The kingdom of New Spain[IV'-2] lies between 16° and 44°
N. lat., and 96° and 118° W. long. It is divided into
two separate and independent governments, and these
again into various subdivisions.
I. The viceroyalty includes:
1. The administration of Guadalaxara,[IV'-3] which lies between
18° 30´ and 24° 30´ N. lat., and 104° and 109° W. long., and
is bounded south and west by the South Sea, north by the
provinces of Biscay [Nueva Viscaya] and Sinaloa; N. E.
by the administration of Zacatecas; E. by the administration
of Guanaxuato, and S. E. by that of Valladolid. It is
350 miles in length from northwest to southeast, and 250
in width east and west. Its population may be estimated
at 100,000. It is one of the most luxuriant and rich administrations
in the viceroyalty; and is watered from east to
west by the great river de Santego [Rio Grande de Santiago],
which receives most of its waters from Lac [Lago]
de Chapala. Guadalaxara, the capital, was built by one of
the Gusman family in 1551, and in 1570 the bishopric was
removed from Compostela to that place. It is the seat of
the audience of Guadalaxara, which includes Guadalaxara
and the administration of Zacatecas. The population of
this city may be estimated at 75,000; it stands in N. lat.
20° 50´, W. long. 105°.
2. The administration of Valladolid[IV'-4] lies between 22° 10´
and 18° 12´ N. lat., and 102° and 105° W. long., and is
bounded south by the South sea [Pacific ocean] and part of
Mexico, east and northeast by the latter, and north by that
of Guanaxuato. Its greatest length from northeast to southwest
is 230 miles, and its greatest width, east and west, 190
miles. Its population may be estimated at 360,000. Its
capital of the same name is situated in about 20° N. lat.,
103° 25´´ W. long. Population unknown.
3. The administration of Mexico[IV'-5] lies between 21° 30´
and 16° 30´ N. lat., and 99° and 105° W. long., and is
bounded south by the South Sea, east by the governments
of La Puebla and La Vera Cruz, north by that of St. Louis,
and west by Valladolid and Guanaxuato. Its greatest
length, north and south, may be 360 miles, and its greatest
width, which is on the Western Ocean, is 200 miles. Its
population may be estimated at 1,500,000 souls. The capital
of this administration, and of the whole kingdom, is
Mexico; a particular description of which is deemed unnecessary.
From every information I could obtain from persons
who had resided in it for years, it does not contain
more than 200,000 inhabitants. Its being the residence of
the viceroy, whose court is more splendid than that at
Madrid; its central position as to the ports of Acapulco
and Vera Cruz; together with the rich and luxuriant vale
which surrounds it, will, whenever the Spanish Americans
burst the present bonds of slavery in which they are bound,
give to Mexico all those advantages which great wealth, a
large population, and a commanding situation concentrate,
and assuredly make it one of the greatest cities in the
world. In point of population, it is now in the second
rank, and in beauty, riches, magnificence, and splendor, in
the first.
4. The administration of Oxaca [Oaxaca or Oajaca[IV'-6]] lies
between 18° and 16° N. lat., and 98° and 112° W. long.,
and is bounded south by the South Sea, west by the government
of La Puebla, north by Mexico and Vera Cruz,
and east by the province of Gualamalia [Guatemala]. Its
greatest length, east and west, is 230 miles, and its width,
north and south, 175 miles. Its population may be estimated
at 520,000 souls. Its capital is Oxaca, in 17° 30´ N.
lat., 99° 25´ W. long.
5. The administration of Vera Cruz[IV'-7] lies between 17°
and 22° N. lat., and 98° and 101° W. long., and is bounded
north and east by the gulf of Mexico, south by Oxaca, west
by Puebla and Mexico. Its greatest length, N. W. and S.
E., is 430 miles, and its width, E. and W., not more than
60 miles. Its population may be estimated at 220,000. Its
capital is Vera Cruz, which is the sole port of entry for all
the kingdom on the Atlantic ocean, as that of Acapulco is
on the Western. Its population may be estimated at 30,000
souls, and is in 19° 10´ N. lat. and 98° 30´ W. long. This
city was taken and sacked by the English on the 17th of
May, 1683, since which the works for its defense [present
Castle of San Juan de Ulúa] have been made so very
strong as almost to bid defiance to an attack from the sea.
6. The administration de la Puebla[IV'-8] lies between 20° and
16° N. lat., and 100° and 102° W. long., and is bounded
south by the South sea, east by Oxaca and Vera Cruz,
north and west by Mexico; it is near 300 miles in its
greatest length from north to south, and 120 in its greatest
width from east to west. Its population may be estimated
at 800,000 souls. Its capital is the city of La Puebla, estimated
at 80,000 souls, which is in 19° 12´ N. lat., and 100°
50´ W. long.
7. The administration of Guanaxuato [or Guanajuato[IV'-9]]
lies between 21° 30´ and 23° 30´ N. lat., and 103° and 105°
W. long., and is bounded south by Valladolid, east by
Mexico, south by St. Louis [and] Zacataca, and west by
Guadalaxara. Its greatest extent, from north to south, is
75 miles, and from east to west, 85. Its population may
be estimated at 500,000 souls. Its capital city is Guanaxuato,
in lat. 21° N., long. 103° W.
8. The administration of Zacataca [Zacatecas[IV'-10]] lies between
21° 20´ and 24° 52´ N. lat., and 103° and 105° 30´
W. long., and is bounded north by the internal province of
Biscay, east by St. Louis, west by Guadalaxara, and south by
Guanaxuato. Its greatest length is 210 miles, north and
south, and its greatest width is 145 miles, from east to west.
Its population may be estimated at 250,250 souls. The
capital, Zacataca, stands in 23° N. lat. and 104° W. long.
9. The administration of St. Louis [San Luis Potosí[IV'-11]]
lies between 21° 20´ and 28° 50´ N. lat., and 99° and 102°
W. long., includes Texas and St. Ander [Nuevo Santander]
in this dimension, and is bounded north by New Leon,
east by the province of St. Ander, south by Guanaxuato
and Mexico, and west by Zacataca. Its greatest length
from north to south is 200, and its width from east to west
is 170 miles. Its population may be estimated at 311,500
souls. Its capital is St. Louis de Potosi, the population of
which is 60,000; it stands in 22° N. lat., 103° W. long.,
and was founded in 1568 [1576].
II. The province of Nuevo San Ander [Santander[IV'-12]] is
bounded north by the province of Texas, west by Nuevo
Leon and Cogquillo [Coahuila], south by St. Louis, and
east by the Atlantic Ocean; from north to south it is about
500 miles in length, but from east to west not more than
150. Its population may be estimated at 38,000 souls.
The capital, New San Ander [Nuevo Santander], is on the
river of that name [also known as the Rio Jimenez, and
Rio de las Palmas], about 40 miles from the sea, in 23° 45´
N. lat. and 101° W. long.
III. The kingdom of New Leon [Nuevo Leon[IV'-13]] is
bounded east by New San Ander, north by Cogquilla,
west by Biscay, and south by St. Louis and Zacataca; its
greatest length north and south is 250 miles; width, east
and west, 100 miles. Its population may be estimated at
30,000 souls. Its capital, Mont El Rey [Monterey], is situated
on the headwaters of Tiger river, which discharges
into the gulf of Mexico. The city of Mont El Rey contains
about 11,000 souls, and is the seat of the bishop,
Don Dio Premiro, who visited the port of Natchitoches
when it was commanded by Captain Turner, of the 2d U.
S. regiment of infantry. His episcopal jurisdiction extends
over Nuevo San Ander, New Leon, Cogquilla, and Texas,
and his salary is equal to $100,000 per annum. Mont El
Rey is situated in 26° N. lat. and 102° W. long. There are
many rich mines near the city of Mont El Rey, whence, I
am informed, there are taken to be coined 100 mule-loads
of bullion in silver and gold monthly, which may be presumed
to be not more than the three-fifths of what is taken
from the mines, as there are many persons who prefer never
getting their metal coined, as then it is not so easily ascertained
what they are worth, which is an all-important secret
in a despotic government.
The foregoing nine administrations or intendencias, the
province of Nuevo San Ander, and the kingdom of [Nuevo]
Leon, are included in the two audiences of Guadalaxara
and Mexico, and form, as I believe, the whole political government
of the viceroy of Mexico; but I am not positive
whether his jurisdiction does not include the audience of
Guatimalia [Guatemala], which lies to the south, and includes
the province of that name, that of Chiapa [Chiapas],
Yucatan, Veraqua [Veragua], Costa Rica, and Honduras.
An audience is the high court of appeals in which the
viceroy presides and has two votes; it is intended as a
check on his power and authority.
The administrations are governed by intendants, who are
officers of high rank, and always Europeans.
The longitude given is from the meridian of Paris.
In the general view of New Spain,[IV'-14] I shall take some
notice of the manners, customs, political force, etc., of the
viceroyalty; but, as I do not pretend to be correctly
informed as to that quarter of the kingdom, and there have
been so many persons who have given statements on those
heads, I shall confine my observations principally to the
internal provinces through which I passed, and on which I
made my observations.
INTERNAL PROVINCES.
1. New Mexico. [Geography. The province of New
Mexico] lies between lat. 30° 30´ and 44° N., and long. 104°
and 108° W., and is the most northern province of the kingdom
of New Spain. It extends northwest into an undefined
boundary, is bounded north and east by Louisiana, south by
Biscay and Cogquilla, and west by Senora and California.[IV'-15]
Its length is unknown; its breadth may be 600 miles; but
the inhabited part is not more than 400 miles in length and
50 in breadth, lying along the river del Norte, from lat. 37°
to 31° 30´ N.; but in this space there is a desert of more
than 250 miles.
Air and Climate. No persons accustomed to reside in
the temperate climate of lat. 36° and 37° N. in the United
States can form any idea of the piercing cold which is experienced
on that parallel in New Mexico; but the air is
serene and unaccompanied by damps or fogs, as it rains but
once a year, and some years not at all. It is a mountainous
country. The grand dividing ridges which separate the
waters of the rio del Norte from those of California border
it on the line of its western limits, and are covered, in some
places, with eternal snows, which give a keenness to the air
that could not be calculated upon or expected in a temperate
zone.
Timber and Plains. The cotton tree [Populus] is the
only tree of this province, except some scrubby pines and
cedars at the foot of the mountains [and many other species
there and elsewhere]. The former borders the banks of the
rio del Norte and its tributary streams. All the rest of
the country presents to the eye a barren wild of poor land,
scarcely to be improved by culture, and appears to be only
capable of producing sufficient subsistence for those animals
which live on succulent plants and herbage.
Mines, Minerals, and Fossils. There are no mines known
in the province, except one of copper situated in a mountain
on the west side of the rio del Norte, in lat. 34° N. [see
note26, p. 637]. It is worked, and produces 20,000 mule-loads
of copper annually. It also furnishes that article for
the manufactories of nearly all the internal provinces. It
contains gold, but not quite sufficient to pay for its extraction;
consequently it has not been pursued.
There is, near Santa Fe, in some of the mountains, a
stratum of talc, which is so large and flexible as to render it
capable of being subdivided into thin flakes, of which the
greater proportion of the houses in Santa Fe, and in all the
villages to the north, have their window-lights made.
Rivers. The river del Norte takes its source in the
mountains which give birth to the headwaters of California,
the Plata [South Platte], Pierre Jaune ["Yellowstone," i. e.,
North Platte] of the Missouri, and Arkansaw of the Mississippi,
in lat. 40° N. and long. 110° W.[IV'-16] Its distance from
its source to the gulf of Mexico may be, by its meanders,
estimated at 2,000 miles, passing through the provinces of
New Mexico, part of Biscay, Cogquilla, and New San Ander,
where it falls into the gulf at lat. 26° N. It cannot, in any
part of its course, be termed a navigable stream, owing to
the sand-bars. In the flat country and mountains in the
upper part, with which its course is interrupted, small boats
might ascend as high as the Presidio de Rio Grande in Cogquilla,
and it might be navigable for canoes in various parts
of its course. In the mountains above Santa Fe it afforded
amply sufficient water for canoe navigation, and even more
than appeared to be flowing in its bed in the plains. This
must be attributed to numerous canals and the dry sandy
soil through which the river courses, where much of the
water which flows from the mountains must be absorbed
and lost. In the province of New Mexico it is called the
Rio del Norte; below it is termed the Rio Grande; but in
no instance did I hear it called the Rio Bravo, as many of
our ancient maps designate it.
There are also, in the limits of this province, to the west,
the rivers San Rafael, San Xavier, de los Dolores, also de
los Anamas or Nabajoa, all of which join and form the great
Rio Colorado of California.[IV'-17] The two first take their
sources in the same mountains as the Rio del Norte, but on
the west side.
The river Colorado, by its meanders, may be about 1,000
miles in length, from its sources to its discharge into the
head of the gulf of California, in the 33d degree of N. lat.
[about 32°]. It has been represented to me, by men of
information and research, to be navigable for square-rigged
vessels at least 300 miles from the gulf. By this river and
the Arkansaw there could be the best communication established
between the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans. There
are represented to be various numerous and warlike nations
of Indians on its banks. Through the whole of its course
its banks are entirely destitute of timber, and indeed I was
informed that for 300 miles there was not a tree ten inches
in diameter.
The river S. Buenaventura empties into the Pacific ocean
to the north of California in 39° 30´ N. latitude, and takes its
source in the Sierre Madre to the north of the Colorado and
del Norte.[IV'-18]
The Rio Gila[IV'-19] heads opposite the copper-mines, and
discharges into the gulf of California, just below the Colorado,
in the 33d degree of N. latitude.
The Rio Puerto [Pecos[IV'-20]] is a branch of the Rio del
Norte; it comes from the north and joins that river about
100 miles below the Presidio del Norte.
None of the foregoing streams present any evidence of
civilization on their shores excepting the Rio del Norte.
Lakes. I heard of no lakes in the province, except that
of Tampanagos, the existence of which I consider very
doubtful. It is said to commence, according to Father
Escalante, in the 40th deg. N. lat., and to have been explored
to the 42d deg. in a N. W. direction, where it
enlarged its dimensions, and the discoverer thought proper
to return.[IV'-21]
Animals. North Mexico produces deer, elk, buffalo,
cabrie, the gresley [grizzly and] black bear, and wild horses.
Population. Its population is not far short of 30,000
souls, one-twentieth of which may be Spaniards from
Europe, or Chapetones [Gachupines[IV'-22]], four-twentieths
Creoles, five-twentieths Metifs, and the other half civilized
Indians.
The capital is Santa Fe, situated on a small stream which
empties into the east side of the Rio del Norte, at the foot
of the mountains which divide the waters of that river
from the Arkansaw and the Red river of the Mississippi,
in 36° N. lat. and 100° W. long. It is an oblong square,
extending about one mile from east to west on the banks
of the creek. In the centre is the public square, one side
of which forms the flank of the soldiers' square, which is
closed and in some degree defended by the round towers
in the angles which flank the four curtains; another side
of the square is formed by the palace of the governor, his
guard-houses, etc.; the third side is occupied by the priests
and their suite, and the fourth by the Chapetones who
reside in the city. The houses are generally only one
story high, with flat roofs, and have a very mean appearance
on the outside; but some of them are richly furnished,
especially with plate.
The second cities in the province are Albuquerque and
Passo [El Paso] del Norte. The latter is the most southern
city of the province, as Tons [Taos] is the most northern.
Between the village of Sibilleta and the Passo there is a
wilderness of near 200 miles [including the Jornada del
Muerto].
Trade and Commerce. New Mexico carries on a trade
direct with Mexico through Biscay [Nueva Viscaya], also
with Senora [Sonora] and Sinaloa; it sends out about
30,000 sheep annually, tobacco, dressed deer and cabrie
skins, some furs, buffalo robes, salt, and wrought copper
vessels of a superior quality. It receives in return, from
Biscay and Mexico, dry goods, confectionery, arms, iron,
steel, ammunition, and some choice European wines and
liquors; from Senora and Sinaloa, gold, silver, and cheese.
The following articles sell in this province, as stated, which
will show the cheapness of provisions and the extreme
dearness of imported goods: Flour sells, per hundred, at
$2; salt, per mule-load, $5; sheep, each, $1; beeves, each,
$5; wine del Passo, per barrel, $15; horses, each, $11;
mules, each, $30; superfine cloths, per yard, $25; fine
cloths, per yard, $20; linen, per yard, $4, and all other dry
goods in proportion.
The journey with loaded mules from Santa Fe to Mexico,
and returning to Santa Fe, takes five months. They
manufacture rough leather, cigars, a vast variety and quantity
of potters' ware, cotton, some coarse woolen cloths,
and blankets of a superior quality. All those manufactures
are carried on by the civilized Indians, as the Spaniards
think it more honorable to be agriculturists than mechanics.
The Indians likewise far exceed their conquerors in their
genius for, and execution of, all mechanical operations.
About two miles above the town of Passo del Norte is a
bridge over the river, where the road passes to the west
side, at which place is a large canal [acequia]. This takes
out an ample supply of water for the purpose of cultivation,
which is here carried on in as great perfection as at any
place that I visited in the provinces. There is a wall
bordering the canal the whole way on both sides, to protect
it from the animals; and when it arrives at the village,
it is distributed in such a manner that each person has his
fields watered in rotation. At this place were as finely
cultivated fields of wheat and other small grain as I ever
saw; and numerous vineyards, from which were produced
the finest wine ever drank in the country, which was celebrated
through all the provinces, and was the only wine
used on the table of the commanding general.
Agriculture. They cultivate corn, wheat, rye, barley,
rice, tobacco, vines, and all the common culinary plants
cultivated in the same latitude in the United States. New
Mexico has the exclusive right of cultivating tobacco. They
are, however, a century behind us in the art of cultivation;
for, notwithstanding their numerous herds of cattle and
horses, I have seen them frequently breaking up whole
fields with a hoe. Their oxen draw by the horns, after
the French mode. Their carts are extremely awkward and
clumsily made. During the whole of the time we were
in New Spain I never saw a horse in a vehicle of any
description, mules being made use of in carriages, as well
as for the purposes of labor.
Antiquities. On the river St. Francis,[IV'-23] a large branch of
the river Gila, which heads near the copper mines in New
Mexico and discharges into the Red river of California,
are the remains of old walls and houses which are ascertained
to have been the work of the Mexicans on their
route emigrating from the northwest to the plains of Mexico,
where they finally established themselves. Those walls
are of a black cement, the durability of which increases
with its age, so that it has hitherto bid defiance to the war
of time. Its composition is now entirely lost. There is
also found at this place many broken pieces of earthenware,
which still possess the glazing as perfectly as when first
put on.
Aborigines.[IV'-24] The Kyaways [Kiowas] wander on the
sources of La Platte and are supposed to be 1,000 men
strong. They possess immense herds of horses, and are at
war with both Pawnees and Tetaus [Ietans, Comanches],
as well as the Sioux. They are armed with bows, arrows,
and lances, and hunt the buffalo. This nation, with the
Tetaus and Utahs, all speak the same language. The Utahs
wander at the sources of the Rio del Norte, are supposed
to be 2,000 warriors strong, are armed in the same manner,
and pursue the same game, as the Kyaways. They are,
however, a little more civilized, from having more connection
with the Spaniards, with whom they are frequently at
war, but were then at peace, and waging war with the
Tetaus.[IV'-25]
A battle was fought between them and the Tetaus in
September, 1806, near the village of Tons [Taos]: there
were about 400 combatants on each side, but they were
separated by a Spanish alcalde riding out to the field of
battle. There were 8 or 10 killed on each side. The Utahs
gave all the horses taken to the Spaniards. This shows in a
strong degree the influence the Spaniards have over those
Indians.
The Nanahaws [Navajos[IV'-26]] are situated to the N. W. of
Santa Fe. They frequently war with the Spaniards, and are
supposed to be 2,000 warriors strong. They are armed in
the same manner as the two preceding nations. This
nation, as well as all the others to the west of them bordering
on California, speak the language of the Appaches and
Le Panis [Lipans[IV'-27]], who are in a line with them to the
Atlantic.
The Appaches[IV'-28] are a nation of Indians who extend from
the Black mountains in New Mexico to the frontiers of
Cogquilla, keeping the frontiers of three provinces in a continual
state of alarm, and making it necessary to employ
nearly 2,000 dragoons to escort the caravans, protect the
villages, and revenge the various attacks they are continually
making on the subjects of his Catholic Majesty. This
nation formerly extended from the entrance of the Rio
Grande to the Gulf of California, and have waged a continual
warfare, excepting short truces, with the Spaniards,
from the time these pushed their enterprises back from
Mexico into the internal provinces. It is extremely difficult
to say what are their numbers at the present day, but they
must be very much reduced, from their long and constant
warfare, the wandering and savage life they lead in the
mountains, which is so injurious to an increase of population,
and in which they are frequently extremely pinched
by famine.
At the commencement of their warfare the Spaniards
used to take them prisoners and make slaves of them; but
finding that their unconquerable attachment to liberty
made them surmount every difficulty and danger in returning
to their mountains, they adopted the mode of sending
them to Cuba. This the Appaches no sooner learned than
they refused to give or receive quarter, and in no instance
have any been taken since that period, except those surprised
when asleep, or knocked down and overpowered.
Their arms are the bow and arrow, and the lance. Their
bow forms two demi-circles, with a shoulder in the middle;
the back of it is entirely covered with sinews, which are
laid on in so nice a manner, by the use of some glutinous
substance, as to be almost imperceptible; this gives great
elasticity to the weapon. Their arrow is more than the
"cloth yard" of the English, being three feet and a half
long, the upper part consisting of some light rush or cane,
into which is inserted a shaft of about one foot, made of
some hard, seasoned light wood; the point is of iron, bone,
or stone, and, when the arrow enters the body, in attempting
to extract it the shaft comes out of its socket and the
point remains in the wound. With this weapon they shoot
with such force as to go through the body of a man at a
distance of 100 yards, and an officer told me that in an
engagement with them, one of their arrows struck his shield
and dismounted him in an instant. Their other weapon of
offense is a lance of 15 feet in length, with which they
charge with both hands over their heads, managing their
horses principally with their knees. With this weapon they
are considered an overmatch for any Spanish dragoon
single-handed; but, for want of a knowledge of tactics,
they can never stand the charge of a body which acts in
concert. They all carry shields. Some few are armed
with guns and ammunition taken from the Spaniards.
Those, as well as the archers, generally march to war on
foot; but the lancemen are always mounted. Numerous
are the anecdotes I have heard related of their personal
bravery and the spirit of their partisan corps. Not long
before I went into that country a cornet, with 63 dragoons,
between New Mexico and Biscay, was surrounded by about
200 Apaches' infantry. Instead of charging through them,
as [he should have done, since] it was on the plain, he
ordered his dragoons to dismount and fight with their carabines;
in consequence of which he and his whole party fell
a sacrifice.
Malgares related an instance when he was marching with
140 men and they were attacked by a party of Appaches,
both horse and foot, who continued the fight for four hours.
Whenever the Spanish dragoons would make a general
charge, the Appaches' cavalry would retreat behind their
infantry, who met the Spaniards with a shower of arrows,
who immediately retreated; and even the gallant Malgares
spoke of the Spanish cavalry's breaking the Appaches infantry
as a thing not to be thought of.
Malgares assured me that, if the Appaches had seconded
the efforts and bravery of their chieftain, the Spaniards
must have been defeated and cut to pieces; that in various
instances he rallied his men and brought them up to the
charge, and that when they fled, he retired indignantly to
the rear. Seeing Malgares very actively engaged in forming
and bringing up the Spaniards, the Appache chieftain rode
out ahead of his party and challenged him to single combat
with his lance. This my friend refused, as he said that the
chief was one of the stoutest men he knew, carried a remarkably
heavy lance, and rode a very fine charger; but one
of his corporals, enraged to see the Spaniards thus braved
by this savage, begged permission to meet the "infidel."
His officer refused his request and ordered him to keep his
ranks; but he reiterating the request, his superior in a
passion told him to go. The Indian chief had turned his
horse to join his party, but seeing an enemy advancing, he
turned, gave a shout, and met him at full speed. The
dragoon thought to parry the lance of his antagonist, which
he in part effected; but not throwing it quite high enough,
it entered his neck before and came out at the nape, when
he fell dead to the ground, and his victorious enemy gave a
shout of victory, in which he was joined by all his followers.
This enraged the Spaniards to such a degree that they made
a general charge, in which the Indian cavalry again retreated,
notwithstanding the entreaties of their gallant leader.
In another instance a small smoke was discovered on the
prairie; three poor savages were surrounded by 100 dragoons
and ordered to lay down their arms; they smiled at
the officer's demand, and asked him if he could suppose that
men who had arms in their hands would ever consent to
become slaves. The officer, being loath to kill them, held
a conference for an hour; when, finding that his threats
had as little effect as his entreaties, he ordered his men to
attack them at a distance, keeping out of the reach of their
arrows, and firing at them with their carabines, which they
did, the Indians never ceasing to resist as long as life
remained.
In a truce which was held a Spanish captain was ordered
to treat with some of the bands. He received their deputies
with hauteur, and they could not come upon terms. The
truce was broken, and the Indians retreated to their fastnesses
in the mountains. In a day or two this same officer
pursued them. They were in a place called the Door in the
Mountain, where but two or three dragoons could enter at
a time, and there were rocks and caves on the flanks behind
which the Indians secreted themselves until a number of the
Spaniards had come in. Then the Indians sounded a
trumpet; the attack began, and continued on the side of
the Appaches until the Spanish captain fell, when the Indian
chief caused the firing to cease, saying that the man who
had so haughtily spurned the proffered peace was now
dead. On this occasion they deviated from their accustomed
rule of warfare, and made a prisoner of a young
officer, who, during the truce, had treated them with great
kindness, and sent him home safe and unhurt.
Some of the bands have made temporary truces with the
Spaniards, and received from them 25 cents per diem each.
Those people hang round the fortifications of the country,
drink, shoot, and dissipate their time; they are haughty and
independent. Great jealousy exists between them and the
Spaniards. An officer was under trial, when I was in the
country, for anticipating an attack on his fortress by attacking
the chiefs of the supposed conspiracy, and putting them
to death before they had time to mature and carry their
plan into execution. The decision of his case I never
learned; but those savages who have been for some time
about the forts and villages become by far the most dangerous
enemies the Spaniards have, when hostile, as they
have acquired the Spanish language, manners, and habits,
pass through the populated parts under the disguise of
civilized and friendly Indians, commit murders and robberies,
and are not suspected. There is in the province of
Cogquilla a partisan by the name of Ralph, who, they calculate,
has killed more than 300 persons. He comes into
the towns under the disguise of a peasant, buys provisions,
goes to the gambling-tables and to mass, and before he
leaves the village is sure to kill some person or carry off a
woman, which he has frequently done. Sometimes he joins
people traveling on the road, insinuates himself into their
confidence, and takes his opportunity to assassinate them.
He has only six followers, and from their knowledge of the
country, activity, and cunning, he keeps about 300 Spanish
dragoons continually employed. The government has
offered $1,000 for his head.
The civilized Indians of the province of New Mexico are
of what were formerly 24 different bands, the different
names of which I did not become acquainted with, but the
Keres were one of the most powerful; they form at present
the population of St. Domingo, St. Philips, Deis, and one
or two other towns.[IV'-29] They are men of large stature, round
full visage, fine teeth, appear to be of a gentle, tractable
disposition, and resemble the Osage more than any nation
of whom I possess any knowledge. They are not the vassals
of individuals, yet may properly be termed the slaves
of the State, for they are compelled to do military duty,
drive mules, carry loads, or, in fact, perform any other act
of duty or bondage that the will of the commandant of the
district, or of any passing military tyrant, chooses to ordain.
I was myself eye-witness of a scene which made my heart
bleed for those poor wretches, at the same time that it
excited my indignation and contempt, that they would suffer
themselves, with arms in their hands, to be beaten and
knocked about by beings no ways their superiors, unless a
small tint of complexion could be supposed to give that
superiority. Before we arrived at Santa Fe, one night, we
were near one of the villages where resided the families of
two of our Indian horsemen. They took the liberty to pay
them a visit in the night. Next morning the whole of the
Indian horsemen were called up, and because they refused
to testify against their imprudent companions, several were
knocked down from their horses by the Spanish dragoons
with the butt of their lances; yet, with the blood streaming
down their visages, and arms in their hands, they stood cool
and tranquil—not a frown, not a word of discontent or palliation
escaped their lips. Yet what must have been the
boiling indignation of their souls at the indignities offered
by the wretch clothed with a little brief authority! The
day of retribution will come in thunder and in vengeance.
Those savages are armed with bow and arrows, and with
lances, or escopates. Although they are said to be converted
to Christianity, they still retain many of their ancient
rituals, feasts, and ceremonies, one of which is so remarkable
it must not be passed unnoticed. Once a year there is a
great feast prepared for three successive days, which they
spend in eating, drinking, and dancing. Near this scene of
amusement is a dark cave, into which not a glimpse of light
can penetrate, and in which are prepared places to repose on.
To this place persons of all description, of both sexes and
of all ages, after puberty, repair in the night, when there is
an indiscriminate commerce of the votaries, as chance, fortune,
and events direct. Those revels certainly have great
affinity to some of the ancient mystic rites of Greece and
Rome.
Government and Laws. The government of New Mexico
may be termed military, in the pure sense of the word; for
although they have their alcaldes, or inferior officers, their
judgments are subject to a reversion by the military commandants
of districts. The whole male population are subject
to military duty, without pay or emolument, and are
obliged to find their own horses, arms, and provision. The
only thing furnished by the government is ammunition. It
is extraordinary with what subordination they act when
they are turned out to do military duty. A strong proof of
this was exhibited in the expedition of Malgares to the
Pawnees. His command consisted of 100 dragoons of the
regular service and 500 drafts from the province. He had
continued down the Red river until their provision began to
be short; they then demanded of the lieutenant where he
was bound and the intention of the expedition. To this he
haughtily replied, "Wherever my horse leads me." A few
mornings after he was presented with a petition, signed by
200 of the militia, to return home. He halted immediately,
caused his dragoons to erect a gallows, and then beat to
arms. The troops fell in; he separated the petitioners from
the others, then took the man who had presented the petition,
tied him up and gave him 50 lashes, and threatened
to put to death, on the gallows erected, any man who
should dare to grumble. This effectually silenced them,
and quelled the rising spirit of sedition; but it was remarked
that it was the first instance of a Spaniard receiving corporal
punishment ever known in the province.
Morals, Manners, etc. There is nothing peculiarly characteristic
in this province that will not be embraced in my
general observations on New Spain, except that, being on
the frontier and cut off, as it were, from the more inhabited
parts of the kingdom, together with their continual wars
with some of the savage nations who surround them, renders
the people the bravest and most hardy subjects in New
Spain; being generally armed, they know the use of arms.
Their want of gold and silver renders them laborious, in
order that the productions of their labor may be the means
of establishing the equilibrium between them and the other
provinces where those metals abound. Their isolated and
remote situation also causes them to exhibit, in a superior
degree, the heaven-like qualities of hospitality and kindness,
in which they appear to endeavor to fulfill the injunction of
the scripture which enjoins us to feed the hungry, clothe
the naked, and give comfort to the oppressed in spirit; and
I shall always take pleasure in expressing my gratitude for
their noble reception of myself and the men under my
command.
Military Force. There is but one troop of dragoons in
all New Mexico of the regular force, which is stationed at
Santa Fe, and is 100 strong. Of this troop the governor is
always the captain, entitling himself captain of the royal
troop of Santa Fe dragoons; but they are commanded by
a first lieutenant, who is captain by brevet. The men
capable of bearing arms in this province may be estimated
at 5,000, of which probably 1,000 are completely armed, 1,000
badly, and the rest not at all.
Religion. The catholic religion is practiced in this province
after the same manner as in the other provinces, and
will hereafter be taken notice of generally.
History. In the year 1594 two friars came out from Old
Mexico to New Mexico, and were well received by the savages.
They returned, and the ensuing year Juan de Ouate,[IV'-30]
a monk, went out, explored the country, and returned.
After this 100 troops and 500 men, women, and children
came out and settled on the Rio del Norte, at some no very
great distance from where Santa Fe now stands. They
entered into an arrangement with the Indians on the subject
of their establishment; but a few years after [in 1680]
the Indians rose en masse, fell on the Spaniards by surprise,
killed most of the soldiers, and obliged them to retreat to
the Passo del Norte; whence it acquired its name. Here
they awaited a re-enforcement from Biscay, which they
received, of 70 men and two field-pieces, with which they
recommenced their march and finally arrived at Santa Fe,
then the capital Indian village, to which they immediately
laid siege. The Indians maintained themselves 22 days,
when they surrendered and entered into a second negotiation;
since which time the Spaniards have been engaged in
continual warfare with the various savage tribes which surround
them on all sides. These have been near ruining the
Spaniards several times, and obliged them to apply for
re-enforcements from Biscay and Senora. A few years since
the Tetaus carried on a warm and vigorous war against
them, but are now at peace and considered as their firmest
allies.
In the history of New Mexico it may not be improper to
record the name of James Pursley, the first American who
ever penetrated the immense wilds of Louisiana, and showed
the Spaniards of New Mexico that neither the savages who
surround the deserts which divide them from the habitable
world, nor the jealous tyranny of their rulers, was sufficient
to prevent the enterprising spirit of the Americans from
penetrating the arcanum of their rich establishment in the
new world. Pursley was from near Baird's town, Kentucky,
which he left in 1799. In 1802, with two companions, he
left St. Louis and traveled west, on the head of the Osage
river, where they made a hunt; thence they struck for the
White river of the Arkansaw, and intended to descend it to
Orleans; but, while making preparations, the Kans stole
their horses. They secured their peltries, and pursued the
Kans into the village. The horses were there, but the Indians
refused to give them up. Pursley saw his horse, with an
Indian on him, going to the water at the edge of the town,
pursued him, and with his knife ripped open the horse's
bowels. The Indian returned to the village, got his gun,
and came and snapped it at Pursley, who pursued him into
the village with his knife. The Indian took refuge in a
lodge surrounded by women and children. This struck the
chiefs with astonishment and admiration of the "mad
Americans," as they termed them, and they returned the
other horses to the hunters. This anecdote was related by
traders who had been in the village at the time.
Pursley and his companions then returned to where they
had buried their peltry, and determined to pursue the route
by land to St. Louis; but some persons stole their horses a
second time, when they were at no great distance from the
Osage river, on which they formed a rough canoe and
descended that stream. Near the entrance of the Missouri
they overset their canoe and lost their whole year's hunt,
but saved their arms and ammunition, which is always the
primary object in a desert. On the Missouri they met
Monsieur [Blank] in his barge, bound to the Mandanes.
Pursley embarked with him for the voyage; his two companions
preferred returning to their homes. On their
arrival at the point of destination, his employer dispatched
Pursley on a hunting and trading tour with some bands of
the Paducahs and Kyaways, with a small quantity of merchandise.
In the ensuing spring they were driven from the
plains by the Sioux into the mountains which give birth to
La Platte, the Arkansaw, etc., and it was their sign which
we saw in such amazing abundance on the headwaters of
La Platte [in South Park, Col., Dec. 16, 1806]. Their party
consisted of near 2,000 souls, with 10,000 beasts. The
Indians, knowing they were approximating to New Mexico,
determined to send Pursley, with his companions and two
of their body, into Santa Fe, to know of the Spaniards if
they would receive them friendly and enter into a trade
with them. This being acceded to by Governor Allencaster,
the Indian deputies returned for their bands; but Pursley
thought proper to remain with a civilized people, among
whom a fortuitous event had thrown him—a circumstance of
which, he assured me, he had at one time entirely despaired.
He arrived at Santa Fe in June, 1805, and has been following
his trade as a carpenter ever since; at this he made
a great deal of money, except when working for the officers,
who paid him little or nothing. He was a man of strong
natural sense and dauntless intrepidity. He entertained
me with numerous interesting anecdotes of his adventures
with the Indians, and of the jealousy of the Spanish government.
He was once near being hanged for making a few
pounds of gunpowder, which he innocently did as he had
been accustomed to do in Kentucky, but which is a capital
crime in these provinces. He still retained the gun which
he had with him his whole tour, and said confidently that
if he had two hours' start not all the province could take
him. He was forbidden to write, but was assured he should
have a passport whenever he demanded it, and was obliged
to give security that he would not leave the country without
permission of the government. He assured me that he
had found gold on the head of La Platte, and had carried
some of the virgin mineral in his shot-pouch for months;
but that, being in doubt whether he should ever again
behold the civilized world, and losing in his mind all the
ideal value which mankind have stamped on that metal, he
threw the sample away. He had imprudently mentioned it
to the Spaniards, who had frequently solicited him to go
and show a detachment of cavalry the place; but, conceiving
it to be in our territory, he had refused, and was fearful
that the circumstance might create a great obstacle to his
leaving the country.
2. Biscay. Geography. [The province of Nueva Vizcaya[IV'-31]]
lies between lat. 33° and 24° N., and long. 105° and 111° W.
It is bounded on the north by New Mexico, on the west by
Senora and Sinaloa, and on the east by New Leon and
Cogquilla. It is 600 miles in length from northwest to
southeast, and 400 miles in width from east to west, taking
it at its greatest extent.
Air and Climate. The air is dry and the heat very great
at that season of the year which precedes the rainy season,
which latter commences in June and continues until September
by light showers. During the other part of the
year there is not the least rain or snow to moisten the earth.
The atmosphere had therefore become so electrified that
when we halted at night, in taking off our blankets the
electric fluid would almost cover them with sparks, and in
Chihuahua we prepared a bottle with gold-leaf as a receiver,
and collected sufficient electric fluid from a bear-skin
to give a considerable shock to a number of persons. This
phenomenon was more conspicuous in the vicinity of Chihuahua
than in any other part that we passed over.[IV'-32]
Mines and Minerals. This province abounds in silver
and gold mines, which yield an immense quantity of those
metals, but not so great a revenue to the king as those
which are nearer the mint, and consequently present a
greater facility to coinage. I am not acquainted with the
proportion of the metals which the mineral yields in any
instance, except in one of the silver mines at Chihuahua,
which belonged to a friend of mine, who informed me that
his mine yielded him $13.50 per cwt. I one day, with Robinson,
went through many of these furnaces and noticed the
manner which they pursued in analyzing the mineral and
extracting the metals; but, as I had previously asked several
Spanish officers to accompany me, who had always
declined or deferred it to a future period, I conceived it
probable it was too delicate a subject to make a minute
inquiry into. I, however, so far observed the process as to
learn that the mineral was brought from the mines in bags,
on mules, to the furnace; it was then ground or pounded
into small lumps, not more than the size of a nut, and precipitated
into water, in a sieve which permitted the smaller
particles to escape into a tub, through several progressive
operations. From the small particles which remained at the
bottom of the tubs, after it had been purified of the earthy
qualities, there was a proportion of metal extracted by a
nicer process; but the larger parts were put into a furnace
similar to our iron furnaces, and when the mass was in a
state of fusion, it was let out into a bed of sand prepared
for it, which formed it into bars about the size of our common
pig iron, averaged in value at about $2,500. The gold
was cast into a mold similar to a bowl and stamped with its
value, as was each bar of silver, by the king's assayer of
metals. They were worth from $8,000 to $10,000. These
masses of silver and gold are received into the king's treasury
in payment, and in fact have a currency through the
kingdom; but there are vast speculations made on the coinage,
as people who have not large capital prefer selling their
bullion in the internal provinces, at a considerable discount,
to being obliged to transport it to Mexico, in order to have
it converted into specie. The present C[ommandant?], I
was informed, was engaged in this traffic, on which, from
the province of Senora, he sometimes made 25 per cent.
Numbers of the proprietors who have no immediate use for
their bullion put it into their cellars, where it remains piled
up for their posterity, of no service to themselves or the
community.
There are at Chihuahua and in its vicinity 15 mines, 13
silver, one gold, and one copper, the furnaces of all of which
are situated round the town and suburbs, and present, except
on Sundays, volumes of smoke arising to the eye in every
direction, which can be seen from a distance long before
the spires of the city strike the view. It is incredible the
quantity of cinders which surround the city in piles 10 or 15
feet high; next the creek they have formed a bank of it to
check the encroachments of the stream, and it presents an
effectual barrier. I am told that an European employed
some hands and wrought at the cinders, which yielded $1.25
for each per day; but that this not answering his expectations,
he ceased his proceedings.
At Mausseme [Mapimi] there are one gold and seven silver
mines. At Durango there are many rich mines, but the
number to me is unknown. There are also gold mines in
the Sierra Madre, near Alomas [Alamos], and many others
of which I have no knowledge. There is in the province,
about 100 miles south of Chihuahua, a mountain or hill of
loadstone. Walker, who had been on the ground and surveyed
it, informed me it appeared to be in solid strata, as
regular as those of limestone, or any other of the species.
He had brought home a square piece of near a foot and a
half, was preparing some to be sent to Spain, and likewise
forming magnets to accompany it, in order that their comparative
strength might be ascertained with magnets formed
in Europe.
Rivers.[IV'-33] Rio Conchos is the largest in the province. It
takes its source in the Sierra Madre, near Batopilis, in lat.
28° N., and discharges itself into the Rio del Norte [at the
Presidio del Norte] in lat. 31°, after a course of about 300
miles. It is the largest western branch of the Rio del Norte,
and receives in its course the Rio Florido from the east and
San Paubla [now San Pedro] from the west. Where we
struck the Conchos, it appeared to be nearly as large as the
Rio del Norte at the Passo.
The Rio San Paubla is the largest western branch of the
Conchos; it heads in lat. 28° 50´ N., and empties into the
latter at Bakinoa[?]. Its whole course is about 150 miles;
in summer it is nearly dry, and in the rainy seasons impassable.
The Rio Florido takes its rise in lat. 26° 30´ N., and after
a course of about 150 miles discharges into the Conchos.
Guaxequillo is situated on its east bank, about its center.
The Rio Nassas [Nasas] is in part the line between Biscay
and Cogquilla; it runs north and sinks in the lake du Cayman
[Laguna del Muerto]; it is nearly dry in the dry seasons,
but at some seasons it is impassable.
Lakes. Lac du Cayman and lac du Parras are two small
lakes situated at the foot of the mountains [in the Bolson
de Mapimi], and are full of fish.
Animals, Insects, etc. There are some few bears, deer,
and wild horses, but they are not in abundance. The scorpions
of Durango are one of the most remarkable instances
of the physical effects of climate or air that I ever saw
recorded. They come out of the walls and crevices in May,
and continue about a fortnight in such numbers that the
inhabitants never walk in their houses after dark without a
light, and always shift or examine the bed-clothes and beat
the curtains previous to going to bed; after which the curtains
are secured under the bed, similar to the precautions
we take with our mosquito curtains. The bite of those
scorpions has been known to prove mortal in two hours.
The most extraordinary circumstance is that by taking them
10 leagues from Durango they become perfectly harmless
and lose all their venomous qualities. Query: Does it
arise from a change of air, sustenance, or what other cause?[IV'-34]
Population and Chief Towns. The population of Biscay
may be estimated at 200,000: of these three-twentieths may
be Spaniards from Europe, five-twentieths Creoles, five-twentieths
Metifs and Quatroons, and seven-twentieths
Indians. Durango [or Guadiana] was founded in 1550. It
is the principal city, the seat of government for the province
of Biscay and of the bishopric of Durango. Its population
may be estimated at 40,000 souls. It is situated in lat. 25°
N. and long. 107° W.
Pallalein, situated somewhere at the foot of the Sierra
Madria [Madre], is supposed to contain 25,000 souls.
Chihuahua,[IV'-35] the place of residence of the commandant-general
of the internal provinces, was founded in 1691; it
is situated in lat. 29° N., long. 107° 30´ W. Its population
may be estimated at 7,000. It is an oblong square, on the
east side of a small stream which discharges into the river
Conchos. On its south extremity is a small but elegant
church. In the public square stands the principal church,
royal treasury, town-house, and the richest shops. At the
western extremity is another church for the military, a
superb hospital belonging formerly to the Jesuits' possessions,
the church of the monks of St. Francis, St. Domingo,
the military academy, and quartel del tropa. On the northwest
were two or three missions, very handsomely situated
on a small stream which comes in from the west. About
one mile to the south of the town is a large aqueduct which
conveys the water round it, to the east, into the main stream
below the town, in the center of which is raised a reservoir
for the water, whence it is to be conducted by pipes to the
different parts of the city, and in the public square is to be
a fountain and jet d'eau, which will be both ornamental and
useful. The principal church at Chihuahua was the most
superb building we saw in New Spain. Its whole front was
covered with statues of the apostles and the different saints,
set in niches of the wall, and the windows, doors, etc., were
ornamented with sculpture. I never was within the doors,
but was informed by Robinson that the decorations were
immensely rich. Some men, whom we supposed entitled to
credit, informed us that the church was built by a tax of
12½ cents laid on each ingot of gold or silver taken out of
the mines in the vicinity in [blank] years. Its cost, with
decorations, was $1,500,000, and when it was finished there
remained $300,000 of the fund unappropriated. At the
south side of Chihuahua is the public walk, formed by three
rows of trees whose branches nearly entwine over the heads
of the passengers below. At different distances there are
seats for persons to repose on. At each end of the walks
there were circular seats, on which, in the evening, the
company collected and amused themselves with the guitar,
and songs in Spanish, Italian, and French, adapted to the
voluptuous manners of the country. In this city, as well as
all others of any consideration, there are patrols of soldiers
during the night, who stop every person at nine o'clock
and examine them. My countersign was "Americans."
Trade, Commerce, and Manufactures. Biscay trades with
North Mexico, Senora, and the viceroyalty, from the latter
of which places they bring on mules all their dry goods,
European furniture, books, ammunition, etc. They furnish
a great quantity of horses, mules, sheep, beeves, and goats,
to the parts of the kingdom which are more populous and
have less spare ground for pasturage, etc. Some persons
make large fortunes by being carriers from Mexico to Chihuahua,
the freight being $8 per cwt., and they generally putting
300 pounds on each mule. The merchants make their
remittances twice a year in bullion. Goods sell at Chihuahua
at about 200 per cent, on the prices of our Atlantic seaport
towns. Their horses average at $6, but some have sold
as high as $100; their trained mules at $20, but extraordinary
matches for carriages have sold at $400 per pair. Rice
sells at $4 per cwt. They manufacture some few arms,
blankets, stamped leather, embroidery, coarse cotton and
woolen cloths, and a species of rough carpeting. Their
blankets average $2, but some sell as high as $25.
Agriculture. They cultivate wheat, corn, rice, oats, cotton,
flax, indigo, and vines. What I have said relative to
the cultivation of those articles in New Mexico will equally
apply to this province; but it may be proper to observe
here that one of Nolan's men constructed the first cotton-gin
they ever had in the province, and that Walker had
caused a few churns to be made for some private families,
and taught them the use of them.
Timber, Plains, and Soil. To the north of Chihuahua,
about 30 miles to the right of the main road, there is some
pine timber; at a spring on this side of Carracal [Carrizal] we
saw one walnut tree, and on all the small streams there are
shrubby cotton trees. With these few exceptions the whole
province is a naked, barren plain, which presents to the eye
an arid, unproductive soil, more especially in the neighborhood
of mines; even the herbage appears to be poisoned by
the mineral qualities of the soil.
Antiquities. There are none in the province which came
within my notice but the Jesuits' college and church at Chihuahua,
which were about a century old, and used as hospitals.
In these there was nothing peculiar, except a certain
solidity and strength, in which they appeared to surpass the
other public buildings of the city.
Aborigines. There are no uncivilized savages in this
province except the Appaches, of whom I have spoken
largely. The Christian Indians are so incorporated amongst
the lower grades of Metifs that it is scarcely possible to
draw the line of distinction, except at the ranchos of noblemen
or large landholders, where they are in a state of vassalage
[peonage]. This class of people laid a conspiracy, which
was so well concerted as to baffle the inquiries of the
Spaniards for a length of time, and to occasion them the loss
of several hundred inhabitants. The Indians used to go out
from their villages in small parties; in a short time a part
would return with the report that they had been attacked by
the Indians; the Spaniards would immediately send out a
detachment in pursuit, when they were led into an ambuscade
and every soul cut off. They pursued this course so
long that the whole province became alarmed at the rapid
manner in which their enemies multiplied; but some circumstances
leading to suspicion, they made use of the superstition
of those people for their ruin. Some officers disguised
themselves like friars and went round amongst the
Indians, pretending to be possessed of the spirit of prophecy.
They preached up to the Indians that the day was
approaching when a general delivery from Spanish tyranny
was about to take place, and invited the Indians to join in
concerting with them the work of God. The poor creatures
came forward, and in their confessions stated the great hand
that had already been put to the work. After these pretended
friars had ascertained the nature and extent of the
conspiracy, and had a body of troops prepared, they commenced
the execution and put to death about 400 of the
unsuspecting Indians. This struck terror and dismay
through the Indian villages, and they dared not rise to
declare their freedom and independence.
Government and Laws. In this province there is some
shadow of civil law; but it is merely a shadow, as the following
anecdote may illustrate: An officer, on arriving at
a village, demanded quarters for himself and troops. The
supreme civil officer sent him word that he must show his
passport. The military officer immediately sent a file of
men, who brought the judge a prisoner before him, when
he severely reprimanded the judge for his insolence and
obliged him to obey his orders instantly. This was done
by a subaltern, in a city of 20,000 inhabitants. The only
laws which can be said to be in force are the military
and ecclesiastic, between which there is a perfect understanding.
The governor is a brigadier-general, resides at Durango,
and receives $5,000 in addition to his pay in the line. It is
proper to observe that there are ordinances to bear on each
subject of civil discussion; but the administration of them
is so corrupt that the influence of family and fortune generally
procures the determination that they have right on
their side.
In each town is a public magazine for provisions, to which
every farmer brings whatever grain and produce he may
have for sale, and where he is sure to find a market; and
should there be a scarcity the ensuing year, it is retailed out
to the inhabitants at a reasonable rate. To this place all
the citizens of the town repair to purchase.
Morals, Manners, etc. There is nothing peculiar in the
manners or morals of the people of this province, but a
much greater degree of luxury among the rich, misery
among the poor, and a corruption of morals more general
than in New Mexico. As to military spirit, they have none.
At a muster of a regiment of militia at Chihuahua one of my
men attended, and informed me that there were about 25
who had fire-arms and lances, 50 with bows and arrows and
lances, and the balance with lances or bows and arrows only.
Military Force. The regular military force of Biscay consists
of 1,100 dragoons, distributed as follows: On the
frontiers of the deserts of New Mexico and Senora, at the
forts of Elisiaira [Elizario], Carracal [Carrizal], San Buenaventura,
Presidio del Norte, Janos, Tulenos, and San Juan
Baptist [Bautista]. Farther south are Chihuahua, Jeronime
[Jeronimo or Hieronimo], Cayone, San Paubla [Pablo],
Guaxequillo [Guajuquilla], and Conchos, with several other
places which are appendages of those positions. The complement
of each of those posts is 150 men, but may be averaged
at 1,100 in all, say 100 at each post. The militia are
not worthy of particular notice.
Religion. Biscay is in the diocese of Durango, the bishop's
salary being estimated at $100,000 per annum. The catholic
religion is here in its full force, but the inferior clergy
are very much dissatisfied. The people's superstition is so
great that they run after the holy father in the streets, endeavoring
to kiss the hem of his garment; and should the
bishop be passing the street, the rich and poor all kneel.
History. I shall not presume to say anything on this
subject, except that I believe this province has been populated
about 270 years.
3. Senora. Geography. The province of Senora lies between
lat. 33° and 27° N., and long. 110° and 117° W. Its
greatest length from north to south is about 420 miles, and
its width from east to west 380 miles. It is bounded north
by New Mexico, west by California, south by Sinaloa and
the gulf, east by Biscay and New Mexico.[IV'-36]
Air and Climate. Dry, pure, and healthy generally, but
near the gulf the ground is marshy, and it is, in some of the
districts, unhealthy.
Mines, Minerals, and Fossils. On this subject I can only
speak in general. Senora abounds in rich gold and silver
mines, but more especially the former, inasmuch as gold
does not preserve its usual exchange with silver in this
province. General Salcedo told me that in this province
the largest piece of pure gold had been found ever yet discovered
in New Spain, and that it had been sent to the
king to be put in his cabinet of curiosities.
Rivers.[IV'-37] Rio de l'Ascencion is a short river which enters
the Gulf of California about 31° N. lat. Rio Yaqui heads
on the borders of Biscay and Senora, and discharges into
the Gulf of California in Guyamas [Guaymas], lat. 23° N.
Timber, Plains, and Soil. This province is, like Biscay,
destitute of timber, but has some rich soil near the gulf.
Animals. There are deer, cabrie, and bear; there are
also remarkably large lizards [Ctenosaura teres of Harlan],
which are said to weigh ten pounds; these are perfectly
harmless, tamed by the inhabitants, and trained to catch
mice.
Population and Chief Towns. The population of Senora
may be estimated at 200,000 souls, of which three-twentieths
probably are Spaniards, four-twentieths Creoles, six-twentieths
Metifs, and seven-twentieths Indians.
Arispea [Arizpe[IV'-38]], the capital of Senora, and until 20
years past the seat of government of the internal provinces,
is situated in lat. 31° N. and long. 111° W., near the head
of the river Yaqui. It is celebrated throughout the kingdom
for the urbanity and hospitality of its inhabitants,
and the vast quantity of gold table utensils made use of
in their houses. Its population is 3,400 souls. Sonora
and Terenate are the next cities in magnitude in the province,
the latter to the north and the former to the south of
the capital.
Trade and Commerce. Senora trades with New Mexico
and Biscay for the productions of those different provinces,
and with Old Mexico both by land and sea, through the
gulf of California. It is celebrated for its cheese, horses,
and sheep.
Agriculture. They cultivate the same as in Biscay.
Aborigines. There are a number of savage nations bordering
on Senora, which obliges the king to keep up a
number of military posts on the north and west frontiers;
but the names of the tribes, or any of their distinguishing
characters, I am unacquainted with. However, it may not
be improper to observe that they are armed with bows,
arrows, shields, and lances, like their savage neighbors.
The civilized Indians are in the same situations as in the
other provinces.
Government and Laws. Similar to Biscay, the governor
being a brigadier-general and receives $7,000 in addition
to his pay in the line.
Morals and Manners. In every respect similar to Biscay,
except that they are more celebrated for hospitality.
Military Force. The regular military force of this province
is 900 dragoons and 200 infantry, stationed as follows:
Tubson, San Cruz, Tubac, and Altac on the north, with 100
dragoons each for a garrison; Fiuntenas, Bacuachi, Bavista,
and Horcasites in the center, with 300 dragoons and 200
infantry; Buenavista on the south, with 100 dragoons as a
garrison.[IV'-39] The infantry mentioned above are of a nation
of Indians called the Opejas, and are said to be the best
soldiers in New Spain. I saw a detachment of them at
Chihuahua who appeared to be fine, stout, athletic men,
and were the most subordinate and faithful troops I ever
knew, acting like a band of brothers and having the greatest
attachment for their officers.
Religion. Catholic, in the diocese of the bishop of
Durango.
History. I am unacquainted with it, except that the seat
of government of the internal provinces was formerly at
Arispea, at which time the government of California was
also under the commandant-generalcy of the internal
provinces; but the removal of the seat of government to
Chihuahua and the disjunct situation of California induced
his Majesty to annex it to the government of the viceroyalty.
The increasing magnitude of the relations of
New Spain with the United States also gave an importance
to the eastern interests which induced the continuance of
the seat of government at Chihuahua.
4. Sinaloa. Geography. The province of Sinaloa lies
between lat. 23° and 28° N., and long. 108° and 111° W.
It is bounded north by Senora and Biscay, east by the
latter, south by the administration of Guadalaxara, and
west by the gulf of California; in its greatest length it is
300 miles north and south, and in width from east to west
150 miles.[IV'-40]
Air and Climate. On the sea-coast humid, but back [of
the coast] dry and pure.
Mines, Minerals, and Fossils. There are both gold and
silver mines; but with their relative value or productions I
am unacquainted.
Rivers.[IV'-41] Rio [del] Fuerte takes its source in lat. 27° N.
and long. 110° W., and disembogues into the gulf of California.
It crosses the whole province, and is nearly 150
miles long. Rio Culican [Culiacan] is not more than 50
miles in length, and enters the gulf of California in lat.
25° N.
Timber, Plains, and Soil. No timber; soil similar to
that of Senora.
Animals. Domestic only.
Population and Chief Towns. Its population may be estimated
at 60,000, not more than three-twentieths of whom
are Spaniards; the remainder Creoles, Metifs, and Indians.
Sinaloa is the capital, but its population, extent, etc., to
me is unknown.
Trade and Commerce. Unacquainted with.
Agriculture. The same as Senora.
Aborigines. None who are not civilized.
Government and Laws. Unacquainted with.
Military Force. One hundred dragoons for expresses, and
a guard for the governor.
Religion. Catholic, in the diocese of the bishop of
Durango.
History. To me unknown.
5. Cogquilla. Geography. The province of Cogquilla
lies between lat. 31° and 33° 30´ N., and long. 101° and 105°
W. Its greatest length north and south may be 500 miles,
and its greatest width east and west 200 miles. It is
bounded north by New Mexico and Texas, east by the latter,
San Ander, and New Leon, south by the administration
of Zacataca, and west by Biscay.[IV'-42]
Air and Climate. Pure and healthy, except about the
middle of May, when the heat is intense, and sometimes a
scorching wind is felt, like the flame issuing from an oven or
furnace, which frequently skins the face and affects the eyes.
This phenomenon is felt more sensibly about the setting of
the sun than at any other period of the 24 hours.
Mines, Minerals, and Fossils. I know of no mines in this
province, except at Montelovez and San Rosa, with the
value of which I am unacquainted; but those of San Rosa
are reputed to be as rich as any silver mines in the kingdom.
Montelovez has none very considerable.
Rivers. This province has no river of magnitude or consequence
but the Rio Grande, which crosses its northern
part in a S. E. direction.[IV'-43]
Lakes. There is a small lake called the Aqua [Agua]
Verde, situated on its western extremities, which gives
rise to a small stream that discharges into the Rio del
Norte.
Timber, Plains, and Soil. From the river Nassus [Nasas]
to the east there is the palmetto, which grows to the height
of 20 and 25 feet, with a trunk of 2 feet in diameter. Its
leaves are in the shape of a spear, and cover all the trunk
when young, but fall off as the tree grows old. Its wood is
of a spongy nature, and from every information I could procure,
is of the same species as that of the same name in the
Southern States.[IV'-44] One hundred miles to the east of the
Rio Grande oak timber commences, being the first we saw
in the provinces; but it is very small and scrubby, and presents
from this to the line of Texas (the river Mariana
[Medina, near San Antonio, Tex.]), a very perceptible
gradation of the increase of timber, both in quantity, luxuriance,
and variety. The country here becomes very similar
to the Indiana territory.
Animals. Deer, wild horses, a few buffalo and wild hogs
[peccaries].
Population and Chief Towns. Montelovez [Monclova[IV'-45]]
is the capital of Cogquilla. It is situated on a small stream
of water in lat. 26° 30´ N. and long. 103° 30´ W. It is about
one mile in length, on a course N. 70° E. by the main street.
It has two public squares, seven churches, a powder magazine,
mills, king's hospital, and quartel del tropa [soldiers'
barracks]. This is the principal military depot for the provinces
of Cogquilla and Texas. Its population may be estimated
at 3,500 souls. This city being the stated residence
of his Excellency Governor Cordero, he has ornamented it
with public walks, columns, and fountains, and made it one
of the handsomest cities in the internal provinces.
Santa Rosa, about 38 miles N. W. of Montelovez, is represented
to be the most healthy situation in the province,
and to have the best water and fruit. It is on the headwaters
of the river Millada [read here Sabinas]. Its population
is represented at 4,000 souls. Paras [Parras] is situated
on a small stream; with its suburbs it is supposed to contain
7,000 souls, and San Lorenzo, three miles to the north, 500
souls. This place may be termed the vineyard of Cogquilla,
the whole population pursuing no other occupation than the
cultivation of the grape. Its name denotes the Branches
of the Vine. At the Hacienda of San Lorenzo, where we
halted, there were 15 larger stills, larger cellars, and a greater
number of casks than I ever saw in any brewery of the
United States. Its gardens were delightfully interspersed
with figs, vines, apricots, and a variety of fruits which are
produced in the torrid zone; fine summer-houses, where
were wine, refreshments, and couches to repose on, and
where the singing of the birds was delightful. There were,
likewise, mills and a fine water-fall.
The Presidio [Salto] of Rio Grande is situated on that
river, and is remarkable for nothing but three or four handsome
missions with which it is surrounded, a powder magazine,
quarters for the troops, and a few iron field-pieces on
miserable truck carriages. Population 2,500 souls.
The population of this province may be estimated at
70,000 souls, not more than 10,000 of whom are Spaniards.
Trade, Commerce, and Manufactures. This province
receives all its merchandise from Mexico by land, and in
return gives horses, mules, wines, gold, and silver. There
is an annual fair held at Saltelo [Saltillo], in New Leon
[Coahuila], where an immense quantity of merchandise is
disposed of, and where merchants of very large capitals
reside.
Agriculture. They cultivate the vine principally, with
grain and corn sufficient for their own consumption, and to
supply the greatest part of Texas.
Aborigines. The Appaches cover the northwest frontier.
The Lee Pawnees [Lipans: see note27, p. 746] are
a nation who rove from the Rio Grande to some distance
into the province of Texas. Their former residence was on
the Rio Grande, near the sea-shore. They are at present
divided into three bands, of 300, 350, and 100 men each.
They are at war with the Tetaus and Appaches, and at
peace with the Spaniards. They have fair hair, and are
generally handsome, armed with bows, arrows, and lances.
They pursue the wild horses, of which they take numbers,
and sell them to the Spaniards.
Government and Laws. Military and ecclesiastical power
is all that is known or acknowledged in this province; but
its administration was mild under their excellent Governor
Cordero. The governor's civil salary is $4,000 per annum.
Morals and Manners. It was evident to the least discerning
eye that, as we diverged from these parts which produced
such vast quantities of the precious metals, the
inhabitants became more industrious, and there were
fewer beggars. Thus the morals of the people of Cogquilla
were less corrupt than those of Biscay or New Leon, their
neighbors.
Military Force. There are 400 dragoons maintained in
this province, and stationed at Montelovez, San Rosa, Pres.
Rio del Norte, and San Fernandez.
Religion. Catholic, but mild. It is in the diocese of
Durango.
History. Cogquilla had not pushed its population as far
as the Rio Grande in the year 1687, as at that time La Salle[IV'-46]
established himself at the entrance of that river, it being a
wilderness; but Montelovez was established some time
before this era. Of its particular history I have no
knowledge.
6. Texas. Geography. The province of Texas lies between
lat. 27° 30´ and 35° N., and long. 98° and 104° W.,
bordered north by Louisiana, east by the territory of
Orleans, west by Cogquilla and New Mexico, and south by
New San Ander. Its greatest length from north to south
may be 500 miles, and breadth from east to west 350.
Air and Climate. One of the most delightful temperatures
in the world; but, being a country covered with
timber, the new emigrants are generally sickly, which may
justly be attributed to putrescent vegetation, which brings
on intermittent and bilious attacks, and, in some instances,
malignant fevers. The justice of these remarks is proved
by the observations of all the first settlers of our western
frontiers, that places which in the course of 10 or 15 years
become perfectly healthy, were the first two or three years
quite the reverse, and generally cost them the loss of two
or three members of their families.
Mines, Minerals, and Fossils. The only one known and
worked is a mine of lead.
Rivers.[IV'-47] The river St. Antonio takes its source about
one league to the northeast of the capital of the province,
St. Antonio, and is navigable for canoes to its source,
affording excellent fish, fine mill seats, and water to every
part of the town. It is joined from the west by the river
Mariana, which forms part of the line between Cogquilla
and Texas, and then discharges into the Rio Guadelupe
about 50 miles from the sea. At the town of St. Antonio
it is about 20 yards wide, and in some places 12 feet in
depth. The river Guadelupe takes its source about 150
miles to the northwest of St. Antonio; where we crossed it,
it was a beautiful stream, at least 60 yards in width. Its
waters are transparent and navigable for canoes. After
receiving the waters of the St. Antonio and St. Marco it
discharges into the southwest end of the bay of St. Bernardo
[Matagorda]. At the crossing of this river there is a
range for the horses of St. Antonio and a guarde de caballo,
with an elegant site for a town.
The river St. Marco takes its source about 100 miles
north, 20 west of St. Antonio, and at the crossing of the
road is 30 yards in width, a clear and navigable stream for
canoes. By the road this river is only 14 miles from the
Guadelupe, into which it discharges.
The Red [or Colorado] river [of Texas] takes its source
in the province of Cogquilla in lat. 33° N. and long. 104° 30´
W., but, bending to the east, enters the province of Texas,
and after a winding course of about 600 miles disembogues
into the bay of St. Bernard [Matagorda], in lat. 29° N.
Where the road traverses it, it is at least 150 yards wide,
and has a guard of dragoons stationed on its banks. Its
waters are of a reddish cast, whence it probably derived
its name. This stream is navigable for boats of three or
four tons burden.
The river Brassos [Brazos] takes its source in the province
of Cogquilla in lat. 34° N. and long. 105° W., enters
the province of Texas, and discharges into the gulf of
Mexico in lat. 28° 40´, after a course of 750 miles. It is the
largest river in the province, and, where the road crosses,
is 300 yards wide and navigable for large keels. From the
appearances on its banks it must rise and fall 100 feet. Its
waters were red and turbid; its banks well timbered, with a
rich, prolific soil. Here was kept the only boat I recollect
to have seen in the provinces.
The river Trinity takes its source in lat. 34° N. and long.
99° W., and discharges into Galueston's [Galveston] bay
in lat. 29° 30´ N. By its meanders it is about 300 miles
in length. Where the road crosses it is about 60 yards in
width, with high, steep banks covered with timber, and a
rich, luxuriant soil.
The Nachez [Neches] and Angelina are small rivers, of
about 20 yards in width, which, after forming a junction,
discharge into the Trinity. The river Toyac is a small
stream, which discharges into the gulf of Mexico, at the
same bay with the Sabine, in about lat. 29° 50´ N. and long.
97° W.[IV'-48]
The Sabine river, the present limits between the Spanish
dominions and the territories of the United States in that
quarter, takes its source in about lat. 33° N., and enters
the gulf of Mexico in 29° 50´. It may be 300 miles in length
by its meanders, and at the road about 50 yards in width.
Here the Spaniards keep a guard and a ferry-boat.
Lakes. Some small ones near the head of the Guadelupe
and some branches of Red river.
Timber, Plains, and Soil. This province is well timbered
for 100 miles from the coast, but has some small prairies
interspersed through its timbered land; take it generally,
it is one of the richest, most prolific, and best watered
countries in North America.
Animals. Buffalo, deer, elk, wild hogs [peccaries], and
wild horses, the latter of which are in such numbers as
to afford supplies for all the savages who border on the
province, the Spaniards, and vast droves for the other
provinces. They are also sent into the United States,
notwithstanding the trade is contraband. They go in such
large gangs that it is requisite to keep an advanced guard
of horsemen in order to frighten them away; for should
they be suffered to come near the horses and mules which
you drive with you, by their snorting, neighing, etc., they
would alarm them, and frequently the domestic animals
would join them and go off, notwithstanding all the exertions
of the dragoons to prevent them. A gentleman
told me he saw 700 beasts carried off [stampeded] at one
time, not one of which was ever recovered. They also in
the night frequently carry off the droves of travelers' horses,
and even come within a few miles of St. Antonio, and take
off the horses in that vicinity.
The method pursued by the Spanish in taking them is as
follows: They take a few fleet horses and proceed into
the country where the wild horses are numerous. They
then build a large strong inclosure, with a door which
enters a smaller inclosure; from the entrance of the large
pen they project wings out into the prairie a great distance,
and then set up bushes, etc., to induce the horses,
when pursued, to enter into these wings. After these
preparations are made they keep a lookout for a small
drove, for, if they unfortunately should start too large a
one, they either burst open the pen or fill it up with dead
bodies, and the others run over them and escape; in which
case the party are obliged to leave the place, as the stench
arising from the putrid carcasses would be insupportable;
and, in addition to this, the pen would not receive others.
Should they, however, succeed in driving in a few, say two
or three hundred, they select the handsomest and youngest,
noose them, take them into the small inclosure, and then
turn out the remainder; after which, by starving, preventing
them taking any repose, and continually keeping them
in motion, they make them gentle by degrees, and finally
break them to submit to the saddle and bridle. For this
business I presume there is no nation in the world superior
to the Spaniards of Texas.
Population and Chief Towns. St. Antonio, the capital of
the province, lies in lat. 29° 50´ N. and long. 101° W., and
is situated on the headwaters of the river of that name; it
contains perhaps 2,000 souls, most of whom reside in
miserable mud-wall houses, covered with thatched grass
roofs. The town is laid out on a very grand plan. To the
east of it, on the other side of the river, is the station of
the troops.
About two, three, and four miles from St. Antonio are
three missions, formerly flourishing and prosperous. Those
buildings, for solidity, accommodation, and even majesty,
were surpassed by few that I saw in New Spain. The resident
priest treated us with the greatest hospitality, and was
respected and beloved by all who knew him. He made a
singular observation relative to the aborigines who had
formerly formed the population of those establishments
under charge of the monks. I asked him what had become
of the natives. He replied that it appeared to him that
they could not exist under the shadow of the whites, as the
nations who formed those missions had been nurtured,
taken all the care of that it was possible, and put on the same
footing as the Spaniards; yet, notwithstanding, they had
dwindled away until the other two missions had become
entirely depopulated, and the one where he resided had not
then more than sufficient to perform his household labor;
from this he had formed an idea that God never intended
them to form one people, but that they should always
remain distinct and separate.
Nacogdoches is merely a station for troops, and contains
nearly 500 souls. It is situated on a small stream of the
river Toyac.
The population of Texas may be estimated at 7,000.
These are principally Spanish, Creoles, some French, some
Americans, and a few civilized Indians and half-breeds.
Trade and Commerce. This province trades with Mexico
by Mont El Rey and Montelovez for merchandise, and with
New Orleans by Nachitoches; but the latter trade, being
contraband, is liable to great danger and risks. They give
in return specie, horses, and mules.
Agriculture. The American emigrants are introducing
some little spirit of agriculture near Nacogdoches and the
Trinity; but the oppressions and suspicions they labor
under prevent their proceeding with that spirit which is
necessary to give success to the establishment of a new
country.
Aborigines. The Tancards [note12, p. 705] are a nation
of Indians who rove on the banks of Red river, and are 600
men strong. They follow the buffalo and wild horses, and
carry on a trade with the Spaniards. They are armed with
the bow, arrow, and lance. They are erratic and confined to
no particular district; are a tall, handsome people; in conversation
they have a peculiar cluckling, express more by
signs than any savages I ever visited, and in fact language
appears to have made less progress. They complained
much of their situation and the treatment of the Spaniards;
are extremely poor, and, except the Appaches, were the
most independent Indians we encountered in the Spanish
territories. They possess large droves of horses.
There are a number of other nations now nearly extinct,
some of which are mentioned by Dr. Sibley in a report he
made to the government of the United States on these
subjects. A few, and very few indeed, of those nations
have been converted by the missions, and these are not in
that state of vassalage in which the Indians further to the
south are held. [Notes17, 21, 22, pp. 709, 713, 714.]
Government and Laws. Perfectly military, except as to
the ecclesiastical jurisdiction.
Morals and Manners. They being on the frontier, where
buffalo and wild horses abound, and not engaged in any
war with savages who are powerful, have adopted a mode
of living by following those animals, which has been productive
of a more wandering disposition round the capital
(St. Antonio) than in any other of the provinces. Cordero,
restricting by edicts the buffalo hunts to certain seasons,
and obliging every man of family to cultivate so many
acres of land, has in some degree checked the spirit of
hunting or wandering life which had been hitherto so very
prevalent, and has endeavored to introduce, by his example
and precepts, a general urbanity and suavity of manners
which rendered St. Antonio one of the most agreeable
places that we met with in the provinces.
Military Force. There were in Texas at the time I came
through 988 [888?] men, from the actual returns of the
troops which I have seen, 500 of whom were from St.
Ander and New Leon, under command of governor Herrara.
The disposition of those troops is as follows: 388
at St. Antonio, 400 [300?] at the cantonment of [Blank, 300
marked on map low down] on the Trinity, 100 at the [crossing
of the] Trinity, and 100 at Nacogdoches. The militia,
a rabble made somewhat respectable by a few American
riflemen who are incorporated amongst them, are about 300
men, including bow and arrow men.
Religion. Catholic, but much relaxed.
History. To me unknown, except what can be extracted
from various authors on that subject.
GENERAL REMARKS ON NEW SPAIN.
To become acquainted with all the civil and political
institutes of a country requires a perfect knowledge of the
language, a free ingress to the archives, and a residence of
some years; even then we can scarcely distinguish between
the statute laws and common law, derived from custom,
morals, and habits. Under those circumstances, it cannot
be expected that I shall be able to say much on the subject,
as I possessed none of the above advantages. I will, however,
offer a few observations. To a stranger it is impossible
to define the limits of the military and ecclesiastical
jurisdictions; in every affair which relates to the citizens,
and in fact with the soldiery, the force of superstition is
such that I am doubtful whether they would generally
obey one of their officers in a direct violation of the injunction
of their religious professions. The audiences of Mexico
and Guadalaxara were formed, no doubt, as a check on the
immense power of the viceroy. The number of members
composing each is to me unknown, but they are formed of
the viceroy as president, with two votes, generals, and
bishops. To their jurisdictions the appeals from the judgment
of the intendants and all subordinate officers may be
made in civil cases; but the military and ecclesiastical
decisions are distinct. Notwithstanding all this semblance
of justice, should an individual dare to make the appeal
and not succeed in establishing the justice of his claim to
redress, he is certainly ruined. Where justice is so little
attended to, when opposed to power and wealth, as in the
Spanish provinces, the appeal is a desperate remedy. This
tribunal or legislative body enacts all the laws for the
general regulations of their divisions of the kingdom.
The captain-generalcy of the internal provinces appeared
to me to be much more despotic, for the laws or regulations
were issued in the form of an order merely, without any
kind of a preamble whatsoever, except sometimes he would
say, "By order of the king"; and such was the style of
governors of provinces.
Morals, Manners, etc. For hospitality, generosity, and
sobriety the people of New Spain exceed any nation perhaps
on the globe; but in national energy, patriotism, enterprise
of character, or independence of soul, they are
perhaps the most deficient. Yet there are men who have
displayed bravery to a surprising degree, and the Europeans
who are there cherish with delight the idea of their gallant
ancestry.
Their women have black eyes and hair, fine teeth, and are
generally brunettes. I met but one exception to this rule,
at Chihuahua—a fair lady, who, by way of distinction, was
called "the girl with light hair." They are all inclining a
little to enbonpoint; but none or few are elegant figures.
Their dress generally is short jackets and petticoats and
high-heeled shoes, without any head-dress. Over the whole
dress they have a silk wrapper,[IV'-49] which they always wear
and, when in the presence of men, affect to bring over their
faces, but from under which you frequently see peeping a
large sparkling black eye. As we approached the Atlantic
and our frontiers, we saw several ladies who wore the gowns
of our countrywomen, which they conceived to be much
more elegant than their ancient costume. The lower class
of the men are generally dressed in broad-brimmed hats,
short coats, large waistcoats, and small clothes always open
at the knees (owing, as I suppose, to the greater freedom it
gives to the limbs on horseback), a kind of leather boot or
wrapper bound round the leg somewhat in the manner of
our frontier-men's leggings, and gartered on. The boot is
of a soft, pliable leather, but not colored. In the eastern
provinces the dragoons wear, over this wrapper or boot, a
sort of jack-boot made of sole-leather, to which are fastened,
by a rivet, the spurs, the gaffs of which are sometimes near
an inch in length; but the spurs of the gentlemen and officers,
although clumsy to our ideas, are frequently ornamented
with raised silver-work on the shoulders, and the
straps embroidered with silver and gold thread. They are
always ready to mount their horses, on which the inhabitants
of the internal provinces spend nearly half the day.
This description will apply generally to the dress of all the
men of the provinces for the lower class; but in their cities,
among the more fashionable, they dress after the European
or United States modes, with not more variation than we
see in our cities from one six months to another.
Both men and women have remarkably fine hair, and
pride themselves in the display of it. Their amusements
are music, singing, dancing, and gambling. The latter is
strictly prohibited, but the prohibition is not much attended
to. The dance of —— is danced by one man and two
women, who beat time to the music, which is soft and
voluptuous, but sometimes changing to a lively, gay air.
The dancers exhibit the motions of the soul by gestures of
the body, snapping the fingers, and sometimes meeting in
a stretched embrace. The fandango is danced to various
figures and numbers. The minuet is still danced by the
superior class only. The music made use of is the guitar,
violin, and singers, who, in the first-described dance, accompany
the music with their hands and voices, having
always some words adapted to the music.
Their games are cards, billiards, horse-racing, and cock-fighting,
the first and last of which are carried to the most
extravagant lengths, losing and winning immense sums.
The present commandant-general is very severe with his
officers in these respects, frequently sending them to some
frontier post in confinement for months, for no other fault
than having lost large sums at play. At every town of consequence
is a public walk, where the ladies and gentlemen
meet and sing songs, which are always on the subject of
love or the social board. The females have fine voices, and
sing in French, Italian, and Spanish, the whole company
joining in the chorus.
In their houses the ladies play the guitar, and generally
accompany it with their voices. They either sit down on
the carpet cross-legged, or loll on a sofa. To sit upright in
a chair appeared to put them to great inconvenience; although
the better class would sometimes do it on our first
introduction, they soon took the liberty of following their
old habits. In their eating and drinking they are remarkably
temperate. Early in the morning you receive a dish
of chocolate and a cake; at twelve you dine on several
dishes of meat, fowls, and fish, after which you have a
variety of confections, and indeed an elegant dessert; then
drink a few glasses of wine, sing a few songs, and retire to
take the siesta, or afternoon's nap, which is taken by rich
and poor. About two o'clock the windows and doors are
all closed, the streets deserted, and the stillness of midnight
reigns throughout. About four o'clock they rise, wash and
dress, and prepare for the dissipation of the night. About
eleven o'clock some refreshments are offered, but few take
any, except a little wine and water and candied sugar.
The government has multiplied the difficulties of Europeans
intermarrying with the Creoles or Metifs to such a
degree that it is difficult for such a marriage to take place.
An officer wishing to marry a lady not from Europe is
obliged to acquire certificates of the purity of her descent
200 years back, and transmit it to the court, when the
license will be returned; but should she be the daughter of
a man of the rank of captain or upward this nicety vanishes,
as rank purifies the blood of the descendants.
The general subjects of conversations among the men are
women, money, and horses, which appear to be the only
objects, in their estimation, worthy of consideration. Uniting
the female sex with their money and their beasts, and
having treated them too much after the manner of the
latter, they have eradicated from their breasts every sentiment
of virtue or ambition, either to pursue the acquirements
which would make them amiable companions, instructive
mothers, or respectable members of society; their
whole souls, with a few exceptions, being, like those of
Turkish ladies, taken up in music, dress, and the little
blandishments of voluptuous dissipation. Finding that the
men only regard them as objects of gratification to the sensual
passions, they have lost every idea of that feast of
reason and flow of soul which arise from the intercourse of
two refined and virtuous minds.
The beggars of the City of Mexico are estimated at
60,000 souls; what must be the number through the whole
kingdom, and to what reason can it be owing that, in a
country superior to any in the world for riches in gold and
silver, producing all the necessaries of life and most of its
luxuries, there should be such a vast proportion of the inhabitants
in want of bread or clothing? It can only be
accounted for by the tyranny of the government and the
luxuries of the rich. The government strives, by all the
restrictions possible to be invented without absolutely
driving the people to desperation, to keep Spanish America
dependent on Europe.
Trade, Commerce, Manufactures, and Revenue. The trade
and commerce of New Spain are carried on with Europe and
the United States by the port of Vera Cruz solely, and with
the East Indies and South America generally by Acapulco;
and, even at these ports, under such restriction as to productions,
manufactures, and time, as to render it of little
consequence to the general prosperity of the country. Were
all the numerous bays and harbors of the gulfs of Mexico
and California opened to the trade of the world, and a general
license given to the cultivation of all the productions
of which the country is capable, with freedom of exportation
and importation, with proper duties on foreign goods, the
country would immediately become rich and powerful, and
a proper stimulus would be held out to the poor to labor,
when certain of finding a quick and ready sale for the productions
of their plantations or manufactories. The country
abounds in iron ore, yet all the iron and steel, and
articles of manufactures, are obliged to be brought from
Europe, the manufacturing or working of iron being strictly
prohibited. This occasions the necessary articles of husbandry,
arms, and tools to be enormously high, and is a
great check to agriculture, improvements in manufactures,
and military skill. The works of the Mexicans, in gold,
silver, and painting, show them naturally to have a genius
which, with cultivation and improvement, might rival the
greatest masters of either ancient or modern times. Their
dispositions and habits are peculiarly calculated for sedentary
employments, and I have no doubt, if proper establishments
were made, they would soon rival, if not surpass, the
most extensive woolen, cotton, or silk manufactures of
Europe; their climate being proper to raise the finest cotton
in the world, and their sheep possessing all the fineness of
wool for which they are so celebrated in Spain. Under
these circumstances, together with the immense quantities
of the raw materials which they have on hand, wool sells
for a mere trifle; and, in fact, they scarcely take half from
the fleece of the sheep, for the coarse manufactures of the
country and to make beds.
I cannot presume to state the revenues of the country
from official documents, but the following statements I have
had from so respectable a source, and they are so confirmed
by my own observations, that I think much reliance may be
placed on their correctness. The mint coins, per annum, at
least, $50,000,000 in silver and $14,000,000 in gold, the one-fifth
of which (the duty) is equal to $12,800,000.[IV'-50] The
duties on foreign goods and the amount paid by the purchasers
of monopolies may be estimated at $4,000,000;
which, with the duty on gold and silver, makes the annual
revenue $16,800,000. The civil list of the kingdom is
$580,000, the military $7,189,200; these together amount
to $7,760,200, which, deducted from the gross revenue
of $16,700,000, leaves a clear revenue for the king from
his Mexican dominions of $9,030,800. The money paid
for the support of the clergy is not included in this
estimate, as they receive their revenue through its own
proper channel. The best paid officers under the government
cost the king nothing in a direct line, yet the oppressive
manner in which they pay themselves and impoverish
the people would render it better policy to abolish their
impositions and pay them out of the public treasury by
a direct salary.
Return of Military Force in New Spain.
| Provinces and Places. |
Disciplined and Regular European Troops. |
Regular Troops of the Country. |
Militia with Regular Field Officers and under Pay. |
Probable Armed Citizens. |
| Cavalry. |
Artillery. |
Infantry. |
Cavalry. |
Artillery. |
Infantry. |
Cavalry. |
Artillery. |
Infantry. |
Fire-arms. |
Bows, arrows, and lances. |
| Xalapa Ina. Vera Cruz |
|
200 |
2000 |
2000 |
|
|
3000 |
|
1000 |
|
|
| Vera Cruz and sea-ports |
|
800 |
2000 |
|
|
|
600 |
|
2000 |
|
|
| Mexico |
1000 |
|
|
|
|
1000 |
3400 |
1000 |
|
|
|
| Provinces and viceroyalty |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
15000 |
80000 |
| New Mexico |
|
|
|
100 |
|
|
|
|
|
1000 |
4000 |
| Biscay |
|
|
|
1100 |
|
|
|
|
|
5000 |
8000 |
| Senora |
|
|
|
900 |
|
200 |
|
|
|
5000 |
3000 |
| Sinaloa |
|
|
|
100 |
|
|
|
|
|
3000 |
6000 |
| Cogquilla |
|
|
|
400 |
|
|
|
|
|
1000 |
2000 |
| Texas |
|
|
|
488 |
|
|
|
|
|
500 |
1000 |
| Total |
1000 |
1000 |
4000 |
5088 |
|
1200 |
7000 |
1000 |
3000 |
30500 |
109000 |
| |
Cavalry. |
Artillery. |
Infantry. |
| Regular troops, European |
1000 |
1000 |
4000 |
| Regular troops, Mexican |
5088 |
.... |
1200 |
| Trained militia |
7000 |
1000 |
3000 |
| Total |
13088 |
2000 |
8200 |
| Cavalry |
13088 |
|
| Artillery |
2000 |
|
| Infantry |
8200 |
|
| Total |
23288 |
disciplined and effective force. |
| |
30500 |
undisciplined militia. |
| |
109000 |
bow, arrow, and lance men. |
| |
162788 |
total force. |
The European troops are some of the choicest regiments
from Spain; consequently, we may put them on the supposition
that they are well disciplined, and officered by men
of honor and science.
The regular troops of the kingdom who are in the viceroyalty,
acting from the stimulant of ambition and envy, are
supposed to be equal to their brethren from Europe. The
militia, with the regular officers, are likewise good troops,
but are not held in so high estimation as the other corps.
Those three corps, forming a body of 23,288 men, may be
called the regular force of the kingdom, as the militia of
139,500 would, in my estimation, be of no more consequence
against the regular troops of any civilized power than the
ancient aborigines of the country were against the army
of Cortes.
The particular observations which follow must be considered
as applying to the troops of the internal provinces,
unless it is stated to the contrary.
The appearance of the Spanish troops is certainly, at a distance,
à la militaire; their lances are fixed to the side of the
saddle under the left thigh and slant about five feet above
the horse. On the right the carabine is slung in a case to
the front of the saddle, or pommel, crosswise, the breech to
the right hand; and on each side of the saddle, behind the
rider, is a pistol; below the breech of the carabine is slung
the shield, which is made of sole leather three doubled,
sewed together with thongs, with a band on the inside to
slip the left arm through; those of the privates are round,
and are about two feet in diameter. The officers and non-commissioned
officers have their shields oval, bending on
both sides, in order to permit the arrow to glance, and they
have in general the arms of Spain with Don Carlos IV. gilt on
the outside, with various other devices, which add much to
the elegance of their appearance on horseback, but are only
calculated to be of service against savages who have no fire-arms.
The dragoons of the viceroyalty do not make use of
the lance or shield, but are armed, equipped, and clothed
after the modern manner, as are also the dragoons of the
eastern provinces. When they recently expected to be
opposed to the American troops they were deprived of
the lance and shield, and received the straight cutlass in
their stead.
Their dress is a short blue coat, with red cape and cuffs,
without facings, leather or blue cotton velvet small-clothes
and waistcoat, the small-clothes always open at the knees,
the wrapping-boot with the jack-boot and permanent spur
over it, a broad-brimmed, high-crowned wool hat, with a ribbon
round it of various colors, generally received as a present
from some female, which they wear as a badge of the favor
of the fair sex and a mark of their gallantry.
Their horses are small and slender-limbed, but very active
and capable of enduring great fatigue. The equipments of
the horses are, to our idea, awkward; but I believe them
superior to the English, and they have the advantage over
us in the skill of the rider, as well as in the quality of the
beast. Their bridles have a strong curb, which gives so
great a mechanical force to the bridle that I believe it almost
practicable with it to break the jaw of the beast. The saddle
is made after the Persian mode, with a high projecting
pommel or, as anciently termed, bow, and is likewise raised
behind. This is merely the tree; it is then covered by two
or three covers of carved leather and embroidered workmanship,
some with gold and silver in a very superb manner.
The stirrups are of wood closed in front, carved generally
into the figure of a lion's head, or that of some other beast;
they are very heavy, and to us present a very clumsy appearance.
The horseman, seated on his horse, has a small
bag tied behind him, his blankets either under him, or lying
with his cloak between his body and the bow, which makes
him at his ease. Thus mounted, it is impossible for the
most vicious horse ever to dismount them. They will catch
another horse with a noose and hair rope, when both are
running nearly at full speed, with which they soon choke
down the beast of which they are in pursuit; in short, they
are probably the most expert horsemen in the world.
At each post is a store, called the king's, where it was the
original intention of the government that the soldiers should
be supplied with provisions, clothing, arms, etc., at a cheap
rate; but it being a post generally given to some young
officer to make his fortune, they are subject to great impositions.
When a dragoon joins the service he receives from
the king five horses and two mules, and this number he is
always obliged to keep good from his own pocket; but
when he is discharged, the horses and mules receive the discharge
mark and become his private property. They engage
for five or ten years, at the option of the soldier, but in the
bounty there is a very material difference. It is extremely
easy to keep up their corps, as a private dragoon considers
himself upon an equality with most of the citizens and infinitely
superior to the lower class, and not unfrequently you
see men of considerable fortune marrying the daughters of
sergeants and corporals.
The pay of the troops of New Spain varies with the
locality, but may be averaged, in the internal provinces, as
follows:
Colonel, $4,500; lieutenant-colonel, $4,000; major, $3,000;
captain, $2,400; first lieutenant, $1,500; second lieutenant,
$1,000; ensign, $800; sergeant, $350; corporal, $300; private,
$288. With this pay they find their own clothes, provisions,
arms, accouterments, etc., after the first equipments.
Corporal punishment is contrary to the Spanish ordinances.
They punish by imprisonment, putting in the
stocks, and death. As a remarkable instance of the discipline
and regularity of conduct of those provincial troops,
although marching with them and doing duty as it were for
nearly four months, I never saw a man receive a blow or put
under confinement for one hour. How impossible would it
be to regulate the turbulent dispositions of the Americans
with such treatment! In making the foregoing remark I do
not include officers, for I saw more rigorous treatment exercised
toward some of them than was ever practiced in
our army.
The discipline of their troops is very different from ours.
As to tactics or military maneuvers, they are not held in
much estimation; for, during the whole of the time I was in
the country, I never saw a corps of troops exercising as dragoons,
but frequently marching by platoons, sections, etc.,
in garrison, where they serve as infantry with their carabines.
In these maneuvers they are very deficient. On a march a
detachment of cavalry generally encamp in a circle. They
relieve their guards at night; as soon as they halt the new
guard is formed on foot with their carabines, and then
marched before the commandant's tent, where the commanding
officer of the guard invokes the holy virgin three times;
the commanding officer replies, "It is well." They then
retire and mount their horses, and are told off, some to act
as guard of the horses, as cavalry, others as guard of the
camp, as infantry. The old guards are then paraded and
relieved, and the new sentinels take post. Their sentinels
are singing half the time, and it is no uncommon thing for
them to quit their post to come to the fire, go for water,
etc.—in fact, after the officer is in bed, frequently the whole
guard comes in; yet I never knew any man punished for
those breaches of military duty. Their mode of attack is
by squadrons, on the different flanks of their enemies, but
without regularity or concert, shouting, hallooing, and firing
their carabines; after which, if they think themselves equal
to the enemy, they charge with a pistol and then a lance.
From my observation on their discipline I have no hesitation
in declaring that I would not be afraid to march over a
plain with 500 infantry and a proportionate allowance of
horse artillery of the United States army, in the presence of
5,000 of these dragoons. Yet I do not presume to say that
an army with that inferiority of numbers would do to oppose
them, for they would cut off your supplies, and harass
your march and camp, night and day, to such a degree as
to oblige you in the end to surrender to them without ever
having come to action. If, however, the event depended on
one single engagement, it would eventuate with glory to the
American arms. The conclusion must not be drawn that I
consider they are more deficient in physical firmness than
other nations, for we see the savages, 500 of whom on a
plain fly before 50 bayonets, on other occasions brave danger
and death in its most horrid shapes, with an undaunted
fortitude never surpassed by the most disciplined and hardy
veterans. It arises solely from the want of discipline and
confidence in each other, as is always the case with undisciplined
corps, unless stimulated by the godlike sentiment of
love of country, of which these poor fellows know little. The
traveling food of the dragoons in New Mexico consists of a
very excellent species of wheat biscuit, and shaved meat well
dried [charqui], with a vast quantity of red pepper [chile
colorado], of which they make bouilli and then pour it on
their broken biscuit, when the latter becomes soft and excellent
eating.
Farther south they use large quantities of parched corn-meal
and sugar [pinole], as practiced by our hunters, each
dragoon having a small bag. In short, they live, when on
command, on an allowance which our troops would conceive
little better than starving, never, except at night, attempting
to eat anything like a meal, but biting a piece of biscuit,
or drinking some parched meal with sugar and water, during
the day.
From the physical as well as moral properties of the
inhabitants of New Spain, I do believe they are capable of
being made the best troops in the world, possessing sobriety,
enterprise, great physical force, docility, and a conception
equally quick and penetrating.
The mode of promotion in the internal provinces is
singular, but probably productive of good effects. Should
a vacancy of first lieutenant offer in a company, the captain
commanding nominates, with the senior second lieutenant,
who by seniority would fill the vacancy, two other lieutenants
to the general, giving his comments on all three.
The general selects two for a nomination to the court, from
whom is selected the fortunate candidate, whose commission
is made out and forwarded. As the letters of nomination
are always kept a secret, it is impossible for the young
officers to say who is to blame if they are disappointed,
and the fortunate one is in a direct way to thank the king
only for the ultimate decision. And thus with superior
grades to the colonel.
The king of Spain's ordinances for the government of his
army are generally founded on justice and a high sense of
honor. I could not get a set from any of the officers to
take to my quarters, consequently my observations on
them were extremely cursory. They provide that no old
soldier shall ever be discharged the service, unless for
infamous crimes. When a man has served with reputation
for 15 years and continues, his pay is augmented; 20 years,
he receives another augmentation; 27 years, he receives the
brevet rank and pay of an ensign; and 32, a lieutenant, etc.
Those circumstances are a great stimulant, although not
one in a thousand arrives at the third period, when they
are permitted to retire from the service with full pay and
emoluments. All sons of captains, or of grades superior,
are entitled to enter the king's schools as cadets, at the age
of 12 years.
The property of any officer or soldier who is killed on
the field of battle, or dies of his wounds, is not liable to
be taken for debt, and is secured, as well as the king's
pension, to the relatives of the deceased.
Courts-martial for the trial of commissioned officers must
be formed of general officers; but this clause subjects the
officers of the provinces to a great species of tyranny, for
the commanding general has taken it upon himself to
punish for all offenses not capital, and consequently according
to his own judgment and prejudices, from which there
is only an appeal to the king, and difficult it is indeed for
the complaints of a subaltern to reach his majesty through
the numerous crowd of sycophants who surround him, one-half
of whom are probably in league with his oppressor. It
likewise deprives an officer of the most sacred of all
rights, that of being tried by his peers; for, should he be
sent to Mexico or Europe for trial, it is possible he cannot
take half the testimony which is necessary to complete his
justification.
There is another principle defined by the ordinances,
which has often been the cause of disputes in the service
of the United States. The commandant of a post in the
Spanish service, if barely a captain, receives no orders from
a general, should one arrive at his post, unless that general
should be superior in authority to the person who posted
him; for, says the ordinance, he is responsible to the king
alone for his post. That principle, according to my ideas,
is very injurious to the country which adopts it. For
example, we will say that a post of great importance, containing
immense military stores, is likely to fall into the
hands of the enemy; an officer superior to the commandant
receives the information, repairs to the post, and orders him
immediately to evacuate it. The commandant, feeling
himself only responsible to the authority who placed him
in that position, refuses to obey, and the magazines and
place are lost. The principle is also subversive of the very
root of military subordination and discipline, where an inferior
should in all cases obey a superior, who alone should
be responsible for the effect arising from the execution of
his orders. It will readily be believed that, in my thus
advocating implicit obedience to the orders of a superior,
that I do not suppose the highest improbabilities or impossibilities,
such as an order to turn your arms against the
constituted authority of your country, or to be the ensign
of his tyranny or the pander of his vices. Those are cases
where a man's reason must alone direct him, and are not—indeed,
cannot be—subject to any human rule whatever.
Religion. It forms a subject with which I am very imperfectly
acquainted; but, having made some inquiries and
observations on the religion of the country, I will freely
communicate them, fearful at the same time that I lay
myself open to the severe criticism of persons who have in
any degree applied themselves to the study of theology or
the ritual of the catholic church.
The kingdom of New Spain is divided into four archbishoprics,
viz.: Mexico, Guadalaxara, Durango, and St. Louis
Potosi. Under these again are the sub-bishoprics—deacons,
curates, etc., all of whom are subject and accountable to
their immediate chief for the districts committed to their
charge, and the whole are again subject to the ordinances of
the high court of inquisition held at the capital of Mexico,
whence are fulminated the edicts of their censure against the
heresies and impious doctrines of modern philosophy, both
as to politics and religion. I am credibly informed that the
influence of that tribunal is greater in his Catholic majesty's
Mexican dominions than in any Catholic country in Europe
or perhaps in the world. A few years since they condemned
a man to the flames, for asserting and maintaining some
doctrine which they deemed heretical; and a Jew who was
imprudent enough to take the image of Christ on a cross,
and put it under the sill of his door, saying privately he
would make the dogs walk over their God. They likewise
examine and condemn to the flames all books of a
modern sentiment, either as to religion or politics, and
excommunicate anyone in whose hands they may be found.
I recollect to have seen a decree of theirs published in the
Mexican gazettes, condemning a number of books, "as
heretical and contrary to the sacred principles of the holy
Catholic church, and the peace and durability of the government
of his Catholic majesty." Amongst these were mentioned
Helvetius on Man, J. J. Rousseau's works, Voltaire's,
Mirabeau's, and a number of others of that description;
even at so great a distance as Chihuahua a officer dared not
take Pope's Essay on Man to his quarters, but used to come
to mine to read it.
The salaries of the archbishops are superior to those of
any officers in the kingdom; the bishop of Mexico's being
estimated at $150,000 per annum, when the viceroy's is
$80,000, with $50,000 allowed for his table, falling short
of the bishop's $20,000.
Those incomes are raised entirely from the people, who
pay no tax to the king, but give one-tenth of their yearly
income to the clergy, besides the fees of confessions, bulls,
burials, baptisms, marriages, and a thousand impositions
which the corruption of priestcraft has introduced, and
which have been kept up by their superstition and ignorance.
Notwithstanding all this, the inferior clergy, who do
all the slavery of the office, are liberal and well-informed
men; I scarcely saw one who was not in favor of a change
of government. They are generally Creoles by birth, and
always kept in subordinate grades, without the least shadow
of a probability of rising to the superior dignities of the
church. This has soured their minds to such a degree
that I am confident in asserting that they will lead the van
whenever the standard of independence is raised in that
country.
Politics. It has often been a subject of discussion with
politicians, in what manner a mother country should treat
her distant and powerful colonies, in order to retain them
longest in their subjection; for the history of all nations
and all ages has proved that no community of people
separated from another by an immense ocean, feeling their
power, strength, and independence, will remain long subject
to the mother country, purely from the ties of consanguinity
and similarity of habits, manners, and religion. Society
itself having arisen from the mutual wants, fears, and
imbecility of the infancy of human institutions, a large
body of that society will remain no longer subject to
another branch, at the immense distance of 1,000 leagues,
than until they feel their maturity, and capability of providing
for their own wants and their own defense. Therefore
we may draw a conclusion that no political course of
conduct whatever will eventually prevent the separation;
but there is a line of conduct which certainly must retard
it in a great measure; and prudence would dictate to the
mother country the policy of giving way without a struggle
to an event beyond her power to prevent.
The two great examples of English and Spanish America
are before our eyes. England gave us liberty to pursue
the dictates of our own judgment with respect to trade,
education, and manners, by which means we increased in
power, learning, and wealth, with a rapidity unknown in the
annals of the world, and at the first attempt to infringe
the rights which we had hitherto enjoyed, asserted that
claim which nature and the locality of our situation gave
us a right to demand and a power to defend. Had Great
Britain yielded to the storm with grace and dignity, she
would have secured our gratitude, ancient prejudices, and
affections in her favor; on the contrary, by a long and
arduous conflict, the murder of thousands of our citizens,
the destruction of our country, the profanation of our altars,
and the violation of every right, divine and human, she
implanted in the breast of the Americans an antipathy
approaching nearly to horror, a desire of revenge almost
hereditary; and destroyed the bonds of brotherhood which
might have subsisted between the two countries. It will
take ages of just conduct from her to the United States to
eradicate this. Spain pursued a different line of conduct
toward her Mexican dominions, which were settled by
Europeans 60 years previous to any part of the United
States, and might be termed a conquered kingdom, rather
than the settlement of a savage country. This country she
has therefore bound up in all the ligatures of restrictions,
monopolies, prohibitions, seclusions, and superstitions; and
has so carefully secluded all light from bursting in on their
ignorance, that they have vegetated like the acorns in the
forest, until the towering branches have broken through
the darkness of the wild which surrounded them and let
in the light of heaven. The approximation of the United
States, with the gigantic strides of French ambition, have
begun to arouse their dormant qualities, and to call into
action the powers of their minds on the subject of their
political situation.
An instance of their disposition for independence has
been exhibited in their feeble attempts at a revolution on
the 15th of January, 1624, under the viceroyalty of Don
Diego Carrello Galves; the insurrection on the 8th of June,
1692; and more recently, in 1797, under the Count de
Galves,[IV'-51] when they proclaimed him king of Mexico in the
streets of the capital, and 130,000 souls were heard proclaiming,
"Long live Galvez, king of Mexico!" It was
then only for him to have willed it, and the kingdom of
Mexico was lost to Charles IV. forever. But preferring his
loyalty to his ambition, he rode out attended by his guards
to the mob, with sword in hand, crying out, "Long live his
Catholic majesty, Charles IV.," and threatening to put to
instant death with his own hand any persons who refused
immediately to retire to their houses. This dispersed the
people. In another quarter of the kingdom an immense
number had also collected and proclaimed him king. He
sent 10,000 men against them, dispersed them, and had four
beheaded. Those firm measures saved the country at that
period, and for them he received the greatest honors from
the court of Spain; but was poisoned a short time after, fulfilling
the maxim that "it is dangerous to serve a jealous
tyrant." For such always conceive that the same power
which stilled the ocean's rage can by its will raise the storm
into all the majesty of overwhelming fury. Thus, by taking
his life, it relieved them from the dread of his influence
with the Mexicans.
England would naturally have been the power they would
have looked up to, in order to form an alliance to secure
their independence; but the insatiable avarice and hauteur
exhibited by the English in their late descents at La Plate
[La Plata, in South America], with the disgrace of their
arms, has turned their views from that nation.
They therefore have turned their eyes toward the United
States, as to a sister of the same soil, in their vicinity—one
who has within her power ample resources of arms, ammunition,
and even men, to assist in securing their independence,
and who in that event would secure to herself the
almost exclusive trade of the richest country in the world for
centuries, and [the opportunity] to be her carriers as long
as the two nations exist. For Mexico, like China, will never
become a nation of mariners, but will receive the ships of
all the world into her ports, and give her bullion in exchange
for the productions of their different countries. Then, what
would not be the advantages the United States would reap
from the event! Our numerous vessels would fill every
port, and our vicinity would enable us to carry off at least
nine-tenths of her commerce; even on the coast of the
Pacific no European nation could vie with us. There
would also be a brisk inland trade carried on with the
Spanish provinces via Red river; and having a free entrance
into all their ports, we should become their factors,
agents, guardians—in short, their tutelar genius; as they
fear but hate France and all French men and measures. It
therefore remains for the government of the United States
to decide whether, if Bonaparte should seize the crown of
Spain, the States would hold out a helping hand to emancipate
another portion of the western hemisphere from the
bonds of European tyranny and oppression: or, by a different
policy, suffer 6,000,000 people to become, in the hands of
French intrigue, enterprise, and tactics, a scourge on our
southwestern boundaries, which would oblige us to keep up
a large and respectable military force, and continually lay
us liable to a war on the weakest and most vulnerable part
of our frontiers.
Twenty thousand auxiliaries from the United States
under good officers, joined to the independents of the
country, are at any time sufficient to create and effect the
revolution. These troops can be raised and officered in the
United States, but paid and supplied at the expense of
Mexico. It would be requisite that not only the general
commanding, but that every officer, down to the youngest
ensign, should be impressed with the necessity of supporting
a strict discipline, to prevent marauding, which should
in some instances be punished with death, in order to
convince the citizens that we come as their friends and
protectors, not as their plunderers and tyrants. Also, the
most sacred regard should be paid not to injure the institutions
of their religion; thereby showing them we have
a proper respect for all things in any way connected with
the worship of the Deity, at the same time that we permit
every man to adore him agreeably to the dictates of his
own judgment.
The details requisite for the equipment, organization, etc.,
of the corps, so as to adapt it to the locality of the country
and the nature of the service, could be easily formed, but
would be impertinent here.
Should an army of Americans ever march into the
country, and be guided and governed by these maxims,
they will only have to march from province to province in
triumph, and be hailed by the united voices of grateful
millions as their deliverers and saviors, whilst our national
character resounds to the most distant nations of the earth.
Washington, April 12th, 1808.