material spread on site about trenches, including back filling around walls, costs from 40 to 50 cents per cubic yard.

2. Trenches from 5 to 10 feet deep, excavated material spread on site adjacent to trenches, including back filling around walls, costs from 65 to 75 cents per cubic yard.

3. For cellars, or similar digging, up to 6 feet deep and having an area large enough to use a plow for loosening the earth (say areas 50 ft. × 20 ft. and over), excavated material being spread on site adjacent to work, costs from 33 to 38 cents per cubic yard if a scoop can be used, and from 40 to 45 cents per cubic yard if the material must be loaded on a wagon to haul it out of the excavation.

4. When the conditions are the same as those just given, except that the excavation is from 6 to 10 feet deep, the price is about 45 cents per cubic yard.

The prices just given do not include hauling, except short hauls immediately in the vicinity of the operations. The cost of hauling will depend on the distance to the place where the material is to be dumped.

12. To obtain the cost of any of the classes of excavation just given, including hauling, divide the hire of the team per day by the number of cubic yards that can be removed to the dumping place per day, and increase the preceding prices by that amount.

To figure the cost of sheet piling, measure the area to be sheet-piled and allow for such stringers and braces as judgment may suggest. Since the lumber may be used for other purposes after serving as piling, its value should be estimated at 75 per cent. of the market price. It usually costs about $7 per thousand feet to put the piling in place. As a rule, 3" × 10" planks are used for this purpose.

The foregoing prices cover the general run of building work. For large office buildings and other structures of a similar nature, where it is necessary to excavate to a depth of about 25 feet and where several varieties of ground are likely to be encountered, an average price for digging (exclusive of pumping or shoring, but including a haul not exceeding 1 mile) is $1.25 per cubic yard. If large boulders are likely to be encountered in excavating, the price should be at least $1.50 per cubic yard.

13. In estimating the cost of ditch work, there are several factors that influence the price. A narrow ditch costs more to dig per cubic yard than a wide one; likewise, a deep ditch costs more than a shallow one. Following are given prices for laying agricultural drain tiling. While these figures do not include builder’s profit, they are based on the actual cost of work, the wages for a day of 8 hours being $2 for laborers, $2.50 for the foreman, and $4 for a horse and driver. In sections of the country where higher wages are paid, it will be necessary to increase the figures at a proportional rate when making estimates.

For trenches 3 feet deep and 18 inches wide, in very hard, clay soil with about 10 inches of loam on top, the cost of excavating is about 12 cents per linear foot, or 72 cents per cubic yard. For filling in the trench with the aid of a team and a scraper, it costs ¾ cent per linear foot. For laying a 4-inch tile, including distributing along the trench, the cost is ¾ cent per linear foot. For picking stones off of the ground and placing them over the pipe to a depth of about 8 inches, it costs 2¼ cents per linear foot. Each outlet built of field stones laid in cement costs from $5 to $8.

Fig. 1

14. The ordinary rules of mensuration are all that are needed to compute the volume of any excavation. The work is very simple when the area to be removed is regular; but when the outlines are very irregular and broken, the easiest method to employ in calculating the excavation is to divide the plan into geometrical figures that are easy to compute, and then calculate the area of each one separately. Adding these areas and multiplying their sum by the depth of the cellar will give the volume of the excavation.

This method will be made clear by referring to Fig. 1, which represents the plan of an irregular foundation. To compute the area of the excavation, the plan is divided into the rectangles a d c b, l k b m, j i h g, g f e c, and the polygons n q p o, t u r s, and a x w v. By scaling on the drawing the dimensions of these figures, the area of each may then be readily determined by calculation.

Fig. 2

15. It is sometimes necessary to find the volume of an excavation, the surface of which is very irregular, as in Fig. 2. In such a case, the following method may be used: Divide the surface of the excavation into a number of squares, or rectangles, as at d e f c; these represent the ends of prisms, the other ends of which are the bottom of the excavation, as at a h g b. Then calculate the volume of each prism by ascertaining the height of the four corners above the bottom; add these measurements together, divide the sum by 4 (the number of corners), and multiply the result by the end area, as a h g b; the product will be the volume of the prism. The sum of these partial volumes will be an accurate estimate of the contents of the excavation.

16. Plain concrete work is usually paid for by the cubic yard. The contractor furnishes all material, including the lumber, to make the forms; he also erects the forms and removes them after the concrete has been placed. There is no fixed practice regarding openings in walls. Usually, small openings under, say, 100 square feet in superficial area are considered as solid. All larger openings are deducted from the work when measuring for payment. In some localities, the actual volume of the concrete work is taken by the contractor as a basis of the cost. In either case, it is of prime importance that the architect and the contractor make some distinct agreement beforehand as to exactly how the concrete work is to be measured and paid for.

Reinforced-concrete work is also often measured by the cubic yard, although sometimes it is contracted for as a finished building. The steel reinforcement is sometimes included in the price. Often, patented steel reinforcement is bought separately and delivered to the contractor; at other times, the contractor buys the patented steel or else makes it and pays a royalty to the holder of the patent. Reinforced-concrete floors are sometimes measured by the cubic yard and sometimes by the square yard, according to agreement. Pavements are usually measured by the square foot or by the square yard.

In Table II are given the costs of stone concrete and gravel concrete. These figures do not include builder’s profit, cost of superintendence, or cost of forms. They are based on the following costs: Labor, 25 cents per hour; cement, $2 per barrel; sand, $1.50 per cubic yard; crushed stone, $1.65 per cubic yard; gravel, $1 per cubic yard.

To the values given in the table, the price of the wooden forms, both for material and erection, must be added. This of course varies considerably, according to whether the work is straight or has a number of corners and openings in it.

TABLE II

COST OF PLAIN STONE CONCRETE

COST OF PLAIN GRAVEL CONCRETE

The price of forms, including both material and erection, may be said to vary from 50 cents for ordinary cellar work to $2 for heavy retaining walls per cubic yard of concrete placed.

17. The cost of reinforced-concrete buildings varies with the market price of cement and the steel bars or metal used for reinforcing. At present, reinforced-concrete buildings of the factory type constructed of common, hard, stretcher-brick walls and reinforced-concrete floors, roof, and columns with foundations may be built for from $1.35 to $1.65 per square foot of floor area. Usually, the height of ceilings in factory buildings is about 14 feet from floor to floor, thus making the cost of this type of building approximately from 10 to 12 cents per cubic foot. For buildings of a better commercial type, with face-brick walls and terra-cotta trimmings, the cost per square foot of floor area will range from $1.65 to $1.90, making the cost per cubic foot from 12 to 14 cents.

Reinforced-concrete buildings, as a rule, exceed the cost of buildings of slow-burning construction of the same size by an amount about equal to the cost of the metallic reinforcement. In other words, a building of reinforced concrete costs from 10 to 25 per cent. more than the same building of slow-burning construction.

The price of reinforced concrete per cubic yard varies within wide limits, depending on the mass of concrete employed and the intricacies of the forms. In building construction, reinforced concrete, including the price of the forms, can usually be placed for from $12 to $18 per cubic yard, the cost of the steel reinforcement being added.

Where the building is of considerable height, the same forms used in the three lower stories may be used in constructing the balance of the building. In such a case, the cost of the forms will probably not exceed $6 for each cubic yard of concrete placed. If the building is only two or three stories in height, and the work is rushed by using new centering in each floor, the cost of the forms will range from $7 to $9 per cubic yard of concrete.

The cost of form work for floor construction will range from 10 to 12 cents per square foot. Column forms will cost in the neighborhood of 20 or 25 cents per running foot. The forms used for fine concrete-wall construction require considerable time and bracing, and generally must be executed with great care where finished work is required. Such forms will cost from 8 to 10 cents per square foot of form on both sides of the wall, but will greatly exceed this price if molded courses or paneled spandrels are to be formed and lettering is to be cut in the work.

18. In estimating the cost of reinforced-concrete slabs, the cost of the centering, the concrete, and the steel reinforcements must be considered. The cost of centering for slab work varies from 5 to 7 cents per square foot, the latter figure probably being more nearly correct for usual conditions. The concrete for plain reinforced-concrete slab construction on steel beams can be placed for about $5.60 per cubic yard, or 1¾ cents for a square foot 1 inch in thickness. At present market values, the steel for reinforcing slabs can usually be considered as costing about 3 cents a pound, the pound price increasing as the rods decrease in size.

Table III gives the approximate cost, in cents per square foot, of constructing different thicknesses of reinforced-concrete slabs on steel-beam construction with the different sizes of reinforcing bars usually employed. The prices include cost of centering, concrete, and steel reinforcement.

19. Table III cannot be used for estimating the cost of a reinforced-concrete floor with reinforced-concrete beams and girders. In the construction of such a floor, the centering is much more costly than where steel beams are used for the support of the floor slab. On an average, the centering for the reinforced-concrete floor systems, including the studding and shoring, will cost from 20 to 22 cents per square foot, the sides of the beam and girder forms being included in the square-foot estimate. This cost is materially reduced where the centering is used over and over again for the construction of upper floors, so that where the building is six or eight stories in height, the average cost of the centering will not exceed 10 or 12 cents per square foot, including shoring, as just mentioned. Owing to the difficulty encountered in placing the concrete in the beams, the tamping required with slice bars, etc., and the expense of placing the reinforcement, the concrete for such construction will cost about $7.50 or $8 per cubic yard. The steel for the entire construction will usually average from 3 to 4 cents a pound, depending on whether plain rods or deformed bars are used, or whether the system is made up of loose rods or fabricated frames. In estimating the cost of such a floor system, the centering should be figured by a carefully itemized estimate, or roughly from the preceding figures. The amount of concrete in both the slab beams and columns should be estimated, and the total number of cubic yards required for the entire work should be determined; then the unit price for providing and placing the concrete should be carefully considered with reference to local conditions of labor and cost of material.

TABLE III

COST IN CENTS PER SQUARE FOOT OF
REINFORCED-CONCRETE FLOOR SLABS
SUPPORTED ON STEEL BEAMS

20. In determining the cost of cement cellar floors, the concrete proper and the top coat should be considered separately. The concrete proper is usually reckoned by the cubic yard. About 1 hour more is required to lay a cubic yard of floor than is necessary for plain concrete work. Therefore, in estimating, 25 cents per cubic yard, or the wages of a laborer for 1 hour, must be added to the figures given in Table II. A 1-3-6 mixture is generally used. For stone concrete, then, the cost of the concrete proper for a cement cellar floor would be $5.17 per cubic yard, exclusive of the cost of supervision and the builder’s profit.

An analysis of the cost per square yard of top coat 1 inch thick for a cement cellar floor is as follows:

To the foregoing should be added the cost of supervision and builder’s profit.

21. Concrete building blocks usually present about 2 square feet of surface in the wall and are generally 8 inches thick, thus making a volume of 1⅓ cubic feet. Since one-third of this volume as a rule is air space, the actual volume of concrete is a little less than 1 cubic foot. The materials in a block of this kind, if used in a 1-4 mixture, will cost about 18 cents. If the block is 12 inches thick instead of 8 inches, the materials will cost about half again as much, or 27 cents. The cost of labor to manufacture these blocks depends on whether they are made in great quantities, and the wages paid the workmen, etc., and varies from 6 to 10½ cents for each block. To lay a block in the wall costs from 5 to 10 cents, 7 cents being about the average price. This price includes the mortar used in laying. For teaming and haulage, an allowance of 5 cents per block is usually sufficient. The cost per block, 8 inches thick, set in the wall is then as follows:

These results divided by 2 will give the cost of the wall per square foot, since each block is supposed to have a surface of 2 square feet. If the wall is 12 inches thick instead of 8 inches, one-half as much again should be added to the price.

22. Stone masonry is generally measured by the perch; in some sections of the United States, however, measurement by the cord is preferred, but the best method (as being invariable) is by the cubic yard. In estimating by the perch, it is necessary to state how much the perch is taken at, whether 24¾ or 25 cubic feet. Note should also be made in regard to corners and deduction for openings. In most localities it is not customary to deduct openings under a certain size, and corners are usually measured twice.

23. Rough stone from the quarry is generally sold under two classifications; namely, rubble and dimension stone. Rubble consists of pieces of irregular size, such as are most easily obtained from the quarry, up to 12 inches in thickness by 24 inches in length. Stone ordered of a certain size, or to square over 24 inches each way and to be of a particular thickness, is called dimension stone.

Rubble masonry and stone backing are generally figured by the perch or cubic yard. Dimension-stone footings are measured by the square foot unless they are built of large, irregular stone, in which case they are measured the same as rubble. Ashlar work is always figured by the superficial foot; openings are usually deducted, and the jambs are measured in with the face work. Flagging and slabs of all kinds, such as hearths, treads for steps, etc., are measured by the square foot; sills, lintels, molding, belt courses, and cornices, by the linear foot; and irregular pieces, by the cubic foot. All carved work is done at an agreed price by the piece.

24. The following proportions and cost of materials and amount of labor required to lay 1 perch of rubble masonry are reasonably accurate, and will serve to give an idea of how to estimate such work. A perch of rubble masonry requires, approximately, 2,500 pounds of stone.

Cost of Rubble Masonry

To the preceding amounts should be added the cost of scaffolding and the builder’s profit. If the walls are over two stories in height, 60 cents per perch extra for hoisting should be added.

25. Flagstones for sidewalks, ordinary stock, natural surface, 3 inches thick, with joints pitched to line, in lengths (along walk) from 3 to 5 feet, will cost, for a 3-foot walk, about 11 cents per square foot (if 2 inches thick, 10½ cents); for a 4-foot walk, 12 cents; and for a 5-foot walk, 16 cents. The cost of laying all sizes will average about 3 cents per square foot. These figures do not include cost of hauling.

Curbing, 4 in. × 24 in., granite, will cost from 40 to 50 cents per linear foot at the quarry; digging and setting will cost from 10 to 12 cents additional; and the cost of freight and hauling must also be added.

26. The following figures are average prices for ashlar facing when the transportation charges are not excessive, and are not given as fixed values, but more to show the relative costs. They include nothing but plain ashlar, and in estimating, the extra cost of sills, lintels, water-tables, belt courses, coping, etc. must be added. These prices are based on quarrymen’s wages of $2.50 per day, and stone-cutters’ wages of $4 per day.

Good rock-face bluestone ashlar, with from 6- to 10-inch beds, dressed about 3 inches from face, will cost, ready for laying, from 30 to 40 cents per square foot, face measure; while a higher grade of work will cost from 40 to 55 cents per square foot. Regular course bluestone ashlar, from 12 to 18 inches high and with from 8- to 12-inch beds, will cost about 50 cents per square foot. To this (and the previous figures) must be added the cost of hauling, which, on an average, will be about 3 cents per square foot.

To the preceding figures must also be added the cost of setting the ashlar. In estimating the cost of ashlar walls backed with brick, the wall is considered as solid brick, the cost of setting the ashlar being offset by the saving in cost of the brick and mortar and the labor resulting from making part of the thickness of the wall of stone. The cost of raking out the joints and pointing, which amounts to about 10 cents per square foot, must also be added.

27. The following figures show the approximate cost of cut bluestone for various uses:

To the preceding prices of cut stone must be added the cost of setting, which for water-tables, steps, etc. will be about 10 cents per linear foot; and for window sills, etc., about 5 cents per linear foot. In addition, about 10 cents per cubic foot for fitting, and about 5 cents per cubic foot for trimming the joints after the pieces are set in place, should be allowed.

28. In a day of 8 hours, a stone cutter can cut about 4 square feet of granite, about 6 square feet of bluestone, or about 8 square feet of Ohio sandstone or limestone. These figures are for 6-cut, patent-hammered work. For rock-face ashlar (beds worked about 3 inches from face, the rest pitched), a workman can dress from 15 to 25 square feet of random ashlar per day; and from 18 to 20 square feet of coursed ashlar. In dressing laminated stone, from two to three times more work can be done in a day on the natural surface than on the edge of layers. In figuring cut stone, ample allowance should be made for waste, which, on an average, will be 15 per cent.

29. The following method of estimating the cost of cut stone is employed by many practical stone men. It is based on the fact that most ashlar walls have about the same number of sills, belt courses, lintels, water-tables, etc. in proportion to their volume, and therefore all the stonework, both the ashlar proper and the other cut stone, may be lumped together at one price per cubic foot. For estimating purposes, stone may be divided into two classes: soft stone, such as the sandstones, and hard stone, such as the granites.

30. Soft Stone.—Indiana limestone may be taken as an example of soft stone. In the Eastern Pennsylvania district, where the stone cutters’ wage rate is 50 cents per hour, the cost of this kind of stone is about as follows:

If the work is tooled, which is preferable for this material, 20 cents per cubic foot should be added. Thus the value in the yard, but ready to set, for an ashlar front, including water-table, sills, lintels, belt courses, all ordinary moldings, and plain cornices, is $2.45 per cubic foot.

Consoles, dentils, panelings, and similar ornamental work, mantels, and interior work have no fixed prices, but must be governed by the estimator’s knowledge of time required to cut any particular kind, sometimes reaching $5 per cubic foot. If moldings are deeply undercut, an extra price will have to be charged.

In heavy work, where the amount of stock is large compared with the amount of dressing, deductions may be made that sometimes amount to as much as 20 per cent. Rock-face work is somewhat more expensive than plain, dressed work because the projecting rock surface requires more stock; therefore, about 10 per cent. should be added.

It is customary to leave stone roughly cut to shape for carving in the wall, and therefore the sculptor determines the value from the drawings and includes the cost of models, which must be approved by the architect before the work is cut. Circular work, if plain, costs about the same as square work, but if fluted or reeded, as in the case of columns, it may cost as much as 50 per cent. additional.

31. Compared with limestone, the prices of other soft stones are as follows:

No definite price can be given for marble, as it comes in different grades and varieties.

The prices of stock just given are for stones of common size. If extra-large or extra-long stones are required, their price per cubic foot will be greater.

The cost of transportation from the quarries also influences the price of stone. This cost will vary according to the distance of the quarry from the location where the stone is to be used. The cost of hauling stone from the yard and setting it in the wall runs from 40 to 50 cents per cubic foot.

32. Granite.—Final estimates of cut granite by the cubic foot are seldom made, although approximate estimates are often made in that way by comparing a proposed piece of work with a similar one already completed. The reason for not making final estimates is that every additional molding or break in granite work affects the cost considerably, differing greatly in this respect from soft stone.

The first note to be made by the estimator is in regard to the cost of material. Good granite, in dimension sizes, can be obtained from southern quarries by rail for 65 cents per cubic foot, delivered. The same expenditure will buy very good eastern granite where through water transportation is available. If, however, the granite specified is such that it must be obtained from eastern quarries having only rail facilities for shipment, an addition of 40 or 50 cents per cubic foot will be required. There are also some special grades of granite that cost $1.50 or more per foot. In shipping granite, the railroads usually allow 8 cubic yards to the car. Granite for monumental purposes costs from $1.25 to $5 per foot, according to the size and quality. At wholesale, the price first mentioned, namely, 65 cents per cubic foot, will buy as good, substantial, and handsome material as will generally be required.

33. Machinery is used extensively for cutting plain faces in granite, and also to some extent for moldings and carved work. Every line in granite is costly to cut and must be computed separately. For instance, a plain face 12 inches wide, if cut by machinery, will cost 45 cents per square foot, while if cut by hand, where the machine cannot be applied, it will cost 60 cents. A 2-inch bevel, as shown at a, Fig. 3, will cost 50 cents per linear foot additional. A scotia, as shown at b, or other molding, as at c, will cost 60 cents per linear foot additional for each member.

Fig. 3

All returns, no matter how small, must be counted as not less than 1 foot. Circular work costs from 50 to 100 per cent. more than straight work. Flutes or reeds in columns are very expensive, and must be calculated in each case according to the width and depth. All beads and joints should be counted at say 30 cents per square foot. All notches or rabbets are counted separately, according to shape and size.

The preceding prices are based on what is called patent-hammered, six-cut work. Eight-cut work will cost 15 per cent. more, and ten-cut work, which is seldom used in ordinary building work, brings $1 per square foot. Rock-face work in granite is cheaper than hammered work. A good, clean rock face should be counted at 20 cents per square foot. Axed, or peen-hammered, work is between rock face and six cut.

Polishing plain surfaces costs $1 per square foot in addition to the cost of cutting, surfaces having widths of 4 inches and under counting as 6 inches, and those over 6 inches up to 12 inches counting as 1 foot.

34. Brickwork is generally estimated by the thousand bricks laid in the wall, but measurements by the cubic yard and the perch are also used. The following data will be useful in calculating the number of bricks in a wall. For each superficial, or square, foot of wall 4 inches (the width of one brick) in thickness, allow 7½ bricks; for a 9-inch (the width of two bricks) wall, count 15 bricks; for a 13-inch (the width of three bricks) wall, allow 22½ bricks; and so on, estimating 7½ bricks for each additional 4 inches in thickness of the wall. The preceding figures are for bricks about 8½ in. × 4 in. × 2¼ in. in size. If smaller bricks are used, the thickness of the walls will be decreased proportionately.

If brickwork is estimated by the cubic yard, allow 500 bricks to a yard. This figure is based on the use of bricks of the size just given and mortar joints not over ⅜ inch thick. If the joints are ⅛ inch thick, as in face brickwork, 1 cubic yard will require about 575 bricks. In making calculations of the number of bricks required, an allowance of, say, 5 per cent. should be made for waste in breakage, etc.

The practice in regard to deductions for openings is not uniform throughout the United States, but, usually, small openings are counted solid, as the cost of the extra labor and the waste in working around these places balances that of the brickwork saved. All large openings, 100 square feet or over in area, should be deducted. When openings are measured solid, it is not customary to allow extra compensation for arches, pilasters, corbels, etc.

Rubbed and ornamental brickwork should be measured separately, and charged for at a special rate.

35. The following estimates on the cost of brickwork are very carefully compiled, and will be found trustworthy. It should be understood that the prices will vary with the cost of materials and labor; the proportions, however, will be constant. The figures are based on kiln, or actual, count; that is, with deductions for openings. When the work is measured with no deductions for openings, the cost per thousand may be assumed as about 15 per cent. less than the prices given, which are exclusive of scaffolding, hoisting, and builder’s profit. The scaffolding will cost, according to conditions of the structure and site, from 5 to 7 per cent. of the prices given.

Cost of Common Brickwork
per Thousand Bricks

Cost of Straight, Pressed Brickwork,
per Thousand Bricks

36. The following figures and method of estimating brickwork were supplied by an estimator of a large eastern contractor. The prices given include office expense and builder’s profit. The wages per hour on which these figures are based are: Bricklayers, 65 cents; hod carriers, 25 cents; and common laborers, 18 cents.

Following are mentioned four distinct classes of brick buildings, and in Table IV are given the labor prices per thousand brick for the various stories of buildings of these classes.

TABLE IV

LABOR PRICES PER THOUSAND BRICK FOR
FOUR CLASSES OF BRICK BUILDINGS

The prices in the table include the cost of mortar. If the cost of brick at building is added, the result will be the total cost of brickwork exclusive of scaffolding. The average price of total brick labor in buildings of class 1 is $8.50; of class 2, $9.50; of class 3, $11.50; and of class 4, $14.

37. The following miscellaneous brick prices, including labor and mortar, but not brick, are from the same source as the prices given in the preceding article, and are based on the same condition, the prices being in bricks per thousand:

In addition to the preceding schedule two useful rules to remember are: For pressed-brick segmental arches, add for labor 1½ times the cost of bricks; for pressed-brick arches requiring radial brick, add for labor twice the cost of straight, pressed brick. As radial brick are shipped to the building in barrels and have to be unpacked and laid out on the full-sized diagram on the floor, it will be found that the rate given is not excessive.

For brick vault arches, the cost of labor, exclusive of mortar, will be about $5 per thousand brick. If pointed underneath, 7 cents per square foot will have to be added. If the centers are left in place until the mortar has set, it will be necessary to rake out the joints and wet them before pointing. This will cost about 10 cents per square foot.

38. Terra-Cotta Floor Arches.—The cost of terra-cotta floor arches varies somewhat with the span and with the difficulties encountered in putting up and removing the centering. If the building consists of a number of stories, the centering that is used on one floor may be reused on a floor several stories higher up, in this way decreasing the outlay for centerings. For ordinary spans, the following analysis of the cost of a 12-inch arch, exclusive of the cost of the terra cotta itself, will be found quite accurate, provided the centering is put up by experienced laborers. The price given is per square foot of arch.

This price is for work showing a flat ceiling. If the ceiling is much broken up by girders, the price, exclusive of the terra cotta itself, will be about 8 cents per square foot.

As a price per square foot, including the cost of terra cotta, setting, and mortar, the following figures may be taken. These, however, do not include the cost of plastering, or of any concrete fill above the terra cotta.

39. Terra-Cotta Partitions.—In office buildings, terra-cotta partitions are usually erected on top of a floor in order to divide the space into such rooms as will suit the tenants. This work is generally done after the building is otherwise completed. An analysis of the cost of such partitions is given in Table V.

TABLE V

COST OF TERRA-COTTA PARTITIONS

The cost of placing 8-inch, terra-cotta backing to brickwork is 6 cents per square foot.

40. Although not always of a brick or terra-cotta nature, it will be found more convenient to consider all tiling together and at the same time that the cost of brickwork is taken up.

Only very general figures can be given on the cost of tiling, as this cost depends considerably on the design to be carried out. The cost per square foot of various styles of tile laid in place is as follows:

41. Mackite is a fireproofing material used for partitions in very much the same way as terra cotta. As this material is put in place by bricklayers, its cost will be taken up here.

Where there are many openings, two bricklayers and one laborer can set 240 square feet of mackite in 8 hours; in a straight wall, without openings, these same men can set about 400 square feet. The market price for 2" × 12" × 30" blocks is 6 cents per square foot; for blocks 3 inches thick, it is 8 cents per square foot. The average price for both material and labor for 2-inch mackite is 10 cents per square foot; for 3-inch material it is about 12 cents per square foot.

42. Carpentry should include general framing, roofs, floor joists, partitions, sheathing, flooring, furring, and plastering grounds.

43. Board Measure.—The rough lumber used in framing is measured by the board foot, which means a piece 12 inches square and 1 inch thick. Lumber is always sold on a basis of a thousand feet board measure. The customary abbreviation for the latter term is B. M.; that for thousand is M. Thus, 500 feet board measure, costing $27 per thousand, would be written: 500 ft. B. M., at $27 per M.

To obtain the number of board feet in any piece of timber, the length, in inches, should be multiplied by the end area, in square inches, and the result divided by 144. For example, the number of feet B. M. in a floor joist 20 feet long, 3 inches thick, and 10 inches deep is 240 inches (=20 feet × 12) multiplied by 30 square inches (the end area) divided by 144, or 50.

The following rule is used by most contractors and lumber dealers: Multiply the length in feet by the thickness and width in inches, and divide the product by 12. Thus, a scantling 26 feet long, 2 inches thick, and 6 inches wide contains

This rule, expressed in a slightly different manner, is more convenient for mental computation: Divide the product of the width and thickness in inches by 12, and multiply the quotient by the length in feet. Thus, a 2" × 10" plank, 18 feet long, contains

44. Prices of Lumber.—Owing to the continual variation in the prices and grades of lumber, it is impossible to give prices here that will not vary from day to day. The architect before starting to estimate should first be sure that he has the latest lumber prices obtainable. These prices can always be secured from the local lumber dealer.

45. Studs.—To calculate the number of studs—set on 16-inch centers—the following rule may be used: From the length of the partition, in feet, deduct one-fourth, and to this result add 1. Count the number of returns, or corners, on the plan, where double studding is required, and add 2 studs for each such return. (The reason for adding 1 is to include the stud at the end, which would otherwise be omitted.) The sills, plates, and double studs must be measured separately.

Fig. 4

For example, the number of studs required for partitions only, shown on the plan, Fig. 4, is computed in the following manner.

• 30 ft. 6 in.
• 10 ft. 6 in.
•   9 ft. 6 in.
•   5 ft. 0 in.
•   4 ft. 6 in.
• 60 ft. 0 in.

Deducting one-quarter from 60 feet, the remainder is 45 feet; adding 1 stud, the result is 46 feet. As there are 4 returns, with 2 studs for each, as shown at a a, the total number is 46 + (4 × 2) = 54 studs.

As a general rule, when (as is customary) the studs are set at 16-inch centers, 1 stud for each foot in length of partition will be a sufficient allowance to include sills, plates, and double studs. Thus, if the total length of partitions is 75 feet, 75 studs will be sufficient for sills, double studs, etc. If the studs are set at 12-inch centers, the number required will be equal to the number of feet in length of partition plus one-fourth. Thus, if the length of partitions is 72 feet, 72 + 18, or 90, studs will include those required for sills, plates, etc.

The same rules may be used for calculating the number of joists, rafters, tie-beams, etc.

A good way to estimate bridging is to allow 3 cents apiece, or 6 cents per pair; this will be sufficient to furnish and set a pair made of 2" × 3" spruce or hemlock stuff.

46. Sheathing.—To calculate sheathing or rough flooring (not matched), find the number of feet B. M. required to cover the surface, making no deductions for door or window openings, because what is gained in openings is lost in waste. If the sheathing is laid horizontally, only the actual measurement is necessary; but if it is laid diagonally, add 8 or 10 per cent. to the actual area.

47. Flooring.—In estimating matched flooring, a square foot of ⅞-inch stuff is considered to be 1 foot B. M. If the flooring is 3 inches or more in width, add one-quarter to the actual number of board feet, to allow for waste of material in forming the tongue and groove; if less than 3 inches wide, add one-third. Flooring of 1⅛-inch finished thickness is considered to be 1¼ inches thick, and for calculating it the following rule may be used: Increase the surface measure 50 per cent. (This consists of 25 per cent. for extra thickness over I inch, and 25 per cent. for waste in tonguing and grooving.) To this amount add 5 per cent. for waste in handling and fitting.

In figuring the area of floors, openings for stairs, fireplaces, etc. should be deducted.

48. Weather Boarding, or Siding.—In measuring weather boarding, or siding, the superficial, or square, foot is usually employed. No deduction should be made for ordinary window or door openings, as these usually balance the waste in cutting and fitting. Careful attention must be given to the allowance for lap. If 6-inch, nominal width (actual width, 5⅝ inches), siding, laid with 1-inch lap, is used, add one-quarter to the actual area of the space to be covered, in order to obtain the number of square feet of siding required. If 4-inch stuff is used, add one-third to the actual area. When, as previously noted, no allowance is made for openings, the corner and baseboards need not be figured separately.

49. Cornices.—As a general rule, cornices are measured by the running foot, the molded and plain members being taken separately. A good method of figuring cornices is as follows: Measure the girth, or outline, and allow 1½ cents for each inch of girth, per linear foot. This price will pay for material and for setting, the cost of the mill work being estimated at 50 per cent.

50. Cost per Square Foot.—For all classes of materials that enter into the general framing and covering of a building, a close estimate may be made by analyzing the cost per square foot of surface; that is, the cost of labor and materials—studs and sheathing in walls, joists and flooring in floors, etc.—required for a definite area should be closely determined, and this cost divided by the area considered, will give the price per square foot. If the corresponding whole area is multiplied by the figure thus obtained, the result will, of course, be the cost of that portion of the work. While the usual custom is to adopt a uniform rate for the various grades of work, a careful analysis will show that roof sheathing, where the roof is much cut up, costs more in place than wall sheathing, owing to its position; also that the studs in walls and partitions cost more than floor joists, as they are lighter and require more handling.

The following example shows how to determine the cost per square foot of flooring and indicates the general method to be pursued in similar cases. The area used in the calculation is a square, or 100 square feet. The cost of labor is estimated at 40 per cent. of that of the materials, as it has been shown by experience that this allowance is a very close approximation to the actual cost of general carpenter work.

Cost of Finished Floor
per Square

A similar method may be followed in estimating the cost of interior finish, paneling, doors, etc.

51. Work of a Carpenter per Day.—The quantity of material that a workman can put in place in a day is very uncertain, as it depends on the skill of the man and the ease or difficulty of the work, both being somewhat modified by circumstances. The figures given in Table VI, while founded on information gained by many years of experience, are only intended to give an idea of the relative quantities and are not a standard to be adhered to in all cases. The estimates are based on an 8-hour day and wages at $3.20 per day. If the hours or pay are less or greater in various localities than the prices given, the results will be correspondingly diminished or increased.

TABLE VI

QUANTITIES OF MATERIAL PUT IN PLACE
PER DAY BY ONE MAN

52. Cost of Laying Flooring.—The figures on flooring given in Table VII will be found useful in calculating as they are based on a square, which, as previously stated, is equal to 100 square feet. The same carpenters’ wages and number of working hours as in the preceding article are used here.

TABLE VII

LABOR COST OF LAYING WOODEN FLOORS, ETC.

53. Miscellaneous Carpentry Items.—In Table VIII is given the cost of several items of carpentry, such as setting window and door frames, furring brick walls, etc. The prices are based on the same wages and hours as in the two preceding articles.

TABLE VIII

COST OF MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS OF CARPENTRY

54. Nails.—To calculate the quantity of nails required in executing any portion of the work, Table IX, which is based on the use of cut nails, will be found useful.

TABLE IX

QUANTITY OF NAILS REQUIRED
FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES

55. Kinds of Roof Covering.—The roof coverings most generally used are shingles, slate, tin, tile, and tarred paper and gravel (known as gravel roofing). While there are slight variations in the methods of measuring the different kinds, they are all based on the square of 100 square feet.

56. Shingles.—In measuring shingle roofing, it is necessary to know the exposed length of a shingle. This is found by deducting 3 inches (the usual cover over the head of the lowest shingle in the four overlapping courses) from the length and dividing the remainder by 3. Thus, in Fig. 5, the distance b that one shingle is overlapped by the third above it is usually made equal to 3 inches, and the remaining length of the lowest shingle may be divided into three equal portions, each equal to a. The lowest of these three portions is the part exposed to the weather. Multiplying the length exposed to the weather by the average width of a shingle will give the exposed area. Dividing 14,400, the number of square inches in a square, by the exposed area of 1 shingle, in square inches, will give the number of shingles required to cover 100 square feet of roof. For example, it is required to compute the number of shingles 18 in. × 4 in. needed to cover 100 square feet of roof. With a shingle of this length, the exposure will be

then, the exposed area of 1 shingle is 4 in. × 5 in., or 20 square inches, and 1 square requires

14,400 ÷ 20 = 720 shingles.

Fig. 5

An allowance should always be made for waste in estimating the number of shingles required.

Table X is arranged for shingles from 15 to 27 inches in length, 4 and 6 inches in width, and for various lengths of exposure.

57. Shingles are classed as shaved, or breasted, and sawed shingles.

Shaved shingles have fallen almost into disuse, owing to the difficulty of manufacturing them. These shingles vary from 18 to 30 inches in length, and are about ½ inch thick at the butt and ¹/₁₆ inch at the top.

Sawed shingles are usually from 14 to 18 inches long and of various thicknesses. In the case of 18-inch shingles, five shingles, at their butts, will make 2¼ inches; that is, the thickness of one shingle at the butt is 2¼ ÷ 5 = .45, or about ⁷/₁₆ inch. At the top, each shingle is ¹/₁₆ inch thick. With 16-inch shingles, however, five of them make only 2 inches. Therefore, the thickness of a 16-inch shingle at the butt is 2 ÷ 5 = .4, or about ⅜, inch.

TABLE X

DATA FOR ESTIMATING SHINGLES

White-pine and white-cedar shingles are graded alike. The shingles made of No. 1, or clear, stock are designated XXXX. Those made of No. 2 stock, with 6-inch clear butt, are given the brand XX, while those made of mill cull, with sound butt, are called X.

Red-cedar shingles are graded differently. Their grade depends on their length. Thus, 18-inch, No. 1 shingles are termed “Perfection,” while 18-inch, thin butt are termed “Eureka.” Red-cedar shingles 16 inches long, if made of No. 1, or clear, stock, are designated “Extra * A *.” If they are 16-inch, thin butt, they are termed simply “* A *.”

Sawed shingles are made up into bundles of 250, and are sold on a basis of 4 inches width for each shingle. Shingles cost from $4 to $6.75 per thousand, according to material and grade. Dimension shingles—those cut to a uniform width—if of prime cedar, shaved, ½ inch thick at the butt and ¹/₁₆ inch at the top, will cost about $7.75 per thousand, but since such shingles are usually 6 inches wide, less will be required per square.

A fairly good workman will lay about 1,000 shingles per day of 8 hours, on straight, plain work; while in working around hips and valleys, the average will be about 700 per day.

58. Slating.—In measuring slating, the method of determining the number of slates required per square is similar to that given for shingling; but in slating, each course overlaps only two of the courses below, instead of three, as in shingling. The usual lap, or cover, of the lowest course of slate by the uppermost of the two overlapping courses, is 3 inches; hence, to find the exposed length, deduct the lap from the length of the slate, and divide the remainder by 2. The exposed area is the width of the slate multiplied by this exposed length, and the number of slates required per square is found by dividing 14,400 by the exposed area of 1 slate in square inches. Thus, if 14" × 20" slates are to be used, the exposed length will be

the exposed area will be 14 × 8½ = 119 square inches; and the number per square will be 14,400 ÷ 119 = 121 slates.

The following points should be observed in measuring slating: Eaves, hips, valleys, and cuttings against walls are measured extra, 1 foot wide by their whole length, the extra charge being made for waste of material and the increased labor required in cutting and fitting. Openings less than 3 square feet are not deducted, and all cuttings around them are measured extra. Extra charges are also made for borders, figures, and any change in color of the work; and for steeples, towers, and perpendicular surfaces.

Table XI, which is based on a lap of 3 inches, gives the sizes of the American slates and the number of pieces required per square. The cost of slating varies from 9 to 15 cents per square foot, depending on the class of work.

The thickness of stock slate varies from five to 1 inch to ⅜ inch and special thicknesses up to 1 inch are made to order. For ordinary dwellings, the usual thickness used is five to 1 inch, which gives a thickness of a little more than ³/₁₆ inch, and the size used for this class of work is generally 8 in. × 12 in. or 9 in. × 18 in., the price being the same.

TABLE XI

NUMBER OF SLATES PER SQUARE

In Table XII is given a list of the different colors of slate used in the Eastern and Middle States, the quarries from which they are obtained, and the cost of slate, labor, etc. per square, pertaining to each variety. The prices in the table are based on the 8 in. × 12 in. or 9 in. × 18 in. sizes, thickness five to 1 inch, and for quantities of not less than 50 squares. The cost of labor, etc. being based on current prices in the aforementioned territory.

Slate ¼ inch thick cost about 20 per cent. more than the five to 1 inch for the material, and about 5 per cent. more for laying and freight.

Slate ⅜ inch thick cost about 45 per cent. more than the five to 1 inch for the material, and about 15 per cent. more for laying and freight.

When copper nails are specified obtain current prices.

TABLE XII

APPROXIMATE COST OF SLATING,
PER SQUARE

59. Sheet-Metal Roofs.—In estimating sheet-metal roofs, the hips and valleys are measured extra their entire length by 1 foot in width, to compensate for increased labor and waste of material in cutting and laying. Gutters and conductor pipes, or leaders, are measured by the linear foot, 1 foot extra being added for each angle. All flashings and crestings are measured by the linear foot. No deductions are made for openings (chimneys, skylights, ventilators, or dormer-windows) if they are less than 50 square feet in area; if between 50 and 100 square feet, one-half the area is deducted; if over 100 square feet, the whole opening is deducted. An extra charge is made for labor and waste of material to flash around openings.

60. There are two regular sizes of roofing plates, namely, 20 in. × 28 in. and 14 in. × 20 in. The larger size is generally used on common work, owing to the fact that it requires fewer seams on the roof and consequently cheapens the cost of laying. A third size, namely, 10 in. × 20 in., is also supplied, and is used generally for gutters and leader pipes. Sheets 10 in. X 14 in. are sometimes used for laying roofs, as they can be cleated better than the larger sizes. Such small sheets, however, cost more to lay.

Two thicknesses of roofing plates are commonly recognized. One is the IC, or No. 29 gauge, and weighs 8 ounces to the square foot; the other is the IX, or No. 27 gauge, and weighs 10 ounces to the square foot. Sometimes, a still heavier plate is called for, and it is therefore kept in stock by the best manufacturers. This plate is known as IXX, or No. 26 gauge, and is used for especially heavy work.

Formerly, the standard net weight per box of IC, 14" × 20" roofing tin was 112 pounds, or 1 pound per sheet, making 112 sheets to the box; but now this weight is reduced to 108 pounds. The old standard for IX plates was 140 pounds, but very few brands now weigh more than 135 pounds per box. The most reliable manufacturers guarantee the weights for the different boxes of tin, and if the material does not come up to the guaranteed weight, it can be returned. The best sheets in the market today are stamped with the mark of the brand and the designation IC or IX of the thickness.

61. Using standing joints, a 14" × 20" sheet of roofing tin will cover about 235 square inches of surface, or one box of such tin will cover about 182 square feet. With a flat, lock seam, a sheet will cover 255 square inches, allowing ⅜ inch all around for joints; or a box will lay 198 square feet. These figures make no allowance for waste.

Two good workmen can put on from 250 to 300 square feet of tin roofing per day of 8 hours; this also includes painting the outside of the tin. Tin roofing will cost from 8 to 10 cents per square foot, depending on the quality of material and workmanship.

62. Tile Roofs.—Since tile roofs are constructed of so many styles of tile, no general rules of measurement can be given. Every piece of work must be estimated according to the particular kind of tile used and the number of sizes and patterns. Information on all these points is to be found in the catalogs of tile manufacturers.

TABLE XIII

APPROXIMATE COST OF ROOF TILING,
PER SQUARE

In Table XIII is given a list of the prevailing styles of roof tiling, the cost of tiling, labor, etc. per square, pertaining to each variety. The prices in the table are based on the natural red color of the clay when burnt; extra prices are asked for glazed-surface finish which can be obtained in different colors. The prices in the table are based on quantities of not less than 30 squares, as less than a minimum carload means increased freight rates. The prices given cover railroad delivery to points in the Eastern and Middle States. Labor, etc. being based on current prices.

The above prices are figured on the tile being laid on wooden sheathing; if laid on book tile or cement add 20 per cent.

If copper nails are used, care must be taken in figuring the number of nails, as well as their length and gauge, for the special forms of tile specified. Fluctuating values of copper make this an item of much importance.

Ridges, hip rolls, barge tile, and finials are charged as extras and due allowance must be made for cutting at valleys and hips.

63. Gravel Roofs.—In gravel roofing, the cost per square depends on the number of thicknesses of tarred felt and the quantity of pitch used per square. A value of 4 cents per square foot for four thicknesses may be considered an average.

64. While a knowledge of how to apply the ordinary principles of mensuration is all that is necessary to calculate any roof area, yet the modern house, with its numerous gables and irregular surfaces, introduces complications that render some further explanation of roof measurement desirable. The most common error made in figuring roofs—and one that should be carefully guarded against—is that of using the apparent length of slopes, as shown by the plan or side elevations, instead of the true length, as obtained from the end elevations.

Fig. 6

65. The area of a plain gable roof, as shown in end and side elevations in Fig. 6, is found by multiplying the length g j by the slope length b d, and further multiplying by 2, for both sides. The area of each gable is found by multiplying the width of the gable a d by the altitude c b, and dividing by 2.

Fig. 7

Fig. 8

Fig. 9

66. In Fig. 7 is shown the plan and elevation of a hip roof, having a deck z. The pitch of the roof being the same on each side, the line c d shows the true length of the common rafter l m.

In Fig. 8 is shown the method of developing the true lengths of the hips and the true size of one side of the roof. Let a b c d represent the same lines as the corresponding ones in Fig. 7. From the line a d, Fig. 8, through b and c, draw perpendiculars, as g h and e f; lay off from g and e on these lines, the length of the common rafter c d, Fig. 7, and draw the lines a h and d f, Fig. 8; then the figure a h f d will represent the true shape and size of the side of the roof shown in the elevation in Fig. 7. The area of the triangle d e f is equal to the area of the triangle a g h or a similar triangle a i h. Hence, the portion of the roof a h f d is equal in area to the rectangle a i f e, the length of which is half the sum of the eave and deck lengths, while its breadth is the length of a common rafter.

67. A method of obtaining the lengths of valley rafters, applicable also to hip rafters, is shown in Fig. 9, which is the plan of a hip-and-gable roof. To ascertain the length of the valley rafter a b, draw the line a c perpendicular to a b and equal in length to the altitude of the gable; then draw the line c b, which will represent the true length of the valley rafter a b.

68. As an example of roof mensuration, the number of square feet of surface on the roof shown in Fig. 10 will be calculated.

Fig. 10

The area of the triangular portion a c b is equal to the slope length of d c (found by laying off c′ c equal to the height of the ridge above the eaves and drawing c′ d) multiplied by the length of the eaves line a b and divided by 2. Multiplying the dimensions 13.5 feet and 23 feet, respectively, and dividing by 2, the area is found to be 155.3 square feet.

The area of the trapezoid g f i h is half the sum of f i and g h (shown in their true length on the plan) multiplied by the true length of h i. The latter is found by marking the height of the gable i i′ on the ridge line, and drawing the line i′ h, which measures 10.6 feet. Performing these operations, there results

for each side, or 201.4 square feet for both. As each of the side gables is the same size, the area of the two roofs is 201.4 × 2 = 402.8 square feet.

The area of the polygon q p n k is equal to the triangle q p w minus the triangle k n w, the area covered by the intersecting gable roof. The former is equal to the triangle a c b, the area of which is 155.3 square feet. The area of k n w is equal to half of n w, or 6.5 feet, multiplied by the true length of k s or the altitude of the triangle; the latter is obtained by laying off k k′ equal to the height of the gable, 5.5 feet, at right angles to k s, and drawing s k′, which is the required altitude and which measures almost 7.4 feet. Then k n w = 6.5 × 7.4 = 48.1 square feet; whence q p n k equals 155.3 - 48.1 = 107.2 square feet.

The area of a p q c is

multiplied by the true slope length of t v, or t v′, which measures 15.2 feet. Substituting dimensions, the area is found to be

From this deduct the area of y z u, which is the portion covered by the intersecting gable roof. The true length of t u along the slope is t u′, measuring 12 feet; hence, the area of y z u is

The net area of a p q c is therefore 228 - 84 = 144 square feet; b c q w being equal to a p q c, its area is the same, making the area of both sides 288 square feet.

The area of k n m l is

the slope length of m l. Substituting dimensions, the area is

As k l x w is equal to k n m l, the area of both is 229.6 square feet.

Adding the partial areas thus obtained, the sum is 155.3 + 402.8 + 107.2 + 288 + 229.6 = 1,182.9 square feet, or approximately 11.9 squares.

69. Plastering on plain surfaces, such as walls and ceilings, is always measured by the square yard. In determining the cost of plastering walls and ceilings, measure the surface actually plastered, making no deduction for grounds or for openings less than 7 superficial yards. For surfaces of domes or groined ceilings, beams, coves, paneling, etc., a unit price is fixed by the linear or the superficial foot, according to the character and disposition of the work. Round corners and arrises should be measured by the linear foot.

On interior work, increase the price 5 per cent. for each 12 feet above the floor after the first. For outside work, add 1 per cent. for each foot above the lower 20 feet. All repairing and patching should be done at agreed prices.

70. Stucco Work.—In estimating stucco work, cornices composed of plain members and panel work are measured by the square foot. Enriched cornices with carved moldings are measured by the linear foot. When moldings are less than 12 inches in circumference, measurement is taken by the linear foot; when over 12 inches, superficial measurement is used. For internal angles or miters, add 1 foot to the length of cornice, and for exterior angles add 2 feet to the length. Sections of cornice less than 12 inches measure as 12 inches. Add one-half for raking cornices.

For cornices or moldings abutted against a wall or plain surface, add 1 foot to the length of cornice; if against the soffit of stairs or other inclined or covered surface, add 2 feet to the length of cornice. Octagonal, hexagonal, and similar cornices, less than 10 feet in single stretches, take one and one-half times the length.

For circular or elliptical work, charge double price; for domes and groins, three prices. Enrichments of all kinds should be estimated at an agreed price.

71. Cost of Plastering.—The following analysis of the cost of plastering for 100 square yards, for both three-coat and two-coat work, will be of assistance in making estimates. These costs are exclusive of the lathing, which will be taken up later.

Cost of 100 Square Yards of
Three-Coat Plastering

The total cost of 100 square yards of three-coat plaster, then, is $30.33, or about 31 cents per yard.

Cost of 100 Square Yards of
Two-Coat Plastering

The total cost of 100 square yards of two-coat plaster is therefore $22.86, or about 23 cents per square yard.

72. Lathing is measured by the superficial, or square, yard, no openings under 7 superficial yards being deducted.

Plastering laths are about 1¾ inches wide, ¼ inch thick, and usually 4 feet long, the studding being generally placed 12 or 16 inches on centers, so that the ends of the laths may be nailed to them. The laths are usually set from ¼ to ⅜ inch apart, requiring about 1½, 1⁷/₁₆, or 1⅜ four-foot laths, respectively, to cover 1 square foot.

For a fair grade of work, a man will lay on an average about 15 bundles, or 1,500 laths, per day. The price usually paid for laying laths is 25 cents a bundle.

In the following analysis is given the cost of lathing 100 square yards of surface:

Cost of Lathing 100 Square Yards

The total cost of lathing 100 square yards is therefore $11.85, or about 12 cents per square yard.

73. Joinery includes all the interior and exterior finish put in place after the framing and covering are completed; as, for example, door and window frames, doors, baseboards, paneling, wainscoting, stairs, etc. Most of these materials are worked at the mill and are brought to the building ready to set in place.

74. Frames.—In taking off door and window frames, describe and state sizes. Measure architraves by the running foot, giving width and thickness, whether molded or plain, and state the number of plinth and corner blocks.

75. Sash.—For sash, state dimensions (giving the width first); thickness of the material, molded or plain; style of check-rail and sill finish; thickness of sash bar; whether plain, single or double-hung; and sizes (giving dimensions in inches) and number of lights. Use standard sizes as much as possible.

76. Doors.—In taking off doors, describe and state the sizes and thicknesses, whether the framing is stuck-molded, raised-molded, or plain; and number of panels, whether plain or raised. Use stock sizes wherever possible and suitable. For special work, where doors are to be veneered, state thickness of veneer, how cores are to be built, and the kind of wood to be used.

77. Blinds.—Describe size and thickness of blinds; whether paneled or slatted (fixed or movable), and whether molded or plain.

78. Baseboard and Beam Casings.—Measure the baseboard and beam casings by the running foot, stating width and thickness of stuff, and whether molded or plain. When a shoe is used for the base, so state; also, if a surbase is required, give particulars.

79. Wainscoting.—Measure wainscoting by the superficial foot. State kind of finish, whether paneled or plain, and style of molding and panels. Wainscoting cap and base, measure by the running foot.

80. Stairways.—Often stairways are taken by the contractor at so much per step, complete according to specifications. In measuring stairways, take off the amount of rough material in carriage timbers, and the planed lumber in treads, etc. Measure balustrades by the linear foot. Give description of newels. Measure spandrel and stairway paneling the same as wainscoting.

81. Inside Fixtures.—Kitchen dressers may be taken at a fixed price complete; or at a fixed rate per square foot; or as dressed lumber, drawers and doors being taken separately. Wardrobes, bookcases, mantels, and china closets should be treated separately, and a fixed price stated.

82. Porches, Etc.—Porches, exterior balustrades, balconies, porte cochèrs, etc. may be taken at a price per linear foot, or the actual quantity of material may be measured.

83. Molding.—Molded work that goes through the mill is usually charged for by the square inch of section per foot in length. Thus, if the price is 1 cent per square inch of section per foot in length, a molding ⅞ in. × 4¾ in. and 12 feet long will cost 60 cents, because the section in the rough is 1 in. × 5 in., or 5 square inches. Therefore, 1 foot of this molding will cost 5 cents, and 12 feet will cost 60 cents. This method of charging for molding, however, is not altogether satisfactory, because it requires as much time to put a narrow piece of molding through the molding machine as it does a wide piece, and a wide piece, since it will have a larger sectional area, will bring a higher price.

A molding machine operates at different speeds, being run at a slow speed when cutting hard woods and at a high speed when cutting soft woods. A machine will turn out from 900 to 4,800 linear feet of molding of any width per hour, the 900 feet representing the amount of very hard wood run through the machine, and the 4,800 feet the amount of soft wood run through when the machine is speeded up to its full capacity. The average output of a machine, however, is about 3,000 feet per hour.

The cost of the machine with a man to operate it may be considered as 70 cents an hour on an average, the man getting 30 cents per hour and the machine being charged for at the rate of 40 cents per hour. Therefore, according to these figures, the cost of machining per linear foot is only ⁷⁰₃3₀₀₀, or .023 of 1 cent. It will thus be seen that the actual cost of putting molding through the machine, especially in large quantities, does not amount to much.

For this reason, especially in the eastern cities, it is cheaper to buy molding direct from the lumber mill than to buy the rough material and then run it through the mill at its destination. In nearly every instance the saving effected in putting the rough material through the machine at its destination is more than counterbalanced by the extra cost of freight rates due to the extra weight. For the same reason, in the eastern market today planed boards are really as cheap as rough ones, because the planed boards are lighter and thus cost less freight.

The cost of molding is governed almost entirely by the cost of the raw material, and is always reckoned from a base price of 1 cent per square inch of section 1 foot long. On this price a discount is given, depending on the kind of wood and the finish desired. At present an average discount for soft woods, such as white pine, spruce, cypress, etc., is about 35 per cent. Thus, the actual cost of pine molding 1 foot long and 1 square inch in cross-section is

No discount is given on hard woods in many of the large eastern cities at present—oak, birch, and the like being figured net. For walnut, mahogany, and other high-priced woods, a special price is set, depending on the market and the local prices.

84. Cost of Window Frames and Windows.—The following is approximately the cost of a window frame with two 28" × 28" lights, where all mill work is priced at ₆₅/₁₀₀ cent per square inch per foot:

Cost of Window Frame

The cost of setting and casing such a window frame is about 70 cents. The total cost of the frame set in place is therefore $3.90 + .70 = $4.60.

The cost of the frame per square foot of light is therefore

85. The cost of an ordinary window with two 28" × 28" lights may be estimated as follows:

Cost of Sash in Place

If double American instead of single American glass is used, the cost just given should be increased by $1.

If the sash is glazed with single American glass, the cost per square foot of light will be

Therefore, the total cost of window and frame in place is 43 + 33 = 76 cents per square foot. If the sash is glazed with double American glass, the cost per square foot of light will be

Therefore, in this case the total cost of window and frame will be 43 + 42 = 85 cents per square foot.

For curved sash in curved walls, the cost is about twice as much as that of straight work.

86. Cost of Door Frames and Doors.—The following estimate represents the cost of an ordinary door frame. All molded work is put in the estimate at 1 cent per square inch of section per foot of length less 35-per-cent. discount, which is the same thing as ⁶⁵/₁₀₀ cent per square inch of section per foot.

Cost of a 2' 8" × 6' 8" Door Frame in Place

The area of the door is 2 ft. 8 in. × 6 ft. 8 in. = 17.78 square feet. Therefore, the cost of the preceding door frame per square foot of door is $4.12 ÷ 17.78 = 23 cents.

87. The following estimate gives the cost of a door of moderate price. The size of this door is 2 ft. 8 in. × 6 ft. 8 in. × ⁶/₄ in. It has four panels, is made of No. 1 pine, and is finished with solid ogee molding.

Cost of Door in Place

If the door is provided with stuck molding instead of solid molding, it will cost about 50 cents more.

The area of the door is 2 ft. 8 in. × 6 ft. 8 in. = 17.78 square feet. The cost per square foot is therefore $4.41 ÷ 17.78 = 25 cents. The total cost of door and frame per square foot of door is therefore 25 + 23 = 48 cents.

88. The door just described has no transom. A transom 2 ft. 8 in. × 16 in., complete, will cost about $1. The area of such a transom is 2 ft. 8 in. × 16 in. = 3⁵/₉ square feet. The cost per square foot is therefore $1 ÷ 3⁵/₉ = 28 cents.

The prices just given are for solid pine doors. Veneered hardwood doors are usually made to order. When the contractor bids on a house, the architect as a rule has not yet detailed the veneered doors; therefore, the contractor is more or less uncertain as to what will be required and usually puts in a price that he thinks will cover the cost. In the eastern part of the United States, for a veneered door, with ¼-inch veneers built of staved-up cores, a price of from 35 to 50 cents per square foot will be found adequate. This price does not of course include the frame.

89. There is now on the market a ready-made, veneered birch door known as the Korelock door. In using these doors, it is always cheaper to make the door frame of the correct size to take stock-size doors. The price of these doors is quite reasonable. For a 2' 8" × 6' 8" × ⁶/₄" door, with six cross-panels, the price is $2.80 for ⅛-inch veneer; if the door is ⁷/₄ instead of ⁶/₄ inch, the price is $3.25. This price of course includes no hardware or frame. A 2' 8" × 6' 8" × ⁶/₄" two-panel door costs $3.30, and if ⁷/₄ inch, it costs $3.75. A 2' 8" × 6' 8" × 1⅜", half-glass door, with plain glass, costs $5.55; with art or lace glass, the price is $6.20. This price includes the glass. If the door is 1¾ inches thick instead of 1⅜ inches, 65 cents should be added to the two prices just stated.

A fair workman can hang, trim, and put hardware, including mortise lock, on about four ordinary doors per day. For veneered doors, or those requiring extra care, not more than two can be put in place in a day by one man.

90. Cost of Baseboards, Rails, and Moldings.—The cost of material and fitting in place of baseboards may be estimated at 1³/₁₀ cents per square inch of section per linear foot. This price is for pine; if hardwood is used, the price will be 2 cents. The same rule also applies to chair rails, cap rails, and natural-finish picture moldings.

91. Cost of Paneling and Wainscoting.—Paneling may be estimated at 20 cents per square foot for ⅞-inch pine; if over ⅞ inch, add simply for extra material. If the paneling is of hardwood and veneered, add 50 per cent. to the price of pine.

Plain wainscoting may be estimated at 9 cents per square foot, the cap being figured separately by the linear foot.

92. Cost of Stairs.—The cost per step for an ordinary stairway, constructed according to the following specifications, is about $3.55. For a better class of work, about one-quarter should be added to this price. Length of steps, 3 feet; tread, Georgia pine; riser, white pine; open string, white pine; nosing and cove; dovetail balusters, square or turned; rail 2½ in. × 3 in.; 6-inch start newel, cherry; two 4-inch square angle newels, with trimmed caps and pendants; simple easements, furred underneath for plastering; treads and risers tongued together, housed into wall strings, wedged, glued, and blocked.

The material of such a stairway will cost about $1.84 per step. This rate includes landing fascia and balustrade to finish on upper floor. The labor on the same, mill work and setting in place, is about $1.71 per step. For example, for a stairs having 17 steps and landing balustrade (including return, about 14 feet), the entire cost will be 17 × $3.55 = $60.35, of which $31.28 will represent the cost of dressed lumber, including turned balusters and newels and worked rail, and $29.07 will represent the cost of labor in housing strings, cutting, mitering, and dovetailing steps, working easements, fitting and bolting rail, and erecting stairway in building.

93. Cost of Verandas.—For small dwellings, it has been found by experience that a veranda built according to the following specifications will cost about $3.75 per linear foot: Width, 5 feet; posts, turned, set 6 or 8 feet on centers; floor timbers, 2 in. × 6 in.; flooring, ⅞-inch white pine, sound grade; rafters, 2 in. × 4 in., dressed; purlins, 2 in. × 4 in., set 2 feet on centers; roof sheathing, ⅞-inch white pine; box frieze and angle mold; angle and face brackets; steps; no balustrade.

To include balustrade with 2-inch turned balusters, add about 60 cents per linear foot.

For a veranda built according to the following specifications, the cost will be about $6.75 per linear foot: Width, 8 feet; columns, 9-inch, turned; box pedestals; box cornice and gutter; level ceiling; roof timbers, 2 in. × 6 in.; roof covered with matched boards; tin, a good grade; floor timbers, 2 in. × 8 in.; floor, 1¼-inch white pine, second grade, with white-lead joints; no balustrade.

Including balustrade, with 2½-inch turned balusters, rail, and base to suit, add 80 cents per linear foot.

Where a portion of the veranda is segmental or semicircular, a close approximation to the cost will be had if the circumference of the circular part is measured, and a rate fixed at twice that for straight work of the same length. This applies to veranda framing, roofing, casing, and balustrades.

94. The price of structural steel varies continually as the steel market fluctuates. The cost of erecting steel also varies continually and depends on the difficulties to be overcome. Heavy steel work costs less per pound than light roof trusses and domes, because less shop work is required in proportion to the weight. For average prices in the eastern part of the United States, heavy steel may be taken at 3³/₁₀ cents per pound. Roof trusses, due to extra framing, will cost about 3⁸/₁₀ cents per pound, and light, complicated dome work will cost 6½ cents per pound. These prices are for steel delivered and painted. To erect steel costs anywhere from ½ to 2 cents per pound, depending on local conditions.

95. Heating and ventilating work should be estimated as indicated in the following paragraphs:

96. An approximate figure for the cost of plumbing is 10 per cent. of the cost of the building. This figure is for good materials and labor, and of course is subject to considerable variation. The cost of labor alone will average about one-fourth the cost of the materials.

97. Drainage System.—In making estimates for the drainage system, measure all horizontal pipes from the plans and all vertical pipes from the sectional drawings.

98. Water-Supply System.—For water supplied from street mains, allow for permits, corporation tapping, and curb box.

Measure the service pipe from street main to cellar, and allow for a stop and waste cock inside the cellar wall.

99. Well Supply.—For water supplied from a well, figure on double-action force pump in kitchen or laundry if the well is not deeper than 26 feet below the pump; for a deep well, estimate on a pumping engine or a windmill.

100. Fixtures.—Estimate each fixture separately, and include traps, faucets, waste, vent, and water connections to walls or floors. When the sewer is long and has but little fall, figure on using a grease trap for the kitchen sink.

101. Cost.—The cost of the gas-fitting may be approximately figured as about 3 per cent. of the cost of the building. The cost of labor alone varies from about one-fourth to one-seventh of the cost of materials. The better the grade of fixtures, the lower will be the ratio, provided there is no excessive ornamentation requiring much time to put in place, as the cost of the labor is about the same for cheap fixtures as for more costly ones.

102. Estimate piping the same as for plumbing.

103. Painting is measured by the superficial yard, girting every part of the work that is covered by paint, and allowing additions to the actual surface to compensate for the difficulty of covering deep quirks of moldings, for carved and enriched surfaces, etc. Ordinary door and window openings are usually measured solid, to compensate for the extra time taken in working around them, “cutting in” the window sash, etc. Porch and stair balustrades, iron railings, and work having numerous thin strips, are also counted solid, for a similar reason. Allowance is frequently made for the distance from the ground that the work is to be done, as in cornices, balconies, dormers, etc., and also for the difficulty of access.

Charges are usually made for each coat of paint put on, at a certain price per superficial yard and per coat.

Graining and marbling (imitations of wood and stone) and varnishing are rated at different prices from plain work.

Capitals and columns and other ornamental work that is difficult to measure should be enumerated, and a clear description of the amount of work on them should be given.

104. Quantities.—One pound of pure lead-and-oil paint will cover from 2¾ to 3¼ square yards of wood for the first coat, and from 4½ to 6 square yards for each additional coat; on brickwork, it will cover about 1½ and 2 square yards, respectively. Colored paint will cover about one-third more surface than white paint.

Using prepared or ready-mixed paint, 1 gallon will cover from 250 to 300 square feet of wooden surface, two coats; for covering metallic surfaces, 1 gallon will be sufficient for from 300 to 400 square feet, one coat. The weight per gallon of pure mixed paints varies considerably, but, on an average, may be taken at about 16 pounds.

Prepared shingle stains will cover about 200 square feet of surface per gallon if applied with a brush; or, this quantity will be sufficient for dipping about 500 shingles. Rough-sawed shingles will require about 50 per cent. more stain than smooth ones.

One pound of cold-water paint, for the first coat, will cover from 50 to 75 square feet of wood, according to the surface condition, and about 40 square feet of brick and stone.

One gallon of liquid pigment filler, hard-oil finish, or varnish will generally cover from 350 to 450 square feet of surface for the first coat, according to the nature of the wood and the finish, and from 450 to 550 square feet for the second and subsequent coats. One pound of paste wooden filler will cover about 40 square feet.

One gallon of varnish weighs from 8 to 9 pounds; turpentine, about 7 pounds; and boiled or raw linseed oil, about 7¾ pounds.

For puttying, about 5 pounds of putty will be sufficient for 100 square yards of interior and exterior work.

For sizing, about ½ pound of glue is used to 1 gallon of water.

For mixing paints, the figures given in Table XIV represent the average proportions of materials required for each 100 pounds of lead.

TABLE XIV

QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS

The drier is omitted in the second and succeeding coats, unless the work is to be dried very rapidly, as it is considered to be injurious to the durability of the paint.

On outside work, boiled oil is generally used in about the proportion of 1 gallon to 2 gallons of raw oil.

105. Care in Painting.—In painting woodwork, putty should not be used until after the first coat of paint or varnish has been applied. There are two reasons for this. In the first place, if putty is used on dry wood, the wood is liable to absorb the oil from the putty and leave it in a dry and crumbly condition. Then, also, the oil from the putty soaking into the wood will stain the wood dark, and this stain may be seen through varnish. For this latter reason, putty should be put in cracks and holes with a putty knife and not with the fingers, as otherwise the oil from the putty will get over the fingers and thus be transferred to the woodwork, where it will show as a dark stain if the wood is varnished.

Due care should also be taken in painting woodwork that has knots in it, as otherwise the turpentine in the knot will be sure to discolor the paint in course of time. To avoid this, the knots should be coated, or killed, with a coat of shellac before the first coat of paint is applied. The shellac prevents the turpentine in the knot from soaking through and discoloring the paint.

106. Cost of Painting.—The cost of applying paint on general interior and exterior work will average about twice the cost of the materials, while for very plain work, done in one color, the cost may be taken at about 1½ times that of the materials. For stippling, the cost will be about the same as for two coats of paint. For varnishing, the cost of labor will be about 1½ times the price of the varnish.

The following figures represent fair average prices, for various classes of work, and have been adopted by the Builders’ Exchange of a large eastern city:

107. In staining hardwoods with open grain, such as oak, chestnut, ash, etc., it is customary, when a varnished surface is required, to stain the paste filler with oil colors so as to secure the desired tint and then finish with three or four coats of varnish. The staining adds about 5 cents per square yard to the cost of varnishing.

When it is desired to color the silver grain, or medullary rays, revealed in quarter-sawed material, the usual plan is first to stain the material with an oil or an aniline stain that permanently affects only the silver grain. Afterwards, the paste filler colored to the desired tint is applied, and this, on entering and closing the open grain, buries the first stain, but does not cover that over the medullary rays. This, as in the previous method of staining, adds about 5 cents a square yard to the cost of varnishing.

Another method of treating oak, chestnut, and ash is to stain the wood to the desired shade with an oil stain of the proper tint. This stain is applied with cheesecloth to an even surface, and, after puttying, one coat of flat varnish is applied. This process costs about 25 cents per square yard.

For silver-gray effects, the addition of aluminum bronze to the oil stain will give a pleasing effect. This costs about 28 cents per square yard.

When it is desired to have the open grain show a white effect, the usual method is to use a paste filler with zinc white added and then a coat of flat varnish. This costs about 30 cents per square yard.

Oak, chestnut, and ash maybe colored by fuming (to give the effect of age) with the vapors of ammonia released in a closed box. This effect is also produced by several patented processes. It costs about 30 cents per square yard.

Exterior Painting

108. Papering is usually figured per roll, put on the wall. The paper is generally 18 inches wide, and is in 8-yard rolls; double rolls are 16 yards. On account of waste in matching, etc., it is difficult to estimate very closely the number of rolls required, but an approximate result may be obtained as follows: Divide the perimeter of the room by 1½ (the width of paper in feet); the result will be the number of strips. Find the number of strips that can be cut from a roll, and divide the first result by the second; the quotient will be the number of rolls required. No openings less than 20 square feet in area should be deducted, in order to compensate for cutting and fitting at such places. About 15 per cent. should be added to the area to allow for waste. The border, whether wide or narrow, is generally figured as one roll of paper.

The cost of paper is extremely variable, ranging from 15 cents to $6 per roll; the average cost is probably 25 to 50 cents per roll, for ordinary houses. Paper hanging costs from 10 cents to $1 per roll, according to quality, with strips butted.

109. Glazing was formerly included in the painter’s contract, but as it is now customary and more convenient to oil or paint and glaze the sash at the mill when they are made, the glazing is included in the joinery specifications, and is not considered as a separate subdivision of estimating work.

In measuring glass, take the dimensions between rabbets each way when the panes are rectangular; if irregular or circular in form, take the extreme dimensions, and consider the panes rectangular. It costs about 1½ cents per square foot of light to glaze a window. This price includes the cost of putty.

Polished plate glass is used extensively for store-front windows and also for glazing window sash in fine work. There are three qualities: French plate, and two grades of American plate, which may be obtained in various sizes up to 8 feet wide and 14 feet long. The cost of plate glass is estimated by the aid of a price list that gives the cost of the various sizes. This list is furnished by dealers and remains the same from year to year; it is known as the standard list. The fluctuations are provided for by means of a discount, which is the same for all sizes of glass.

TABLE XV

PANES OF WINDOW GLASS PER BOX

When stained or art glass is used, the specifications generally limit the cost, as the glass is made according to the architect’s designs or to approved designs submitted by manufacturers. The price depends more on the amount of lead or copper used than on the cost of the glass itself, and therefore no very close estimate can be made. The following figures are only approximate:

Ordinary window, or sheet, glass is sold by the box, which contains, as nearly as possible, 50 square feet, whatever the size of the glass may be. There are two qualities of ordinary glass, known as single and double thick, the former being about ¹/₁₆ inch thick, and the latter nearly ⅛ inch. Single-thick glass should never be used in panes over 24 in. × 24 in. in size. Table XV gives the number of panes of window glass in one box of 50 square feet.

ESTIMATING AND CALCULATING QUANTITIES (PART 2) — EXAMPLE IN ESTIMATING — EXCAVATION — Cellar Excavation — Excavation for Wall Footings [4] — Miscellaneous Excavations [5] — Filling — STONEWORK — Rubble Masonry — Ashlar [9] — Cut Stone — Concrete Footings and Floor — BRICKWORK — Pressed Brick — Common Brick — CARPENTRY — Floor Framing, First Story — Floor Framing, Second Story — Floor Framing, Attic — Floor Framing, Front Porch — Floor Framing, Back Porches — Bridging — Main-Roof Framing [11] — Porch-Roof Framing — Wall Studding — Partition Studding — Miscellaneous — Sheathing — Shingles — Flooring — ROOFING — Slating — Miscellaneous Items [16] — LATHING AND PLASTERING — Three-Coat Work — Two-Coat Work — Cornices — JOINERY — Door Frames, First Floor — Door Frames, Second Floor — Door Frames, Attic — Doors, First Story [17] — Doors, Second Floor — Doors, Attic — Window Frames, Cellar — Window Frames, First Story — Window Frames, Second Story — Window Frames, Attic — Window Sash, Cellar — Window Sash, First Story — Window Sash, Second Story — Window Sash, Attic — Screen Frames for Porch — Cellar Stairs — Back Stairs — Main Stairs — Miscellaneous Interior Joinery — Miscellaneous Exterior Work — HARDWARE — Locks — Hinges — Miscellaneous Hardware — HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEM — Furnace — Warm-Air and Smoke Pipes — Registers — Tin Register Boxes — Miscellaneous — PLUMBING — Fixtures — Water Supply — Drainage — GAS-FITTING — Fixtures — Pipe and Fittings — WIRING — PAINTING — Exterior Work — Interior Work — Summary of Cost of Building