Cheese and its Economical Uses in the Diet

CHEESE AND ITS ECONOMICAL USES IN THE DIET.

Though the chief points in the manufacture of cheese are well known, and are discussed in detail in other publications[4] of this department, it may not be out of place to review them here. Cheese is made ordinarily from whole milk, and most of the kinds best known in the United States from cows’ milk. In every 8 parts of milk by weight there is approximately 1 part of solid nutrients, the remainder being water. For our present purpose we may think of the nutrients as being equally divided into three groups—protein substances (casein and albumin principally), fat, and milk sugar. In the process of cheese making the casein, which constitutes more than three-fourths of the proteids of the milk, is precipitated by rennet, forming a curd. Most of the fat attaches itself to this curd. The curd is broken up, and the whole is heated to a temperature between 96° and 108° F. The whey is drained off and carries with it most of the milk sugar and the albumin. The curd is salted and pressed. It is kept for several weeks or longer in a cool place, where it “ripens,” developing flavors through the action of bacteria or other microorganisms, and also undergoing certain other marked changes.

The average cheese while fresh and moist contains proteids and fat in much the same ratio as that in which they are found in the milk. More than one-fourth its weight is proteid, about one-third fats, and one-third water. There are always present small amounts of albumin and sugar which have clung to the curd. Owing to the addition of salt, the percentage of mineral matter is high compared with that of most other foods.

In ripening, cheese changes in texture and its original pastiness gives away to a somewhat granular consistency in some types, or to a waxy or a buttery consistency in others.

The above brief outline refers only to the essentials of cheese making. In practice, there are many variations with respect to the kind of milk used, the proportion of butter fat or cream retained in or added to the milk, with respect to the methods followed in separating, preparing, seasoning, and handling the curd, and to the handling and ripening of the cheese. It follows that there is an almost endless number of cheeses with different names and of different appearance and flavor.

Cheese making was formerly a home or farm industry, but is now, in the United States at least, very largely a commercial enterprise carried on in factories. It differs from many industries in that the factories are almost always located in the country or in the smaller towns rather than in large cities, this being more true of cheese making than of the manufacture of potted cheeses or other special articles, which has become a large industry. It is worthy of mention in this connection that the making of cheese crackers and other bakers’ goods in which cheese is an ingredient has developed into an important part of the baking trade.

The American factory cheese—the so-called American cream cheese—is of the English Cheddar type, and as it is the most commonly used of all the commercial varieties in the United States, may be taken as a standard. Other types are, however, well known, particularly in cities and large towns where there are well-stocked markets and stores, and it is interesting to note also, at least briefly, the characteristics of some of them. Full descriptions of a very large number of cheeses (about 250 in all) may be found in an earlier bulletin of this department.[5]

Cheddar cheese—named from the English village where it originated—is a comparatively old type of cheese, very popular in England and also in the United States. The name is now more fitly applied to a process than to any particular shape.

Cheddar cheese is made from sweet cows’ milk, which may be skimmed, partly skimmed, or unskimmed. If made from unskimmed milk the cheese is called “full cream.” If cream is removed the cheese is designated “part-skim” or “skim,” as the case may be.

Cheese of Cheddar type as made in the United States is perhaps most often marketed in large, flat, round forms, 13 to 16 inches in diameter, about 5 or 6 inches in height, and weighing 26 to 32 pounds each, though other shapes and sizes are also fairly common. It is usually pale to darker yellow in color, though it may be white when uncolored. When fresh it is mild in flavor, but when well ripened has a characteristic and sharp taste. The new cheese is soft, though not waxy, in texture, and may be easily shaved or broken into small pieces. When well ripened it may be finely grated.

These characteristics, together with its distinctive and peculiar flavor and its wide distribution in the markets, are qualities which help to make it the variety most commonly used in the United States.

Sage cheese is a variety of Cheddar cheese, which is flavored with sage and is further characterized by the green mottled appearance formerly due to bits of sage leaf but now generally obtained in another way.

From the standpoint of the cook who frequently wishes to use grated cheese this variety is important. Though made in much the same way as Cheddar, it differs from it, in that the curd is heated to a somewhat higher temperature, and the cheese is therefore harder. It commonly sells for somewhat more per pound than the standard or American factory variety and is likely to be found only in the larger markets.

Cream cheese true to name is made from rich cream thickened by souring or from sweet cream thickened with rennet. The whey is removed by draining. It is then covered, salted, and turned occasionally, being ready for market in 5 to 10 days. A variety is also made with rennet from cream of low fat content, as well as a number of other special sorts much more common in France than in the United States.

The term “cream cheese,” however, is an elastic one and includes many varieties which are sold under special trade names. Such cheese is common in most markets.

Soft cream cheese differs from standard cheese, so far as composition is concerned, in having more water and fat and less protein, water usually making up about one-half of the total weight. It differs also in being much more perishable. These cheeses commonly sell for 10 or 15 cents each, which is about 40 to 50 cents a pound.

Of late there have been on the market varieties of such cheese or of Neufchâtel, made by combining the cheese with chopped pimiento. These bring a relatively high price in market and may be easily prepared at home if this seems more convenient. (See p. 34.)

This very popular variety—named from a town in northeastern France—is similar in appearance and in the way it is marketed to soft cream cheese. It is made either from whole or skim milk curdled with rennet. After draining and pressing, it is kneaded thoroughly, formed into small rolls or blocks, and then ripened until special molds develop, which requires about four weeks. It is then wrapped in tinfoil and marketed.

This is a name given outside of Italy to a very hard cheese which in that country is said to be known as Grana, a name given because of the granular appearance which it has after it has been broken. It is sometimes sold in grated form and brings a relatively high price, but is more commonly sold ungrated. When well made it will keep for years and may be easily broken and grated. It is very generally used in Europe for serving with soups, for seasoning macaroni, and for other similar purposes, and is quite common in American markets.

This is a skim-milk cheese made in Switzerland, which is suitable for grating. It contains, for every 4 pounds of cheese, 1 pound of a clover (Melilotus cæruleus) grown in Switzerland. It is greenish in color and has an unusual flavor. It is not high-priced.

These are highly flavored cheeses characterized by the presence of molds through their entire mass. Roquefort is made from the milk of sheep; Gorgonzola, from cows’ milk.

Ordinary cheese is often mixed with butter or oil in the proportion of 5 parts of cheese to 1 of butter or oil, by weight. The mixture is sometimes seasoned with mustard or with curry powder. Such cheeses, unseasoned or seasoned, are on the market in great variety. Potted cheese may be easily prepared at home if the housekeeper wishes to take the trouble.

This term as used in America is somewhat vague. Different names are given to the varieties according to the districts of Switzerland in which they are made, but they are all similar and characterized by a mild, sweetish flavor and the presence of large holes or “eyes.” Foreign and domestic brands are to be found in most markets. They are suitable for cooking purposes, as well as for use without being cooked, and are much used in this way in Europe and well known and liked in the United States.

This is a cheese made in Holland. It is molded in spherical form, and the outside is usually dyed red. It is usual in this country to cut off a section of the top, which serves as a lid, and to scoop out the inside as needed. In Holland it is frequently served in slices, particularly when it is fresh. Edam cheese is seldom used in cookery in American homes, though thrifty housewives, after the greater part of the cheese has been removed, often stuff the hollow shell with cooked and seasoned macaroni, rice, or something similar and bake.

These are very soft rennet cheeses of foreign origin and of somewhat smaller nutritive value than standard cheese, and of strong flavor and odor. They are not often used in cookery, but are used as an accompaniment to other foods. The Bureau of Animal Industry and the Connecticut Storrs Experiment Station in cooperation have experimented with the making of Camembert cheese with marked success, and have published a full account of the work.[6]

Cottage cheese and other sour milk and cream cheeses, junket, Devonshire cream, and a number of other cheese-like products are described in the section which deals with homemade cheese.

One of the best ways of keeping cheese which has been cut is to wrap it in a slightly damp cloth and then in paper, and to keep it in a cool place. To dampen the cloth, sprinkle it and then wring it. It should seem hardly damp to the touch. Paraffin paper may be used in place of the cloth. When cheese is put in a covered dish, the air should never be wholly excluded, for if this is done, it molds more readily.

In some markets it is possible to buy the small whole cheeses mentioned on page 6. These may be satisfactorily kept by cutting a slice from the top, to serve as a cover, and removing the cheese as needed with a knife, a strong spoon, or a cheese scoop. It is possible to buy at the hardware stores knobs which inserted in the layer cut from the top make it easy to handle. The cheese below the cover should be kept wrapped in a cloth.

Cheese is used in general in two ways—in small quantities chiefly for its flavor and in large quantities for its nutritive value as well as for its flavor. Some varieties of cheese are used chiefly for the first purpose, others chiefly for the second. Those which are used chiefly for their flavor, many of which are high priced, contribute little to the food value of the diet, because of the small quantity used at a time. They have an important part to play, however, in making the diet attractive and palatable. The intelligent housekeeper thinks of them not as necessities, but as lying within what has been called “the region of choice.” Having first satisfied herself that her family is receiving sufficient nourishment, she then, according to her means and ideas of an attractive diet, chooses among these foods and others which are to be considered luxuries.

Those cheeses, on the other hand, which are suitable to be eaten in large quantities and which are comparatively low priced are important not only from the point of view of flavor, but also from the point of view of their nutritive value. Among such cheeses the one which, as noted above, is known to the trade as standard factory cheese and to the housewife as American cheese stands out pre-eminently. Therefore when the word “cheese” is used without specification in the following pages it may be taken to refer to this particular variety.

Cheese owes its flavor to the fatty acids and their compounds which it contains and to ammonia-like bodies formed during ripening from the cleavage of the casein, to salt added to the curd, and in some varieties, like Roquefort, to bodies elaborated by molds which develop in the cheese. In the highly flavored sorts some of the fatty acids of a very marked odor are present in abundance, as are also the ammonia-like bodies. Indeed, in eating such cheese as Camembert a trace of ammonia flavor may often be plainly detected.

The cleavage of the nitrogenous material of the cheese and other changes are brought about chiefly by the action of enzymes originally present in cheese or by microorganisms and are to be regarded as fermentative and not as putrefactive changes.

The liking for highly flavored cheeses of strong odor is a matter of individual preference, but from the chemist’s standpoint there is no reason for the statement often made that such cheeses have undergone putrefactive decomposition.

In the present state of our knowledge concerning dietetics it seems best to give the housekeeper general rather than absolute rules with respect to the kind and amount of food which should be eaten at any meal or at any given time by persons in normal health living under usual conditions. It is not necessary, therefore, for the housekeeper to know the exact composition of food materials in order to cater well for her family, a rough approximation being sufficient for the purpose. In the case of cheese she will be near enough to the fact if she thinks of it as composed approximately of equal parts by weight of proteids, fats, and water. This rough conception is sufficient to associate it in her mind with the foods of high proteid value, a point which is important in connection with the making of bills of fare. It should lead her to class it also with the foods which are rich in fat and prevent her from combining it unnecessarily with other fatty foods.

In order, however, that the question of the use of cheese in the diet may be adequately discussed, knowledge of its composition in comparison with other foods is desirable, and there is an abundance of data available on this subject, since the composition of cheese and other foods has often been investigated at the Department of Agriculture, in experiment station laboratories, and in many other places where nutrition problems are studied. An extended summary of analyses of cheese of different sorts is included in an earlier publication of this department.[7]

Data regarding the composition of cheese and a few other common foods are summarized in the following table:

Average composition of cheese and some other common foods as purchased, and also on the basis of edible portion.

Food materials.	Refuse.	Water.	Protein.	Fat.	Carbohydrates.	Ash.	Fuel value per pound.
	Per cent.	Per cent.	Per cent.	Per cent.	Per cent.	Per cent.	Calories.
Cheese		34.2	25.2	33.7	2.4	3.8	1,950
Beef of average composition as purchased		18.6	50.5	15.2	15.5	.7	935
Edible portion		62.2	18.8	18.8		.9	1,145
Porterhouse steak as purchased	12.7	52.4	19.1	17.9		.8	1,110
Edible portion		60.0	21.9	20.4		1.0	1,270
Loin steak, broiled, edible portion		54.8	23.5	20.4		1.2	1,300
Dried beef		53.7	26.4	6.9		8.9	790
Eggs as purchased	11.2	65.5	13.1	9.3		.9	635
Edible portion		73.7	13.4	10.5		1.0	720
Milk		87.0	3.3	4.0	5.0	.7	310
Bread		35.3	9.2	1.3	53.1	1.1	1,215
Potatoes as purchased	20.0	62.6	1.8	.1	14.7	.8	295
Edible portion		78.3	2.2	.1	18.4	1.0	385
Apples as purchased	25.0	63.6	.3	.3	10.8	.3	190
Edible portion		84.6	.4	.5	14.2	.3	290

It will be seen from the above table that cheese has nearly twice as much protein, weight for weight, as beef of average composition as purchased and that its fuel value is more than twice as great. It contains over 25 per cent more protein than the same weight of porterhouse steak as purchased, and nearly twice as much fat.

As shown by the figures in the above table, cheese contains 3.8 per cent ash. Of this a considerable part may be salt added in cheese making. Like the milk from which it is made, cheese ash is characterized chiefly by the presence of calcium (lime), magnesium, phosphorus, and iron, the average values as given in earlier bulletins of the department[8] being 1.24 per cent calcium oxid, 0.049 per cent magnesium oxid, 1.49 per cent phosphorus pentoxid, and 0.0015 per cent iron.

The total amount of the mineral matter needed per day by the body is relatively small, yet mineral matter is very important. It is commonly assumed and is probably true, that a mixed diet reasonably varied and reasonably generous will supply all the ash constituent which the body requires. If for any reason calcium and phosphorus are lacking in the diet, the amounts may be readily increased (as pointed out in one of the publications just cited) by a free use of milk and such milk products as cheese and junket, without decreasing the palatability of the diet or materially increasing its cost.

Since the market prices of foods vary, it is difficult to compare the amounts of nourishment secured for a given sum, 10 cents say, in buying different food materials. We may, however, suppose that foods have certain prices and make the comparison on this basis. In the following table the amount of cheese obtained for 10 cents when cheese costs 22 cents a pound is shown, together with the protein and energy value of this quantity, this value being compared with similar values for a number of other common foods at certain assumed prices per pound.

			10 cents’ worth will contain—
		10 cents will buy—
Food materials.	Price.		Proteid.	A fuel value of—
		Ounces.	Ounces.	Calories.
Cheese	22 cents per pound	7.3	1.9	886
Beef, average	20 cents per pound	8.0	1.2	467
Porterhouse steak	25 cents per pound	6.4	1.3	444
Dried beef	do	6.4	1.6	315
Eggs	24 cents per dozen	10.0	1.3	198
Milk	9 cents per quart	38.3	1.2	736
Wheat bread	5 cents per pound	32.0	2.9	2,400
Potatoes	60 cents per bushel	160.0		2,950
Apples	1½ cents per pound	106.7		1,270

Since cheese is ready to be eaten when it comes from the market, it may be more interesting for some purposes to compare its composition with that of cooked beef, freed from bone and from superfluous fat, such a piece as would be served to a person at the table. Weight for weight, cheese has appreciably more protein than such cooked beef, and 50 per cent more fat.

So far as its composition is concerned, then, cheese is entitled to be considered as directly comparable with meat. The possibilities of using cheese and some other food materials in the same way as meat is discussed in some detail in an earlier publication of this department.[9] It is so used by the peasants of some parts of Europe, and was formerly so used among many other groups of people. The fact that it is not more commonly so used in this country is probably due to several causes. One cause is habit, which makes the meal seem incomplete unless it includes meat; another is the fact that since cheese has a more pronounced flavor than meat, it is not so likely to be generally acceptable as the chief food of a meal. There is always likely to be at least one member of the family who does not relish it in quantity. Another cause is the fact that it is commonly believed to be indigestible, and still another is the fact that housekeepers, through lack of experience, are much less skillful in the arrangement of bills of fare in which cheese is the central food than they are in arranging bills of fare in which meat is thus used. These last two causes will be considered in sections which follow.

As was stated above, cheese has been thought a cause of digestive disturbances, but work recently done by the Office of Experiment Stations, in cooperation with the Bureau of Animal Industry, and briefly summed up in a recent publication tends to disprove this.[10]

In the large number of experiments which were conducted, young men in good health were fed on a diet consisting of bread and fruit combined with American factory cheese which was made with different amounts of rennet and in different stages of ripening. The results showed that over 90 per cent of the nitrogenous material of the cheese was digested—that is, retained in the body—and nearly 90 per cent of the energy it supplied was available. In other words, cheese compares favorably with other foods in thoroughness of digestion—that is, in the percentage finally digested. Furthermore, it did not cause constipation or other physiological disturbances.

The above statement refers to full-cream cheese. Experiments made at the same time gave practically the same values for the digestibility of skim-milk cheese, of Swiss cheese, of Roquefort and Camembert cheese, and of cottage cheese.

Artificial digestion experiments made at the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station[11] indicate that cheese protein is digested by the ferments of the intestines rather than by those of the stomach, and this is suggested as a reason for its reputation as a “hearty” food, the belief being that some foods which remain in the stomach longer than the average time, or are not digested by the stomach, are “hearty.” Cheese protein (casein) is intimately associated with fat, and there is experimental evidence to show that this condition has an effect upon the progress of digestion in the stomach.

The burning sensation or similar sensations sometimes experienced after eating certain sorts of cheese has been attributed to the presence of small amounts of free fatty acids.[12] It is commonly said that cheese is difficult to digest, the idea being that the body expends more labor in assimilating it than is required for other comparable foods. Experiments recently carried on by the Office of Experiment Stations in which the respiration calorimeter was used to study the energy expenditure during the period of active digestion, do not indicate that cheese differs materially in ease of digestion from a comparable amount of meat.[13] Uncooked full-cream cheese was used in these experiments. Another series recently begun by the Office of Experiment Stations with cooked cheese, though not yet sufficiently advanced to be conclusive, indicates that cheese thus eaten does not differ materially from raw cheese in this respect.

In connection with the use of cooked cheese in the diet, one fact should always be kept in mind. This is that, in common with all other fatty foods, cheese which has been overheated in cooking is likely to contain burned—that is, decomposed—fats. Disturbances from this cause, however, should be laid to poor cooking and not to the composition of this special food.

The use of potassium bicarbonate has often been recommended for increasing the digestibility of cheese, the amount suggested being a level teaspoonful to a pound of cheese. That the bicarbonate renders the cheese soluble in any appreciable degree, as has been claimed, is not apparent from a number of experiments which have been made. It does, however, neutralize some of the free fatty acids of the cheese, thus destroying some of the characteristic flavor. To some people this may be an advantage, but to others it would be counted a disadvantage.

It has been the purpose, in preparing this discussion of cheese, to consider ways in which mild-flavored sorts may serve as staple articles of diet, rather than the use of highly flavored varieties as appetizers and as accompaniments of other foods. The use of highly flavored cheese as a condiment is customary and may profitably be extended, since it offers a simple way of adding to the attractiveness of the diet. The variety of the cheese selected is a matter of choice, some persons preferring such kinds as well-ripened American full-cream cheese or the potted cheeses, and others such sorts as Roquefort, Camembert, and other varieties. From the physiologist’s standpoint, cheese used in this way for its flavor should really form a part of a well-balanced meal rather than be added to a meal which already supplies an abundance of nutritive material. In other words, condimental cheeses may better accompany a moderate than a very generous menu.

In considering the use of cheese in quantity as an integral part of the diet there are many possibilities from simple combinations like bread and cheese to elaborate dishes in which cheese is used as a flavor and as a principal constituent.

As has been pointed out, cheese, being rich in both protein and fat, would logically replace such foods as meat, fish, and eggs when taken in quantity, rather than cereal foods characterized by a large amount of starch, or succulent foods, such as vegetables and fruits. In planning menus of which cheese forms a large part the housekeeper should bear these facts in mind.

Since meat has so generally been the chief protein food of a meal, and the kind selected usually has determined the choice of vegetables and condiments, it is not strange that very many housekeepers should be inexperienced and consequently unskillful in planning meals in which cheese is substituted for meat when for any reason they may desire to make such a change. In seeking skill they might take a suggestion from the experiments to which reference has been made, and also from a case investigated and reported by the Office of Experiment Stations, of a man who lived for months upon a diet of bread, fruit, and cheese, and who remained in good health and active, and did not weary of the monotony of the diet.

The first two articles of the diet mentioned, namely, the bread and the cheese, could have been taken in such amounts as to constitute what is usually considered a balanced ration, i.e., in such amounts as to supply the right quantity of muscle-forming foods in comparison with the energy value. The bread and cheese taken with the fruit, however, make a ration which is well balanced not only in the older and more widely accepted sense, but also in the more modern sense that it makes an attractive and palatable combination of foods, as well as a balanced ration, and thus favors digestion. The watery and refreshing fruits or succulent vegetables with their large supply of cellulose are a pleasant contrast to the concentrated and fatty cheese.

Housekeepers would probably find that if in planning menus of which a cheese dish is the chief feature they were to take pains to supply also crisp, watery vegetables, water cress, celery, lettuce served with a dressing or with salt alone, or simple fruit salads, and would give preference to refreshing fruits, either fresh or cooked, rather than to what are known as heavy desserts, they would in general be more successful in pleasing those who are served.

There is another point also to be considered in combining cheese with other foods. Whether it is raw or cooked it is likely to be somewhat soft, and so seems to call for the harder kinds of bread—crusty rolls or biscuit, zweiback, toast, pulled bread, rye bread, the harder brown breads, or crackers, and some of the numerous crisp ready-to-eat cereal breakfast foods. Brittle cookies, too, seem more suitable than rich soft cakes or puddings for the dessert in such meals.

A few bills of fare are given below which experience has shown to represent combinations of dishes which are palatable and which, if eaten in usual amounts, will supply protein and energy in proportions which accord with usual dietary standards. Menus such as these are more commonly served at lunch or at supper, but they might equally well be served for dinner, the selection of dishes for any meal being of course chiefly a matter of custom and convenience for those who have any range of choice.

Suggested bills of fare in which cheese dishes are the chief source of protein and fat.

Menu No. 1.	Menu No. 2.—Continued.
Macaroni and cheese (p. 26 or p. 27).	Coffee.
Raisin bread or date bread.	Fruit salad with crisp cookies or meringues.
Orange and water-cress salad.
Baked apples.	Menu No. 3.
Sugar cookies.	Clear soup.
Cocoa.	Baked eggs with cheese (p. 29) or Boston roast (p. 28).
Menu No. 2.	Baked potatoes.
Cheese fondue (p. 24 or p. 25).	Lettuce salad.
Toast, zwieback, or thin and crisp baking-powder biscuit.	A sweet jelly, crab apple or quince for example, or a preserve.
Celery.	Rye bread.
Potatoes, baked, boiled, or fried in deep fat.	Orange or banana shortcake.
Peas, or some other fresh vegetables.	Tea.

These bills of fare should be taken as suggestive merely and not as a solution of the problem. In fact, the whole art of making bills of fare needs developing. There is abundant evidence that overeating, where it exists, is frequently due to the fact that meals are not skillfully planned. People often continue eating after they have taken enough in total bulk because they have not had all they want of some particular kind of food. The meal has contained too large a percentage of proteid or too much starch; has been too moist or too dry; too highly flavored or not sufficiently flavored. Bill-of-fare making calls not only for knowledge of food values but also for skill in combining flavors and textures.

In this discussion of menu making, and of the use of cheese as an integral part of the diet, the aim has been to suggest ways of using cheese to add to the palatability of meals made up of usual dishes, and to suggest dishes containing cheese which could serve as substitutes for meat dishes when so desired, and also for dishes of many sorts to be used as taste suggests and in which the nutritive value as well as the flavor is increased by the addition of cheese. If cheese is used and in quantity, it is obvious that some other proteid and fat foods should be diminished, in order that the meal or day’s menu may not be unduly hearty.

For the convenience of the housekeeper, a number of recipes for cheese dishes are given in later pages, these being preceded by directions for making cottage cheese and other similar cheeses which are usually made in the home.

Even as late as a generation or two ago cheese of different kinds was made at home for family use, as sour-milk or cottage cheese still is, and cheese making was very generally a farm industry, cheese, like butter, being sold by the farmer who made it. Cottage cheese is very commonly homemade. Most types of cheese, however, are now as a rule made on a large scale in factories where advantage may be taken of labor-saving devices. The general topic of farm cheese making has been considered in an earlier bulletin of this series,[14] prepared by the Dairy Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry.

The list of cheese dishes in the culinary literature of this and other countries is a long one, but most of them are variations of a comparatively small number of general types. Those which have been selected and studied experimentally represent the principal types and in many cases have been adapted to American methods of preparations and tastes. In some instances, this has resulted in new and perhaps more rational combinations than those which served as models.

For convenience, the cheese dishes included in this bulletin have been grouped under the following heads:

(1) Cheese dishes which may serve as meat substitutes.

(2) Cheese soups and vegetables cooked with cheese.

(3) Cheese salads, sandwiches, and similar dishes.

(4) Cheese pastry, cheese sweets, and similar dishes.

Variety may be obtained in the recipes by varying the flavorings. Among the best flavorings for cheese dishes are onion, chives, and the ordinary green sweet pepper. Since the cheese needs very little cooking, however, and onion or the pepper needs a great deal, they should always be previously cooked, either by stewing in a very little water, or by cooking in butter. The seeds of the pepper, of course, should be removed before cooking. Where chopped celery is used, as it may be in most of these dishes, it, too, should be cooked beforehand until tender. Other good flavors are mustard, curry powder, onion juice, chopped olives, pimiento, and, according to European recipes, nutmeg or mace.

In preparing the cheese it often has been found convenient to use a very coarse grater having slits instead of the usual rounded holes. Such a grater, in spite of its name, shaves the cheese instead of grating it. When the cheese is soft this is an advantage, since the grater does not become clogged.

Meat is wholesome and relished by most persons, yet it is not essential to a well-balanced meal and there are many housekeepers who for one reason or another are interested in lessening the amount of meat which they provide or to substitute some other foods for it. The problem with the average family is undoubtedly more often the occasional substitution of other palatable dishes for the sake of variety, for reasons of economy, or for some other reason than the general replacement of meat dishes by other things.

Foods which are to be served in place of meat should be rich in protein and fat and should also be savory. Cheese naturally suggests itself as a substitute for meat, since it is rich in the same kinds of nutrients which meat supplies, is a staple food with which everyone is familiar, and is one which can be used in a great variety of ways. In substituting cheese for meat, especial pains should be taken to serve dishes which are relished by the members of the family. A number of recipes for dishes which contain cheese are given below. They are preceded by several recipes for cheese sauces which, as will appear, are called for in the preparation of some of the more substantial dishes.

1 cupful of milk.	1 ounce of cheese (¼ cupful of grated cheese).
2 tablespoonfuls of flour.	Salt and pepper.

Among the recipes for dishes which may be used like meat, the first 30 are such that, eaten in usual quantities, they will provide much the same kind and amount of nutritive material as the ordinary servings of meat dishes used at dinner. In several cases there is a resemblance in appearance and flavor to common meat dishes, which would doubtless be a point in their favor with many families.

While, chiefly owing to custom, it may not accord with the taste of the family to serve cheese dishes at dinner in place of meat, it is much more in accord with usual dietary habits in American homes to serve such dishes at least occasionally for lunch, for supper, or for breakfast; that is, for a less formal meal than dinner. The last group of recipes in this section, beginning with “breakfast cereals with cheese,” supply rather smaller proportions of nutritive materials than those in the first group and so may be more suitable for use at the less hearty meals. There is no hard and fast line to be drawn between the two groups, however, and many of the recipes may be used interchangeably.

In the recipes calling for large amounts of cheese the food value is given, not in figures, but in comparison with beef of average composition and average percentage of waste. This comparison is necessarily rough owing to the varying composition of the foods and the varying weights of such ingredients as a cupful of grated cheese or bread crumbs. In making the comparisons, beef of average composition has been considered to have 15.2 per cent of protein, and a fuel value of 935 calories per pound; ordinary American cheese has been considered to have 26 per cent of protein and a fuel value of 1,965 calories per pound. After many weighings, 4 ounces was decided to be the average weight of a cupful of cheese and 2½ ounces the average weight of a cupful of bread crumbs. These weights have been taken, therefore, in calculating the food value of dishes. When cheese is very soft, however, it may be pressed into a cup and measured like butter. Under these circumstances, the weight of a cupful of cheese may be considered one-half a pound. The price of cheese is taken as 22 cents a pound, of butter 25 cents a pound, of eggs 25 cents a dozen, in this and all similar calculations in this bulletin. Prices vary with time, place, and season. Those mentioned above are such as were paid for materials at the time the experiments here summarized were made and are not extreme values in either direction. Like all such estimates, the calculations are only relative, and the housekeeper who wishes to estimate the comparative cost of the cheese dishes and other foods can readily do so by taking into account the amount of materials used and the prices paid for ingredients at any particular time.

1⅓ cupfuls of soft, stale bread crumbs.	4 eggs.
6 ounces of cheese (1½ cupfuls of grated cheese or 1⅓ cupfuls of cheese grated fine or cut into small pieces.)	1 cupful of hot water.
	½ teaspoonful of salt.

1⅓ cupfuls of hot milk.	⅓ of a pound of cheese (1⅓ cupfuls of grated cheese or 1 cupful of cheese cut into small pieces).
1⅓ cupfuls of soft, stale bread crumbs.
1 tablespoonful of butter.
4 eggs.	½ teaspoonful of salt.

1½ cupfuls of bread crumbs.	1 egg.
1½ cupfuls of milk.	2 tablespoonfuls of butter.
1½ cupfuls of cheese cut into small pieces.	6 ounces of crackers.

1 cupful of boiled rice.	½ teaspoonful of salt.
2 tablespoonfuls of milk.	1 teaspoonful of some commercial meat sauce, or similar flavoring.
4 eggs.
1 cupful of grated cheese.

1 tablespoonful of butter.	1 cupful of chopped corn.
1 tablespoonful of chopped green pepper.	1 cupful of grated cheese.
¼ cupful of flour.	3 eggs.
2 cupfuls of milk.	½ teaspoonful of salt.

1 tablespoonful of butter.	½ pound of cheese, cut into small pieces.
1 teaspoonful of cornstarch.	¼ teaspoonful each of salt and mustard.
½ cupful of milk.	A speck of cayenne pepper.

2 tablespoonfuls of butter.	⅛ teaspoonful of soda.
2 tablespoonfuls of flour.	1 pound of cheese.
¾ cupful of milk.	2 eggs, slightly beaten.
¾ cupful of stewed and strained tomatoes.	Salt, mustard, cayenne pepper.

1 tablespoonful of butter.	2 egg yolks.
2 cups of grated cheese.	1 teaspoonful of salt.
¾ cup of canned or grated fresh corn.	½ teaspoonful of paprika.
1 ripe pimiento.	1 clove of garlic.
½ cup of tomato purée.	4 slices of bread.

1 cupful of macaroni, broken into small pieces.	2 tablespoonfuls of flour.
2 quarts of boiling salted water.	¼ to ½ pound of cheese.
1 cupful of milk.	½ teaspoonful of salt.
	Speck of cayenne pepper.

1 cupful of macaroni broken into small pieces.	2 cloves.
2 quarts of boiling salted water.	1½ cupfuls of tomato sauce.
½ onion.	½ cupful or more of grated cheese.

½ cupful of macaroni broken into small pieces.	1 teaspoonful each of chopped onion and parsley.
1 cupful of milk.	3 eggs.
1 cupful of soft bread crumbs.	1 teaspoonful of salt.
1 tablespoonful of butter.	½ cupful of grated cheese.
1 tablespoonful of chopped green pepper.

1 cupful of uncooked rice and	2 tablespoonfuls of flour.
4 cupfuls of milk;	½ pound of cheese.
or,	½ teaspoonful of salt.
3 cupfuls of cooked rice and
1 cupful of milk.

¼ pound of cheese grated or cut into small pieces.	1 cupful of rice.
	Milk as needed.

9 or 10 butter crackers or Boston crackers.	1½ cupfuls of milk.
¼ pound of cheese or 1 cupful of grated cheese.	¼ teaspoonful of salt.
	Flour.

9 or 10 butter crackers or soda crackers.	1 cupful of grated cheese.
2 cupfuls of hot milk, whole or skimmed.	¼ teaspoonful of salt.

1 pound can of kidney beans or equivalent	Bread crumbs.
quantity of cooked beans.	Salt.
½ pound of grated cheese.

2 cupfuls of cooked Lima beans.	3 canned pimientos chopped.
¼ pound of cream cheese, commercial or homemade.	Bread crumbs.

1 cupful of grated cheese.	1 tablespoonful of butter.
1 cupful of chopped English walnuts.	Juice of half a lemon.
1 cupful of bread crumbs.	Salt and pepper.
2 tablespoonfuls of chopped onion.

2 quarts of spinach.	Salt.
1 cupful of grated cheese.	Bread crumbs.
1 tablespoonful of butter.

3 hard-boiled eggs.	Speck of cayenne.
1 tablespoonful of flour.	¼ cupful or 1 ounce grated cheese.
1 cupful of milk.	4 slices of toast.
½ teaspoonful of salt.

4 eggs.	¼ teaspoonful salt.
1 cupful, or 4 ounces, of grated cheese.	A few grains of Cayenne pepper.
1 cupful of fine, soft, stale bread crumbs.

½ pound of cheese grated or cut into small pieces.	1 tablespoonful of chopped parsley.
	A pinch of nutmeg.
8 eggs	½ teaspoonful of salt.

4 eggs.	Salt and pepper.
½ cupful of cream.	¼ cupful of grated cheese.
1 tablespoonful of butter.

1½ tablespoonfuls of flour.

¼ cupful of grated cheese.

1 cupful of milk.

Yolks of 2 eggs.	Salt and pepper.
2 tablespoonfuls of hot water.	Whites of 4 eggs.
1 cupful of grated cheese.	1 tablespoonful of butter.

2 cupfuls of oatmeal.	1 tablespoonful of butter.
1 cupful of grated cheese.	1 level teaspoonful of salt.

6 slices of bread.	½ teaspoonful of salt.
1 cupful of milk.	½ teaspoonful of potassium bicarbonate.
2 ounces of cheese, or ½ cupful of grated cheese.	Butter or other fat for frying.

¼ cupful of butter.	2 egg yolks.
¼ cupful of flour.	¾ cupful of grated cheese.
¼ cupful of cornstarch.	Salt.
2 cupfuls of milk.

2 tablespoonfuls of butter.	A speck of cayenne.
3 tablespoonfuls of flour.	¼ cupful of grated cheese.
½ cupful of milk (scalded).	3 eggs.
½ teaspoonful of salt.

2 eggs.	½ cupful of Swiss cheese cut into small pieces.
⅔ cupful of thin cream.
1 cupful of grated cheese.	Salt, cayenne pepper, and nutmeg.

3 tablespoonfuls of butter.	1 cupful of cheese cut in very small pieces.
¼ cupful of flour.
⅔ cupful of milk.	½ cupful grated cheese.
Yolks of 2 eggs.	Salt and pepper.

1½ cupfuls of grated cheese.	The whites of 3 eggs.
1 tablespoonful of flour.	Salt, pepper, cracker dust.

In these dishes the cheese is used not only to add nutritive value, but also to give its characteristic flavor either to materials otherwise rather mild in taste (as in potatoes with cheese) or to combine its flavor with that of some more highly flavored vegetables (as in cheese and vegetable soup). The ingenious housekeeper whose family is fond of cheese can doubtless think of many desirable ways of making such combinations besides those given in the following recipes:

3 cupfuls of milk, or part milk and part stock.	1 cupful of grated cheese.
1½ tablespoonfuls of flour.	Salt and paprika.

2 cupfuls of stock.	2 tablespoonfuls of flour.
2 tablespoonfuls of finely chopped carrots.	1½ teaspoonfuls of salt.
1 tablespoonful of chopped onion.	1 cupful of scalded milk.
A very little mace.	¼ cupful of grated cheese.
2 tablespoonfuls of butter.

1 cupful of mashed potatoes.	½ teaspoonful of salt.
¼ cupful of milk.	½ cupful of grated cheese.
1 egg.

Cheese of one sort or another is a very common accompaniment of salads, and the combination is rational as well as palatable, for the constituents of the succulent foods—chiefly water and cellulose—supplement the protein and fat of the cheese. Cheese is often used also as a part of the salad.

A number of recipes are given below for cheese salads and other cheese dishes which may be served with dinner or other regular meals, or served as part of a special lunch or special supper. Many of the cheese dishes discussed in other sections are also commonly used for such occasions when something savory is desired which can be easily and quickly prepared.

½ cupful of grated cheese.	1 cupful of whipped cream.
1 tablespoonful of gelatin.	Salt and pepper to taste.

Although not cheese dishes, strictly speaking, the following salad dressings made with buttermilk cream (see p. 21) may be included in this section.

½ cupful of buttermilk cream (see p. 21).	¼ teaspoonful of salt.
1 tablespoonful of vinegar.	Cayenne pepper.

In the foregoing pages a large number of recipes have been included in which cheese is combined with materials without cooking, as in salads, or used in cooked dishes of creamy or custard-like consistency, as in soufflés and Welsh rabbit or in combination with vegetables or cereals, such as rice.

There are a number of cheese dishes of quite different character in which the cheese is combined with dough, batter, or pastry in various ways, and a number of dishes in which cheese or cheese curd is used in combinations suitable for dessert. Such sweet dishes were once much more common than they are to-day, as reference to old cookery books will show, but some of them are well worth retaining.

In cheese sweets, flavor and richness are both contributed by the cheese.

When cheese is used in pastry or dough it may serve simply as a flavor, as in cheese sticks or cheese straws, or it may wholly or in part replace with its fat the usual shortening, as butter or other fat, and with its protein (casein) the protein (albumin) of eggs. As an illustration of such a use of cheese, cheese gingerbread may be cited.

Using cheese in this way is often an economy when eggs are scarce. Better results will be obtained if soft cheese is used which can be worked into the dough in much the same way as butter or other shortening. To those who like cheese the flavor which it imparts would be an advantage. However, if a very mild cheese is used in combination with molasses or spice the dish differs a little in flavor from one prepared in the usual way.

2 cupfuls of flour.	¼ teaspoonful of salt.
4 teaspoonfuls of baking powder.	Grated cheese sufficient to give desired flavor.
2 tablespoonfuls of lard or butter.
⅞ of a cup of milk.

¼ pound of soft cheese.	4 teaspoonfuls of baking powder.
2 cupfuls of flour.	1½ teaspoonfuls of salt.
1 cupful of water.

2½ tablespoonfuls of milk.	1 egg.
1 teaspoonful of butter.	2 tablespoonfuls of grated Parmesan cheese or dry American cheese.
1¼ cupfuls of flour.
⅛ teaspoonful of salt.

½ pound of cheese.	1½ teaspoonfuls of salt.
2 cupfuls of flour.	1 cupful of water.
4 teaspoonfuls of baking powder.

1 cupful of molasses.	2 cupfuls of flour.
4 ounces of cheese.	2 teaspoonfuls of ginger.
1 teaspoonful of soda.	½ teaspoonful salt.
½ cupful of water.

½ cupful of molasses.	1 teaspoonful of soda.
½ cupful of sugar.	2 teaspoonfuls of ginger.
4 ounces of cheese.	½ teaspoonful of salt.
2 cupfuls of flour.	¾ cupful of water.

1 cupful of grated cheese.	Yolks of 2 eggs.
½ cupful of cream or rich milk.	A speck of salt and of paprika.

1 quart of milk.	A speck of nutmeg.
Rennet.	1½ ounces of butter.
1 ounce of sugar.	1 ounce of dried currants or small raisins.
Yolks of 2 eggs.

In the foregoing pages information has been summarized regarding the food value of cheese, an important agricultural product, and ways of preparing it for the table. It has been pointed out that, judged by the kind of nutrients it supplies—chiefly nitrogenous material and fat—and the proportion in which they are present, it resembles such foodstuffs as meat, fish, and eggs, which means that like them its rational use in the diet is in combination with other staple foods, to form well-balanced meals.

Experiments have shown that when eaten either raw or carefully cooked, cheese is as thoroughly digested as other staple foods and is not likely to produce physiological disturbance.

An ounce of cheese roughly is equivalent to 1 egg, to a glass of milk, or to 2 ounces of meat.

Although uncooked cheese resembles meat in composition, cheese dishes prepared after ordinary recipes, with milk and shortening, are likely to contain more fat than meat dishes prepared in the usual ways. When, therefore, such cheese dishes are served with other staple foods the combination is likely to contain more fat than the usual meal. If little fat is ordinarily used, this may be an advantage. If a great deal of fat is ordinarily used, it may be desirable to lessen the amount in the cheese dishes. This can readily be done by omitting the shortening and using skim milk or water in the preparation of such dishes, a change which also lessens their cost.

The fact that cheese, like meat, contains neither starch nor cellulose suggests that, like meat, it should be combined with bread, potatoes, and other starchy foods, with vegetables and with sweets. The concentrated character of cheese and many cheese dishes suggests the use of succulent fruits and vegetables with them. The high percentage of fat in cheese suggests the use of correspondingly small amounts of fat in the accompanying dishes, while the soft texture of cheese dishes as compared with meat makes it reasonable to serve the harder and crustier breads with them.

When cheese is not used as the chief nitrogenous food of a meal it may be introduced into bills of fare in many incidental ways, and thus add materially to that portion of the diet needed for building and repairing body tissue.

Though cheese is so generally used in some way in most families, yet the making of menus with cheese as a central dish is less well understood than more usual food combinations, since there is less experience to serve as a guide. More thought is therefore usually required to arrange such cheese meals in order that they may be palatable and at the same time reasonable in nutritive value.

In order that the diet may remain well balanced, cheese, if used in quantity, should replace foods of similar composition rather than supplement them. The builder who has a choice of materials must have a knowledge of their relative properties if he wishes to use stone instead of brick, or wood in place of iron. It is the same with the housekeeper who wishes to use her available food supply intelligently and whose choice of foods is influenced by their relative cost at a given time or season. The woman who has a knowledge of the relative food value of different articles of diet, and their real food qualities as distinguished from their market value, who understands good methods of cooking and serving foods, and who plans her meals and other housework so that unnecessary labor and expense may be avoided, is taking account of the things which make for economical living as well as for good living.

Some persons seem to believe that cheese or fish or other food is the ideal food for some particular circumstance and that there is a special food or diet suited to each kind of work and to every circumstance of our daily life, and that it would be a great advantage if we could regulate our daily fare with the accuracy a chemist uses in making an experiment. Work, recreation, the amount of clothing we wear, and other details of our daily life are not so regulated, and it is the belief of those who have studied the subject that the best interests of persons living under normal conditions are served if the ideal be rather the regulation of the diet along general lines in accordance with good sense, the teachings of experience, economy, and the available knowledge gained from a scientific study of the subject, due care being taken that the different staple foodstuffs are so combined that all the needs of the body are provided, excessive waste is prevented, and that both undernourishment and excess or overeating are avoided.

Dishes which are liked and the methods followed in preparing them will vary in different countries and at different times, yet this does not of necessity mean that the nutritive value of the diet varies correspondingly. In the same way it is possible for us to vary the selection of our foods and the character of our diet at will, according to the demands of our taste and our purse, without correspondingly changing its value for supplying the needs of the body. This means that the housekeeper, in suitable ways, can use cheese, meat, fish, eggs, and other foods of similar composition as substitutes for one another, being governed by their relative market value at different times and seasons, by the tastes of her family, and similar considerations. If she uses the different foodstuffs with reference to their nutritive value and is skillful in preparing foods in appetizing ways and in serving them in attractive combinations, the daily fare may be both adequate and pleasing, whether she selects cheese or meat or fish or eggs or other foods to supply nitrogenous material and fat. Here, as in all that pertains to housekeeping, true economy is dependent upon a knowledge of materials and skill in using them.

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