The Dramatization of Bible Stories

The progress in religious education in the last few years has been highly encouraging. The subject has attained something of a status as a scientific study, and significant investigative and experimental work has been done. More than that, trained men and women in increasing numbers have been devoting themselves to the endeavor to work out in churches and Sunday schools the practical problems of organization and method.

It would seem that the time has come to present to the large body of workers in the field of religious education some of the results of the studies and practice of those who have attained a measure of educational success. With this end in view the present series of books on "Principles and Methods of Religious Education" has been undertaken.

It is intended that these books, while thoroughly scientific in character, shall be at the same time popular in presentation, so that they may be available to Sunday-school and church workers everywhere. The endeavor is definitely made to take into account the small school with meager equipment, as well as to hold before the larger schools the ideals of equipment and training.

The series is planned to meet as far as possible all the problems that arise in the conduct of the educational work of the church. While the Sunday school, therefore, is considered as the basal organization for this purpose, the wider educational work of the pastor himself and that of the various other church organizations receive due consideration as parts of a unified system of education in morals and religion.

The Editors

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By Edward Scribner Ames

This book is its own best commendation, for it is a most convincing record of an important experiment in education. It is the more interesting because it is a real contribution to educational method from the field of religious education, which too often only appropriates and imitates what has been achieved elsewhere.

This experiment is founded upon the powerful dramatic impulse of children and upon the educative value of the natural expression of that impulse under the mutual self-criticism of the participating group. The function of the leader has been that of an unobtrusive member of the group contributing such suggestions from a wider experience and deeper insight as would naturally elicit and guide that criticism. That this fine art of teaching has been realized with unusual skill in this experiment will be apparent to the discerning readers of this record, as it has been by those who have watched the progress of the work itself.

Too much emphasis cannot be given to the fact that the primary aim of this use of dramatization is the education of the children and not the entertainment of spectators, although, when such dramatization is rightly estimated, nothing could be more genuinely entertaining. Those who are expecting to find here ready-made plays for children, with directions for staging them, will be properly disappointed, while those who are seeking illustrations of vital methods of education through the cultivation and use of the dramatic impulse will be amply rewarded.

The latter will appreciate the frank portrayal of the early and cruder efforts of the children and their own critical reactions due to further reflection and experimentation. These will understand something of the ability and patience that Miss Miller has employed in allowing the native impulse to develop naturally and to mature through the reactions of the children themselves. They will realize that the little people actually formulated the scenes and the lines of the dramas even if it required many weeks in some cases to do so; that it is better for the actors to make their own costumes and stage properties, however simple they may be; that it is more educative for each child to be familiar with all of the parts, and thus with the drama as a whole, than to be coached ever so cleverly to impersonate a single character; and that facility and power in dramatization are thus attained which are permanent sources of pleasure and understanding.

It need scarcely be added that the biblical stories are exceptionally well suited to such use and that when so employed they yield their profound religious quality directly in deep and lasting impressions. The children who have been so fortunate as to belong to this dramatic club not only "know" these stories, but they have lived them in an intimate and durable experience.

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Dramatization is not commonly recognized as a means of vitalizing the religious education of children. The public school has found it to be one of the most effective methods for enriching the pupil's ideas of given units of subject-matter and for leading to the establishment of permanent interests and of habitual modes of action.

The use of dramatization in the school in order to accomplish these ends finds its justification in certain fundamental principles of teaching. Subject-matter is so presented that the important ideas stand out clearly. These ideas are mastered by utilizing them in some form of activity which leads to self-expression on the part of the children. Judgments are formed and conclusions are reached when children enter actively into a situation which presents a problem; ideas become their own through experience. Through dramatization children give expression to these ideas in the light of their own interpretation. The formulation of standards, the placing of values, and the realization of truths and ideals follow as direct results of actively entering into the life-experience of others.

From a psychological point of view ideas and ideals, whether religious or secular, are developed according to the same general laws. Furthermore, the principles of teaching which are effective in the daily classroom must be equally significant in religious training. It follows, therefore, that dramatization and other forms of self-expression are as valuable in attaining the aims of the Sunday school as they are in teaching the curriculum of the day school. Through dramatizing a Bible story children come into a comprehension of the life-experiences of a highly religious people; they are forming their own standards and ideals through meeting and solving the simple life-problems of the Hebrews. Each child has as great an opportunity for self-expression through dramatizing a Bible story as that afforded through dramatizing any other story. He not only develops his individuality, but through this kind of work he must necessarily come into the realization of his place within the group, as is the case in all well-directed dramatization.

The period is rapidly passing in which dramatics is looked upon by church members as being sinful and not in any way to be connected with the church. This view is a relic of a conception of religion in which all forms of freedom and pleasure were considered evil. People interested in religious education are now realizing that dramatization is not an activity foreign to children, but that it is an outgrowth of the play interest which is natural to all children. They are aware of the fact that dramatization becomes evident in the earliest stages of childhood through the desire of children to imitate in play the surrounding social activities. Many churches have already made use of these natural tendencies by incorporating organized play as one of their activities. Since dramatization is but a specialized form of organized play, and inasmuch as it can be used very effectively in vitalizing the religious training which all children should receive, it deserves a wider recognition and adoption.

This book contains a description of a children's dramatic club which has been conducted as a part of the work of the Sunday school of the Hyde Park Church of Disciples, Chicago, Illinois, for the purpose of accomplishing the ends stated above. Before this dramatic club was organized a small amount of dramatization was attempted in certain of the classes during the Sunday-school period. The enthusiastic response from the children to this new phase of the work revealed the need for more of this kind of activity, and as a consequence it was decided to devote one hour each Sunday afternoon to the dramatization of Bible stories. The membership of the club included children ranging from six to fourteen years of age. The average attendance has been from twenty to thirty children each Sunday throughout these four years of the club's existence.

This organization was attempted more or less as an experiment with the hope that definite results could be accomplished. The practical problems which have arisen, the details of method of procedure, and the results which have been secured will be discussed in the following chapters.

Several of the stories are given in the dramatic form which the children have worked out. This is done for the sake of showing what kind of a result may be secured. It is hoped that these plays, as they are written here, will not be given to children to learn and act; such a procedure would be entirely contrary to the spirit and purpose in which this experiment is set forth.

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Two very different aims are revealed in the present-day employment of dramatization. Children are often required to give a dramatic production at some entertainment or social event. For this purpose a story is selected which has already been put into dramatic form. The parts are assigned by the leader, and the children are asked to memorize these parts in exact form and order. The children are then trained to give their parts according to directions. Throughout the preparation of the play the finished production is the goal of endeavor. In such instances as this the children are a means to an end, and their own training and development are usually sacrificed in the leader's attempt to secure a highly finished product.

In contrast to the case just mentioned, dramatization is looked upon as an important educational factor in the development of children. From this point of view dramatization is utilized in developing on the part of the child intense and permanent interests in the words and deeds of noble characters, in developing power of natural expression in them as individuals and as members of a group, and in raising standards of action to higher levels by giving forceful expression to worthy ideals. These aims are realized through the use of informal methods which give the children abundant opportunity for initiative and choice. The children themselves prepare their dramatization under the guidance of a leader who has a vision of the results which may be secured and who is skilful in directing the activities toward these ends.

The little dramatic club herein described adopted at the outset the point of view outlined in the preceding paragraph. Its organization was based on the belief that the development of boys and girls is a much more vital consideration than the development of a dramatic production. Throughout its history the chief purpose of the club has been to promote the growth of children through the free, spontaneous dramatization of Bible stories. In order to accomplish this aim, an informal method of working out dramatizations has been used. The public presentation of a play is only incidental to the children; there is no need for them to act out a story that has been dramatized by someone else. Their aim is realized in the joy of actually living the story over each time they play it, though this may result in the highest form of entertainment. That children should "speak lines" given them to memorize for the sake of entertainment is deadly—to the child as well as to the audience.

There is some difference of opinion as to the value of the classic language of the Bible for children, and many advocate the use of modern or simplified versions. If, however, the children have made their own efforts to dramatize the story, using first of all their own words, it is easy to help them to adopt much of the beautiful classic language in putting the work into its final form. The biblical wording helps to give the play its proper dignity and atmosphere, at the same time acquainting the children with the exact language of a piece of good literature.

The method of procedure which is followed in leading children to work out their own dramatizations varies slightly according to circumstances but in the main is as follows:

A story is chosen by the leader which includes the elements essential for a good dramatization, and it is told to the children in such a way that the action or events are emphasized. Direct discourse is used in the telling, and an effort is made to develop simple and vivid mental pictures. The children divide the story into its most important pictures or scenes. They then suggest in detail what should take place in the first scene, and some of them are asked to act it out as they think it should be done. This first presentation is sometimes stiff and more or less self-conscious. The leader raises such questions as, "Which parts did these children do best?" "Why?" "Where can they improve it?" "What would you do to make the part better?" "What do you think should have been said here?" This leads to constructive criticism of the scene by the children themselves rather than by the leader in charge. Each child is eager to offer suggestions at this point and is anxious for an opportunity to give his own interpretation of the part by acting it out. He formulates his words as he acts. He forgets himself in the genuine interest which arises as he relives the experience of someone else. Each scene is developed in a similar manner.

The leader encourages freedom in individual interpretation, yet she is ever keeping before the children the fact that they are trying to give a true portrayal of the characters or conditions. It is often valuable to have a discussion of individual characters for the purpose of securing clear ideas concerning them. After all have tried various parts and have offered many suggestions, they may be led to choose that interpretation which seems most adequate, or they may all work out the interpretation of a part which will involve the ideas of many. After the story has been played through a few times, each child should be able to assume any character. It is an essential part of this method to see that every child has a different part each time.

Very often, when the play develops to this stage, some one child, or several, will suddenly become aware of repetitions in the scenes and will suggest that some scenes are unnecessary. It is then the time to refer to the number of scenes in a good drama, and to lead the children to realize that in any good play much is left to the imagination of the audience, and that only the essential scenes need be shown. By means of discussions the play is worked over again, and it is finally reduced to the three or four scenes that seem absolutely necessary.

In many instances the dramatization needs no further development. None of the words have been accepted as definite, for, although the thought given is the same each time, exactly the same words are never said twice. The story is interpreted slightly differently with each performance. This interpretation, without obtaining a highly finished result, is best for short stories or incidents. Fables and parables may be used well in this way. The action follows continuously with the development of the thought.

In the case of a story which has a more detailed plot and which involves more complicated situations the development may go further: the wording is carefully worked out by the children and the language of the Bible is employed. The words which are finally used by the children may be composite results developed by the group as a whole, or after they have gone as far as they can with them the leader, or a committee composed of several children with the leader, may suggest a final form which is good from a literary standpoint.

Children either volunteer or are chosen by the others to take finally certain parts. There is a marked socializing influence evident in the fact that a child is chosen by the other children for the good of the group and not for self-aggrandizement or partiality toward a friend. It is always the case after a few rehearsals that each child knows every part and can easily adapt himself to the part of any character. There is no trouble about a substitute when one or two children fail to arrive. Each child has lived the story until it has become a very vital part of him. The finished product belongs to the children; they have developed it; it is not the production of someone else which they have learned by heart.

At the final presentation of the play the children invite parents and friends. This is not thought of as a climax toward which they have been working; it is hardly more important than any of the rehearsals; it is simply an opportunity for others to enjoy the story with them. The encouragement of this attitude toward the public presentation of a play is important in that it does away with the self-conscious feeling of a child that he is acting before people, or that people are interested in him rather than in the character that he portrays. Much harm can be done by allowing a child to feel that he is "showing off" on a stage.

This mode of procedure in developing a dramatization illustrates the general method which is employed in order to secure the results herein discussed. It should be helpful as a method which may be varied or built upon according to the circumstances. Detailed descriptions of exact modes of procedure in presenting different kinds of Bible stories to the dramatic club will follow. Costumes and stage settings have always been of the simplest nature and will be discussed at length in a separate chapter.

In order that this method may be of greatest practical value to those who are unfamiliar with it, a summary may give the steps in logical sequence. This outline is not to be taken as unchangeable, but merely as a working basis for the beginner.

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As will be noted in the following chapter, it is well in beginning dramatic work with children to use for the first efforts very simple stories. Joseph is too long and complicated for an early experiment. We may begin our exposition of method with this story, however, as it illustrates especially well the details of the developing process.

At the first meeting the story was told in terms that followed closely the Bible version. The children were asked to select the big events, or pictures, in Joseph's life. They readily spoke of his life in Canaan as a boy; his being put into the pit and sold to the merchants; his life in Egypt with Potiphar; the prison experience and the interpretation of Pharaoh's dream; the change of fortune in becoming ruler of the land; the famine and the visits of his brothers; and, finally, his kindness to his father and brothers in giving them a home in Egypt.

The story was told to the children very much as follows:

The children decided that it would take a great many scenes in order to act out the story adequately. At first they mentioned seven or eight. One child was asked to describe the first scene as he thought it ought to be, and several others added to the description. Volunteers were then called upon to act it out then and there.

The first scene was placed in front of Jacob's tent. Jacob is anxiously awaiting the return of his ten sons with the flocks. He becomes worried because they do not come, so he sends Joseph to seek his brothers. Joseph accepts the command and leaves the tent.

This scene was acted very naturally and spontaneously by several groups of children. Each time it was changed, for no two groups of children interpreted the action or words alike.

The children who were not acting were made to feel their responsibility also, for they were asked to make note of the best parts. A general discussion was held at the end of each presentation, in which the good points were emphasized and suggestions were given as to improvement. The criticism in all of this work comes for the most part from the children; the leader in charge directs it, but keeps from imposing her opinions.

As the meetings of this dramatic club last but one hour, nothing more could be done than work out one scene at this first time. The children were asked to think the story over and to come the next Sunday prepared to suggest the second and third scenes in detail.

At the next meeting the second and third scenes were worked out in the same manner as the first.

The second scene places Joseph at Shechem. Here he meets the man who tells him that his brothers have gone to Dothan.

In the third scene the brothers are seated on the ground eating and resting, with their shepherd staffs beside them; they begin to talk about Joseph and to tell of his dream and their hatred of him. Just at this point Joseph runs in and gives his father's message. He also tells of his experience in Shechem in not finding them there. Then the brothers take him and bind him and throw him into the pit. The caravan comes along and Joseph is sold and taken away. After the brothers depart, Reuben, not knowing that Joseph has been sold, comes back to the pit, hoping to help him out. When he finds the boy gone, he weeps and goes sorrowfully away. (A doorway which leads off from the stage at the back was used for the pit. There were no camels in the caravan; the men walked by.)

During the next hour scenes which describe Joseph's life in Egypt were roughly blocked out. The children made up their words as they acted the parts. The language at this stage was very modern, but for the time being the emphasis was placed upon the thought expressed and upon the action.

Several of the older girls volunteered to write out the first few scenes in order to bring the language into better form. At the fourth meeting these were brought in and discussed by the children. The following is a version of the first scene just as it was written by a girl of twelve years. It is given here that the contrast may be seen between this as a piece of work which may be made better and the final play at the end of the chapter.

The third scene was written by a girl of eleven years and was as follows:

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At the meeting when these were read the children began to criticize the length of the play. One little boy made the remark, "We keep telling the same things over; why can't we leave out that second scene? It is so short, and Joseph could tell his brothers in the third scene that he didn't find them at Shechem." This suggestion was readily accepted, and as a consequence the second scene was omitted. Then the entire group consciously worked on the play to see what parts were unnecessary. Several children had recently been to the theater and had seen some good plays. They told the others that there were few scenes and that there was much left to the imagination of the audience. The result was that this long-drawn-out play was cut down to three essential scenes. The first scene was placed at Dothan, and was much the same as the original scene iii. The second scene was placed at Pharaoh's palace where Joseph was brought to interpret the king's dream. The third represented the brothers coming to Joseph with Benjamin, the youngest, ending with Joseph's forgiveness of them and his sending for Jacob, their father.

After these three scenes were decided upon, the older children were asked to begin writing them out in final form.

At the fifth meeting of the club all the children sat in a circle with Bibles and pencils and paper and, together with the leader, they formulated the speeches, making them conform as nearly as possible to those in the Bible. The work that had been done outside was discussed and built upon. This part of the procedure did not take as long a time as it may seem, because the children knew so well what thoughts they wanted to express—they had lived the story so many times. They practiced after this, using the words they had decided upon.

For the next meeting or two the children acted out the play, trying each time to improve it by better interpretations of the parts. The fact that they had learned definite words did not in the least check the freedom of the action or cause the play to lose the spontaneity which first characterized it, for the reason that the story had quite become a part of the children before they decided upon the set speeches.

The question arose as to which children should take certain parts. In some instances several wanted to learn the part of one particular character. They were each given the opportunity of learning it, and then at the next meeting each acted it as best he or she could before the group. The other children were judges and decided upon the one who seemed to represent the character best. Whenever this method of choosing characters has been employed there has never been any hard feeling on the part of a child because he was not chosen. The justice of the choice is quickly recognized when it comes in this way rather than from the leader.

There were many little children in this club who were scarcely old enough to learn a part or to say very much. They were easily worked into the caravan, or they took such parts as servants in Pharaoh's court. Each child was made to feel that one part was just as important as another and that those who had nothing to say were very essential elements because of their acting.

Eight or nine meetings were needed before the play was entirely finished. The children had very simple slips for costumes which they had been wearing at each rehearsal. Bright-colored sashes and headdresses they brought from home. Pharaoh was more gaily dressed than the others. The child who took the part made for himself many ornaments from gilt paper.

Very little attention was given to stage setting, what was used was extremely simple. A few of the older girls made designs from the Egyptian lotus to stand around the walls of Pharaoh's palace or to be carried by the servants. Colored illustrations of Bible stories by Tissot were suggestive helps in these details. The ten brothers made themselves shepherd staffs from limbs of trees. This small amount of stage setting and costuming was used at many rehearsals and was all that was necessary to produce the right atmosphere.

As soon as the children felt that the play represented their best effort they invited their parents and friends and presented it before them one Sunday afternoon at the time for the regular meeting.

It happened that a few days before the final presentation four of the principal characters were taken ill with measles and chicken-pox. Four others, who had not given special attention to these parts, but who had minor parts, assumed the important rôles and went straight through the play with no trouble whatever. The audience never knew the difference and the children thought that it was entirely natural that they should be able to do this. The play all the way through was characterized by a spirit of dignity and seriousness.

As direct results of this work in dramatization it was noted that all the children had acquired a certain freedom of expression, a self-confidence, without conceit or too much sureness, and the ability to work harmoniously with the group. One or two timid children learned to forget themselves, and one overconfident child was helped by seeing that others could learn to do the part even a little better than herself.

The children who took part in this little play of Joseph will never forget it. Several years after the play was given they were frequently referring to it with great happiness. Joseph is one of their favorite characters because they have lived through his experiences with him.

The following is the play as it was given in its final form. It is not to be taken as a play which may be given to children to be learned as it is; it is given here that there may be some idea of the standard which may be reached.

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When beginning dramatic work with a group of children who have never had the training before, it is always well to select as the first story to be dramatized one that is short, simple in structure, and full of action. If children undertake a long story which involves complicated situations, they easily become discouraged and lose the joy and spontaneity which are essential elements in successful dramatizations. Fables, such as "The Boy and the Wolf" or "The Fox and the Grapes," are excellent to begin with, because they contain the necessary qualities which make up a good short story. Situations as simple as those which are presented in these fables are entered into with great freedom, and they seem to pave the way for more ambitious dramatizations.

The story of David and Goliath is short, simple, and yet contains vivid action. It was chosen as one of the first stories to be given to the dramatic club because of these qualities. After the children had gone through the experience of dramatizing it they had gained a self-confidence and a realization of their own power in interpreting a story through dramatization.

The methods employed in presenting David and Goliath were much the same as those described in connection with Joseph. The point that must be kept in mind in all of this work is that the dramatization of a story begins with the action and that the words are developed. The play is never written first and acted afterward.

While telling the story the leader placed much emphasis upon the activities and ideals of the shepherd life of the Hebrews in the time of David. The children made their own armor—helmets, swords, shields—from cardboard and colored papers. Pictures and descriptions which they secured helped them to get correct ideas as to shapes and decorations.

The costumes were simple little slips that could be belted in at the waist, and came only to the knees. The children helped to plan and make them. David made his shepherd staff from a limb of a tree, and the soldiers made their spears by fastening gilded points to long sticks.

A question arose as to how the sling was made. The children found, upon looking up this point, that the sling was woven from different colored wools. From a good picture they constructed looms from cardboard and actually wove several slings like David's. Fig. 14 shows a diagram of the loom as the children worked it out.

A very great value was derived from this construction work, in that it came entirely from the children; it was an outgrowth of their genuine interest in the subject. They were reliving the same experiences and solving the same problems that had confronted David.

The gentle spirit of David had a direct influence upon the whole group. It made no difference what part a child interpreted—whether that of Goliath or of one of the brothers—it was evident that David's high ideals and sweetness of character called forth admiration.

Fig. 2 gives one of the scenes from David and Goliath. The play follows as it was given.

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The method of presenting the story of Moses in the Bulrushes differed somewhat from that employed with Joseph. There was little need to tell the story at the beginning, for every child already knew it in detail. Consequently the leader had the children tell most of it, while she supplemented and directed attention to important parts.

In this case the entire play was planned roughly before any of it was acted. The story was criticized by the children as to its organization and unity, and as a result they made up an ending (Act III) which they felt was needed to make the story complete. Experience with the other plays had led the children to feel the necessity for having a satisfactory ending after the climax.

At the second meeting several girls brought in the scenes as they had written them out. They had tried to embody the points which the children had decided upon as the general plan of the play. The final play varies very little from these scenes thus written by the girls themselves.

There was no difficulty in solving the problem as to what they would do for a baby in the first part of the play. Many dolls were brought in, and the choice fell upon the one that received the largest number of votes because of his likeness to the baby Moses. A woven basket served for the cradle of bulrushes. There were many rehearsals when there was no doll or cradle, but the children never felt the lack. Their imaginations can supply all needs.

A few big Egyptian designs were made for the first and last scenes, which were placed in the king's court. These were fastened on the walls and around the king's seat, as was done in the play of Joseph.

Before the play was given before parents and friends the children decided to call it The Childhood of Moses. An older boy in the church printed programs for the occasion that the audience might better understand the play. They read as follows:

The Childhood of Moses

Dramatized and Presented by the Children's Dramatic Club
of the Hyde Park Church of Disciples

CHARACTERS

SYNOPSIS OF SCENES

The following is the play as it was given:

SCENE I

SCENE II

SCENE III

SCENE I

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Ruth was dramatized by the club during the fall of the year because it is a story of the Hebrew harvest time. In order fully to interpret the life of Ruth it was necessary for the children to secure information concerning the barley harvest in ancient Palestine, and also to become familiar with the old customs involved in the story. Many children brought pictures which illustrated the points under discussion, and some of them contributed by telling what they had been able to read at home. Independence on the part of the children in looking up data was always encouraged by the leader; the information which she had to give enriched and supplemented that which was brought in by them.

During the process of this dramatization constant comparisons were made with our own harvest time, and the study of the Hebrew harvest feasts and festivals served to increase the understanding and appreciation of our one harvest festival at Thanksgiving.

The method of procedure in presenting this story for dramatization follows closely that described in connection with Joseph. The Bible version of Ruth is so simply and beautifully told that it needed very little adapting. When it was first given to the children parts of it were read and parts were told by the leader. Many scenes were then planned, but these were soon cut down to the three necessary scenes. From the first the children used much of the Bible language as they acted the story. The beauty and the poetry of it caused them to remember readily the exact wording in many cases.

Seven meetings were required before the group was satisfied with the play as a product of their best effort. As was the case with the other plays given by the club, the children who were to take the parts in the final presentation were selected by the group and not by the leader in charge. Every child knew each part and could represent any character, but children were chosen for specific parts because they seemed to represent certain characters unusually well.

The dramatization of this story called for much construction work. The reapers made their sickles of cardboard and covered them with gold or silver paper or painted them. They found pictures which gave the shape, and from these they cut the patterns (Fig. 15). One little girl brought a real sickle which had once belonged to a Filipino. It gave her happiness to reap with it, but the others were just as content to use the sickles from cardboard.

The need for a harvest song was felt, and in consequence a little song that most of the children knew was decided upon. The reapers sang it as they reaped and while Boaz was walking through his grain field. There was no real grain nor anything to represent it, the children deciding to leave this to the imagination. The action of the reapers and the words that were spoken gave evidence enough that grain was growing there.

There was very little stage setting used in the play. The stage was bare in the first scene in order to represent the road from Moab to Bethlehem. In the second scene a big earthenware jar was needed from which the reapers could drink. The third scene required a box which represented a seat by the city gate; the door which led off the stage at the side was used for the gate.

The action and the grouping of people in the third scene required careful planning by the children. Women came through the gate and passed down the street with water jugs on their shoulders; men gathered in groups to discuss bits of news; Boaz walked toward the gate and sat waiting for his kinsman. Finally, when the cousin appeared, Boaz hailed him and had him sit down. The citizens who were standing near were asked to be witnesses in this business transaction. That one man should take off his shoe and hand it to another was a custom that created much interest among the children. They began to examine pictures for the kinds of shoes that were worn, and this led many of them to wear their own sandals, which approached most nearly to those seen in the pictures. The children who did not own sandals tried to make them with cardboard and strips of cloth (see Fig. 26).

The costuming was very simple. The reapers wore the same little brown slips which had been worn in every play that had been given. Boaz enriched his costume by wearing brighter colors in his headdress and girdle and by wearing a slip that was longer than the others.

The play follows as it was finally given.

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The story of Esther involves a much more complicated situation than any of the others here described. It is not too difficult for dramatization, however, if it is taken after such stories have been worked out as David and Goliath and Joseph.

In the case of this dramatic club the story of Esther was told to the children after they had had much experience with other plays. The interesting plot and the beauty and richness of the court made so great an appeal to them that they were eager to begin the dramatization. The story was first simplified and adapted by the leader, and then told in such a manner as to emphasize the main events. The method of procedure followed that described in chapter iii in connection with the story of Joseph. After the telling of the story the scenes were selected. These were acted out very freely at first, little thought being given to the words. Many pictures were brought in, and descriptions of the court of King Ahasuerus were read by the children from the Bible and from books of Bible stories.

In the second scene the children decided to have the maidens dance before the King. Several little girls who were trying out the part of Esther made up dances for themselves. This feature made this scene especially attractive.

This play was longer than those that had previously been dramatized, and it therefore took a longer period of time to bring it into final shape. There is no reason to hurry a dramatization. If the aim of this kind of work is kept in mind, there will be growth on the part of the children at each meeting. The value lies, not in how many stories can be dramatized during a year, but in how thoroughly the children are reliving a few good stories.

The play of Queen Esther made it necessary to construct several articles. Gold dishes of various kinds were made by covering cardboard with gold paper. These were used at the Queen's banquet. From the many scepters that were submitted the King chose the one for final use. Elaborate gowns and headdresses were gathered; beads and jewels of all descriptions were made from brilliantly colored papers.

The children took the responsibility of the costuming. The majority of them planned their own garments and either brought things from home or selected some suitable costume from those which the club had on hand. Two of the older girls took entire charge of the younger ones and saw to it that each had some simple slip to wear in the play.

The play follows as it was finally worked out by the children.

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This incident should be simplified and adapted before it is told to children. The dramatization is best worked out in the form of a short, free play which involves only one act. It is unnecessary to carry it to the point of fixed words and actions. The emphasis should be placed upon the customs of the times which are so well brought out in the story; for example, the hospitality of Abraham to the strangers represents the feeling toward strangers among the nomad peoples, and the manner in which he showed his hospitality makes children acquainted with customs peculiar to those people. There is excellent opportunity here for enriching the children's understanding of the life of a shepherd people, of which the Israelites are an example.

Descriptions and pictures of the kind of tent the people lived in are necessary. It is important that children should get the idea of the correct shape of the Arab tent and not confuse it with the Indian wigwam. No stage scenery need be used; it is best to leave that to the imagination. A curtain may be put up to represent the front of the tent, but nothing more.

There is much of this incident that should be left out in the telling; by no means should it be read directly from the Bible to children. The story may be told so that the following points are emphasized:

Abraham is sitting at the door of his tent. Three men appear; he runs to meet them and bows to the ground. He invites them to rest under the shade of the tree and offers to get food and to have their feet washed. The strangers sit and talk together, then Abraham comes with the food. They all eat and are rested, and as they rise to depart they ask for Sarah, Abraham's wife. The strangers tell Sarah and Abraham that they are to have a son whose name shall be Isaac and whom God shall bless and who shall be the father of many people. Abraham and Sarah are greatly astonished and pleased. They fall upon their knees to thank God, and when they arise they find that the strangers have departed. The scene closes with their exclamation, "Surely these were angels from the Lord who have visited us!"

This story was dramatized by the children of the dramatic club after they had had experience with many other dramatizations. During the first hour after the story was told the children succeeded in getting the play into very nearly its final form. Two of the older girls, undertaking to write out the scenes as they thought they should be, brought in their versions at the second meeting. Each one was read aloud, the other children being asked to remember the parts that seemed especially good. Then by combining, adding to, or taking from, a composite result was obtained. Several children wrote down the final decisions at the dictation of the group.

Below is given the version which one child worked out by herself, and following that is the final form of the play which the group as a whole decided upon. The leader purposely left this play entirely in the hands of the children; the product is wholly their own.

The following is the play as it was finally presented:

As this play was very short, the suggestion was made that we might lengthen the program, as well as make it more interesting, by having some of the children tell the audience just how we worked up the dramatization. The two older girls undertook this and decided entirely by themselves just what they would say. One of them wrote with great care a description of the method of procedure. She read it to the club for approval, then she learned it by heart and gave it in an interesting manner to the audience on the day the play was given. The other girl wrote a poem about it, and recited it just before the play was given. The description and poem are as follows:

By Margaret Miller

By Melba Pyle

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The story of Daniel in the Lions' Den was dramatized by the members of the club according to the same methods as those which were used in connection with the story of Abraham and the Three Guests.

This play is given here in order to show how a story which deals with a miraculous event may be treated. When Daniel was thrust into the den of lions, he was in reality put out of the door which opens at the side of the stage. The children readily came to the decision that it was unnecessary to show Daniel actually in the den of lions on the stage. In telling the story no explanation was made or asked for concerning the miracle which happened. The children accepted it and enjoyed it as they would any other good story.

The final play which follows represents entirely the children's interpretation; the product is their own.

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Many of the New Testament parables present interesting problems for dramatization. The selection should be limited to those which involve dramatic situations and unity of structure. The simplicity and conciseness of words and actions in many of the parables are qualities which call forth a ready and free response from children.

Among the parables which have been worked out by the dramatic club are The Good Samaritan, The Wise and Foolish Virgins, The Great Supper, The Talents, The Prodigal Son.

In the case of these short parables the story was not told first, but the parable was read to the children directly from the Bible. There was no discussion as to the truths supposed to be taught, the emphasis being placed entirely upon the story element involved. The customs of the times and the division of the story into scenes were discussed as fully as was done with other stories. Usually one or two meetings were all that were necessary for working one of these parables into dramatic form. When it was completed, the result was not a finished product, as the words and action had been interpreted with slight variations each time. The children learned the story by heart, as it is given in the Bible. This influenced their words when they were dramatizing.

Several parables were given together at the meeting when parents and friends were invited. One child recited the Bible version just before the play was given. This feature added interest and dignity to the occasion.

The parables were given in the following order:

During the work on this play the question arose as to the kind of lamps that were used at the time of the story. The children looked up pictures and descriptions, and from these they made themselves lamps out of plasticene or clay. Fig. 8 is a photograph of one of the scenes taken out of doors. The lamps can be seen, also the simple costumes which the children worked out.

SCENE I

SCENE II

SCENE I

SCENE II

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The stories in the Bible, if taken just as they are given, present a body of material which is complicated by a historical background and a religious symbolism that is remote from the young child's experience. They embody the historical incidents as well as the myths and folklore of ancient Hebrew life, and for the most part they express the highest idealism of the Hebrew people. There is no reason, however, why good stories and appropriate incidents may not be given to children from this body of material through selecting from and simplifying the biblical version. A great deal of what is in the Bible should not be used, but there is much that is highly dramatic and becomes valuable for dramatization.

It is possible to adapt an incident by simplifying, and in a measure reorganizing, the parts, and yet to keep the dignity and integrity of the story as it is given in the Bible. The attitude of the children, created by contact with this type of story, should be one of reverence and dignity, coupled with a consciousness of the high ideals of the people they are impersonating.

Before any attempt is made to select parts of the Bible narrative for dramatization the leader, or director of the children, should have well in mind standards which will help in making the part that is chosen a well-organized story. When any good story is analyzed it is found to be built upon an underlying basic structure. There is always a beginning or setting; a middle part, where the incidents rise to a climax; and an end, where the events of the story are satisfactorily worked out. There should be a feeling of movement straight through the story; the incidents should develop; there should be action that leads to some end. A unity must underlie the whole story—there must be no part which is not essential to the working out of the plan. The end of the story should give a sense of completeness, of satisfaction.

It is often the case that the three essential parts of the story call for three acts when the story is dramatized. In some of our modern dramas five acts, but in many only three acts, are required in order to complete the structure. Sometimes, however, all three parts of a story may be given in a one-act dramatization. Before a story is dramatized it is very necessary that it be told so clearly that the children are conscious of these parts; otherwise the resulting drama will lack in organization. No matter how elaborate or simple the story, the children should have a feeling for the basic structure, which should guide the form of the dramatization.

The leader in charge of a dramatic club in which Bible stories are used must take the responsibility of changing the Bible version so as to make an organic unit of the story and yet keep the spirit and big meaning. There are many parts of the Bible narrative which already embody this simple organization—or division into related elements—if all of the heavy, unnecessary incidents are omitted.[1]

Although the main purpose of these dramatizations is not that an artistic result be secured, yet that is an important factor, and should be recognized by both the leader and the children. The product many times will be necessarily crude and lacking in the aesthetic element, but nevertheless there should be an attempt, even though gradually, to train the children toward a recognition and an appreciation of the artistic qualities of the literary production they put forth, as well as of the stage groupings and effects.

Care must be taken that the stories chosen are ethically sound. The story of Jacob is one that may well be omitted. Jacob deceives, and yet all the good things in life come to him—he takes them away from those who rightfully have earned them. This injustice in the story always raises a question in the minds of the children, and for this reason it is not a good story. The stories of Samson, Jephthah, Jael, and others on this order should be eliminated for similar reasons. They are each based upon attitudes toward society and standards of friendship which are now outgrown. There are so many simple episodes in the Bible that can easily be readjusted into well-constructed stories, about which there can be no question of the moral value, that no time need be wasted in considering any story about which there is the least suggestion of an unethical quality when judged by our present-day standards.

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The stories which have been taken for dramatization in the previous chapters were not chosen because they are the best ones for that purpose, but because they represent different kinds of stories and illustrate the opportunity for various methods of presentation. There are many other stories and incidents in the Bible which are equal to, or better than, those described.

A list of some of these stories is given below, together with a few of the most essential points which should be considered in dramatizing each. No attempt is made to give the story in full or to elaborate the dramatization; the plan for each is merely suggestive.

The story of Samuel may be worked into a short play of one or two scenes. The most interesting and dramatic incident is the familiar one of the Voice Calling Samuel at Night. The first part of the story, however, is beautiful, and may be used along with this incident.

In scene i Hannah brings little Samuel to the temple and dedicates him to the Lord. Eli, the old priest, takes the child to live with him in the temple so that he may train him to serve the Lord.

Scene ii takes place several years later. It is night time, and the child Samuel is sleeping near the old priest, Eli. He thinks he hears a voice calling him, and he runs to Eli to ask what he wants. Eli has not called him and tells him to lie down again. Three times he runs to Eli, thinking that he hears him calling. Then the priest tells him that it must be the Lord who has spoken and tells Samuel what to say the next time he is called. Samuel hears the message from the Lord and, upon Eli's request, tells him what he has heard. Eli realizes that the Lord has spoken truly, and accepts his fate as just. He praises Samuel and tells him that he will soon leave the care of the temple and of the people of Israel to him.

Neither in this play, nor in any other play, should there be an attempt to represent the Lord's voice. The child may listen as if he were hearing someone speaking, and from what he says and does the audience will be aware of what is happening. For the sake of the result, from an artistic point of view, such parts as this should always be left to the imagination, no attempt being made to interpret them literally.

The visit of the Queen of Sheba to Solomon furnishes a unit of work for a short one-act dramatization. There is no plot or complicated situation involved and there is very little activity suggested. The attention of the children may well be directed, however, to the description of Solomon's court and of the rich gifts which were exchanged. This is an excellent opportunity to have the children do construction work. They should make many things which will help to give the impression of richness to the court. They may also make their own costumes richer by adding jewels and bright-colored sashes and headdresses.

This little dramatization will include many children. A number will be needed to come in with the Queen of Sheba, and there should be many attendants upon King Solomon. The conversation will be for the most part between Solomon and the Queen, heralds and servants making announcements.

The play opens with the Queen of Sheba's arrival at the court of Solomon. Messengers announce her to the King. Solomon talks with the Queen and she tells him that she admires his great wisdom and his wealth. Then Solomon commands that the feast be served, and while they eat the Queen presents her gifts to Solomon. When the Queen takes her leave Solomon gives her wonderful presents. The play will end with the exit of the Queen and her attendants.

Unless the children put much thought upon the stage setting and the conversation, this incident may prove uninteresting. It has, however, great possibilities for the working out of a beautiful picture.

The story of Joshua and the Gibeonites is so simply told in the Bible that children of nine or ten years of age can read it as it is given and dramatize it directly from that version.

The dramatization of this narrative calls for many characters. The older children may take the parts of Joshua and the leaders of the Gibeonites, while the younger ones are needed for Israelite soldiers and citizens of Gibeon. All the characters in the play will need to do much acting even though they do not enter into the conversation.

Although the dramatization should be a product of the children's work, yet the leader should have well in mind the three main divisions of the story that she may guide the children by her questions. This story may be worked into one of the more elaborate productions. The Bible language should Be used and the result should be full of dignity and spirit. For detail in the method of presentation compare that employed in the story of Joseph (chapter iii).

The story may be given so that the following divisions or scenes are emphasized:

There is much opportunity for construction work in the dramatizing of this story. Costumes, pieces of armor, and weapons may be made in a simple manner by the children.

The story of Isaac and Rebekah is unusually valuable for dramatization. It involves a well-worked-out plot which is beautifully and simply told in the Bible, and which brings the children in contact with many interesting customs among the shepherd people. The story needs little changing; it may be given almost as it is written.

The following outline for the divisions of the story is merely suggestive:

SCENE I

SCENE I

This scene should be made very picturesque as well as interesting. The children may look up pictures of the wells of those times and then construct something that will serve the purpose. Pieces of pottery may be brought in on the shoulders of the women to represent water jugs. (Compare with the street scene described in the story of Ruth, chapter vi.)

SCENE II

SCENE I

While the children are playing this story there should be much detailed discussion which will give them an adequate background for understanding the customs upon which the story is based; and there should be shown many illustrations which will insure correct mental pictures.

This may be used as a very simple incident of two scenes, or it may be elaborated into a longer play.

The first scene is placed by the gate of the city of Zarephath. As Elijah comes toward the gate he asks a woman, who is gathering sticks, for a drink of water. She gives him the water and he asks for bread. The conversation between them brings out the facts that there is famine in the land, and that the widow has hardly enough meal left in the house to make bread for herself and for her son. She agrees to divide with Elijah, however, and takes him into her house. The wording for this scene may be taken almost directly as it is given in the Bible.

The second scene is placed in the house of the widow. The woman and her son are eating with Elijah. From what they say to each other it is apparent that the meal and oil have lasted for many days, and the three people have had plenty to eat during the famine. The widow is convinced that a miracle has been wrought by her guest. She begs him to tell her who he is. The stranger answers that he is Elijah, the prophet of the Lord, and that it is through the Lord's care of them that they have had food enough. The play may well end here with the final speech from the widow as it is given in the Bible: "Now by this I know that thou art a man of God, and that the word of the Lord in thy mouth is truth."

In case the part of the story which gives the raising of the widow's son is used, a third scene may be added, and the widow's speech would come at the end of that scene.

This incident is similar to the story of Elijah and the widow's meal, and may be dealt with in the same manner. It should be simplified by selecting certain parts for dramatization. The emphasis throughout falls upon the generous qualities of the two characters—Elisha, ever ready to help others, and the woman, who always kept a room for the prophet because she admired his goodness.

The stories about Daniel have unusually interesting possibilities for dramatization. They need very little explanation. They are so vividly and beautifully told in the Bible that the children will understand them readily and have no difficulty in interpreting them. A few historical facts may be given to make the setting clear. The following divisions are suggested for the first story:

SCENE I

SCENE II

SCENE III

This story may be treated in the same manner as the story of Joseph (chapter iii).

This story may be read to children directly from the Bible. After they have worked it over several times the final product will include three scenes of the following character:

SCENE I

SCENE II

This story, like the others from Daniel, is so dramatically told in the Bible that it may be taken almost exactly as it is given. It should be worked into a one-act play. Much attention should be given to the setting, and the children may make many things which will give some idea of the richness of the banquet hall.

The play opens with the feast of Belshazzar. The people are making merry in the midst of all the pomp and luxury of the court. Suddenly the handwriting appears on the wall. The King and the people see it and are terrified. The children should not attempt to show the handwriting, but from the words and actions of the King and the people the audience must be made aware of what is happening. None of the wise men present is able to interpret the handwriting. The Queen comes before the King and begs that he send for Daniel, the Jew. Daniel is brought in, and after a little thought gives the interpretation. The scene should end with the recognition of Daniel's power. The scarlet robe is placed on him and the golden chain is put around his neck, and the King proclaims that Daniel shall be the third ruler in the land.

The most majestic piece of literature in the Bible, and one of the world's masterpieces, is the Book of Job. The Prologue and Epilogue are in the prose epic style, which characterizes the best narrative portions of the Bible. The main part of the book is actually dramatic in form, and the deep problem of human suffering is discussed in the loftiest poetic language. The theme is so profound and the imagery so elevated that it is quite beyond the ability of small children. High-school students might well present the drama. Many of the speeches may be abbreviated, while the Prologue can easily be dramatized. Job has been so presented with great success by children of high-school age at All Souls' Church, Chicago. It may be noted that the voice of the Lord was given in an elevated monotone by a person unseen.

For the older children many of the Prophets make interesting characters for dramatization. The great value of a study of the Prophets lies in their appeal as beautiful pieces of literature and expressions of the deepest spiritual feeling, rather than in the dramatic situations presented. If a study is made of the life of the Prophets, and of the times in which they lived, ample material will be discovered which may serve as a background for the dramatization of these characters. This material is not entirely available from the Bible, but should be reinforced by outside references, such as The Prophets of Israel by C. H. Cornill, The Modern Reader's Bible by R. G. Moulton, The Hebrew Prophets by Chamberlin.

The prophet Amos may be taken as an example of what can be done with this material. The Children of Israel are celebrating their autumn festival with great joy and abandon. As the mirth is at its highest an unknown man makes his way through the crowd. He silences the festivity by chanting his dirgelike reproof to the merrymakers. The astonishment of the people at this sensational interruption is great. The high priest hurries toward him and demands an explanation for this unusual disturbance. He orders Amos to cease speaking and to go back to the hills and mind his sheep. Amos answers that he is sent by the Lord to reprove the people of Israel, and he continues to intone his lamentations. The most beautiful and vivid selections for use in dramatization are found in chapters 8 and 9. While the final beautiful words of the prophecy are regarded as an editorial appendix, there can be no impropriety in using them as a dramatic climax. The people may then be represented as subdued in spirit, accepting the upbraiding as being the word of God.

Isaiah, Jeremiah, and other Prophets may be worked out in like manner. The result in each case, however, should insure the utmost dignity and beauty; otherwise the dramatization should never be attempted.

The many Prophets with their various messages suggest the possibility of their use in a pageant. This form of dramatization may be given to advantage by a group of children as a climax to their detailed study of the Prophets.

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From each of the following subjects several dramatizations may be taken. They suggest many short one-act plays, and also some excellent long ones.

It may be well to state, in connection with the selection of stories from the Bible for dramatization, that other stories outside of the Bible may be dramatized by these same methods and will accomplish the same results. It is not best to allow children to dramatize in succession too many of the heavier type of stories, such as the Bible stories represent. They may become tired if they work too long at the same kind of dramatization. Children need stories which will lighten and relieve the extreme seriousness and dignity which they necessarily have to express in playing the Bible stories. There is a host of fairy tales, folk-tales, and historical incidents that may well be adapted for this purpose.

The Children's Educational Theatre, by Alice Minnie Herts, describes dramatic work with children older than those who made the plays in this book. It is an interesting experiment in education which uses dramatization as a means for accomplishing certain aims.

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The point has been emphasized in the preceding chapters that very little stage setting and only a few properties are used in connection with these dramatizations. It is always best that as much as possible should be left to the imagination, and that only such setting and properties be used as the children themselves can construct and as are needed to produce the atmosphere of the play. This point of view influences any consideration of these matters.

It is frequently true that, after the children have made the articles they find a need for, the results are very crude, and there is yet much opportunity for free play of the imagination. Great benefit is derived, however, through the construction of these objects. The children gain a clearer understanding and a keener appreciation of them after they have had the experience of trying to express the shape or form through some medium, such as clay-modeling, paper-cutting, drawing.

Care should be taken that children make nothing in the nature of stage scenery, such as trees, grass, bulrushes, and other bits of landscape. The only stage setting which seems at all necessary for them to make involves very simple designs which show the characteristic ornamentation of the times, for example, the lotus and papyrus designs in Pharaoh's court.

Drawings and descriptions of a few of the most essential stage properties and settings are given below, with suggestions as to where and how each may be used.

Water jugs and dishes.—In the earlier stages of Hebrew history—as is found to be the case with all primitive shepherd people—skins and wooden bowls were used for holding water, milk, and food. Clay vessels were probably not in general use during the nomadic period. When dramatizing the stories of Abraham and Isaac, and others of that period, this fact should be taken into account, and only vessels of wood and skin should be used.

Most of the clay utensils, which are mentioned in the stories of a later time, were shaped like those shown in Fig. 10. Many of the water jugs had small handles, though some were without handles. Fig. 11 shows the position in which a Hebrew woman usually carried her water jug.

The Hebrews had little interest in the aesthetic except in the realm of literature, and the lack is very evident in their pottery. The water jugs are far from having the beauty of line and proportion which is found in Greek pottery. Whenever any of these vessels are needed for use in a dramatization, it is well to have the children bring jars and bowls from home which conform as nearly as possible to the shapes here given. Earthenware bowls and jars may be used effectively.

Wells.—The importance of wells in the life of the early Hebrews cannot be overemphasized. The scarcity of water in the desert made the digging of wells a necessity for the survival of people and of flocks. As much of the land was rocky, wells could be dug only at certain places. These favorable places were the means of determining where the tents were to be pitched. In most of the stories of the nomadic life wells play a conspicuous part.

Children should have correct mental pictures of those ancient wells, so that they do not confuse them with the modern wells. The wells of Palestine usually had low stone walls around them, and often big flat stones for covers. The rocks were piled high enough to keep animals from falling in. In some of the wells the water was so low in the ground that people had to go down steps on the inside in order to get it. In other wells the vessels were let down by means of ropes. The women of the land were always required to draw and carry the water.

The simplest way for children to represent a well on the stage is by piling up rocks to resemble the outside or by using something that will look like a great stone. Fig. 12 shows two kinds of wells in Palestine.

Staff and rod.—The shepherd boy always had with him a rod and a staff (Fig. 13). The rod was about two and a half feet long and was used for protection. The thick knob at the end was cut out of the tree from which the limb came, and was frequently covered with knots or nails to make it more terrible as a weapon. The children may find pieces of wood which will serve the purpose, or if they live near a forest they may make their own rods.

The staff was usually about five feet long. The shepherd used it to help him climb hills and mountains and also to keep the sheep from straying. Some staffs were nothing more than the straight limbs of trees; others had a fork or crook at the end so that they could more easily catch into the wool of the sheep when they needed guiding. Children may use long sticks or branches from trees when they represent staffs.

Sling.—The sling which was used in David's time was frequently woven of rushes, hair, or sinews; sometimes it was made from soft leather. From Fig. 14 it will be seen that the shape of the woven part is wider in the middle and comes to a point at the end. A string was tied to each end and the stone was placed in the wide part. The sling was whirled around over the head, and as one string was let loose the stone flew out. When the sling is used in a dramatization, the stone may be left to the imagination.

Children take great pleasure in trying to weave this sling. A diagram of a simple cardboard loom is given in Fig. 14. The shape should be drawn on the cardboard, then holes made for the thread which strings up the loom. Coarse woolen yarn may be used for the weaving.

Shepherd bag.—The shepherd bag which was used by David was carried by every shepherd boy along with the staff, rod, and sling. It was made from a piece of skin with a cord at each end. The cords were fastened to the girdle so that the skin formed a kind of bag. Pebbles for the sling were carried in it, and often supplies of food. A piece of leather or of brown cloth may be easily made into one of these bags for the children to use.

Sickles.—Sickles were of two kinds—those made of metal and those made of wood. The wooden ones were toothed with sharp pieces of flint. Fig. 15 gives the characteristic shapes.

Children may represent these sickles by cutting the shapes from stiff cardboard and coloring them some dark color to make them look as if they were wood or metal. Some of the boys may be interested in cutting sickles directly out of wood.

Scepter.—The scepter was used by kings in the later history of the Hebrews. It was nothing more than a development of the rod used in the shepherd period. As a rod it was a means of protection and power over enemies, and as a scepter it was a symbol of the same power. Scepters were sometimes short, with much ornamentation; others were long, probably five feet in length. They were all characterized by a ball at the end, and in many cases the kings had them made from gold, or richly ornamented with gold. The Persian kings used the long scepter, which therefore is the kind most appropriate for the play of Esther (see Fig. 16).

Tents.—The ancient Hebrew tent was much like the modern Bedouin tent. It was low and spread out over the ground, and was made of black goat's hair cloth. This cloth was usually stretched over nine poles, arranged in rows of three and from six to seven feet in height. The inside of the tent was divided into two parts by a long curtain which hung across the middle.

A tent may be represented on the stage by placing a big thick cloth (a blanket or canvas or dark curtain) over poles or screens.

Shields.—There were two kinds of shields found among the Hebrews. One was very large and covered a man from head to foot; it was usually carried by a shield-bearer. The other was small and was sometimes called a buckler. Many different shapes were found in both kinds of shields; some were like the Egyptian—long, broad, and straight at the bottom; others were round and oblong. All shields were convex with handles on the inside to hold them by. The kings had shields covered with gold, or decorated with gold and precious stones; but the common soldier had a shield of wood or stiff leather. Leather formed the basis of the shields that were decorated. Fig. 17 will show drawings of some of the typical shapes. Children can easily make shields out of cardboard; some may be covered with gold paper or with dark-brown paper. A handle may be glued or sewed in the inside so that the shield may be held without trouble.

Swords.—The sword was always hung from the left side of the sword-belt. It was made from bronze or iron, and was about seventeen inches long. Fig. 13 shows some of the usual shapes. Many swords were two-edged and had leather sheaths in which they were carried. Children may make these out of stiff cardboard, or out of thin wood. They should be colored a dark color, and the hilts may be decorated with bright colors to represent jewels.

Spears.—Spears averaged about five feet in length. The javelin was a long, heavy spear used for casting; the lance was a lighter spear used for defense. All spears had a shaft of wood and a metal or stone point. Fig. 13 gives several of the characteristic shapes of spear-points. Spears may be made by fastening cardboard points to long sticks, or by cutting the point directly out of the wood.

Bows and arrows.—The bows and arrows of the Hebrews were very much like those of all other primitive peoples. The bows were often four or five feet long and the arrows were pointed with sharp flint or metal. Illustrations of the shapes are found in Fig. 13. Children need little direction in the making of these weapons, a string and some pliable wood being all that is necessary.

Trumpets.—Fig. 18 illustrates the kinds of trumpets used. The small ram's-horn trumpet was associated with the feasts and other public celebrations, while the long metal horn was used for the most part by the priests. These metal trumpets were frequently made from hammered silver. Children can make them out of stiff paper or thin cardboard and cover them with silver paper.

Signet ring.—A signet ring is something that the kings were never without. In the earlier times it was worn on a chain which hung from the neck; later it was worn on the finger. Fig. 19 gives a drawing of a signet ring. The design was raised so that it left an imprint. The king used this imprint as his royal signature instead of signing his name. When a signet ring is needed in a dramatization, as is the case in Daniel in the Lions' Den, any large ring may be used, or the children may be interested in making a ring from paper or cardboard.

Lamps.—Fig. 20 shows one of the simpler types of lamps used at the time of Christ. This was probably the kind referred to in the parable of the Wise and Foolish Virgins. The lamps were terra cotta and held a very little oil. Children will be interested in making these lamps out of clay or plasticene. They are almost in the shape of a shallow bowl with a handle.

Egyptian design.—In the scenes placed in Pharaoh's court a few decorations suggestive of the Egyptian will add interest. Fig. 21 gives some of the simpler designs which the children may use for ornamentation. The servants may carry the large fan-shaped designs, which they make on stiff paper. These designs were made from the lotus and the papyrus plants; the leaves were usually a blue-green, and red, blue, yellow, white, and black were used in many designs. Fig. 21 shows some of these designs that were made by the children and used in representing Pharaoh's court.

As it may be of interest to those who have access to a library to know where more definite and detailed information may be secured concerning the articles that are but briefly described here, the following works are recommended: The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge; Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible; the Jewish Encyclopedia; Kitto, Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature; three books by W. M. Thomson—Central Palestine and Phoenicia, Southern Palestine and Jerusalem, Lebanon, Damascus, and beyond Jordan; Elmendorf, A Camera Crusade through the Holy Land.

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The question of costuming may be dealt with in much the same manner as that of stage setting and properties. Costumes are unnecessary in many of the simpler plays, and even where they are used they should be so treated that they are of minor importance in the minds of the children. It is nearly always the case that the very smallest suggestion of a costume—a sash or a cloth around the head—is satisfying and sufficient to produce the proper atmosphere of the play. There is danger of placing so much emphasis upon this phase of the work that the children attach undue importance to it and thus lose the real spirit of the dramatization.

If costumes are used they should not be saved for the final performance, but the children should have the pleasure of wearing them at each practice where they are actually living over and over the lives of other people. Children should get their ideas of the dress of the times from pictures and descriptions and then in very simple ways try to represent what they have observed. The simplicity of the costumes among the Hebrew people makes the problem comparatively simple.

There is very little definite knowledge about the exact costume of the ancient Israelites, for they have left no records. The only sources of information on the subject are the few references to dress in the Old Testament and the few Jewish figures found among the Egyptian, Assyro-Babylonian, and Persian carvings. The conclusion has been reached, however, that the ancient Hebrew costume was in general similar to that of the modern Arab.

It is fairly certain that among the earliest tribes a simple slip or short tunic, with close-fitting sleeves, was worn. Later a big loose mantle was usually thrown over this slip. The little under-garment was white, woven from wool, or sometimes made out of skins; the outer garment was frequently striped, a bright color with white. Among the old patriarchs the outside cloak reached to the ground. It was often in the shape of a blanket, and was draped by throwing one end over the left shoulder, then passing it across the front of the body and under the right arm, then across the back, and to the left shoulder again.

At a still later period there was the long gown, which reached to the ankles and was belted in at the waist by a girdle. This was sometimes covered by an outside robe which was like a cape. Frequently these garments were brought over the heads in order to protect their wearers from the sun.

As a rule the servants and lower class of people wore only the one garment—a short tunic, with or without a girdle. The richer men wore the outside cloaks. Kings and nobles had many kinds of cloaks which were very elaborately decorated. They had silk girdles, while the poorer men wore leather girdles. See Figs. 23-27 for costumes made by the children.

The women's dress was very much the same as that worn by the men. All garments may have been a little longer, but the draping and the kinds of garments were the same. Great ladies had beautiful veils and shawls.

Both men and women wore sandals. The soles were made of leather or thick woven cords. They were fastened to the feet by means of strings of leather, linen, or of papyrus. Two straps were usually attached to the back of the sandal, then crossing from the back over the instep they were tied to a third strap which was fastened at the front and came between the great and second toe. Fig. 26 shows sandals which were made by the children.

The headdress in the earlier days was nothing more than a piece of square cloth, folded diagonally and placed over the head with the long point at the back; the two ends were then crossed under the chin and thrown back over the shoulders. A cord was tied around the head to keep the cloth on. Later a kind of turban was worn which had no loose ends, but which projected over the face enough to protect one from the sun. Figs. 23-25 give examples of different kinds of headdress made by the children.

The crowns which the kings wore were frequently of gold, studded with jewels, although the Persian king had a stiff cap of felt or cloth, encircled by a blue and white band. Fig. 22 gives a few of the typical shapes for crowns.

The helmets which were worn by the soldiers were varied. The shapes employed by the Assyrians and the Egyptians were probably used among the Hebrews. See Fig. 22 for drawings of some of the best-known helmets. Children may make these easily by using cardboard and gilt paper.

The Hebrew men and women had many personal ornaments, such as necklaces, armlets, bracelets, rings. Children delight in making all kinds of bracelets and chains from gold and silver paper. They may bring all the bright-colored beads that they can get for the enrichment of the costume.

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The kind of dramatics described in this book may be undertaken with success in connection with any Sunday school. The most necessary element is a leader in charge who is wide awake to the aims and purposes of such work and who has the ability to deal with little children. A trained teacher is preferable.

This dramatization can be most effectively presented to children between the ages of six and thirteen. In case the Sunday school is very large and more children join than can be easily managed by one leader, it would be best to divide the members into two or three smaller groups, each with a competent leader in charge. One person should be able to handle well from twenty to twenty-five children.[2]

This training ought not to stop with younger children, but may well be carried on with pupils of high-school age. This would involve problems slightly different from those here presented, but on the whole the same aims may be achieved.

It is sometimes the case that a few of the children outgrow the club. They begin to realize that they are much larger than the others, and they decide that they do not care to take part in the acting, yet they are still interested enough to come to the meetings. If there is no other dramatic club into which they may go, then they may be used as assistants in the younger club and made to feel that they are a necessary part of it. There are many ways in which they can be of valuable help to the leader, at the same time experiencing a development through the training.

During one year in the history of the dramatic club here described three girls of fourteen came regularly to the meetings. They could not be persuaded to take part in the dramatizations, but they expressed an eagerness to help in the direction. They entered into the discussion and criticism of the plays that were being acted each Sunday, and their suggestions were always very much to the point. They had the ability of explaining what they meant to the children so that it was easily understood. These girls would write out the scenes, sometimes while the children were actually giving them; or, again, they would write them at home and bring them for discussion at the next meeting. They took entire charge of the costuming, and would meet outside at sewing-bees, where they mended, pieced, or made over the costumes on hand. Then at the plays they always took the responsibility of dressing the little children, putting on their headdresses, tying their sashes, and seeing that their costumes were draped in the right way.

When a dramatic club is first started, it is advisable to dignify the organization by electing a president and secretary from among the children. The president may take charge of the meetings and then turn them over to the director, and may help in many ways to keep the club together. The secretary may call the roll and be responsible for sending notices to the members. Children always delight in this amount of formality, and through it each one becomes a much more vital part of the group; the responsibility as far as possible is placed upon the children, and they usually rise to meet it.

It is hardly practical in most cases to attempt to hold more than one meeting a week. The time should be set according to the convenience of the majority of the members. Sunday afternoon was found to be the best time for this little club to meet, but any week day will do as well. Occasionally, just before a play is to be given, a few call meetings may be necessary.

It is desirable that the club own the simple costumes which the members wear. A costume box is a convenient place for keeping them. The same garments may be used over and over again, and should be kept where they may be easily obtained at each meeting. The older girls in the group will be glad to take charge of the costume box, and they should see that all of the garments are kept in order. The supply of costumes will grow, for children will be constantly bringing new things to add to it.

There are various methods of getting a number of costumes on hand. The children may bring from home old sheets and bright-colored shawls and ribbons, which may be used to advantage. Often the Sunday school will appropriate a small sum in order to help buy materials. A very small amount of money need be spent, for the costumes must be extremely simple and they should be planned and made by the children.

The construction work which the children do in connection with the dramatization is an important part in the working out of a play. As already noted, the greatest value of it lies in the fact that it represents the efforts of the children. There is hardly time at one of the regular meetings to have the construction work done. A discussion of the articles needed may be necessary, after which the children should be encouraged to make them at home. The older ones are able to look up pictures and descriptions which will help, while the younger ones need to have the matter frequently talked over in order to give them the correct mental pictures of what they are to make. It is always surprising to see how readily children take hold of this kind of work. They bring in very many interesting things which they have made—often things which they have thought out for themselves and which they had not been asked to make. There are times when all the members are working on the same problem, such as lamps for the Wise and Foolish Virgins. It may be best under these circumstances to have a meeting outside where they all work together. (Descriptions of these constructed articles may be found in a previous chapter.)

A word of warning may be in place at this point. Parents of the children are usually anxious and eager to help in making costumes and the constructed objects. The very best aid that they can give is to see that the children have the opportunity for making these things themselves; they may encourage and guide wisely, but the finished product must be the child's, not the mother's. Some mothers have thought that they were doing the right thing to have a carpenter make the spears and other weapons for the soldier. The boy derives more benefit if he looks around for some sticks which will serve his purpose, no matter how crude they may be.

The order in which plays are given in this book should not be taken as the proper sequence for a dramatic club. The story of Joseph is described in detail first because the method used there may be followed with any of the shorter or longer stories. This particular story, however, should not be the first one presented to children who have never had such work before. Such stories as David and Goliath, Abraham and the Three Guests, or any of the parables should come first. Joseph, Ruth, and Esther are well worked out by children after they have had a little experience with dramatization.

As a final summary, let it be ever kept in mind that this dramatization functions as a factor in religious education only when the highest development of the children is the aim. It should be so conducted that it forms an essential part of the religious training of the Sunday school, and also one of the valuable activities of the church.

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Aaron, 55

Abraham, the dramatization of, 84-92, 118

Ahasuerus, king of Media and Persia, 70-83

Aims of dramatization, 5, 9-10

Amos, the prophet, 127

Angels, 85, 90

Armor and weapons, 50, 138-140, 151


Bag, shepherd, 136

Banquet, Queen Esther's, 69, 80

Belshazzar, 125

Boaz, 64-66

Bow and arrow, 140


Cardboard, use of, 45, 60, 151

Citizens of Bethlehem, 65

Clay, use of, 100, 131, 142

Cloak, outer garment, 146

Conspirators, 94-97

Construction work, 45, 60, 130-143

Costumes, 45;
the making of, 144-151;
the method of obtaining, 155

Crowns, 150


Daniel, the dramatization of, 93-97, 122, 125

Darius, 93-95

David, 44;
the dramatization of, 46-51, 128

Design, Egyptian, 142

Diagram of loom, 45, 136

Dishes, 131


Education, religious, 6-8, 157

Elijah, 120-121

Elisha, 122

Esther, the dramatization of, 68-83


Feast, 80, 115-116

Fiery furnace, 123-124


Gibeonites, 116-117

Girdle, 146

Gleaners, 63

Goliath, 44, 48, 51


Haman, 71-74

Harvest, 59, 61

Headdress, 69, 144, 150

Helmet, 143, 151


Innkeeper, 105

Isaac, 118-120

Isaiah, 128


Jacob, 18, 112

Jael, 112

Jephthah, 112

Jeremiah, 128

Jericho, 103

Jerusalem, 103

Job, 126

Jonathan, 128

Joseph, the story of, 17-25;
the dramatization of, 34-43

Joshua, 116


Lamps, 99-100, 142

Lions, den of, 93, 96-97

Loom, 45, 136


Method of presenting dramatization, formal, 9;
informal, 10-16

Miriam, 55

Moab, the land of, 63

Mordecai, 72-74

Moses, the dramatization of, 52-56, 128


Naomi, 62-63, 66-67

Nebuchadnezzar, 122-123


Organization, of dramatic club, 7, 8, 152-157;
of stories, 110-111

Ornaments, personal, 151


Papyrus, 142, 149

Parables, the dramatization of, 98-108

Performance, public, 14, 33, 90

Pharaoh, 21, 39, 54, 57-58

Pharaoh's daughter, 55-58

Pictures, the use of, 45, 84

Plasticene, 100, 142

President of the club, 154

Prodigal Son, The, dramatization of, 105-108

Prophets, the, 126-127


Queen of Sheba, 115-116


Reapers, 63-64

Rebekah, 118-120

Ring, signet, 141

Ruth, the dramatization of, 59-67


Samaritan, The Good, the dramatization of, 103-104

Samson, 112

Samuel, 113-114, 128

Sandals, 62, 148-149

Sarah, 85

Saul, 48, 128

Scepter, 69, 78, 137

Secretary of the club, 154

Servant, 100, 108

Shepherd customs, 84

Shield, 45, 138

Sickles, 60, 137

Sling, 45, 51, 135-136

Soldier, 49, 96

Solomon, 115-116

Spears, 45, 140

Staff, 45, 134

Stage setting, 84, 130

Supper, The Great, 100

Swords, 45, 139


Tents, 84, 138

Trumpets, 141

Tunic, 146-147

Turban, 150


Virgins, The Wise and Foolish, the dramatization of, 99-100


Water jugs, 131-132

Wells, 133

PRINTED IN THE U.S.A.

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Edited by W. C. Bower, Edwin E. Aubrey, and W. C. Graham

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A Survey of Religious Education in the Local Church. By William C. Bower.

The Junior: Life-Situations of Children Nine to Eleven Years of Age. (Revised edition, 1932.) By Ernest J. Chave.

Out of Doors with Youth. By J. W. F. Davies.

The Sunday-School Building and Its Equipment. By Herbert F. Evans.

Recreation and the Church. By Herbert W. Gates.

Character Building through Recreation. By Kenneth L. Heaton.

Graded Social Service for the Sunday School. By William N. Hutchins.

A Summer Program for the Church School. By Miles H. Krumbine.

World-Friendship through the Church School. By John Leslie Lobingier.

Projects in World-Friendship. By John Leslie Lobingier.

The Dramatization of Bible Stories. By Elizabeth Erwin Miller (Elizabeth Miller Lobingier).

Dramatization in the Church School. By Elizabeth Erwin Miller (Elizabeth Miller Lobingier).

Far Peoples. By Grace D. Phillips.

Church School Projects. By Erwin L. Shaver.

The Project Principle in Religious Education. By Erwin L. Shaver.

A Project Curriculum for Young People. By Erwin L. Shaver.

Handwork in Religious Education. By Addie Grace Wardle.

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THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS

Transcriber's Notes

Made minor punctuation and formatting changes, e.g., indentations.