By G.F. Allen, United States Forest Service.
The remarkable development of the forests about the base of
Mount Rainier results from climatic conditions peculiarly favorable
to tree growth. The winters are mild and short. The ocean winds
that pass through the gaps of the Coast Range are laden with
moisture which falls in the form of rain or snow on the west slope
of the Cascades. The trees are nourished by this moisture through
a long season of annual growth, and form an evergreen forest which
is, in some respects, the most remarkable in the world. This forest,
distinguished by the extraordinary size and beauty of the trees and
by the density of the stand, extends into the deep valleys of the rivers
which have their sources in the glaciers. On the dividing ridges and
in the upper stream basins the composition and character of the
forest change with the increasing severity of the climate.
The distribution of the different species of trees according to the
intervals of altitude at which they occur separate the forests of the
Mount Rainier National Park into different types. The lines of separation
are to some extent also determined by complex conditions of
slope, exposure, and moisture. The successive forest belts are uniform
in the composition of their central areas, but blend and overlap
where they come together.
The low valleys of the main and west forks of White River, of
the Carbon, the Mowich, the Nisqually, and the Ohanopecosh are
covered with a dense and somber forest of fir, hemlock, and cedar.
The trees, pushing upward for light, are very tall and free from
limbs for more than half their height. Their tops form a continuous
cover which the sunshine rarely penetrates, and on which
the light snows of early winter fall and melt, without reaching the
ground. Even in midsummer the light is soft and shaded, and the
air cool and humid. In the wintertime the young growth is sheltered
from wind and the severity of the cold is tempered by the protecting
mountain ranges. Saved from fire by the uniform dampness of the
air the trees grow until they decay and fall from old age. They are
succeeded by the suppressed younger trees. The forest remains
mature, not uniformly sound and vigorous, yet not decreasing as a
whole in size and volume. Individuals perish, but the character of
the forest is constant. The deep alluvial soil covered with moss and
decayed vegetation nourishes a luxuriant tangled undergrowth of
vine maple, willow, and devil's-club. The forest floor is covered with
a deep layer of decayed vegetation and is encumbered with fallen
and mossy logs and upturned stumps. The explorer who leaves the
trails must be a strong and active man if he can carry his pack
6 or 8 miles in a long summer day.
Ascending from the river bottoms to the lower slopes of the dividing
ridges the forest becomes more open and the trees are smaller.
Salal, Oregon grape, and huckleberry bushes take the place of the
taller undergrowth of the valleys. Up to 3,000 feet the Douglas fir
and the hemlock still are the dominant species. Above this altitude
new species are found intermingled with the trees typical of the lowland,
but forming a distinct forest type. The noble and amabilis
fir appear, sometimes growing in pure stands, but more often
associated with the Douglas fir and western hemlock at the lower
limits of the type, and with alpine fir and mountain hemlock at the
upper limit.
Nearly all the trees of this type have deep and wide-spreading
roots which serve to hold in place the surface deposit of volcanic
pumice which covers the slopes of the mountain. Evidence afforded
by the after effects of forest fires in other parts of the Cascades
indicates that the destruction of the forest on the mountain sides is
followed by erosion. Heavy rains and the melting of the upper
snow banks by warm Chinook winds combine to produce a surface
run-off that denudes the steeper declivities down to the underlying
bedrock.
At elevations above 4,500 feet the lowland trees have disappeared
entirely. Subalpine species adapted to withstand the burden of deep
snow take their place. Mountain hemlock, alpine fir, and Engelmann
spruce grow singly and in scattered groups or form open
groves alternating with grassy parks and rocky ridges. The symmetrical
outline of the slender pyramidal crowns and rapidly tapering
trunks of the spruce and alpine fir trees that stand singly on the
greensward of the open parks bring to mind the closely trimmed
cultivated evergreens that adorn city parks and lawns. Their lower
branches reach the ground and the tops terminate in slender upright
spires.
As timber line is approached tree growth is confined to dwarfed
and flattened mountain hemlocks, alpine firs, and the white-bark
pines firmly rooted among the crevices of the rocks.
The extreme limit of tree growth on Mount Rainier is 7,600 feet
above sea level. There is no well-defined timber line. Scattered
clumps of low stunted trees occur up to 7,000 feet. A few very small
and flattened mountain hemlocks grow above this elevation. A very
large part of the area above 4,500 feet consists of glaciers, talus
slopes, barren rocky peaks, and open parks. Basins at the heads of
canyons in the high mountains are usually treeless, on account of
the great depth of snow which accumulates in them during the
winter. On the steep, smooth upper inclines the snow banks frequently
slip and form slides which acquire momentum as they rush
down the mountain side and break and carry away large trees. Repeated
snowslides in the same place keep the slopes nonforested, and
their track is marked by light green strips of brush and herbage.
The transition of the forest from its lowland to its extreme alpine
type is one of the most interesting features of a visit to the mountain.
Entering the park at the western boundary close to the Nisqually
River the road skirts the base of the lightly timbered spurs and
passes into a forest of large and old Douglas fir and western hemlock.
Red cedars grow along the streams that cross the road. Little yew
trees and vine maples mingle with the young conifers that form the
undergrowth; the gloom of the forest is occasionally relieved by the
white bark of alders and the smooth gray stems of the cottonwoods
that grow on the sandy bank of the Nisqually. After the road
crosses the Rainier Fork, noble fir and amabilis fir appear, but the
Douglas fir and western hemlock are still the prevailing species.
Above Longmire Springs the noble and amabilis fir, mixed with
western hemlock, become the dominant type. The trees are shorter
and the branches heavier. Mountain ash and yellow cypress grow
on the margin of the mountain streams. Huckleberry bushes take
the place of the taller undergrowth of the valley.
Above Narada Falls the forest is more open, and the trees are still
smaller. Mountain hemlock and alpine fir succeed the trees of the
lower slope. Little glades and mountain meadows are seen. They
become larger and more numerous and the traveler soon enters the
open park of Paradise Valley, in which are but scattered groves of
trees. The same successive altitudinal types are met in ascending to
Moraine and Grand Parks by way of the Carbon Valley, and in following
the Mowich watershed, Crater Lake, and Spray Park routes.
Approaching the park from the east the routes pass through open
western yellow pine forests and western larch stands. Since Mount
Rainier is west of and apart from the summit line, these species
which are peculiar to the eastern slope are not found within the
limits of the park.
Fig. 1.—Whitened spectral monuments of a former forest which was swept by
a severe forest fire in 1885. Taken along the road to Camp of the Clouds at
an altitude of 5,500 feet.
Photograph by A.H. Barnes.
Notwithstanding the shortness of the summer season at high altitudes,
the subalpine forests in some parts of the park have suffered
severely from fire (fig. 1). The bare white trunks of fire-killed
amabilis and alpine firs bear witness to numerous fires which occurred
from time to time before the regulations governing the park
went into effect. The little resin pockets in the bark of these trees
blaze fiercely for a short time and the heat separates the bark from
the trunk. In this way the tree is killed, although the naked trunk
is left untouched by fire. The destruction of the alpine forest in
this way is often erroneously attributed to disease or to the depredations
of insects.
There has been little apparent change in the alpine burns within
the last 30 years. Reforestation at high altitudes is extremely slow.
The seed production is rather scanty and the ground conditions are
not favorable for its reproduction. It will take more than one century
for nature to replace the beautiful groves which have been destroyed
by the carelessness of the first visitors to the mountain.
At low elevations the forest recovers more rapidly from the effects
of fire. Between the subalpine areas and the river valleys there are
several large ancient burns which are partly reforested. The most
extensive of these tracts is the Muddy Fork burn. It is crossed by the
Stevens Canyon Trail from Reflection Lakes through the Ohanopecosh
Hot Springs. This burn includes an area of 20 square miles in
the park and extends north nearly to the glaciers and south for several
miles beyond the park boundary nearly to the main Cowlitz
River. The open sunlit spaces and wide outlooks afforded by reforested
tracts of this character present a strong contrast to the deep
shades and dim vistas of the primitive forest. On the whole they
have a cheerful and pleasing appearance, very different from the
sad, desolate aspect of the alpine burns which less kindly conditions
of climate and exposure have kept from reforestation.
The original forest was fire killed many years before the coming
of the white man. A few naked and weather beaten stubs are still
standing. Only the larger of the fallen trunks remain, and these
are rotten except for a few seasoned and weatherworn shells. The
second growth is of all ages, from seedlings to trees 12 to 14 inches
in diameter. Vine maple, willow, and mountain ash have sprung up
along the streams and the hillsides are covered with huckleberry
bushes and a variety of grasses and flowering plants.
Similar old burns are found on the ridge between Huckleberry
Creek and White River, in the northeastern part of the park, and
on the ridge between Tahoma Creek and Kautz Creek below Henrys
Hunting Ground.
The old burns in the middle altitudes of the park occupy regions
once frequented by the Klickitat Indians. Every summer parties
of hunters and berry pickers from the sagebrush plains crossed the
Cascades with their horses. They followed the high divides and open
summits of the secondary ridges until they came around to the
open parks about Mount Rainier where they turned their horses out
to graze and made their summer camp. The woman picked huckleberries
and the men hunted deer and goats. They made great fires
to dry their berries and kindled smudges to protect their horses from
flies. It was also their custom to systematically set out fires as they
returned. Burning made the country better for the Indians. The
fires kept down the brush and made it more accessible. Deer could
be more easily seen and tracked and the huckleberry patches spread
more widely over the hills.
No considerable part of the lower forests of the park has been
burned. The principal danger is from lightning. However, few of
the trees struck are ignited and these fires are usually extinguished
by the rain. On account of the coolness of the air and its greater
humidity the fire danger in the forests on the lower slopes of Mount
Rainier seems much less than it is in corresponding situations in the
main range of the Cascades.
Trees grow more rapidly at low altitudes than at higher and
cooler elevations. Under similar conditions some species increase in
size faster than others, but the rate of growth depends principally
upon environment. The average increase at the stump in valley land
is about 1 inch in 6 years. A Douglas fir growing along the stage
road between the park boundary and Longmire's, at the age of 90 to
120 years may have a breast diameter of 20 inches and yield 700 feet
of saw timber. But many of the trees of this size may be much
older on account of having grown in the shade or under other
adverse conditions. The trees between 200 and 300 years of age are
often 40 to 50 inches in diameter and may yield an average of from
2,700 to 5,500 board feet. The largest Douglas firs are sometimes
over 400 years old and 60 to 70 inches in diameter. Such trees when
sound will produce over 8,000 feet of lumber.
The western red cedar has a shorter and more tapering trunk and
its volume in board feet is proportionally smaller. A tree 50 inches
in diameter and 175 feet high contains about 3,400 board feet.
The size of the trees decreases rapidly at higher elevations. In the
subalpine forest the annual growth is very small. At elevations of
6,000 feet the white-bark pine requires 200 years to attain a diameter
of 10 or 12 inches. The annual rings are so close together that they
can not be distinguished without a magnifying glass.
The Douglas fir (figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5) is the best known and the
most important timber tree of western North America. It is found
from British Columbia southward to northern Mexico. The finest
forests occur in Oregon and Washington at low elevations. The
Douglas fir is common in the park up to 3,500 feet, sometimes in
nearly pure stands, but more often mixed with other species. It
grows in all situations. In the higher mountains it prefers warm
southern exposures and is seldom found on wind-swept ridges. It
seeds annually, but most profusely at intervals three or four years
apart. The red squirrels gather and store large quantities of the
cones in order to provide a supply of the seeds for their winter rations.
The growth of the young tree is very rapid. As the tree becomes
older the rate of growth varies with the situation and the
character of the soil so that the size does not closely determine the
age of the tree.
Fig. 2.—Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia).
The Douglas fir is a long-lived tree, and specimens are occasionally
found 250 to 270 feet high and over 8 feet in diameter and between
400 and 500 years in age. It reaches its greatest height and
most perfect proportions in mature even-age stands growing on fairly
moist well-drained bench lands. Under these conditions it is a very
tall and beautiful tree. The trunk is straight, round, and free from
branches for two-thirds of its height and tapers gently to the crown.
The dark-brown deep-furrowed bark is 5 to 10 inches thick at the
base of the tree.
The Douglas fir ranks first among the trees of the Pacific slope in
importance for the production of lumber. It is often sold under
the name of Oregon pine. Lumber dealers class the coarse-grained
reddish wood produced by the young growth in open forests as "red
fir." The older growth produced when the forest is more dense
is a finer grained and more valuable wood, sold under the name of
"yellow fir."
Fig. 3.—Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia).
The Douglas fir is used for nearly all purposes where durability,
strength, and hardness are desirable. It is made into dimension
timbers, lumber, flooring, and is particularly adapted for masts and
spars. The lumber is shipped by rail to the Middle Western States.
The foreign cargo shipments are made to all parts of the world.
The greatest amount goes to Australia, the west and east coasts of
South America, China, the United Kingdom, and Europe, Japan,
and the South Sea Islands. Coastwise shipments are made to California,
Alaska, and Panama. Large quantities of the seed of this
tree are sent to Europe, where the Douglas fir is grown for timber
and for ornament.
Fig. 4.—Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia).
The western red cedar (title page and fig. 5) ranges from south-eastern
Alaska to northern California. It is a common tree in the
park. It occurs in patches along the river bottoms where the flat
scalelike foliage is conspicuous among the needle-shaped leaves of
the hemlock and fir. The bark is fibrous in appearance and may be
readily separated into long strips. The trunks of the older trees are
swelled and irregularly fluted at the base. The leaves are fragrant
and the wood has a pleasing aromatic odor. Nearly all the large
trees are hollow at the butt. The roots spread laterally to a great
distance, but extend only for a short distance below the surface of the
ground. The tree is easily overthrown by the wind and usually
grows in sheltered localities. On account of the thinness of the bark
it is easily killed by fire.
Fig. 5.—Two big Douglas firs and a western red cedar (on the left) along the
road up the Nisqually Valley, Mount Rainier National Park.
Photograph by A.H. Denman.
The red cedar flourishes on fertile and well-watered soils near sea
level, where it grows to an enormous size. In the park it is a smaller
tree, 150 to 170 feet high and rarely more than 4 or 5 feet through
above the swollen butt. It grows occasionally up to an altitude of
4,000 feet, but is a small and insignificant tree in the high mountains.
In the sapling stage the red cedar grows rapidly. The mature
tree increases very slowly in size. It exceeds all other trees in the
Cascades in longevity. Individuals more than 500 years old are not
uncommon and there is a well-authenticated instance where the annual
rings indicated a growth of more than 1,100 years.
While the red cedar forms no great proportion of the forest of the
Pacific Northwest, it is peculiarly valuable to the pioneer on account
of the durability of the wood and the ease with which it can be split
into boards, shakes, and planking. The early settlers used cedar
split by hand as a substitute for sawn lumber in flooring and finishing
their cabins and for the tables and shelves with which they were
furnished. The Indians hollowed the great trunks with fire and
made them into canoes, some of which were large and seaworthy
enough to be used on the Sound and in making voyages along the
coast. They wove the fibrous roots into baskets that carried water
and plaited the bark into matting. The wood of the red cedar is
reddish brown in color. It is soft, light, and very brittle, but very
durable. It is extensively used for shingles, the manufacture of
which forms one of the important industries of the State. The clear
logs are sawed into lumber used for siding, interior and exterior
finish, moldings, tank stock, and similar purposes. Common logs
are utilized for shingles. In many localities the entire tree is cut
into 52–inch bolts, which are hauled to the mills or floated to them
down the streams.
The western red cedar makes excellent posts and rails for farm
fences. The young trees are used for telegraph and telephone poles.
Next to the Douglas fir the western hemlock is the most abundant
tree in the forests of Oregon and Washington. It occurs from
Alaska southward to northern California. About Mount Rainier it
is found up to an altitude of 5,000 feet. In the river valleys in moist
situations it is a large tree, sometimes reaching a height of 250 feet
and a diameter of 5 feet. On the high ridges it is stunted. It grows
best on moist deep soils in dense forests, but thrives under almost all
conditions of soil and exposure if provided with plenty of moisture.
Western hemlock (figs. 6 and 7) is usually associated with Douglas
fir and red cedar, but sometimes forms a forest of nearly pure growth.
The hemlock produces abundant seed each year, although it is more
prolific at irregular intervals. The seeds germinate readily on decayed
moss and rotten wood as well as upon the mineral soil. Seedlings
frequently grow on fallen logs and extend their vigorous roots
around the side until they reach the ground and become firmly anchored
in it. Young hemlocks thrive in the shade. On logged-off
areas which have not been burned over and which are partially
shaded by uncut trees, the reproduction of hemlock springs up, to the
exclusion of the more valuable Douglas fir.
Fig. 6.—The lower slope forest, near Longmire Springs, altitude 3,000 feet,
here composed largely of western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla); the tree
on the extreme left is a Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia).
Photograph by A.H. Barnes.
The hemlock is long lived and grows slowly. The largest trees
are from 200 to 500 years old and are usually hollow-hearted. The
bark is thin and the tree very easily killed by ground fire. The wood
of the hemlock is tough, light, and straight grained. It is not as
durable as the Douglas fir and decays rapidly when exposed to the
weather. The clear lumber is suitable for interior finish. The wood
is also used for flooring, joists, lath, and paper pulp. The common
and rough lumber does not find a ready market, except for the
limited amount used in temporary construction. The western hemlock
is, however, superior to the eastern hemlock, and its value will
probably be recognized as its usefulness for many purposes becomes
better known.
Fig. 7.—A forest of Douglas fir, with an understory of western hemlock, on the
lower slopes of the hills, Mount Rainier National Park.
Photograph by A.H. Denman.
The western white pine (fig. 8) is found from southern Alaska to
northern California. In the park it occurs occasionally up to 4,000
feet. It usually grows on level benches and gentle slopes associated
with Douglas fir, western hemlock, and noble and amabilis fir. It
reaches its best development at elevations of from 3,000 to 3,500
feet, where it attains a height of 150 feet and a diameter of 40 inches.
The shaft is straight, cylindrical, and clear of limbs. It bears a small,
narrow crown of drooping branches. In open areas, where it is
exposed to sunlight, its mode of growth is wholly different. The
trunk is short, rapidly tapering, and bears wide-spreading branches
nearly to the ground. At high elevations the western white pine is
very short and stunted.
Fig. 8.—Western white pine (Pinus monticola).
Diameter 24 inches, height 50 feet.
Although the western white pine is not a common tree in the park,
it is often noticed on account of its abundance of slender, pendant
cones, 6 to 10 inches long. They mature every two years and shed
their seed early in September. The seed are provided with long
wings and are often carried by the wind for a great distance from the
parent tree.
The wood is light, soft, free from pitch, and the most valuable of
any of the pines of the Cascades. It is used for interior finish, pattern
making, and other purposes. The supply of this tree is so limited
that it is not of great commercial importance in the Mount
Rainier region.
Amabilis fir (figs. 9 and 10) ranges from southern Alaska to Oregon.
It is abundant in the park at elevations from 2,500 to 5,000 feet
on level bench lands, and gentle slopes with a northern exposure. It
is rarely found in unmixed stands, but is usually associated with
western hemlock, Douglas fir, and noble fir. The largest trees are
150 to 180 feet high and 3 to 5 feet in diameter. In dense forests the
stem is free from branches for 50 to 100 feet.
Fig. 9.—Amabilis fir (Abies amabilis).
At altitudes over 4,000 feet, small amabilis firs often occur in
clusters and open groves. The trunk is covered with branches which
grow to the ground, turning downward and outward in long graceful
curves, admirably adapted to withstand the pressure of the
frozen snow. The foliage is a deep and brilliant green, forming
a strong contrast to the dark-purple cones. The seeds ripen each year
early in October. Like the seed of the other alpine species of trees
that grow in the cold and humid climate of the high Cascades, they
soon lose their vitality when stored in dry places. The amabilis fir
is grown in Europe as an ornamental tree. Under cultivation it loses
much of the natural grace and beauty which it acquired in adapting
itself to the deep snows and long winters of its native environment.
Fig. 10.—The forests of western hemlock, amabilis fir, and other species, on the
middle slopes of the mountains, along the Crater Lake trail, Mount Rainier
National Park.
Photograph by Geo. O. Ceasar.
The bark is thin and the tree is easily killed by fire. The wood is
straw colored, compact, and straight grained. It is not strong and
splits easily. It is sold to some extent under the name of larch or
mixed with inferior grades of fir and hemlock. The lumber is of little
value commercially.
The noble fir (figs. 11 and 12) is a common mountain tree in the
western parts of Washington and Oregon. Like amabilis fir, it is
usually called larch by lumbermen. About Mount Rainier it grows
at elevations of from 3,500 to 5,000 feet in dense stands associated
with amabilis fir, western hemlock, and Douglas fir. The noble fir
avoids steep side hills and exposed situations. In moist soils on flats
and gentle slopes it often reaches a height of from 150 to 200 feet.
The tall and upright trunk supports a rounded crown of bluish
green foliage, which is very noticeable among the purer green leaves
of its associates. The branches are short, thick, and crowded with
stiff, flattened leaves, which turn upward and outward. The light-green
bract-covered cones are sometimes 6 inches long and nearly
3 inches thick. They ripen early in September. Seed is borne
every year, although in some seasons it is much more abundant than
in others.
Fig. 11.—Noble fir (Abies nobilis).
Fig. 12.—Noble fir (Abies nobilis), 6 feet in diameter.
The wood is strong, close grained, and elastic. It is used for
lumber and particularly for inside finishing. The noble fir is a
slow-growing and long-lived tree. Old trees in mixed forests are
easily distinguished from the associated species by the ashy-brown
outer bark broken into large irregular plates.
Fig. 13.—A cluster of Alpine firs (Abies lasiocarpa), whose spire-shaped crowns
are characteristic, at 5,500 feet altitude, in Cowlitz Park, Mount Rainier
National Park.
Photograph by A.H. Barnes.
The alpine fir (fig. 13) ranges from Alaska to New Mexico. It
is a common tree in the park at elevations above 4,500 feet. It is a
tree of the high mountains and with the white bark pine and the
mountain hemlock, is found up to the limit of arborescent life. It
demands moisture and is generally restricted to regions of deep
snowfall.
The alpine fir occurs in unmixed stands, but is often associated
with the mountain hemlock. At the lower levels of its range it is
a fair-sized tree 50 or 60 feet high. The crown of deep-green foliage
is broad at the base and tapers to the top, where it terminates in a
slender, pointed tip. At its upper limit it becomes a stunted shrub,
with wide extended branches resting on the ground.
The alpine fir bears upright clusters of deep-purple cones. It
seeds sparingly each year. The seasons of heavy seed production
occur at intervals of three or four years. The wood is soft and splits
easily. It is of no commercial value. The tree is easily killed by
fire, which blisters the thin bark and frequently springs into the
drooping lower branches.
The grand fir (fig. 14), like several other species, is generally
given the name of white fir on account of its smooth, light-colored
bark. It is a common tree in the river bottoms from British Columbia
south to northern California. In the Mount Rainier National
Park it occurs up to 4,000 feet. The grand fir is a moisture-loving
tree and is usually found firmly rooted in deep alluvial bottom
lands along the banks of streams. With the Douglas fir, hemlock,
and red cedar it forms the dense forest characteristic of the lower
mountain valleys.
In favorable conditions the grand fir grows to a height of from
100 to 200 feet and is a noble and stately tree. The trunk tapers
rapidly and bears a rounded pyramidal crown. In dense forests the
trunk is clear for half its height, but where the trees stand in the
open it carries its branches nearly to the ground. The leaves are a
bright and shining green. The large light-green cones mature early
in the fall. The wood is soft and very heavy before it is seasoned.
It rots in a very short time when laid on the ground. When dry it is
white, coarse-grained, light, and odorous. It is used for interior
finish and for crates and packing boxes, but is of little value commercially.
The Engelmann spruce (fig. 15) is a mountain tree ranging from
British Columbia to Arizona and New Mexico. It is common along
the summit and on the east side of the Cascade Range and occurs
on the northeastern and eastern slopes of Mount Rainier at elevations
of from 3,500 to 6,000 feet.
This tree requires a moist soil and prefers cool northern exposures.
Up to 5,000 feet it commonly grows in sheltered basins at the head
of canyons and in stream valleys. At its upper limits it is common
on flats and depressions and about lakes on level summits. It avoids
steep mountain sides and exposed situations.
Fig. 14.—Grand fir (Abies grandis).
The Engelmann spruce is easily distinguished from its associates
by its stiff, bluish-green pointed leaves, which prick the hand when
they are grasped. In the mountain parks it is a handsome tree 50 to
60 feet high. When it stands apart from other trees the lower
branches are thick and long and extend to the ground. The crown
is very broad at the base, but narrow and spirelike at the top. The
Engelmann spruce reaches its best development at low elevations,
where it often grows in dense, pure stands. Under these conditions
it reaches a height of 100 feet. The bole is straight and free from
limbs and the top is short and compact.
Fig. 15.—Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmanni).
The young cones are massed in upright green and purple clusters
at the tips of the upper branches. They are notable for the purity
and brilliance of their coloring. As they mature they become pendant
and fade to a light brown. The seed is produced in abundance
nearly every year, although small and seedling trees are not usually
numerous.
The wood is soft, white, compact, and even grained. It is free
from pitch and odor. It is valuable for boxing, cooperage, and certain
kinds of finish. It is also an excellent material for the tops of
violins and other stringed instruments. The Engelmann spruce is,
however, of little importance as a timber tree on account of its
scarcity and the scattered stands in which it grows. It is a long-lived
tree unless attacked by fire, to which it is very vulnerable.
Fig. 16.—A group of yellow cypresses (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) on the
high slopes of Mount Rainier National Park, altitude about 6,000 feet.
Photograph by A.H. Barnes.
Yellow cypress (fig. 16) ranges from the seacoast of southern
Alaska south to the mountains of Washington and Oregon. It occurs
in the park up to the elevation of 7,000 feet. It is common on northern
exposures, along streams, and in basins at the head of canyons.
It also grows on crests and ridges, where the frequent showers and
fogs supply the moisture which it demands. In sheltered localities it
grows to a height of 75 or 80 feet, but it is commonly a small tree
with, a bent and twisted stem,
which, with its pendulous
branches, presents a somewhat
scrubby appearance. The foliage
is green, sometimes with a
bluish tinge. It resembles that
of the common western red cedar,
but the leaves are sharper,
more pointed, and rougher to
handle. The small, rounded,
inconspicuous cones are produced
somewhat sparingly.
The bark of the young tree is
red. On the mature tree it becomes
gray and fibrous. The
wood is yellow, close grained,
and aromatic. Unlike that of
the western red cedar, the trunk
is usually sound to the center.
The wood is used for boat
building and cabinetwork. It
is very durable.
The yellow cypress grows
very slowly, particularly at
high elevations. The number
of annual rings on trees 15 to 20
inches in diameter indicate that
they are over 200 years old.
Lodgepole pine (fig. 17) is
widely distributed from Alaska
to Lower California and eastward
through the Rockies to Dakota and Colorado. It occurs
sparingly in the park up to 5,000 feet above sea level. It adapts
itself easily to the different conditions of soil, moisture, and exposure.
Fig. 17.—Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta),
60 inches in diameter.
This tree varies greatly in the different regions where it is found.
About Mount Rainier it does not often exceed 20 to 40 feet in height
and is often a much smaller tree. It produces cones at the age of 5
to 7 years. The foliage is a yellowish green. At high elevations the
leaves have a peculiar whorled appearance which gives it a different
aspect from that of the other pines. The short, heavily limbed trunk
bears no resemblance to the tall and slender shaft of the lodgepole
pine of the Rocky Mountains. The root system is shallow and the
tree is easily fire killed. The wood of the variety which grows in
the park is of no commercial value.
Fig. 18.—The feathery foliage of mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana),
Grand Park, Mount Rainier National Park.
Photograph by A.H. Denman.
The mountain hemlock (figs. 18, 19, and 20) is found on the Pacific
coast from the Sierras of California to the northern part of Alaska
where it grows at sea level. On Mount Rainier it occurs at altitudes
of from 3,500 to 7,500 feet. It forms dense forests under 4,500 feet,
where it is often a fair-sized tree 50 to 90 feet high. With the ascent
of the mountain it diminishes in height and the branches become
gnarled and twisted. Near timber line the trunk is dwarfed and
bent at the base and the crown becomes a flattened mass of branches
lying close to the ground (fig. 20).
Fig. 19.—Two solitary mountain hemlocks (Tsuga mertensiana), Spray Park,
Mount Rainier National Park.
Photograph by Geo. O. Ceasar.
The mountain hemlock is abundant on high, rocky ridges, but the
best stands are on cool, moist soil at the heads of ravines, on flats, and
on gentle slopes with a northern exposure.
This tree seeds every year. In good seed years the upper branches
are laden with a profusion of beautiful, deep-purple cones, often
in such abundance as to bend down the branchlets with their weight.
The reproduction is slow. In the high mountains the trees are
buried in snow from October to late in June, and the growing season
is very short.
Fig. 20.—A gnarled, wind-swept mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana), near
the upper limits of tree growth, Spray Park, Mount Rainier National Park.
Photograph by A.H. Denman.
The white-bark pine (fig. 21) grows close to timber line in the
mountains of the Pacific coast from British Columbia to southern
California. In the Canadian Rockies it extends north to the
fifty-third parallel. It is the most alpine of all the pines. Its lower limit
on Mount Rainier is about 5,000 feet above sea level. In sheltered
places where the soil is deep the trees are sometimes 30 to 40 feet
high and 20 inches in diameter. The trunks are free from limbs for
8 or 10 feet. The outer bark, from which the tree derives its name,
consists of thin, light-gray scales.
As the white-bark pine advances up the mountain its habit changes
rapidly. The stem shortens and becomes gnarled and twisted. The
tough, flexible branches reach the ground and spread over it to a
great distance from the tree. On rocky summits and the bleak crests
of wind-swept ridges the twisted trunk and branches are quite prostrate
and the crown is a dense flattened mass of foliage.
The roots of the tree are deep, long, and tenacious. They spread
wide and deep and cling so firmly to the rocks that the tree is rarely
overthrown by the violent winds that sweep over the mountain.
Fig. 21.—A white-bark pine (Pinus albicaulis) in its characteristic mountain
habitat, Mount Rainier National Park.
Photograph by A.H. Denman.
The thick, purple cones require two years to mature. They ripen
early in September and produce chocolate-brown seeds a little larger
than a grain of corn. They are much relished by the Klickitat Indians,
who go to considerable pains to secure them. The wood is
close grained and resinous. It makes excellent fuel for the camp fires
of sheep herders and mountain travelers.
The western yew is found from southern Alaska to northern California.
It occurs in the park up to 4,000 feet, growing in rich,
gravelly soil on moist flats and benches and in deep ravines. It is
a small branching tree, rarely over 20 feet high. The bark is purple
or reddish brown. The branches extend almost to the ground. It
bears a small, bright, amber-red berry.
The dark-brown or red heartwood is very tough, hard and heavy.
It takes a fine polish and is used for fancy cabinetwork. The Indians
use it for spear handles, bows, and fishhooks.
Fig. 22.—Broadleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum).
The silva of the Western Cascades is rich in evergreens remarkable
for their size and beauty. The deciduous trees are few and insignificant.
The forests of the park are almost wholly coniferous. Vine
maple and willow are found as undergrowth. On the margins of
rivers there are occasional groves of alders and cottonwoods. The
lighter hues of the branching trunks and the changing tints of the
foliage in these patches of broad-leaved woodland present a pleasing
diversity to the evergreen forest.
Broadleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum) (fig. 22), the largest of
the Pacific coast maples, ranges from Alaska to southern California.
Near sea level it often attains a height of 50 or 60 feet. In
the park it is a short-stemmed, branching tree, occasionally found
on the borders of streams. It grows at elevations under 3,000 feet.
Fig. 23.—Vine maple (Acer circinatum).
Vine maple (Acer circinatum) (fig. 23) is abundant from British
Columbia to northern California. On rich river bottoms it is
sometimes 15 to 20 feet high and 6 inches in diameter. In the park
it is usually a bush or low shrub with a bent and curiously crooked
stem, growing along streams and as undergrowth in the forest. It is
very common up to 3,000 feet. In autumn the leaves are a bright scarlet.
The wood is tough and elastic and makes a hot and lasting fire.
Fig. 24.—Red alder (Alnus oregona).
Fig. 25.—Black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa).
Red alder (Alnus oregona) (fig. 24) occurs from Alaska to southern
California. It is common about Mount Rainier, in river bottoms,
on the banks of large streams, and in swampy places. It
usually grows to a height of 30 or 40 feet. The bark varies from
nearly white to light gray. It is the most abundant of all the
deciduous trees in the park.
Black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa) (fig. 25) is common from
Alaska to southern California. It is occasionally found in the park
up to 4,000 feet. It grows along streams and on sandy river bottoms
often associated with the alder. The leaves are almost always in
motion, very gentle winds being sufficient to make them twinkle and
turn.
The wood is soft, but tough and compact. It is used for staves,
woodenware, wood pulp, trunks, barrels, and for drawer bottoms.
