The Writer's Desk Book

CONTENTS

PUNCTUATION MARKS, ACCENTS, ETC.

,	Comma	¨	Dieresis
;	Semicolon	ç	Cedilla
:	Colon		Caret
.	Period	“ ”	Quotation-marks
?	Interrogation	{ }	Brace
!	Exclamation	* * *	Ellipsis
( )	Parentheses	. . .	Ellipsis, leaders
[ ]	Brackets	*	Asterisk
’	Apostrophe	†	Dagger
-	Hyphen	‡	Double dagger
´	Acute accent	§	Section
`	Grave accent	‖	Parallels
^	Circumflex accent	¶	Paragraph
~	Circumflex or tilde		Index
	Long or macron	* * *	Asterisks
	Short or breve

The Section-mark is derived from the first letters of the words signum sectionis, meaning sign of the section, the old-fashioned ∫ being used. The paragraph mark ¶ is the roman letter P reversed, with black and white interchanged.

PUNCTUATION — THE COMMA — The comma is required: — The comma is not required: — THE SEMICOLON — Use the semicolon: — THE COLON — Use the colon: — THE PERIOD — Use the period: — Do not use the period: — THE DASH — Use the dash: — THE EXCLAMATION — The exclamation-point is required: — THE INTERROGATION — QUOTATION-MARKS — Quote: — PARENTHESES — BRACKETS — Use brackets: — THE APOSTROPHE — THE HYPHEN

No one of the various punctuation marks should ever be used exclusively or to excess, for each one has some specific duty which it can perform better than any other. It is always wise to question why, in a given case, a punctuation mark should be put in rather than why it should be left out, for of the two evils an over-punctuated book is the more objectionable. “Close punctuation,” {4} characterized by the use of many commas, prevailed in the English of the eighteenth century and is today the best French usage, but “open punctuation,” which avoids the use of any point not clearly required by the construction, is now favored by the best English writers.

2. Between adjectives and adverbs when not connected by a conjunction: He possessed a calm, exasperating manner; but the comma may be omitted between two adjectives when the idea is close: e.g., A clear cold day. {5}

3. After adjectives and adverbs where three or more are used in succession: e.g., The man possessed a calm, cynical, exasperating manner.

4. In a succession of three or more words where the conjunctive and is used before the last one: e.g., He was tall, thin, and pale.

5. When the word after the conjunction is followed by an expression which qualifies that word alone: e.g.,

6. After inverted phrases and clauses: e.g., Discouraged by constant opposition, he resigned his position. Short phrases of similar nature do not require the comma: e.g., Of his intentions there could be no doubt.

7. To separate the adverbs however, now, then, too, perhaps, and indeed from the context when they are used as conjunctions: e.g., This idea, however, had not occurred to him. When these words are used as adverbs, the comma is not required: e.g., It must be done, however contrary it may be to our present advantage.

8. To separate parenthetical or intermediate expressions from the context: e.g., His intentions, though at first concealed, became obvious.

9. After the last word of a series composed of several words not connected by conjunctions: e.g., The men, the women, the children even, were up in arms. {6}

10. Between words or phrases in apposition with each other: e.g., I refer to Mr. Taylor, the father of Scientific Management. But when used as a single phrase or a compound name, no comma is required: e.g., The poet Tennyson was born in 1809.

11. Between the name of a person and his title or degree: e.g., Charles W. Eliot, President Emeritus; Woodrow Wilson, LL.D.

12. Between two independent clauses connected by a conjunction: e.g., The door was barricaded, but we managed to open it.

13. Between relative clauses which are explanatory of an antecedent, or which present an additional thought: e.g., Her voice, which was charming in her own drawing-room, was not powerful enough for a public auditorium. But relative clauses which limit the meaning of the antecedent (called restrictive) do not require the comma: e.g., He did that which he was obliged to do.

14. Between two clauses, one of which depends on the other, and usually introduced by if, when, unless, though, where, wherever, etc.: e.g., If we stand together, success is assured. If the clauses are closely connected both in sense and construction, the comma is not required: e.g., William was ten years old when his father moved to Boston.

15. In compound sentences, to separate the co-ordinate clause when closely related and simple in construction: e.g., He was {7} courteous, not cringing, to superiors; affable, not familiar, to equals; and kind, but not condescending, to inferiors.

16. To indicate an ellipsis: e.g., Price, seventy-five cents.

17. To separate vocative words or expressions from the context: e.g., I leave it, gentlemen, to your sense of right and wrong.

18. Before not, when introducing an antithetical clause: e.g., He devoted his attention to the matter before him, not because he was interested, but because he could not avoid the issue.

19. To separate similar or identical words, even though not required by the sense or grammatical construction: e.g., I tell you, you are wrong.

20. To separate two numbers: e.g., March 1, 1912; In 1911, 869 cases were reported.

21. To separate a quotation or similar brief expression from the preceding part of the sentence: e.g., To quote the proverb, “Look before you leap.”

22. Before the word of, connecting a proper name with residence or position: e.g., Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts.

23. After the salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter, when informal: e.g., My dear Mother, but, when formal, Gentlemen:

2. Before or after conjunctions when they are employed to connect two expressions in the same construction used as if belonging to the same part of speech: e.g., The new system of management guarantees accuracy in getting orders under way and promptness in completing them.

3. Before the conjunction too when placed at the end of a sentence: e.g., I hope that you will come too.

4. Where there are two or more words or phrases having a conjunction between each two: e.g., Lest he should be tempted and yield and thus be false.

5. After an adjective that describes or limits another adjective together with the noun following: e.g., He had on a pair of torn gray corduroy breeches.

6. When a pronoun is used with a noun for emphasis: e.g., Lafcadio Hearn himself could not have described the scene more vividly.

2. To connect successive sentences: e.g., His face never showed an emotion other than that which he wished to have seen there; the mouth was protected by his heavy mustache; his eyes penetrated the object on which they fixed themselves. Shorter sentences should be divided by commas.

3. Between expressions in a series which have a common dependence upon words at the beginning or end of a sentence: e.g., The half-sick man is a nuisance to his entire household: he is not ill enough to accept restraint; he is too ill to be reasonable.

4. To separate passages containing chapters in scriptural references: e.g., Matt. 1 : 4–8, 12, 16; chap. 3; 8 : 16. {10}

2. Between two members of a sentence when one or both are made up of two or more clauses divided by semicolons: e.g., Vallie was nervous in his temperment; the Captain was calm and self-contained: Vallie was the product of the city; the Captain was the product of the world.

3. Between a complete sentence and an additional clause enlarging upon the same idea without a conjunction: e.g., Imagination {11} is essential to business success: without imagination, plans for future development cannot intelligently be made.

4. Before particulars definitely stated: e.g., These new duties of the management are grouped under four heads: first, they develop a science for each element of a man’s work, etc.

5. Before formal quotations: e.g., In a recent speech attributed to you by the daily press, you are reported to have used these words: “Good principles follow good habits.”

6. After the formal salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter: e.g., Gentlemen:1 When less formality is desired, the comma may be used: e.g., My dear Mother,

7. Between the hours and minutes in indicating time: e.g., 11 : 30 A.M.

8. Between the chapter and verse in scriptural references: e.g., Matt. 1 : 4–8, 12, 16; chap. 3; 8 : 16.

9. Between the city of publication and the name of publisher in literary references: e.g., “The Adventures of Tom Sawyer” (New York: Harpers).

2. To set off decimal numbers from whole numbers.

3. After every complete sentence unless the sentence is interrogative or exclamatory.

4. To indicate an ellipsis, repeating the mark three or more times separated by spaces: e.g., . . .

2. After cut-in side-notes.

3. After centered head-lines.

4. After box-heads in tables.

5. After legends beneath illustrations.

6. After subheads set in separate lines.

7. After date-lines at the top of letters.

8. After signatures at the end of letters.

9. At end of lines in display composition, such as titles,2 blocked headings, etc.

10. After roman numerals, even though they possess the value of ordinals: e.g., Vol. VIII; George V is king of England.

2. To connect extreme dates in specifying periods of time: e.g., 1912–1918.

3. When the sentence is abruptly terminated: e.g., “If he is alive, I can make him one from this time; and if — if —”

4. To secure rhetorical emphasis: e.g., We are ready — we are more than ready to meet the issue.

5. To define verse references in the Bible: e.g., Matt. 1 : 4–8; or to indicate page references in a book: e.g., See pp. 21–42.

6. Between short, snappy sentences to increase the speed of the discourse: e.g., Hullo! ho! the whole world’s asleep! — bring out the horses, — grease the wheels, — tie on the mail!

7. Between the subject-matter and its authority.

8. To indicate the omission of letters: e.g., Mrs. B——.

9. At the end of a series of phrases which depend upon a concluding clause: e.g., Courtesy and attention, patience and judgment, accuracy and carefulness — these are but a few of the elements which constitute successful business relations. {14}

10. To precede expressions which are added to an apparently completed sentence, but which refer to some previous part of the sentence: e.g., The question of hearing was seriously troubling the minister — they probably had heard too much.

¶ Dashes may be substituted for commas or marks of parenthesis before and after expressions having closer connection with the main sentence than could be indicated by marks of parenthesis: e.g., They might have been talking for a quarter of an hour or more, when Monks — by which name the Jew had designated the strange man — said, etc.

¶ Use the dash preceded by the colon before a long quotation forming a new paragraph. The dash is not otherwise used with other punctuation marks unless demanded by clearness.

¶ In France, printers use the dash as a frequent substitute for quotation-marks in dialogue, placing quotation-marks only at the beginning and the end, even though extended over several pages.

2. To indicate sarcasm or doubt on the part of the writer regarding the authenticity of a statement: e.g., “For Brutus is an honorable man !”

3. After exclamatory words. If the same interjection is repeated use the comma to separate the words, placing the exclamation-point only at the end, unless the intention is to make each of the repeated words emphatic: e.g., “Oh ! dear, dear, dear !” he exclaimed; “what an unfortunate memory you have !”

¶ Use great care in distinguishing between Oh !, an interjection expressing pain or surprise, and the vocative O, expressing a wish or an imprecation, which does not call for the exclamation-point: e.g., “Oh ! what damned minutes tells he o’er !” and “O that I had wings like a dove !”

1. Every sentence containing a direct question should close with an interrogation-point: e.g., When can this order be shipped ? We have received a letter which asks, “What date can you give us for shipping these goods ?”

2. The interrogation-point is used to express doubt: e.g., This volume is said to be bound in real ( ?) morocco.

3. Indirect questions do not take the interrogation-point: e.g., He inquired when it would be ready.

2. When a quotation of a passage from an author in his own words is run into the text it should be placed between quotation-marks.

3. Selections from different works by the same author, or from different authors, following each other without intervening original matter, or by reference to their sources, should be quoted.

4. When setting poetry the quotation-marks should overhang the beginning of the line. This should also be done when prose display matter is “blocked.”

5. Single quotes are used for quotations {17} within quotations; double quotes for quotations within single quotations.

6. Quotations should always include the phrase etc., and other ellipses whenever necessary to secure perfect clearness.

7. When a long quotation is made, including several paragraphs or verses, the quotation-mark should appear at the beginning of each paragraph, but at the end of the last one only.

2. Words or phrases in the text which are intended by the writer to possess an unusual, technical, or ironical meaning: e.g., Her literary “salon” will long be remembered; This so-called “captain of industry.”

3. Titles of poems, books, etc.: e.g., Longfellow’s “Belfry of Bruges.”

4. Serial titles: e.g., the “Oriental Series,” “Stories of Nations.”

5. Words to which the writer desires to attract attention: e.g., The name of “Florence” immediately causes one to think of humanism.

6. The names of ships, unless directed to italicize them.

7. The titles of works of art: e.g., Raphael’s “Sistine Madonna.” {18}

2. Figures or letters used to mark divisions in enumerations should be placed between parentheses: e.g., There is a double reason for doing this: (a) it is the simplest form; (b) it is clearer for the reader.

2. Rather than parentheses, to enclose drop-folios (folios placed at foot of page).

3. For enclosing parenthetical statements within parentheses.

1. To form the possessive case of common and proper nouns: e.g., The nation’s {19} hope; For Jesus’ sake; James’s apple; For appearance’ sake; The boys’ camp.

2. To form the plural of numerals, but the apostrophe alone for the plural of polysyllabic proper nouns ending in a sibilant: e.g., They passed by in two’s and four’s; She is one of those W.C.T.U.’s; That came from Perkins’. Add es or s for monosyllabic proper nouns: e.g., The Fosses. In general, the pronunciation may be taken as a guide: if it is necessary to add a syllable to pronounce the possessive, use the double s: e.g., Sickles’ corps, not Sickles’s.

3. Use the apostrophe to indicate the omission of one or more letters in a contracted word, or the omission of figures in a number: e.g., That’s ’ow ’twas; The spirit of ’76; High o’er our heads; I’ll for I will; Don’t for do not, sha’n’t, etc.

4. The custom of substituting the apostrophe for the letter e in poetry, at one time common, is now obsolete: e.g., At ev’ry word a reputation dies. This rule is disregarded when the letter is omitted for metrical reasons.

CAPITALIZATION — RELIGIOUS TERMS — Capitalize: — Do not capitalize: — PROPER NAMES — Capitalize: — Do not capitalize: — TITLES — Capitalize: — Do not capitalize: — INSTITUTIONAL TERMS — Capitalize: — Do not capitalize: — REFERENCES — Capitalize: — Do not capitalize: — ORDINALS — Capitalize: — IN GENERAL — Capitalize: — Do not capitalize: — SMALL CAPITALS

2. The books and divisions of the Bible and of other sacred books: e.g., Old Testament, Book of Job, etc.

3. Versions of the Bible: e.g., King James Version, Revised Version, etc.

4. The names of monastic orders and their members: e.g., the Jesuits, the Black Friars, etc.

5. The word Church when it stands for the Church universal, or when part of a name: e.g., the Church, the First Congregational Church, the Church of Rome; but use lower case when referring to church history.

6. The word Gospel when it refers to a book of the Bible, as the Gospel of John, or {21} the Gospels; but use lower case when referring to the gospel message.

7. Pronouns referring to God or Christ when used in direct address, or whenever the reference might otherwise be mistaken.

8. General biblical terms: e.g., Priestly Code, Apostles’ Creed, Lord’s Prayer, Lord’s Supper, The Prophets, and Major and Minor Prophets, when the collection of prophetical books is intended; but use lower case for the adjectives biblical and scriptural.

9. Names applied to the Evil One, except when used as an expletive, or as a general name for any demon: e.g.,

10. The word Holy in the Holy place and the Holy of holies.

11. The title of a psalm: e.g., the Twenty-fourth Psalm.

2. Words like heaven, heavenly, hell.

3. The words fatherhood and sonship, god when a pagan deity is referred to, temple.

2. The words Pilgrim Fathers and Early Fathers (referring to the Early Church), etc.

3. The word Revolutionary when referring to the Revolution of 1776: e.g., a Revolutionary soldier.

4. The words river, creek, brook, mountain, mine, district, county, channel, when used as a part of a title: e.g., Hudson River, Clear Brook, Rocky Mountains; but use lower case when preceded by the: e.g., the Hudson river, etc.

5. Nouns designating definite geographical portions of the country or divisions of the world: e.g., the North, the South, the West, the Old World; and in the division of the Jewish Commonwealth, the Northern Kingdom, the Southern Kingdom. Also capitalize the adjectival nouns derived from them: e.g., Northerner, Southerner, Oriental, {23} Occidental. Use lower case for adjectives: e.g., He is now in southern California, etc.

6. Abstract ideas or terms when personified; e.g., Pride flaunts herself; Nature gives willingly of her abundance.

7. Names of streets, squares, parks, buildings, etc.: e.g., Beacon Street, Copley Square, Franklin Park, Tremont Building, etc.

8. Abbreviations of names of corporations and firms: e.g., N.Y.C. & H.R.R.R.

9. The abbreviation Co. (Company) in firm or corporation names.

10. The scientific names of divisions, orders, families, and genera in all botanical, geological, or zoölogical copy: e.g., Ichneumon Fly (Thalessa lunator), Reptilia, Vertebrata, etc.

11. The days of the week and the months of the year, but use lower case for the seasons, unless personified or referred to specifically: e.g., It was a bright spring day; but, Spring, beautiful Spring; the Spring of 1911, etc.

12. The popular names of the bodies of the solar system (except sun, moon, stars, earth): e.g., the Dipper, the Milky Way, Venus, etc.

13. In botanical and zoölogical copy, the names of species if derived from proper names or from generic names, but in geological and medical matter use lower case for the names of species, even though derived from proper names: e.g., Clover-root Borer, Hylesinus trifolii, Pterygomatopus schmidti. {24}

2. Nouns and adjectives when they merely fix a point of the compass: e.g., He came from the north, western New York, upper Canada, etc.

3. The words father, mother, mamma, and all other family appellations, except when used with the proper name of the person or without a possessive pronoun: e.g., I expect to meet my mother, but, I have received a telegram from Mother; My aunt gave me this, but, It is a present from Aunt Mary.

2. The words Federal, Government, Constitution, Cabinet, Administration when they refer to United States Government, and President when referring to the President of the United States.

3. All titles of honor, nobility, and respect: e.g., His Excellency, Her Majesty, Father William, Mother Hubbard, Cousin John, Deacon Smith.

4. Civil and military titles when they are used specifically: e.g., President Taft, King George, the Governor, General Grant, etc.; but do not capitalize the titles of offices actually existing when following the name: e.g., William H. Taft, president of the United States.

5. The names of societies: e.g., Young People’s Society of Christian Endeavor, Boston Congregational Club, Second Church Parish.

6. Names of expositions, conventions, etc.: e.g., Brockton Fair, Congress of Physiology, etc.

7. Abbreviations of degrees: e.g., Ph.D., LL.D., Litt.D., omitting space between the letters.

8. Such titles as von, in German, le, la, du, de, or d’, in French, da, della, di, or de’, etc., in Italian, when the forename is not given: e.g., Von Humboldt, Da Ponte; but when the article or preposition is preceded by {26} a forename the title should not be capitalized: e.g., Lorenzo de’ Medici. Van in Dutch is always capitalized.

9. After Whereas and Resolved, followed by a comma, begin the first word with a capital; e.g., WHEREAS, It has pleased Almighty God . . . ; therefore be it Resolved, That . . .

10. After a colon, capitalize the first word only when followed by a complete independent sentence or passage or where preceded by such introductory phrases as namely, as follows, for instance, the point is this, my conclusion is this, etc.

11. In titles of books or essays all words except unimportant adjectives, prepositions, and conjunctions: e.g., The Fall of the House of Usher.

2. The words apostle, pope, bishop, canon, rector, chaplain, minister, etc., when separated from names or used descriptively: e.g., the apostle Paul; but in direct address they should be capitalized: e.g., “O Apostle Paul.”

2. The word College or University only when part of the title: e.g., Amherst College, Harvard University.

3. Political alliances and terms which have acquired similar significance: e.g., the Dreibund, the Insurgents.

4. Titles of treaties, laws, and acts: e.g., the Treaty of Portsmouth, the Declaration of Independence, the Edict of Nantes.

5. Names of political parties: e.g., Republican, Democrat, etc.; but use lower case for republican form of government, a true democrat, etc., where reference is not made to members of political parties.

6. Names and epithets of races, tribes, and peoples: e.g., Hottentots, Celestials, etc.; but use lower case for negro, colored people, the blacks, the whites, poor whites, etc.

7. Generic parts of names of political divisions (a) when the term is an organic part of the name, directly following the proper name: e.g., the Russian Empire, Norfolk County, etc.; (b) when it is used with the preposition of as an integral part of the name indicating administrative subdivisions of the United States: e.g., Commonwealth of Massachusetts; (c) when it is used singly as designation for a specific division: e.g., the Dominion (of Canada), the Union; (d) when it is used as part of an appellation as though {28} a real geographical name: e.g., the Pine Tree State, the Promised Land; but use lower case for such terms when standing alone or preceding the specific name: e.g., the empire of Germany, the county of Norfolk.

8. Numbered political divisions: e.g., Ward Eleven, Fifth Precinct, Eleventh Congressional District, etc.

2. The words high school, grammar school, except as part of title: e.g., the Dorchester High School; but the high school of Dorchester.

2. The words I and O.

3. The first word after a colon when introducing a sentence having an independent meaning: e.g., My explanation is: Competition forces each manufacturer to study economies.

4. Words having special meanings: e.g., the Referee’s decision, a Bachelor’s degree.

5. The first word of every direct quotation.

6. In side-heads capitalize only the first word and proper names.

7. In a letter, the first word after the address. In the address, sir, friend, father, brother, sister, etc.

2. Units of measurement and their {30} abbreviations: e.g., second, minute, hour, ounce, pound, foot, yard, etc.

3. The first word of a quotation following a colon (a) if it is closely connected with what precedes it; (b) if the phrase is dependent upon the preceding clause; or (c) if the words following the colon contain comment: e.g., These explanations occur to me: either the manufacturers are unaware of the situation, or they have become indifferent.

4. The definite article as a part of the title in mentioning newspapers or magazines: e.g., the Boston Herald, the Review of Reviews.

¶ When a date is at the end of a letter or paper, it is to be placed at the left of page, using roman caps and lower case if above signature; caps, small caps, and italic if below signature.

¶ On title-pages and in headings certain words may be capitalized which in paragraphed matter would be made lower case: e.g., Queen Maria Sophia, a Forgotten Heroine.

¶ In MS., two lines drawn underneath a word or words indicate SMALL CAPITALS; three lines, CAPITALS.

SPELLING — NUMBERS — DIPHTHONGS — SIMPLE RULES OF ORTHOGRAPHY — ACCENTED WORDS — PARTICIPLES — VARIABLE ENDINGS

With this as a basis, the following rules may be formulated:

2. Spell out references to specific decades: e.g., Back in the eighties.

3. Spell out years and months in stating ages: e.g., Edward is five years and four months old.

4. Spell out numbers of centuries, dynasties, military bodies, streets and thoroughfares, sessions of Congress.

5. In statistical or technical matter figures should be used: e.g., The paper to be used is 33 × 44 inches, and weighs 120 pounds to the ream.

6. Spell out, in ordinary reading matter, all numbers of less than three digits: e.g., We have twenty-five titles, amounting to 250,000 volumes in all.

7. If, in a group of numbers, some consist of three digits and others of less, use figures for all: e.g., The packages contain, respectively, 50, 85, and 128 sheets, not fifty, eighty-five, and 128.

8. Spell out round numbers, but use figures for specific, even though approximate statements: e.g., The population of the United States is about one hundred millions; but, The population of the United States is 92,000,000.

9. Always spell out a figure, whatever its size, when it begins a sentence. If for any reason this is impracticable the sentence must be reconstructed.

10. In ordinary reading matter spell out the time of day, but in enumerations, and {33} always in connection with A.M. and P.M., use figures, omitting the word o’clock: e.g., The doors open at 7:30 P.M.

2. Monosyllabic words which end in consonants other than f, l, or s do not double their final letter. Exceptions: abb, add, ebb, odd, mumm, inn, bunn, err, purr, burr, butt, mitt, fizz, fuzz, buzz.

3. Monosyllabic words ending in a consonant immediately following a diphthong or a double vowel do not double their final letter. Exception: guess.

4. In monosyllables and words accented on the final syllable ending with a single consonant (excepting h or x) preceded by a single vowel, or by qu and a vowel, the final consonant is doubled before an added {34} termination beginning with a vowel, irrespective of the addition of another syllable: e.g., stop, stopped; regret, regretting. When, however, the place of the accent is changed by the added termination, the final consonant is not doubled: e.g., prefer´, pref´erable.

5. In monosyllables and words not accented on the last syllable, an added termination does not double the final consonant when it is preceded by a diphthong or by two vowels: e.g., profit, profited; cancel, canceled; benefit, benefited; equal, equality, novel, novelist, and all the derivatives of parallel.

6. Words which end in any double letters retain the double with a termination not beginning with the same letter. This rule also holds for derivatives formed by means of prefixes: e.g., agreeing, calling, recall. Exceptions: instalment, enrolment, skilful, wilful, enthralment, pontific, withal, until, and similar derivatives.

7. Words ending in -our, the u being unsounded, are spelled -or, with the exception of Saviour and glamour. The English custom is to retain the -our in most words having this ending.

8. Words derived from words ending in silent e after a consonant retain the e when the added termination begins with a consonant: e.g., state, statement, stately; pale, paleness; move, movement. Exceptions: abridgment, {35} acknowledgment, judgment, lodgment, nursling, wholly, wisdom.

When another vowel (except e or i) immediately precedes the final e, the final e is usually dropped before a consonant: e.g., argue, argument; awe, awful; true, truly, etc. There are, however, many exceptions to this rule: e.g., eye, eyesight, etc.

When the termination begins with a vowel, the final e is omitted: e.g., sale, salable; bride, bridal; force, forcible. Exceptions: mileage, etc.

9. When words end in ce or ge the final e is retained before added terminations beginning with a or o: e.g., change, changeable; courage, courageous.

10. In participles the final e is sometimes retained for the purpose of distinguishing them from other words pronounced the same but having a different meaning: e.g., singe, singeing, to distinguish from singing; dye, dyeing, to distinguish from dying, etc. The e is also retained in hoeing, toeing, and shoeing.3

11. Words ending in ie change their termination to y upon adding ing: e.g., die, dying; vie, vying.

12. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant change the y to i before any added termination not beginning with i: e.g., {36} merry, merriment; happy, happiness. Exceptions: adjectives of one syllable: e.g., dry, dryly; sly, slyness. Also except derivatives formed by adding ship and hood: e.g., suretyship, babyhood; but hardihood.

When the final y is preceded by a vowel, the y is usually changed to i: e.g., gay, gaiety; day, daily; pay, paid; lay, laid, etc.

13. The French ending -re in theater, center, meager, sepulcher, etc., is not now generally considered good usage.

14. The possessive of proper nouns ending in s or other sibilant is formed by adding the apostrophe and s if the word is of one syllable: e.g., James’s apple; but add the apostrophe alone if the word is of more than one syllable: e.g., For Jesus’ sake.4

15. Words which in their shortest form end in -d, -de, -ge, -mit, -rt, -se, -ss take the ending -sion: e.g., abscind, abscission; seclude, seclusion; emerge, emersion; admit, admission; revert, reversion; confuse, confusion; impress, impression. Other words take the ending -tion.5

• attaché
• chargé d’affaires
• confrère
• coup d’état
• coup de grâce
• crèche
• débris
• en arrière
• en échelon
• en règle
• entrée
• entrepôt
• exposé
• façade
• faïence
• habitué
• lèse majesté
• matériel
• matinée
• mêlée
• née
• papier-maché
• procès verbal
• protégé
• régime
• résumé
• rôle
• señor
• soirée
• tête-à-tête
• vis-à-vis
• visé

• acknowledging
• agreeing
• awing
• bluing
• dyeing
• encouraging
• gluing
• grudging
• hieing
• hoeing
• icing
• judging
• owing
• shoeing
• singeing
• tingeing
• trudging
• truing

• aggrandize
• agonize
• analyze
• anatomize
• anglicize
• apologize
• apostrophize
• apprize (to value)
• authorize
• baptize
• brutalize
• canonize
• catechize
• catholicize
• cauterize
• centralize
• characterize
• christianize
• civilize
• colonize
• criticize
• crystallize
• demoralize
• dogmatize
• economize
• emphasize
• epitomize
• equalize
• eulogize
• evangelize
• extemporize
• familiarize
• fertilize
• fossilize
• fraternize
• galvanize
• generalize
• gormandize
• harmonize
• immortalize
• italicize
• jeopardize
• legalize
• liberalize
• localize
• magnetize
• memorialize
• mesmerize
• metamorphize
• methodize
• minimize
• modernize
• monopolize
• moralize
• nationalize
• naturalize
• neutralize
• organize
• ostracize
• paralyze
• particularize
• pasteurize
• patronize
• philosophize
• plagiarize
• pulverize
• realize
• recognize
• reorganize
• revolutionize
• satirize
• scandalize
• scrutinize
• signalize
• solemnize
• soliloquize
• specialize
• spiritualize
• standardize
• stigmatize
• subsidize
• summarize
• syllogize
• symbolize
• sympathize
• tantalize
• temporize
• tranquilize
• tyrannize
• universalize
• utilize
• vaporize
• vitalize
• vocalize
• vulcanize
• vulgarize

2. The following words are spelled with the termination ise:

• advertise
• advise
• appraise
• apprise (to inform)
• arise
• chastise
• circumcise
• comprise
• compromise
• demise
• devise
• disfranchise
• disguise
• emprise
• enfranchise
• enterprise
• exercise
• exorcise
• franchise
• improvise
• incise
• manuprise
• merchandise
• premise
• reprise
• revise
• rise
• supervise
• surmise
• surprise

3. The following words have the termination -ible; words not included in this list {39} end in -able6, except a few words pronounced similarly, but spelled differently.

• accessible
• admissible
• appetible
• apprehensible
• audible
• cessible
• coercible
• compatible
• competible
• comprehensible
• compressible
• conceptible
• contemptible
• contractible
• controvertible
• convertible
• convincible
• corrigible
• corrosible
• corruptible
• credible
• decoctible
• deducible
• defeasible
• defensible
• descendible
• destructible
• digestible
• discernible
• distensible
• divisible
• docible
• edible
• effectible
• eligible
• eludible
• enforcible
• evincible
• expansible
• expressible
• extendible
• extensible
• fallible
• feasible
• fencible
• flexible
• forcible
• francible
• fusible
• gullible
• horrible
• illegible
• immiscible
• impassible7
• intelligible
• irascible
• legible
• miscible
• negligible
• partible
• passible7
• perceptible
• permissible
• persuasible
• pervertible
• plausible
• possible
• productible
• reducible
• reflexible
• refrangible
• remissible
• reprehensible
• resistible
• responsible
• reversible
• revertible
• risible
• seductible
• sensible
• tangible
• terrible
• transmissible
• visible

4. These are the irregular forms of the endings -sion and -tion.

• adhesion
• assertion
• attention
• coercion
• cohesion
• crucifixion
• declension
• dimension
• dissension
• distortion
• divulsion
• expulsion
• impulsion
• insertion
• intention
• occasion
• propulsion
• recursion
• repulsion
• revulsion
• scansion
• suspicion
• tension
• version

5. The following words are pronounced similarly, but the meaning changes with the spelling:

COMPOUND WORDS — Use the hyphen: — Do not use the hyphen:

¶ In general, hyphens should always be omitted when the meaning can be equally well expressed by using the same words separately. {46}

2. When two or more words (except proper names which form a unity in themselves) are combined, preceding a noun: e.g., the well-known financier, up-to-date equipment, go-as-you-please race; but a quaint old English tea-room.

In applying this rule be careful not to hyphenate adjectives and participles with adverbs which end in ly, nor with combinations such as those referred to when following a noun or qualifying a predicate: e.g., possessed of highly developed intelligence, a lawyer well thought of in his own city.

3. In such words as attorney-general, vice-president, rear-admiral, etc.; but not in viceroy, vicegerent, etc.

4. Compounds of color: e.g., olive-green, silver-gray, lemon-yellow, red-hot, etc. But in simple cases of adjective and noun, as brownish yellow or yellowish white the words are not compounded.

5. In nouns which stand in objective relation to each other, one of whose components is derived from a transitive verb: e.g., I am your well-wisher, He is a large property-holder, hero-worship, but not in bookkeeper, bookmaker, copyholder, dressmaker, lawgiver, proofreader, {47} taxpayer, and similar common short compounds.8

6. In compounds of fellow: e.g., play-fellow, fellow-creatures, etc.; but bedfellow.

7. In compounds of father, mother, brother, sister, daughter, parent, and foster: e.g., father-feeling, mother-country, brother-love, sister-empire, foster-father, great-grandfather, etc.; but fatherland, fatherhead, grandfather.

8. In compounds of world and life: e.g., life-story, world-influence, etc.; but lifetime.

9. In compounds of master: e.g., master-painter, etc.; but masterpiece.

10. In compounds of god: e.g., sun-god, rain-god, etc.; but godson.

11. When half or quarter, etc., is combined with a noun: e.g., half-circle, half-title, quarter-mile, etc.; but quartermaster, headquarters, etc.

12. In compounds of self: e.g., self-esteem, self-respecting, etc., but not in selfhood, selfish, selfsame, or oneself.

13. In connecting ex, vice, general, elect, etc., constituting parts of titles, with the chief noun: e.g., ex-Governor Draper, Governor-elect Wilson, etc.

14. In compounds of by: e.g., by-laws, by-products, etc.

15. In connection with prefixes co, pre, and re when followed by words beginning with the same vowel as that in which they terminate, but not when followed by a {48} different vowel or a consonant: e.g., co-operation, but coeducation; pre-empted, but prearranged; re-elected, but recast. Exceptions: combinations with proper names, long or unusual formations, and words where the hyphen defines the meaning: e.g., re-creation and recreation, re-form and reform, re-collect and recollect, pre-Raphaelite.

16. In writing ordinal numbers when compounded with such words as first-rate, second-hand, etc.

17. In connection with the word quasi prefixed to a noun or to an adjective: e.g., quasi-corporation, quasi-compliant, etc.

18. In connection with the Latin prepositions extra, infra, semi, supra, and ultra: e.g., extra-hazardous but extraordinary; ultra-conservative but Ultramontane.

19. In spelling out fractional numbers involving more than two words: e.g., The supply is three-quarters exhausted; but, This leaves twenty-five hundredths.

20. In compounding numerals of one syllable with self-explanatory words of various meanings: e.g., three-legged, four-footed, one-armed, etc.

Also in combining numerals with nouns, to form an adjective: e.g. twelve-inch rule, hundred-yard dash, two-horse team, etc.

21. In compounding a noun in the possessive case with another noun: e.g., jews’-harp, crow’s-nest, etc. {49}

22. In some compounds with tree: e.g., apple-tree; but whippletree, crosstree, etc.

23. In compounding personal epithets: e.g., hard-headed, bow-legged, etc.

24. Use the hyphen in the following words:

• after-years
• bas-relief
• birth-rate
• blood-feud
• blood-relations
• common-sense
• cross-examine
• cross-reference
• cross-section
• death-rate
• feast-day
• folk-song
• food-stuff
• fountain-head
• guinea-pig
• horse-power
• page-proof
• pay-roll
• poor-law
• post-office
• sea-level
• sense-perception
• son-in-law
• subject-matter
• man-of-war
• object-lesson
• thought-process
• title-page
• wave-length
• well-being
• well-nigh
• will-power

2. In words ending in like, unless compounded with nouns containing more than one syllable (except when ending in l): e.g., childlike, lifelike; but business-like, bell-like, etc.

3. In compounds ending with man or woman: e.g., workman, needlewoman, etc.

4. In phrases such as by and by, by the bye, good morning, attorney at law, coat of arms, etc.

5. In words ending in boat, house, look, room, side, yard, shop, mill, field, work, chair, maker, holder, keeper, skin, store, book, fold, score, penny, pence when the prefixed noun {50} contains but a single syllable: e.g., twofold, schoolroom, handbook, windmill, bookkeeper, workshop, etc. Exceptions: Court-house and State House.

When prefixed noun contains two syllables, use the hyphen: e.g., bucket-shop, twenty-fold, ante-room, mason-work, paper-mill, etc.9

When prefixed noun contains three or more syllables write as two separate words: e.g., policy shop.

6. In compounds of bi, tri, semi, or demi: e.g., bimonthly, tricolor, semiannual, demijohn. Exceptions: long or unusual formations: e.g., bi-centennial, etc.

7. In today,10 tonight, tomorrow, viewpoint, or standpoint.

8. In connection with the negative prefixes un, in, and a: e.g., unrepublican, inanimate, etc., but the prefix non requires the hyphen except in words which have become common: e.g., non-conductor, but nonsense.

9. In connection with the words over and under employed as prefixes: e.g., overestimate, undersecretary; but over-soul, over-spiritual, under-man.

10. In connection with the Latin prepositions ante, anti, inter, intra, post, sub, and super: e.g., antedate, antidote, subtitle, etc.; but ante-room, anti-imperialistic, intra-atomic. {51}

11. In spelling out a series of fractions: e.g., I can secure you one, two, or three fifths, not one-, two-, or three-fifths.

Nor in writing ordinary fractions: e.g., one half, five eighths, etc.

But another class of fractions require the hyphen: e.g., twenty-fifth, twenty-two one-hundredths.

12. In compounds ending with holder or monger: e.g., stockholder, ironmonger.

13. In compounds beginning with eye: e.g., eyeglass, eyebrow, eyelash, eyewitness, etc.

14. In compounds with the word school: e.g., schoolmates, schoolmaster, etc. Exceptions: when made with a participle: e.g., school-teaching; or in combinations where separate words are more clear: e.g., school committee, school children, etc.

15. In compounds with deutero, electro, pseudo, sulpho, thermo, etc., unless the compound is unusual: e.g., electrotype, pseudonym, etc.

16. In compound adverbs: e.g., meantime, moreover, forever, everywhere, etc. But in phrases like after a while, in the mean time, for ever and ever, the words should be separated.

17. In words like anybody, anyhow, anything, anyway, anywhere, somebody, somehow, something, sometime, somewhat, somewhere. But any one and some one are written as separate words.

DIVISION OF WORDS

2. A word should be divided in accordance with its natural division in correct pronunciation, rather than according to derivation: e.g., knowl-edge, not know-ledge; but divide according to meaning and derivation as far as is compatible with good spacing and pronunciation: e.g., dis-pleasure, not displeas-ure.

3. A single consonant between two vowels should be joined with the first vowel if short, but with the latter if long: e.g., riv-er, ri-val; but avoid dividing words as short as these if possible.

4. When two consonants come together between two vowels the consonants should be divided: e.g., mil-lion, struc-ture.

5. When three consonants come together between two vowels the first of which is short, all which can be pronounced together go with the last syllable: e.g., han-dle, chil-dren, frus-trate, etc.

6. Whenever practicable, and always when the pronunciation of a word is peculiar, the division should come upon the vowel: e.g., pro-duct, colo-nel, sepa-rate, peo-ple, pro-gress. {53}

Exceptions: words ending in -able and -ible, which should carry the vowel over into the next line.

7. The letters c and g must never be separated from the vowels e, i, and y upon which their soft sound depends: e.g., re-li-gion, ca-pa-ci-ty, etc.

8. X must never begin a syllable, j must never end one, and q must not be separated from u, which invariably follows it.

9. When used as terminations, ing, en, ed, er, est, and the plural es are considered as syllables, except when the preceding consonant is doubled, or when they follow c or g soft: e.g., speak-ing, tak-en, long-er; but lat-ter, for-cing, ran-ging.

10. Two-letter divisions should always be avoided. These words should never be divided: eleven, heaven, power, faster, finer, houses, given, flower, prayer, soften, liken, verses, listen, often, voyage, nothing, even, etc.

11. When a derivative word ends in t, the t is carried over when the accent changes: e.g., instinc-tive (instinct); but not otherwise: e.g., construct-ive (construct).

12. More than two divisions in successive lines should be avoided.

13. A division at the end of the last full line of a paragraph should be avoided.

14. A word of four letters is not divisible. Dividing words of five or six letters should be avoided if possible. {54}

15. An amount that is stated in figures should not be divided.

16. A word in the past tense, pronounced as one syllable, should not be divided: e.g., beamed.

17. The separation of two initials of a person’s name, or such combination as B.C., A.M., should be avoided.

18. A divided word that will appear on the last line of one page and the top line of the next page is to be avoided.

19. Separating a divisional mark (a) or (b) from the matter to which it pertains should be avoided.

20. Adjectives ending in -ical should be divided upon the i: e.g., musi-cal, not music-al or mu-sical.

21. Word endings -tion, -sion, -tial, -cial, -tive, etc., are treated as one syllable.

22. In compound words additional hyphens should be avoided: e.g., music-lesson, not music-les-son.

Keep prefixes, roots, suffixes, etc., as distinct as possible.

NOTE. Division of words in French, Italian, German, and Spanish, may be found in De Vinne’s “Correct Composition,” pp. 434–446.

INDENTION AND PARAGRAPHING — PARAGRAPHING

2. When paragraphs are numbered, the figure should be written where the capital letter of the first word would otherwise be placed.

3. In poetry, lines which overrun should be written with reverse indention.

4. When poetry is quoted in a prose composition, it should begin on a new line. If the continuation of the prose writing does not call for a new paragraph, the next line of prose text begins without indention.

5. When a prose quotation is introduced, it should be treated as in Rule 4 if it contains more than a single sentence; otherwise it is “run in,” with the proper quotation-marks and punctuation.

6. There are different forms of indention in typography which are used for different purposes, viz.:

Irregular indention.— For this form of in­den­tion there are no spec­i­fied rules, and it is used prin­ci­pal­ly in cer­tain styles of po­et­ry and in dis­play work. {56}

En échelon indention is largely used for dis­play in post­ers and ad­ver­tise­ments. It con­sists in the di­ag­o­nal ar­range­ment of words, thus:

CARPETS

CHAIRS

TABLES

STOVES

Hanging indention, which makes the first line of full width and in­dents all the fol­low­ing lines one or more ems on the left, as shown in these four lines.

Lozenge in­den­tion re­quires an ar­range­ment of the lines in this manner:

1. A sentence which continues the topic of the sentence which precedes it rather than introduces a new topic should never begin a paragraph.

2. Each paragraph should possess a single central topic, to which all the statements in the paragraph should relate. The introduction of a single statement not so related to the central topic violates the unity.

3. A sentence or short passage may be detached from the paragraph to which it properly belongs if the writer wishes particularly to emphasize it.

4. For ease in reading, a passage which exceeds three hundred words in length may be broken into two paragraphs, even though no new topic has been developed.

5. Any digression from the central topic, or any change in the viewpoint in {58} considering the central topic, demands a new paragraph.

6. Coherence in a paragraph requires a natural and logical order of development.

7. Smoothness of diction in a paragraph calls for the intelligent use of proper connective words between closely related sentences. A common fault, however, is the incorrect use of such words as and or but between sentences which are not closely related.

8. In developing the paragraph, emphasis is secured by a careful consideration of the relative values of the ideas expressed, giving to each idea space proportionate to its importance to the whole. This secures the proper climax.

9. The paragraph, like the composition itself, should possess clearness, unity, coherence, and emphasis. It is a group of related sentences, developing a central topic. Its length depends upon the length of the composition and upon the number of topics to be discussed.

SPACING

2. The spaces in a line should never vary more than the difference between a three to em space and an en quad.11

3. Uniformity in appearance shows excellence in printing. To have one line thin-spaced and the next wide-spaced is in bad taste. Even in narrow measure this inequality can be avoided with proper care.

4. In fonts of type where ends of hyphens and dashes touch the adjoining letters, hair-spaces should be used. Also use hair-spaces before colons, semicolons, interrogation-points, exclamation-marks, and inside quotation-marks.

5. No space should be left between superior letters, or letters indicating powers, and inferior figures or letters; or between letters forming products.

6. No space should be left between the abbreviations A.D. and B.C., A.M. and P.M., between titles, such as LL.D., Ph.D., etc., or between the abbreviations of States, such {60} as N.Y., R.I., N.H., etc., except in a wide-spaced line.

7. Scripture references should be spaced as follows: II Sam. 1 : 2–6; 2 : 8–12.

8. No space should be left between the symbols $ and £ and the succeeding figures.

9. An indention of one or more ems should be allowed at the end of the last line of a paragraph.

10. The same space should be left on each side of short words, such as a, an, etc.

11. It is poor typography to thin-space or wide-space a line in order to avoid a turn-over.

12. Beginning and ending a line with the same word in wide measure should be avoided, but not at the expense of good spacing.

13. The kerned letters f and j require a hair-space before them when they begin a line. When kerned letters end a line a hair-space is necessary after them to prevent breaking off in printing.

14. Should wide spacing be necessary, it should occur where it will be least noticed; viz., between words ending or beginning with tall letters.

ITALIC — Italic is used:

1. Italic is not used for the text of a book, but it is permissible for the preface, extracts, etc.

2. For poetry and other matter of a literary character italic has a decorative effect.

3. Italic is used for emphasis in roman composition and vice versa.

4. Italic is used frequently for subheads, running-heads, and side-heads, as well as for important paragraphs or extracts.

5. Italic is often used instead of roman-quoted for the titles of books, magazines, newspapers, and names of ships.

6. Signatures or credits are often placed in italic at the end of an article.

7. Foreign words and phrases are often required to be set in italic, but there are many which are now so familiar to English readers {63} that they are kept in the ordinary text. The following is a list of the most familiar words:

• à propos
• ad valorem
• addenda
• aide-de-camp
• alias
• alibi
• alma mater
• anno domini
• ante-bellum
• beau idéal
• billet-doux
• bon-ton
• bona fide
• bravo
• café
• canto
• carte blanche
• chapeau
• chaperon
• chargé d’affaires
• chiaroscuro
• cicerone
• contra
• corrigenda
• data
• débris
• début
• depot
• diarrhœa
• diatum
• dilettante
• dramatis personæ
• ennui
• entrepôt
• erratum
• et cetera
• facsimile
• fête
• finis
• gratis
• hoi polloi
• imprimatur
• innuendo
• literati
• mandamus
• manœuvre
• mignonette
• naïve
• ollapodrida
• onus
• paterfamilias
• patois
• per annum
• per capita
• per cent.
• per centum
• per se
• post-mortem
• pro rata
• protégé
• quondam
• régime
• rendezvous
• rôle
• savant
• seraglio
• sobriquet
• ultimatum
• verbatim
• vice
• vice versa
• viva voce

8. The following expressions, which are not as a rule so well known, should be italicized:

• ab ovo
• ancien régime
• bête noire
• comme il faut
• de quoi vivre
• de trop
• en passant
• fait accompli
• grand monde
• hors de combat
• inter alia
• jeu d’esprit
• locum tenens
• mise en scène
• noblesse oblige
• raison d’être
• sans cérémonie
• tour de force

9. Italic is used in the following words, phrases, and abbreviations employed in literary and legal references: e.g., ibid, idem, loc. cit., op. cit., ad loc., s.v., supra, infra, passim, vide, circa (ca.). Exceptions: cf., i.e., e.g., v. (versus), viz., etc., which are always roman.

10. Punctuation marks which are placed after italicized words should be italic.

2. In algebraic, geometric, and similar matter to designate unknown quantities, lines, etc.

3. For s. and d. (shilling and pence) following the figures: e.g., 1s. 6d.

4. For specific names in Botany, Zoölogy, and Geology.

5. In medical matter roman is used instead of italic for scientific terms.

6. For names of stars or constellations in astronomical matter.

7. In resolutions for the word Resolved.

In MS. one line drawn beneath a word or sentence signifies that it is to be put in italic.

ABBREVIATIONS — DATES — PROPER NAMES — TITLES — 6. COMMERCIAL ABBREVIATIONS — 7. GEOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS — 8. MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS — 9. SCRIPTURAL ABBREVIATIONS — 10. MONETARY SIGNS — 11. MATHEMATICAL SIGNS — 12. MEDICAL SIGNS

1. Do not use st, d, rd, or th after a date given in figures; e.g., June 3, not June 3d or 3rd. If a date is spelled out, the rule is as follows: e.g., June the third, not June three.

2. Do not use ult., inst., or prox., but always name the month: e.g., Oct. 25, not 25th ult., Nov. 10, not 10th inst.

3. Use generally accepted abbreviations for the names of months when the day of the month is also given, and prefer dates in order of day, month, and year: e.g., 7 Jan., 1912. When the name of the month is used alone or followed only by the year, do not abbreviate: e.g., February, 1912, not Feb., 1912.

4. For ordinary purposes use these as the generally accepted abbreviations for the months and days of the week:

• Jan.
• Feb.
• Mar.
• Apr.
• May
• June
• July
• Aug.
• Sept.
• Oct.
• Nov.
• Dec.

• Sun.
• Mon.
• Tues.
• Wed.
• Thurs.
• Fri.
• Sat.

5. In tables and wherever matter must be greatly condensed use the Dewey dates, {66} which are the briefest possible without ambiguity, in the order of (a) day of week, (b) day of month, (c) month, (d) year. These abbreviations are not desirable except in tabular matter.

• Ja.
• F.
• Mr.
• Ap.
• My.
• Je.
• Ju.
• Ag.
• S.
• O.
• N.
• D.

• Sn.
• M.
• Tu.
• W.
• Th.
• F.
• St.

2. Spell out names of companies, railroads, etc., using the ampersand (&) only between proper names: e.g., Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company; Norfolk & Western Railroad; but American Smelting and Refining Company. If names of railroads are abbreviated, use no space between the letters: e.g., N.Y., N.H. & H.R.R.

3. Abbreviate United States when immediately associated with the name of an officer of the army or navy, as Lieut. John Doe, U.S.A.; when it is the name of an organization of the army or navy, as First Regiment U.S.V.; when preceding the name of a government vessel, as U.S.S. Brooklyn.

4. In referring to plays, specify act, scene, and line, also part if necessary: e.g., 2 Henry IV, I, ii, 1–7.

5. Christian names should be spelled in full, as John, George, Charles, except in an {67} original signature, or when following copy in a quotation.

6. When necessary to abbreviate Christian names, use the forms Dan., Edw., Sam., Thos., etc. Alex, Ben, Ed, and Sam are not always abbreviations, and copy should be followed as regards period. Use the following list:

2. Do not abbreviate a title used as part of a name: e.g., Bishop Lawrence, not Bp. Lawrence.

3. Such titles as Mr., Mrs., Messrs., Gen., Dr., Hon., Rev., when prefixed to names, may be abbreviated; but Colonel, Major, Professor, President, ex-President, etc., are better spelled in full. Compound titles, such as Major-General, Lieutenant-Colonel, Rear-Admiral, etc., should also be spelled and both {69} words capitalized. Where a person has been mentioned by name and title, and is afterward mentioned by title only, the title should be capitalized. Where initials of a name are used, abbreviate the title: e.g., Col. T. G. Benson, of the Second Illinois Regiment, has returned from Havana. The Colonel’s friends gave him a warm reception.

4. When the names of sovereigns of a country are mentioned only occasionally, such names may be given in full: e.g., George the Fifth, Charles the First. When such names occur frequently, they may be printed with roman numerals without a period: e.g., George V, Charles I

5. The following is a full list of the usual abbreviations:

• Gen.
• Exod.
• Lev.
• Num.
• Deut.
• Josh.
• Judg.
• Ruth
• I and II Sam.
• I and II Kings
• I and II Chron.
• Ezra
• Neh.
• Esth.
• Job
• Ps. (Pss.)
• Prov.
• Eccles.
• Song of Sol. (or Cant.)
• Isa.
• Jer.
• Lam.
• Ezek.
• Dan.
• Hos.
• Joel
• Amos
• Obad.
• Jonah
• Mic.
• Nah.
• Hab.
• Zeph.
• Hag.
• Zech.
• Mal.

+	Plus
−	Minus
±	Plus or minus
	Minus or plus
×	Multiplied by13
÷	Divided by
=	Equal to
≠	Not equal to
≡	Identical with
	Not identical with
≅	Congruent to
	Greater than
	Less than
	The difference between
	Is equivalent to
∫	Integration
: and : :	Proportion
∝	Varies as
	Approaches as a limit
∞	Infinity
∴	Therefore
	Because
…	Continuation
√	The radical sign
⊥	Perpendicular to
	Factorial sign
	Parallel
	Arc of circle
°	Degree of circle
′	Minute of circle
″	Second of circle
∠	Angle
	Right angle
	Square
	Rectangle
	Parallelogram
	Triangle

āā	(ἀνά) of each
	(Recipe) take
, i	Ounce, one ounce
ss	Half an ounce
iss	One ounce and a half
ij	Two ounces
	Drachm
	Scruple
	(Octavius) Pint
	Fluid ounce
	Fluid drachm
m.	Minim or drop

NUMERALS — NUMERAL LETTERS

Those authors were led into this error by the medals of the Emperor Justinian having the episemon for 5; but it is a certain fact that the coiners had been mistaken and confounded it with the tailed U, for the episemon was still in use in the fourth century, and among the Latins was estimated as 6, but {94} under a form somewhat different. Whenever it appears in other monuments of the western nations of Europe of that very century and the following, it is rarely used to express any number except 5.

The Etruscans also used their letters for indicating numbers by writing them from right to left, and the ancient Danes copied the example in the application of their letters.

The Romans, when they borrowed arts and sciences from the Greeks, learned also their method of using alphabetical numeration. This custom, however, was not very ancient among them. Before writing was yet current with them, they made use of nails for reckoning years, and the method of driving those nails became in process of time a ceremony of their religion. The first eight Roman numerals were composed of the I and the V. The Roman ten was composed of the V proper and the V inverted (), which characters served to reckon as far as forty; but when writing became more general, I, V, X, L, C, D, and M were the only characters appropriated to the indication of numbers. The above seven letters, in their most extensive combination, produce six hundred and sixty-six thousand, ranged thus, DCLXVIM. Some, however, contend that the Romans were strangers to any higher number than 100,000. The want of ciphers obliged them to double, treble, and multiply {95} their numerical characters four-fold, according as they had occasion to make them express units, tens, hundreds, etc. For the sake of brevity they had recourse to another expedient: by drawing a small line over any of their numeral characters they made them stand for as many thousands as they contained units. Thus a small line over Ī made it 1000, and over expressed 10,000, etc.

When the Romans wrote several units together in succession, the first and last were longer than the rest IIIIII; thus vir after those six units signified sex-vir. D stood for 500, and the perpendicular line of this letter was sometimes separated from the body thus (I,) without lessening its value. M, whether capital or uncial, expressed 1000. In the uncial form it sometimes assumed that of one of those figures, CI, CD, ∞, . The cumbent X was also used to signify a similar number.

In ancient MSS. 4 is written IIII and not IV, 9 thus VIIII and not IX, etc. Instead of V five units, IIIII, were sometimes used in the eighth century. Half was expressed by an S at the end of the figures, CIIS was put 102 ¹⁄₂. This S sometimes appeared in the form of our 5.

In some old MSS. those numerical figures LXL are used to express 90. The Roman numeral letters were generally used both in England, France, Italy, and Germany, from the earliest times to the middle of the fifteenth century. {96}

The ancient people of Spain made use of the Roman ciphers. The X with the top of the right-hand stroke in form of a semi-circle reckoned for 40; it merits the more particular notice as it has misled many of the learned. The Roman ciphers, however, were continued in use with the Spaniards until the fifteenth century. The Germans used the Roman ciphers for a long time, nearly in the same manner as the French.

The points after the Roman ciphers were exceedingly various, and never rightly fixed. It is not known when the ancient custom was first introduced of placing an O at top immediately after the Roman characters, as Aº Mº Lº VIº etc.

	Roman	Arabic
Unus, a, um	I	1
Duo, ae, o	II	2
Tres, ia	III	3
Quatuor	IV [IIII]	4
Quinque	V	5
Sex	VI	6
Septem	VII	7
Octo	VIII	8
Novem	IX	9
Decem	X	10
Undecim	XI	11
Duodecim	XII	12
Tredecim	XIII	13
Quatuordecim	XIV	14
Quindecim	XV	15
Se(sex)decim	XVI	16
Septemdecim	XVII	17
Octodecim or Duodeviginti	XVIII	18
Novemdecim or Undeviginti	XIX	19
Viginti	XX	20
Triginta	XXX	30
Quadraginta	XL	40
Quinquaginta	L	50
Sexaginta	LX	60
Septuaginta	LXX	70
Octoginta	LXXX	80
Nonaginta	XC	90
Centum	C	100
Ducenti-ae-a	CC	200
Trecenti-ae-a	CCC	300
Quadringenti-ae-a	CCCC	400
Quingenti-ae-a	I or D	500
Sexcenti-ae-a	DC	600
Septingenti-ae-a	DCC	700
Octingenti-ae-a	DCCC	800
Nongenti-ae-a	DCCCC or CM	900
Mille	M or CI	1000
Duo millia or Bis mille	MM	2000
Tria millia or Ter mille	MMM	3000
Quatuor millia or Quater mille	MMMM	4000
Quinque millia or Quinquies mille	I or	5000
Decem millia or Decies mille	CCI or	10,000
Quinquaginta millia or Quinquaquies mille	I or	50,000
Centum millia or Centies mille	CCCI or	100,000
Quingenta millia or Quingenties mille	I or	500,000
Decies centena millia	CCCCI or	1,000,000

If the lesser number is placed before the greater, the lesser is to be deducted from the greater; thus IV signifies one less than 5, i.e., 4; IX, 9; XC, 90.

If the lesser number be placed after the greater, the lesser is to be added to the greater; thus VI signifies one more than 5, i.e., 6; XI, 11; CX, 110.

A horizontal stroke over a numeral denotes a thousand; thus signifies five thousand; , fifty thousand; , a thousand times a thousand, or a million.

I, signifies one, because it is the smallest letter.

V, five, because it is sometimes used for U, the fifth vowel.

X, ten, because it represents two V’S.

L, fifty, from its resemblance to the lower half of C.

C, a hundred, centum.

I or D, five hundred, the half of CI.

M or CI, a thousand, from mille. The latter figures joined at the top, , formed the ancient M.

CORRECT AND FAULTY DICTION

Canon I. — When, of two words or phrases in equally good use, one is susceptible of two significations and the other of but one, preference should be given to the latter: e.g., admittance is better than admission, as the latter word also means “confession”; relative is to be preferred to relation, as the latter also means the telling of a story.

Canon II. — In doubtful cases regard should be given to the analogy of the language: might better should be preferred to had better, and would rather is better than had rather.

Canon III. — The simpler and briefer form should be preferred, other things being equal: {100} e.g., omit the bracketed words in expressions such as, open [up], meet [together], follow [after], examine [into], trace [out], bridge [over], crave [for], etc.

Canon IV. — Between two forms of expression in equally good use, prefer the one which is more euphonious: e.g., most beautiful is better than beautifullest, and more free is to be preferred to freer.

Canon V. — In cases not covered by the four preceding canons, prefer that which conforms to the older usage: e.g., begin is better than commence.

Familiarity with the writings of those authors whose style is accepted as conforming to the standards of good usage is an essential to all those who seek accuracy in correct expression, and the following authors may be studied with this in mind: Addison, Matthew Arnold, Burke, DeQuincey, George Eliot, Emerson, Hawthorne, Holmes, Irving, Macaulay, John Stuart Mill, Newman, Poe, Ruskin, Stevenson, and Thackeray.

The various standard dictionaries may be consulted regarding words which are questionable when measured by good usage. The function of the dictionary is to record all words in general use, but a careful record is made as to the classes to which the various words belong. Good usage, for instance, does not recognize the word vim, yet it will be found in the Century Dictionary; but at {101} the end of the definition an entry [Colloq.] is placed, showing that it is authorized only by colloquial use.

The following list of words and phrases which are most commonly misused will be found useful. The correct words are added in brackets:

• Accept, see Except
• Admire, should not be used to express delight: e.g., I should admire [be delighted] to go to California
• Admit, see Confess
• ADVERBS: should usually be placed next to the words they modify. (See also Infinitive)
• Affable, means “easy to speak to,” and should not be used for agreeable
• Affect, should not be confused with effect: e.g., She was deeply affected by the news; or The news had a serious effect upon her; or The effect of the news was serious
• Aggravate, should not be used for annoy or vex. It means “to make worse”: e.g., His cold was aggravated by the exposure
• Ain’t, is a contraction of am not. It is inelegant though grammatically correct to say, I ain’t, but it is absolutely wrong to say, He ain’t, etc.
• All right, should never be written alright
• Alternative, should not be used in speaking of one of more than two things
• And, should not be placed before a relative pronoun in such a position as to interfere with the construction: e.g., I acknowledge the receipt of your letter, (and) for which I send you my cordial thanks. Omit the conjunction
• Any place, should be written anywhere
• Apparently, is used of what seems to be real, but may not be so; evidently of that which both seems and is real {102}
• Apt, means skilful and should not be used for likely. He is apt to be here soon should be He is likely to be here soon; He is an apt pupil is correct
• ARTICLES: when superfluous, are misleading and should be omitted; but it is more frequently the case that necessary articles are omitted: e.g., The army and navy signifies a single organization. Insert a before navy
• As, should not be used as a causal conjunction: e.g., Do not expect me (as) I am too uncertain of my time. The word as stands here as a contraction of inasmuch as. Substitute a semicolon: e.g., Do not expect me; I am too uncertain of my time.
• As . . . as, see So . . . as
• At, is often incorrectly used for in: e.g., They are living at [in] Florence
• At length, does not mean the same as at last. Say At length he showed signs of relenting, and At last he relented
• Aught, is frequently confused with naught. It means “anything,” whereas the symbol 0 means “nothing”
• Avail, should be used with of only with some form of be; otherwise to is the proper word: e.g., He called lustily, but of [to] no avail; or He called lustily, but [it was] of no avail
• Aware, is used in relation to things outside of ourselves; conscious in relation to sensations or things within ourselves
• Awful, should not be used loosely. It means “inspiring with awe.” To say I had an awfully good time is as ridiculous as it is meaningless
• Badly, should not be used for very much or a great deal. The expression, If you don’t care to do a thing very badly, do it very badly, shows the absurdity. Do not confuse the adjective with the adverb. He looks badly means “He makes a bad use of his eyes.” He looks bad is correct
• Bank on, a slang expression not recognized by good usage. Say rely on or trust in {103}
• Beg, should never be used without the word leave, when asking permission. In correspondence one often sees the expressions, I beg to state, I beg to differ. One should say, I beg leave to state, I beg leave to differ
• Bring, see Take
• But, is sometimes used as a preposition, and when so used takes the objective case: e.g., The invitation included all but him is correct
• Can, denotes power, and should not be used for may, which denotes permission. The following sentence shows the correct use of both words: He may do it if he can
• Cannot but, should not be used interchangeably with can but, as the two expressions differ in meaning: e.g., I can but try means “All I can do is to try”; I cannot but try means “I cannot help trying”
• Can’t seem, should not be used for seem unable: e.g., I can’t seem [seem unable] to find it
• CASE: the nominative is sometimes wrongly used for the objective case: e.g., Let He [Him] who made thee answer that
• Childlike, means that belonging to the child; childish, means the weakness of the child
• Come, see Go
• Common, see Mutual
• Confess, should not be used in the sense of admit, in cases in which no idea of confession enters
• Conscious, see Aware
• Continual, meaning “frequently repeated acts,” should not be confused with continuous meaning “uninterrupted action”: e.g., Continual nagging spoils the disposition, and The continuous flowing of a stream
• Deadly, which means “that which inflicts death,” should not be confused with deathly, which means “that which resembles death”: e.g., A deadly poison, and A deathly pallor {104}
• Decided, means “strong,” decisive means “final.” A decided opinion does not mean the same as a decisive opinion
• Definite, means “well-defined”; definitive means “final”
• Demean, which signifies “to behave” oneself, should not be used for degrade or debase
• Different, should never be followed by the word than. Say, Different from
• Directly, should not be used for as soon as: e.g., Directly [as soon as] he arrived
• Discover, is to find something which previously existed; invent is to produce something for the first time
• Don’t, is a contraction of do not. One may say, I don’t, but not He don’t. Say, He doesn’t
• Each other, should not be misused for one another. One may say, The two cousins were devoted to each other; or Many suggestions were made, following one another in rapid succession
• Effect, see Affect
• Egoists, are those who made the ego the basis of their philosophy; egotists are those who worship themselves
• Either, should not be used to designate more than two persons or things. To designate one of three or more, say Any one
• Enormity, describes deeds of unusual horror; enormousness describes things of unusual size
• Enthuse (verb), is not recognized by good usage. I became enthused should be written I became enthusiastic
• Every place, should be written everywhere
• Excellent, should never be qualified as it is a superlative: e.g., most excellent, very excellent, and the like are impossible. (See also Superlatives)
• Except (verb), signifies “to exclude”: e.g., Present company excepted. As a preposition it means “with the exception.” It should not be confused with accept, which signifies “to receive” {105}
• Exceptional, describes a case outside the operation of a rule; exceptionable is that which is open to criticism: e.g., Exceptionable conduct is that to which exception can be taken
• Expect, should not be used as a synonym for think or suppose
• Falseness (of a person) is the opposite of truthfulness; falsity (of a thing) is the opposite of truth
• Fix, should not be used in the sense of repair. It means “to attach”
• Former, should not be used to designate one of more than two persons or things. If reference is made to one of three or more, say The first
• Gentleman, should be used to designate only a person of refinement, and never as a mere designation of sex. The use of the word man is never out of place
• Gentleman friend, is an expression which should be avoided, owing to the use which has been made of it. Say man friend or man friends, or gentleman of my acquaintance
• Go, should not be confused with come: e.g., I will come [go] to you when you need me
• Got, is said to be the most misused word in the language. I have got to go should be I am obliged to go. Have you got time? should be Have you time? etc. The verb means “to secure,” so it must be used only with this meaning: e.g., I have got the contract
• Gotten, is an obsolete form. Say got
• Guess, is loosely used for suppose, expect, or intend, but is avoided by the best writers
• Hanged, see Hung
• Hardly, should never be preceded by the negative: e.g., That is not hardly enough. Omit not
• He, see Him
• Healthful, means “health-giving,” as applied to articles of food; healthy is the condition of the person {106}
• Her, is often misused for she: e.g., It is her [she]; Such a woman as her [she]
• Him, is often misused for he: e.g., It is him [he]; Let He [Him] who made thee answer that; A style that belongs to no other than he [him]
• Hoi polloi, should not be written the hoi polloi. Hoi is Greek for “the”
• Honorable, should always be preceded by the: e.g., The Honorable James Brown Smith
• How, should not be used for what: e.g., How [what] did you say?
• Hung, should be distinguished from hanged: e.g., The man was hanged, but The flag was hung across the street
• I, see Me
• If, should never be used in the sense of whether or that: e.g., He is not sure if he remembers should be He is not sure whether [or that] he remembers
• In, should not be used for into, when motion is implied: e.g., He stepped in [into] the boat. See also At
• INFINITIVE: the verb should never be separated from to, the sign of the infinitive word, by an adverb: e.g., It is not possible for me to absolutely promise should be to promise absolutely
• -ING: when using verbal nouns ending in -ing be careful to distinguish them from participles having the same ending. A verbal noun must never be preceded by an adverb: e.g., That proved of as little use as his afterward trying to explain his presence there should be as his trying afterward to explain
• Inside of, is a vulgarism when used in the sense of within: e.g., The snow will be gone inside of [within] a week
• Invent, see Discover
• Kind, is singular. The common expression those kind is absolutely wrong. Say this kind or these kinds, that kind or those kinds
• Kind of, should not be followed by the article a or an. Say What kind of man is he? not What kind of a man is he? {107}
• Lady, see Gentleman
• Lady friend, see Gentleman friend
• Last, should not be used for latest. “Have you read my last book?” asked the author. “I hope so,” was the frank reply
• Latter, signifies one of two persons or things. In making reference to one of three or more, say The last
• Lay, should not be confused with lie. Hens lay, men lie
• Less, is a vulgarism when used for fewer: e.g., There were less [fewer] accidents in football this season
• Liable, should not be used for likely: e.g., It is liable [likely] to rain today. Its proper sense is shown in the sentence, He is liable to arrest
• Like, is a vulgarism when used for as or as if: e.g., I wish I could sing like [as] you do. See also Love
• Likely, means “any probability”; liable means an “unpleasant probability”
• Loan, is not in accord with good usage when used as a verb: Say, He lent me a dollar, and The loan was of real assistance
• Locate, is a vulgarism when used for settle. Say, He settled in Boston, and He located his business in Cambridge
• Love, describes that which appeals to our affections; like, that which appeals to our taste, appetite or fancy
• Luxuriant, means “superabundant”; luxurious means “consequent upon luxury”
• Mad, means “insane,” and is not a synonym for angry
• Man, see Gentleman
• May, see Can
• Me, is often wrongly used for I: e.g., Between you and I [me]; It is me [I]; You know as well as me [I]
• Means, may be either singular or plural. Say, No other means was at hand, or Various means were suggested
• Most, should not be used for almost
• Must, should not be used for had to or was obliged: e.g., The hour arrived when he must [had to] decide. In its proper use it refers to the present or future: e.g., The hour will arrive when he must decide {108}
• Mutual, should not be used in the sense of “shared in common,” as it means “reciprocal.” It can refer to but two persons or things. Mutual friendship is that which exists between two friends; common friendship that which is shared by two friends for a third
• Negligence, implies failure to conform to an established custom; neglect means “a failure to act”
• Neither, signifies one of two. In designating one of three or more, say No one
• News, is singular in construction
• Nice, should not be used loosely; as, She was nice to us. It means keenness in discrimination; as, It was a fine point, nicely considered. The incorrect use of this word is an Americanism especially offensive to the English. Oscar Wilde, when in America, remarked, “I think nice is a nasty word,” to which his hearer retorted, “I don’t think nasty is a nice word”
• No place, should be written nowhere
• Nor, see Or
• Not . . . but, forms a double negative: e.g., I have not asked you but once should be I have asked you but once
• Notorious, is not a synonym for celebrated or famous. It means “of bad repute”
• Nowhere near, is a vulgarism for not nearly
• NUMBER: pronouns are often used which differ in number from their antecedents: e.g., Nobody should feel that their [his] interests have been neglected; Each of the ladies, like two excellent actresses, were [was] perfect in their [her] parts [part]. Singular nouns are sometimes used with plural verbs, or the reverse: e.g., None but the brave deserve [deserves] the fair; There’s [there are] the boys
• Of, is sometimes wrongly used for have: e.g., I shouldn’t of [have] come if I had known
• Or, should not be used with neither. Use nor {109}
• Ought, should never be combined with had: e.g., You hadn’t ought to do that should be You ought not to do that
• Out loud, should never be used for aloud
• Partake of, should not be used in the sense of eat. It means “to share with others”
• Party, should not be used for person
• Per, should not be used with English words. Say One dollar a year, or One dollar per annum
• Perception, means the inlet of all the materials of knowledge; apperception means the knowledge that one possesses these materials. A man with perception knows; a man with apperception knows that he knows
• PLURALS: of foreign words should be carefully ascertained: e.g., cherubim is the plural of cherub; memoranda, of memorandum; data, of datum; donne, of donna; strata, of stratum; addenda, of addendum; rubaiyat, of rubai. Do not say, A memoranda
• Pretty, should not be used in a modifying sense, nor as a synonym for very: e.g., It is not as good as yours, but it is pretty [fairly] good; I didn’t hit it, but I came pretty [very] close
• Propose, meaning “to offer,” should not be confused with purpose, meaning “to intend.” Say, He proposed an amendment, and I have told you what I purpose
• Quite, should not be used in a modifying sense as if meaning “rather.” It is not what I expected, but it is quite good is wrong. The word means “wholly”: e.g., Not quite = not wholly; quite satisfactory = wholly satisfactory
• Raise, should not be used as a noun
• Rarely ever, is a vulgarism for rarely or hardly ever
• Reference, should be used with with rather than in. Say, With reference to rather than In reference to {110}
• Regard, see Reference
• Respect, see Reference
• Reverend, should always be preceded by the: e.g., The Reverend James Brown Smith
• Same, should not be used as a pronoun: e.g., Your letter received, and in reply [to same] would say. Omit bracketed words
• Same as, should not be used for just as or in the same way: e.g., Treat him the same [just] as you would wish to be treated
• Scarcely, see Hardly
• Seldom ever, see Rarely ever
• Sensible of, means “having perception”; sensitive to means “affected by”
• Set, should not be confused with sit. To set means “to cause to sit”: e.g., The bird sits upon the tree, and The waiter set two chairs for us
• Sewage, means the contents of sewers; sewerage means the system
• Shall, signifies simple expectancy in the first person, and will represents determination. This reverses with the second and third persons: e.g., EXPECTANCY, I shall (should), thou wilt (wouldst), he will (would), we shall (should), you will (would), they will (would). DETERMINATION, I will (would), thou shalt (shouldst), he shall (should), we will (would), you shall (should), they shall (should). This time-honored illustration of the misuse of these words is easily remembered: I will drown, nobody shall save me. In interrogative sentences, the forms of the future are the same as in a declarative sentence, and their proper use may be easily remembered by noting that the same auxiliary is used as is expected in the reply: e.g., Shall you go? suggests merely future action, anticipating the reply, I shall or I shall not; Will you go? shows that the speaker expects a reply of determination, I will or I will not
• She, see Her {111}
• Should, ought not to be used for to: e.g., I want you should [to] do this. (See also Want.) As between should and would, see Shall. The same usage obtains, except that sometimes should is used in the sense of ought: e.g., He should be here now; and would sometimes signifies habitual action: e.g., Whenever the name was mentioned he would speak slightingly of him
• Show, should not be used for play: e.g., I went to a show last evening; nor in the sense of chance: e.g., He has an excellent show of winning
• Show up, is a vulgarism when used for expose
• Since, should not be used for ago. Say, How long ago rather than How long since
• Size up, is a vulgarism when used for estimate
• So, should be used sparingly to modify an adjective: e.g., I feel so unhappy. It should not be used for so that: e.g., I wrote him so [that] he understood
• So . . . as, is required, rather than the correlatives as . . . as in negative statements: e.g., James is not as [so] clever as John
• Some, should not be used for somewhat: e.g., The patient is some[what] better
• Some place, should be written somewhere
• Sort, see Kind
• Sort of, should not be used for rather: e.g., I feel sort of tired is incorrect. See also Kind of
• Splendid, should not be used for fine or skilful. It implies “splendor”
• Start, should not be used for begin: e.g., He started [began] to speak
• Stop, should not be used for stay: e.g., I am stopping [staying] with my uncle while in San Francisco
• Take, is superfluous in connection with other verbs: e.g., Suppose we [take and] use the drawings we have. It should not be confused with bring: e.g., I will bring [take] it home with me; I will take [bring] the book to you tomorrow {112}
• Take stock in, is a slang expression not recognized by good usage. Say rely on or trust in
• TENSE: errors are often made by neglecting the principle that the time of the recorded action in the subordinate portion of a sentence is relative to the time of the principal clause. The tense of the dependent verb, therefore, is determined by its relation to the verb on which it depends: e.g., I meant to have done it should be I meant to do it; He expected to have told him should be He expected to tell him. A common mistake is made in replying to formal invitations: e.g., Mr. Robert Gorham regrets that a previous engagement will prevent [prevents] him from accepting; Mr. Gorham will be [is] happy to accept
• That, see Which
• Them, is often misused for they: e.g., It is them [they]
• They, see Them
• This, should not be used as an adverb. Say, Thus much is clear rather than This much is clear, and Having said thus much [or as much as this] . . . rather than Having said this much . . .
• Through, should not be used for finished. Say, He has finished speaking rather than He is through speaking
• Too, alone should not modify a past participle: e.g., He was too [much] excited to reply
• Treat, should be followed by of rather than on: e.g., This volume treats of conditions in China
• Try, should be followed by to rather than and: e.g., I will try and [to] get the information you desire
• Ugly, should not be used in the sense of vicious or malicious. It means “repulsive to the eye.” A color may be ugly, but an ill-tempered dog is vicious
• VERBS: should not be omitted: e.g., He could do it if he wished to [do it]
• Very, should be used sparingly. Foreigners say that America is a country of superlatives, — if anything is good, it is very good, and if bad, it is very bad. Too {113} much emphasis weakens conversation or writing and defeats its object
• Visitor, is a human caller; visitant, a supernatural one
• Vocation, means “calling” or “profession”; avocation, means an interest outside one’s profession
• Want, should not be used in the sense of wish: e.g., I want it really means “I feel the want of it,” or “I lack it.” An example of the correct use of both words is, China wishes the coöperation of the United States, — a coöperation which is at present wanting
• Way, should not be used for away
• What, is often misused for that: e.g., He has no doubt but what [that] he will succeed
• Whence, means “from where.” Do not say from whence
• Which, should not be used with a clause as its antecedent: e.g., He replied hotly, which was a mistake should be He replied hotly; this was a mistake. Do not use which (a neuter pronoun) to represent a masculine or feminine noun. Say whom. Between which and that, let euphony decide
• Who, is often misused for whom or whose: e.g., Who [whom] did you wish to see? Washington, than whom [whose] no greater name is recorded in American history. Impersonal objects should be referred to by which rather than who
• Whom, see Who and Which
• Will, see Shall
• Woman, see Gentleman
• Womanly, means “belonging to woman as woman”; womanish means “effeminate”
• Would, see Should

LETTER WRITING — THE HEADING — THE ADDRESS — THE SALUTATION — THE TEXT OF THE LETTER — THE COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE — THE SIGNATURE — THE ENVELOPE — POSTAL CARDS — IN GENERAL — EXAMPLES OF CORRECT LETTER WRITING — 1. B USINESS L ETTER I — 2. B USINESS L ETTER II (reverse indention) — 3. I NFORMAL OR F RIENDLY L ETTER — 4. F ORMAL S OCIAL N OTES — 5. F ORMAL N OTE TO T RADESMAN

ALTHOUGH it is quite improbable that there will ever be a return to the painstaking, literary art of letter writing, of which we have so many admirable examples in the past, the value of the art as a medium of expressing personality must always be recognized. The force of business competition has introduced short-cuts in business correspondence which are regrettable from a literary standpoint; the universal use of the typewriter has altered conditions; the multiplicity of social demands makes impossible the leisurely written and carefully considered letters between friends which used to be a valued expression of friendship itself. These changes in conditions have been inevitable, but they do not explain the carelessness and the evidences of ignorance of even simple rules of expression and ar­range­ment which are too frequently apparent in the letters even of those whose position in life demands more, in this respect, than they seem able or willing to give. For this reason the present writer does not hesitate to resort to elementary outlines in making clear the basis upon which the art of letter writing rests. {115}

2. If there is no punctuation at the ends of the printed lines, there should be no point used after the date.

3. The number of the day should not be followed by st, nd, rd, d, or th: e.g., 12 March, not 12th March.

II. Informal. — 1. There is considerable latitude in the heading in informal or friendly letters. The address of the writer may be placed at the beginning or the end of the letter, or omitted altogether if well-known to the addressee.

2. The date may be at the beginning or the end, but should never be omitted.

III. Formal. — 1. In formal letters the place and date should be written at the end, on the left. {116}

II. Informal. — 1. The same latitude is allowed here as in the matter of the date. It is customary, however, to omit the address in informal or friendly correspondence.

III. Formal. — 1. The address is always placed at the end in formal letters, on the left, below the place and date. Its ar­range­ment may be blocked15 or en échelon,15 but this should be the same ar­range­ment as that adopted for the place and the address.

2. In making reply to formal invitations, the address of the addressee is omitted.

2. Ordinarily it should occupy a line by itself, but when the address requires three lines, the salutation may be made a part of the body of the letter, being followed by a colon and a dash: e.g., Gentlemen:―

3. When the salutation is in a line by itself it calls for a comma if the letter is informal, and for a colon if it is formal.

4. The proper form of the salutation is Gentlemen, Dear Sir(s), My dear Sir (if the letter is signed by an individual name), Dear Madam or My dear Madam (to a married or single woman), Ladies.

5. The proper capitalization is here shown.

II. Informal. — 1. The salutation Dear Sir is less formal than My dear Sir, although in England the opposite opinion prevails.

2. The capitalization is the same as in business letters; i.e., the first word and the word which stands in place of the person’s name are capitalized: e.g., My own dear Sister, My dear Aunt Mary, or Dear John, My dear Friend.

3. In an informal letter the comma is usually used after the salutation.

4. Do not use abbreviations in the salutation: e.g., write Dear Doctor Smith, not Dear Dr. Smith.

5. Do not omit the salutatory phrase: Friend James, or Mr. James Smith is too abrupt.

III. Formal. — 1. A letter to the President of the United States or to King George {118} should have the salutation Sir; to the Pope, Your Holiness; to the Vice-President, Mr. Vice-President, Sir; to a duke, My Lord Duke; to a baron, My Lord; to a cardinal, Your Eminence; to an archbishop in England, My Lord Archbishop, in the United States, The Most Reverend ——, Sir; to a bishop in England, My Lord Bishop, in the United States, Most Reverend Sir; to a dean or to an archdeacon, Reverend Sir; to a senator, congressman, mayor, or judge, Sir or Dear Sir; to an ambassador, To the —— Ambassador, Sir.

2. A colon should follow the salutation in formal letters.

2. Avoid such monotonous expressions as the following: (a) Yours, your favor, your esteemed favor; write letter. (b) 12th inst., 12th, recent date; write 12 March. (c) I will say, I would say, I can say; write Allow me to say, or omit it altogether. (d) In reply would say; write In reply I would say, or In reply allow me to say. (e) Same, the same; write it or they. (f) Please find enclosed; write I enclose. (g) Hoping to hear soon, thanking you in advance, awaiting your response, and oblige have all become hackneyed. Omit them unless bearing specifically upon the text of the letter.

3. Do not omit I or We in such expressions as, Beg17 to acknowledge, Have been awaiting your advice.

4. Do not use the first person singular when the letter is signed by the firm name.

5. Do not say the writer in one portion of the letter and I in another.

6. In ar­range­ment, the first line of the text should begin on the line below the salutation, indented about one inch, and each paragraph should be similarly indented.18 Another style, particularly useful when the letter covers several distinct subjects, is to use the reverse indention, with subheads in capitals at the extreme left.19 {120}

II. Informal.20 — 1. However informal or friendly, a letter should tell what it has to say in a straightforward, coherent manner. Apologies for delay in writing, or for anything else except illness, absence from town, or other cause which demands explanation, are wasteful of paper, ink, and the time of two persons.

2. A general fault in informal letters is the paragraphing and punctuation. The writer should remember that he is trying to express to another mental ideas which have no opportunity to become crystallized by the sound of the voice. He should take especial pains to assist his correspondent in assimilating the thoughts which he expresses, by not running different topics together, and by separating phrases and sentences with their proper marks.

III. Formal. — 1. The expedient of writing in the third person is adopted in formal social correspondence.21 Notes of this kind should have no heading, address, complimentary close, or signature. The date alone, omitting the year, is used, being placed at the end on the left. No abbreviations other than Mr., Mrs., Messrs., and Dr. should be used. The date should be spelled out in full.

2. Notes written to tradespeople22 conveying {121} orders or instructions are also frequently written in the third person. In this case, however, the address is always given at the end on the left, and the date, using figures, is also employed. There is no signature.