The Boy’s Own Book of Indoor Games and Recreations

In presenting to American youth this carefully-edited volume of home amusements, the publishers are happy in their belief that in the selection and treatment of the subjects chosen the Editor and the accomplished experts who have contributed to its pages have successfully combined, to a degree not commonly found in books prepared for the young, much sound scientific instruction and a large amount of that recreative amusement that seldom fails to awaken an interest both in the youthful mind and in the minds of “children of a larger growth.” In the language of the accomplished Editor, as expressed in his prefatory note to the English edition, the volume is “a veritable recreative text-book, prepared by experts in their several subjects, and treated with sufficient amplitude of detail and thoroughness of exposition to render their respective contributions of very real and permanent educational value. Mere ‘rule of thumb’ is scrupulously avoided, and underlying principles are clearly and intelligently explained. The tyro is led on pleasantly step by step, and almost unconsciously learns many lessons that should stand him in good stead in the battle of life. The wealth of graphic illustrations—of clever pictures that really illustrate—is another and not, we think, the least noteworthy feature of the book.

“In the numerous and greatly diversified sections, it will be seen, the work is carefully graduated in the natural order—from the simpler to the more complex and difficult tasks. We have also endeavoured wherever practicable—as in the model-making chapters—to afford, by means of alternative plans, instructions likely to cause little or no tax upon the pocket, as well as some that necessarily involve more or less expenditure for tools and material. Thus, boys of all ages and conditions—at home or at school; with leisure and ample opportunities, or already closely engaged in the sterner duties of bread-winning; boys to whom a considerable preliminary outlay may be of trifling moment, and others who rarely have a shilling to spare,—may alike turn to the different chapters with the certainty of finding something for each, calculated to afford both pleasure and profit in those spare hours that are the gold-dust of time.

“It will be pretty generally admitted, we presume, that a pronounced characteristic of the age is the daily increasing attention given to Athletics and Technical Training.... This book seeks to give that class of instruction in the most attractive guise. The subjects in which boys naturally feel peculiar interest are skilfully treated by writers of proved capacity and aptitude for the task; and hence considerable space is devoted to those essentially boys’ topics that are not only of recreative value in themselves, but incidentally afford invaluable training to eye and hand.... Nor is the moral and spiritual side of boy-nature overlooked. Games dominated by elements of ‘chance’ or ‘luck,’ as well as those of questionable or evil associations, are of course scrupulously ignored. But this negative claim to confidence is also supplemented by the positive influence exerted towards the building up of a true, robust Christian manhood. It were indeed a grievous thing if, while learning from this book how to use wisely many of the ingenious tools and contrivances described, any boy should neglect to learn how to control and direct to the most useful work in the service of God and of man the marvellous and complex machinery of his own moral and spiritual nature. To every reader, therefore, we make bold to speak that direct, manly word, that no true-hearted boy will resent. It is Dr. Cuyler, if we mistake not, who remarks that Samson builded better than he knew when he uttered his famous riddle, ‘Out of the eater came forth meat, and out of the strong came forth sweetness;’ for the pathway of life has many a lion in it, and our success and happiness depend not a little on the way we meet the foe. Thus Hedley Vicars encountered quite a shower of scoffs from his brother officers in the Crimean army when he was first converted. But he put his Bible on his table in his tent, and stood by his colours. Henceforth the lion was not only slain, but there was rich honey in the carcase when his religious influence became a power in his regiment. In the carcase of a slain temptation, also, millions besides Joseph have found delicious honey. ‘There is not a peril, or a trouble, or a spiritual foe of any kind but may be vanquished by the help of Samson’s God. Life’s sweetest enjoyments are gathered from the victories of faith. Out of slain lions come forth meat; out of conquered foes to the soul come its sweetest honeycombs. One of the joys of heaven will be the remembrance of victories won during our earthly conflicts.’ In Christ’s name and power, try it, boys!”

This volume will be followed by another, prepared on similar principles, devoted to outdoor sports and recreations; and the two, it is believed, will form a very complete encyclopædia of amusements adapted to the youth of all ages and circumstances.

J. B. Lippincott Company.

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PREFATORY NOTE				5
SECTION I. Gymnastics, Indian Clubs, Dumbbells, and Juggling with Balls.
CHAPTER I.—Gymnastics. By a Member of the London Athletic Club.
	I.—	Preliminary Hints as to Dress, Diet, and Exercises without Apparatus		19
	II.—	Exercises without Apparatus		20
		Leg Movements		21
	III.—	Exercises with Apparatus		21
		The Horizontal Bar		22
		Hanging on the Bar and the Walk		22
		Breasting the Bar		23
		The Short Circle		23
		Getting on to the Bar		24
		The Leg Swing (Backwards)		24
		To Sit on the Bar		25
		Sit Swing (Backward)		26
		Hanging by the Legs		27
		The Clear Circle		27
		The Muscle Grind		28
		Hanging by the Toes		28
		The Hock Swing		28
		The Upstart		29
		The Slow Pull-up		29
		Horizontal (Back and Front)		30
		The Splits		30
		The Long Swing		30
		Combinations		31
		The Parallel Bars		31
		Exercises		32
		Vaulting Horse		35
		Leg Spring		36
		Horse Jumping		37
		Saddle Vaulting		37
		Flying over the Horse		38
		The Hand-rings or Stirrups		39
		Climbing		41
		The Ladder		42
	IV.—	How to make Gymnastic Apparatus. By Charles Spencer, Author of The Modern Gymnast, &c.		42
		Horizontal Bar		43
		Portable Horizontal Bar		44
		Lawn Gymnasium		45
		Portable Frame for Trapeze, Rings, or Swing		46
		Jumping Stands		47
		The Pan-Gymnasticon		48
		Other Useful Apparatus		48
CHAPTER II.—Indian Clubs and How to use them. By a Member of the London Athletic Club				50
		Weight of the Clubs		51
		Hints as to Dress, etc.		53
		Exercises for Light Clubs		54
		Single or Heavy Club Exercise		58
CHAPTER III.—Dumbbells, and How to use them. By W. J. Gordon				60
CHAPTER IV.—Juggling with Balls. By a Practical Gymnast				68
		The Vertical Fall		69
		The Inside and Outside Falls		70
		The Parallel Fall		70
		The Outside and Inside Fall from Right Hand to Left		70
		The Horizontal Pass		71
		The Double Vertical Fall		71
		The Double Inside Fall		71
		The Triple Pass		72
		The Triple Over and Under Pass		73
		The Single Over and Double Under Pass		73
		The Shower		73
		The Triple Shower		74
		The Quadruple Shower		74
		The Fountain		74
		The Double Fountain		74
		The Double Fountain Change		75
SECTION II. Model-making—Moving and Otherwise.
CHAPTER V.—Some Simple Models for Beginners.
	I.—	How to Make a Boat with a Screw Propeller. By F. Chasemore		79
	II.—	How to Make a small Marine Engine for a Boat four or five feet long. By Frank Chasemore		81
CHAPTER VI.—The American Dancing Nigger. By C. Stansfeld-Hicks				94
CHAPTER VII.—Moving Models, and How to Make Them; or, ‘Drop a Penny in the Box and the Model will Work.’ By Frank Chasemore				97
		A Model Windmill		97
		A Model Cutter Yacht		101
		Dancing ‘Niggers’		104
		A Real Water-wheel		106
		How to make a Cheap Clock		109
CHAPTER VIII.—How we Made a Christmas Ship. By C. Stansfeld-Hicks, Author of Yacht and Canoe Building, &c. &c.				111
CHAPTER IX.—Model Steam-Engines, and How to Make them. By Paul N. Hasluck, Author of Lathe-work, &c.
	I.—	Principles of the Steam-Engine		117
	II.—	A Simple Toy Engine		120
	III.—	Small Model Engines		123
	IV.—	The Horizontal Engine		127
	V.—	The Oscillating Engine		131
	VI.—	Model Boilers and their Construction		134
CHAPTER X.—The Boy’s Own Model Launch Engine. By H. F. Hobden				138
CHAPTER XI.—The Boy’s Own Model Locomotive, and How to Build it. By H. F. Hobden				144
SECTION III. Games of Skill, etc.
CHAPTER XII.—Chess—Single and Double, etc.
	I.—	Chess for Beginners.—By Herr Meyer		165
		The Universal Notation		165
	II.—	A New Chess Game—‘The Jubilee.’ By Herr Meyer		171
	III.—	Another Jubilee Game		172
	IV.—	The Game of Double Chess. By the late Captain Crawley and Herbert Mooney		173
		Circular Chess		180
CHAPTER XIII.—Draughts. By the late Captain Crawley
	I.—	All About the Game		181
	II.—	The Losing Game		190
	III.—	Polish Draughts		191
		The Openings		192
CHAPTER XIV.—Solitaire. By the late Captain Crawley				199
CHAPTER XV.—Fox and Geese. By the late Captain Crawley				202
CHAPTER XVI.—Go-ban. By Herr Meyer				204
CHAPTER XVII.—The Malagasy Game of Fanòrona. By W. Montgomery				208
CHAPTER XVIII.—The American Puzzles				212
CHAPTER XIX.—Some Minor Games
	I.—	A New Indoor Game		214
	II.—	Knuckle Bones. By Captain A. S. Harrison		215
SECTION IV. The Magic-Lantern, and all about it.
CHAPTER XX.—The Magic Lantern and all about it.
	I.—	Pleasant Hours with the Magic Lantern. By A. A. Wood, F.C.S.		219
		1.—	All about Lanterns	219
		2.—	Various Kinds of Lanterns	219
		3.—	The Phantasmagoria Lantern	220
		4.—	The Euphaneron Lantern	221
		5.—	Dissolving Views	223
		6.—	The Lime-light	224
		7.—	Oxyhydrogen Jet	226
		8.—	The Gas and Gas-Bags	227
		9.—	Oxygen and Hydrogen	228
		10.—	Slide Painting, etc.	229
	II.—	How to make a Cheap Magic Lantern. By Frank Chasemore		231
	III.—	How to make the Slides for a Magic Lantern		240
	IV.—	Revolving Slides for the Magic Lantern, without Rack-work. By F. Chasemore		245
	V.—	Screen Frame for the Magic Lantern. By Frank Chasemore		247
	VI.—	Magic Lantern for Opaque Slides. By W. J. Gordon		250
CHAPTER XXI.—How to make an Aphengescope, or Apparatus for exhibiting Photographs, Opaque Pictures, and Living Insects in the Magic Lantern. By Frank Chasemore				252
CHAPTER XXII.—Ingenious Adaptations for the Lantern. By W. J. Gordon
	I.—	Chromatropes and Paper Fireworks		257
	II.—	The Lantern and the Kaleidoscope		259
	III.—	The Lantern Praxinoscope		260
SECTION V. How to Build Boats, Punts, Canoes, etc.
CHAPTER XXIII.—The Building of the Swallow; or, How to Make a Boat. By E. Henry Davies, C.E.				265
CHAPTER XXIV.—How to Make a Canvas Canoe. By E. T. Littlewood, M.A.				273
CHAPTER XXV.—Canadian, Indian, Birch-Bark and other Light Canoes. By C. Stansfeld-Hicks.
	I.—	Canadian and Birch-Bark Canoes		279
	II.—	Paper and other Typical Canoes		283
CHAPTER XXVI.—How to Build a Punt. By the Rev. Harry Jones, M.A.				287
CHAPTER XXVII.—Rafts and Catamarans, and How to Make them. By W. J. Gordon and W. W. L. Alden				291
SECTION VI. Pleasant and Profitable Occupations for Spare Hours.
CHAPTER XXVIII.—Practical Hints on Taxidermy. By Lieut.-Colonel Cuthell
	I.—	Catching and Setting Butterflies		299
	II.—	How to Cure and Set up a Bird’s Skin		302
	III.—	On Preserving the Skins and Heads of Animals		305
CHAPTER XXIX.—Hints on Polishing Horn, Bone, Shells, Stones, Etc. By Gordon Stables, C.M., M.D., R.N.				308
CHAPTER XXX.—British Pebbles. By the Rev. A. N. Malan, M.A., F.G.S.
	I.—	The Pebbles and How to Find them		314
	II.—	The Lapidary’s Bench		320
	III.—	How to Polish a Pebble		322
	IV.—	How to Cut a Pebble		325
		A Postscript		329
CHAPTER XXXI.—Graphs and Graph-making. By Theodore Wood				330
CHAPTER XXXII.—Cryptograph, or Cipher. By a Naval Surgeon				333
CHAPTER XXXIII.—Hammock-making and Netting.
	I.—	Hammocks and Hammock-making		337
	II.—	Netting, and How to Net		339
CHAPTER XXXIV.—A Perpetual Calendar. By Herr H. F. L. Meyer				342
CHAPTER XXXV.—How to make a Sundial. By F. Chasemore
	I.—	The Horizontal Dial		347
	II.—	The Equatorial Dial		349
		Table of Minutes		354
CHAPTER XXXVI.—The Camera Obscura: How to make and use it. By Gordon Stables, C.M., M.D., R.N.				355
SECTION VII. The Boy’s Own Workshop.
CHAPTER XXXVII.—Cardboard-Modelling and Wood Modelling.
	I.—	How the Reedham Boys make their Cardboard Models.—By the Head Master		361
	II.—	A Home-Made Humming-Top		374
CHAPTER XXXVIII.—Artificial Wood: How to Make it and what to make of it. By the late Dr. Scoffern				375
CHAPTER XXXIX.—How to Make an Astronomical Telescope. By Frank Chasemore				380
CHAPTER XL.—The Kaleidoscope, and How to Make it. By W. J. Gordon				385
CHAPTER XLI.—How to Make a Portable Stage and Figures for the Living Marionettes. By F. Chasemore				388
CHAPTER XLII.—How to Make a Pantagraph				391
CHAPTER XLIII.—My Flagstaff, and How I Rigged it				393
CHAPTER XLIV.—How to Make a Pocket Compass and Timepiece. By F. Chasemore				396
CHAPTER XLV.—Wood-Working and Carving; or, Walking-Sticks and how to treat them				398
CHAPTER XLVI.—Cages and Hutches: and How to Make them. By Gordon Stables, C.M., M.D., R.N.
	I.—	The Tools and Materials—Useful Hints		403
	II.—	Canary Breeding-cages, German and English		405
	III.—	Nests and Nest-Boxes—The German method of Breeding—Hutches for Rabbits, Guinea-Pigs, Rats, and Squirrels		408
CHAPTER XLVII.—How to Make a Cage for White Mice. By W. G. Campbell				410
SECTION VIII. Music and Musical Instruments and Toys.—How to Make Them and How to Play Them.
CHAPTER XLVIII.—Musical Glasses and the Wood Harmonicon.
	I.—	The Glass Harmonicon		417
	II.—	Musical Tumblers		419
	III.—	A Wood Harmonicon		420
CHAPTER XLIX.—Æolian Harps, and How to Make Them				422
CHAPTER L.—The Penny Whistle, and How to Play it. By W. J. Gordon				425
SECTION IX. Electricity, and How to Use it in Play and Earnest.
CHAPTER LI.—Curiosities of Electricity. By Dr. Arthur Stradling				431
CHAPTER LII.—The Leyden Jar, and How to Make it				434
CHAPTER LIII.—The Electrical Machine, and How to Make it				437
CHAPTER LIV.—A Storm in a Teacup				443
SECTION X. Conjurers and Conjuring—Ventriloquism and Spiritualism, etc.
CHAPTER LV.—Mystery and Mummery; or, Houdin and the Arabs. By John Nevil Maskelyne, of the Egyptian Hall				449
CHAPTER LVI.—Ventriloquism, and How to Acquire the Art. By William Crompton				454
CHAPTER LVII.—Second Sight				457
CHAPTER LVIII.—Spiritualism at Home. By Dr. Stradling				470
SECTION XI. Diversified Diversions.
CHAPTER LIX.—Fire-Balloons and Gas-Balloons: How to Make and Use them. By the late Dr. Scoffern.
	I.—	The Principle of Ballooning		481
	II.—	Fire-Balloons and their Construction		483
	III.—	On Gases and Gas-Balloons		491
	IV.—	How to prepare Hydrogen Gas		492
	V.—	The Construction of the Balloon		493
CHAPTER LX.—Model Balloons and all about them. By a Professional Aëronaut and Balloon Maker				497
	How to make a Model Balloon			503
		The Netting		506
		The Gas		507
		Cost		508
CHAPTER LXI.—Smudgeography; or, How to Tell the Character by Handwriting				509
CHAPTER LXII.—The Ludion. By the late Dr. Scoffern				512
CHAPTER LXIII.—Mechanical and other Puzzles.
	I.—	Some Mechanical Puzzles. By F. Chasemore		515
	II.—	Thought-Guessing		516
	III.—	An Improved Ring-Puzzle. By Herr Meyer		517
	IV.—	Aërial Rings		518
	V.—	Bubble Blowing		520
	VI.—	Marionettes		521
	VII.—	Model Wrestlers		522
CHAPTER LXIV.—Keeping the Balance. By the Rev. T. S. Millington, M.A.				524

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THE BOY’S OWN BOOK
OF
INDOOR GAMES AND RECREATIONS.

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That fine old Latin motto, ‘Mens sana in corpore sano’ (‘A vigorous mind in a sound body’), has stood the test of years, and happily its truth is day by day more forcibly asserting itself. The feeling is becoming general that body and mind ought to be developed to the utmost, for they are both gifts to us, divinely bestowed, and for the proper use of them we are responsible.

The benefits of judicious exercise to the human frame cannot be over-estimated. In these days of sedentary occupations, it becomes an absolute necessity, an antidote, in fact, to the labours of the brain. By its use the balance between mind and body is preserved.

Irrespective of the increased health that gymnastics impart, and the spring which they give to the mind, they possess one great advantage, namely, that they endow the gymnast with presence of mind in difficulties. In positions of danger how much better chance of escape those who have trained themselves to use their limbs will have over those who have not!

Foremost as we stand among nations, it is surprising that such indifference should have hitherto prevailed with regard to the development of the body. In many continental countries (Germany and Switzerland more especially) gymnastics form part of a boy’s education; here, at any rate until quite recently, they were indulged in only as an accessory, and often without the aid and direction of an experienced teacher. Boys are allowed to enter the gymnasium, make their own choice of apparatus (and they generally select that which requires the greatest skill), and, in imitation of some expert gymnast whose performances they have witnessed, attempt feats far beyond their strength, which can only be successfully accomplished after a systematic course of practice. The result is often positive injury, and always discouragement.

As in other things, there is no royal road to gymnastics. The learner must begin with simple and gentle exercises if he wishes to acquire a graceful and easy style, increasing them in difficulty in regular degree, according to his strength and progress. The extra time and trouble devoted to the simple exercises, in which lies the groundwork of the most ‘taking’ feats, will be acknowledged to have been well expended, and the acquirement of a cool, easy, and elegant style will prove sufficient recompense for having assiduously practised them.

The best material for dress is undoubtedly white flannel. A pair of trousers made to fit the legs tolerably closely, with plenty of room in the seat (not ‘baggy,’ of course), a close-fitting ordinary under jersey, minus the sleeves (to give freedom to the arms), and a pair of canvas shoes without heels, are all that are necessary for wear during actual practice. Add to these a loose jacket of medium thickness to slip on during intervals of rest, and you have your costume complete.

Upon the question of wearing a belt opinions are divided. Many gymnasts approve of it, and assert that it affords them support; but our view, in which we are confirmed by medical authority, is that artificial support should be avoided. All that is necessary is that the trousers should be made to fit well over the hips, with a waistband about 2¹⁄₂ in. in width, and a strap and buckle behind. Be sure that the flannel is well shrunk (by immersion in water for about thirty-six hours) previous to making up.

Before proceeding to describe the exercises, we have a word to say with regard to the time at which they can be most beneficially practised. Let it be a golden rule never to attempt work directly after a meal. The digestive organs require time to fulfil their functions, and exercise upon a full stomach only impairs and weakens them. Food should not be taken immediately after practice; a short time—say half an hour—should elapse before eating.

It is of importance that these directions should be observed, for with impaired digestion the muscles, instead of being strengthened and developed by exercise, are really weakened and reduced, in consequence of not having received the nourishment which digestion alone can extract from food.

Light practice before breakfast may be taken with advantage, but a dry biscuit or crust of bread should be eaten on rising.

No. 1. Place the heels together, toes pointing outwards, stand perfectly upright, as at attention, chest expanded. Raise the arms, and stretch them out in front, hands open, palms touching. Keeping the hands at the same level, throw them as far behind the back as you can. Do not bend the body. Continue this exercise until you feel you have had enough.

No. 2. Stand as before. Clench the hands and throw them out in front. Bring them back sharply to the sides, throw them out again, and continue.

No. 3. Again same position. Raise the fists to the shoulders, knuckles turned outwards, strike upwards. Bring the fists down again to the shoulders.

No. 4. Extend the arms at full length on each side, hands open, palms upwards. Bend from the elbow, bringing the tips of the fingers to the shoulders, then straighten out again. This is fine exercise for the biceps.

Now combine these four exercises, doing them in succession.

No. 5. Stand with the legs a little apart, toes pointing outwards. Arms straight, and hanging in front. Describe a circle in front of you with each hand, alternately keeping the fist shut and arms perfectly straight. First one way, the hands going outwards, then the other coming inwards. Keep up this ‘windmill’ action for some time.

These extension exercises will give ease and pliancy to the arms and their joints.

Leg Movements.

No. 1. Place the hands on the hips, and stand upright, heels together. Raise each leg alternatively, as high as possible, straight out in front of you, toes pointed, leg perfectly still.

This should not be done too slowly, but with a slight swing, as in the act of kicking.

No. 2. In addition to the forward movement, swing the leg behind you, do not bend the body over, and mind your balance. Keep up this pendulum movement, first with one leg, then with the other, counting 1, 2, 3, 4. 1, leg out in front; 2, swing behind; 3, in front again; 4, foot to ground to first position; then do the same with the other leg.

No. 3. Stand as in No. 1, and throw each knee up alternately, endeavouring to strike the chest. Do not stoop forward. This exercise loosens the knee joints.

No. 4. When in the position described last, with the knee raised, throw the leg out in front, and straighten it before bringing the foot to the ground. This is part of No. 1.

No. 5. Stand as before. Now sink down slowly, as low as possible, raising the heels from the ground, knees bent at an angle, then rise again. Do this at least twenty times in succession. It will give it to you in the calves and thighs, but it is splendid exercise.

If you practise these exercises for about half an hour every day for a week you will be ready for the more advanced practice which we shall next describe.

The exercises described in the last section do not by any means exhaust the list of extension movements that can be practised. They are sufficient, however, to form a groundwork upon which the reader may begin. Many other exercises will readily suggest themselves to him during practice.

If he has a few friends who will join him in them, it will prove mutually advantageous, the exercises becoming much less monotonous by being performed in company. One should act as director, standing facing the others, and setting the exercises, counting aloud 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on.

This system is practised at all the large gymnasiums, the ‘Mass Exercise,’ as it is called, commencing the evening’s work, and forming a very pretty spectacle. This is notably the case at the German Gymnasium, King’s Cross, where frequently as many as 200 gymnasts, standing at arm’s length from each other and obedient to the word of command from the leader, who occupies a raised platform in front of them, go through the extensions in unison and perfect time. The effect is unique, and must be seen to be appreciated.

After having become accustomed to these movements, they may be practised with light dumb-bells.

The pupil having passed through the preliminaries, and moulded himself a little into shape, we now proceed to describe the exercises with apparatus. Those on the ‘horizontal bar’ being among the most strengthening of gymnastic performances, and perhaps also the most varied and attractive, we shall treat of them first.

The Horizontal Bar.

Almost every boy is familiar with this apparatus, but for the benefit of the few who may be in ignorance, we give a drawing of it (Fig. 1).

The bar or pole should be of ash, diameter 2 inches, length 6 feet. The more expensive bars have a steel core running through the middle, in which case the diameter can be reduced to 1¹⁄₂ inches, and the length increased to 7 feet. This size is decidedly more pleasant for use, as a firmer grip can be obtained than on the thicker bars. The height of the bar from the ground of course varies according to that of the gymnast, who should be able to touch the lower side with both hands (the tips of the fingers) when standing raised on his toes. When hanging by the hands, the toes will then just clear the ground.

Having adjusted the apparatus to the proper height, begin by

Hanging on the Bar and the Walk.

Jump up and seize the bar with both hands, knuckles upwards, the thumbs on the same side as the fingers. Remember (with the exceptions mentioned later on) never to grasp the bar as you would a broomstick, but hook the hand over it. Let the legs hang perfectly straight and together, toes pointed.

Now ‘walk’ with the hands from one end of the bar to the other, and back again. Keep the body steady and avoid swaying (Fig. 2).

Breasting the Bar.

Hang on the bar as before, and slowly draw yourself up, keeping the shoulders square, until the chest is level with the bar (Fig. 3).

Then lower the body until the arms are quite straight again, draw up again, and continue to practise until you can accomplish it from eight to a dozen times in succession. When breasting the bar, repeat the walk in that position.

Now try swinging forward and backward, arms straight, increasing the height with each swing until the body assumes an almost horizontal position. When at the extent of the backward swing, the hands should be shifted slightly round the bar to recover the grip which the forward swing has lessened (Fig. 4).

Now in the backward swing release your hold of the bar and launch yourself away from it with a slight push and alight on your feet. This will accustom you to leaving the bar neatly and effectively (Fig. 4A).

The Short Circle.

Draw the chest up to the bar, throw the head well back, raising the legs at the same time (keep them straight), and get the toes over the front of the bar, pulling hard with the arms (Fig. 5). This will cause you to revolve half round the bar, and will bring you into position as in Fig. 6.

This is rather difficult to perform, and requires a deal of practice, but it is an indispensable exercise.

When in this position (Fig. 6) endeavour to revolve completely round the bar like a wheel on its axis. To do this you must throw the upper part of the body forward with a good swing, at the same time keeping the arms rigid, and giving yourself sufficient impetus to go round, coming up into the original position.

Getting on to the Bar.

Get into position as in Fig. 3, then drop the right side of the body, simultaneously throwing the left leg over the bar as in Fig. 7, and swing the other leg which will have the effect of bringing you up over the bar. Endeavour to come up with the body upright, as in Fig. 8.

You will experience some difficulty in doing this, and your first attempt will no doubt result in a mere scramble up, but persevere until success rewards your efforts.

There is another method you may try—viz., to bring the leg up through the hands, and, with a good swing, bring yourself up, as in Fig. 8.

One method is perhaps as good as the other, but neither can be neatly performed without continual practice.

The Leg Swing (Backwards).

When in position, as in Fig. 8, swing the right leg out behind, at the same time shifting the left leg backward until the bend of the knee catches the bar (Fig. 9).

Keep the arms straight, and throw the head back with a good swing, just enough to bring you round the bar into the original position. You must be careful in judging the swing, otherwise you will find that you cannot stop yourself, and will make a half turn too much. After a little practice you will be able to judge the first swing to a nicety, and come up with a good balance. Now do several turns without stopping, always remembering to finish above the bar.

For the forward leg swing, turn the hands the other way, leaning the weight of the body on the arms; throw the head forward, and, with one bold plunge, keeping the body erect, and holding tightly on to the bar, make the revolution (Fig. 10).

Do not be content with accomplishing this with one leg only, but practise with right and left alternately.

The forward swing will tax your confidence more than the backward, but it is really not more difficult. You will, after a little practice, be able to make several revolutions in succession. This has a very dashing appearance.

To Sit on the Bar.

This will prove rather difficult at first. Get on to the bar, as in Fig. 8, and preserving your balance, bring the hanging leg with a rapid movement over the bar into a sitting position. To effect this you must leave go of the bar with the right hand, resuming your grasp directly the leg has passed under your hand. You will now be in position as in Fig. 11.

This exercise really consists of balancing, and in your first attempts you will find a tendency to roll over backwards directly the leg reaches the level of the bar. Should you do so, however, you can quickly recover your position by the method described in ‘getting on to the bar.’

There is another way of getting into the sitting position. Hang on as in Fig. 2, and doubling up, pass the legs through the arms (Fig. 14), straighten the body, as in Fig. 15, and draw yourself up until the posterior is a little above the bar. You will then, with a slight bend of the body, roll over into position. You must keep the head well back, and pull hard with the arms.

A good exercise for the muscles of the back is to drop through when in position as in Fig. 14, to position as in Fig. 16, and back again to Fig. 2. Be careful to keep the legs straight while doing it. It is easy enough to effect with legs bent.

Having accomplished ‘sitting,’ accustom yourself to remaining in that position without holding the bar with the hands, balancing yourself with the bar under different parts of the leg.

This will prepare you for the

Sit Swing (Backward),

which is not unlike the leg swing, but very much more difficult, as greater strength is required, in consequence of the whole weight being thrown upon the arms.

Sitting on the bar as in Fig. 11, stiffen the arms, and launch yourself backwards with a good swing, holding the bar firmly with both hands, and go right round the bar with the impetus you have given yourself, resuming the position from which you started. As in the leg swing, you must judge the swing correctly, or else you will go round half a turn too much, or fail to give sufficient swing to come up at all. This will very likely be the case in your first few attempts, for you can hardly expect to accomplish the feat at once.

In attempting this exercise it is as well to have some one standing in front of the bar ready to catch you in the event of your not having given swing enough to balance yourself, in which case you will fall forward.

In the sit swing forward, starting is the important part. Raise the body as far from the bar as possible, the whole weight supported on the arms (Fig. 12), legs straight, chest thrown out. Now with a bold plunge forward you will go right round (that is after a time). The arms must be kept perfectly straight, as in Fig. 13, and the hands of course reversed as in the leg swing forward.

This feat requires more nerve than any we have yet described, and, as a natural accompaniment, more practice, but it will well repay any amount of perseverance.

Hanging by the Legs.

Sit on the bar, then suddenly slide backwards and drop, catching yourself by your bent knees (Fig. 17).

You must be very careful not to communicate any swing to the body, but to drop quite straight, or off you will come. Having successfully acquired this exercise, you may now practise swinging by the legs, when as in Fig. 18, let go with your legs, and let them drop and come on your feet on the ground. This exercise had better be first practised on a bar sufficiently low to allow of your just touching with the tips of your fingers when hanging, in case you hold on too long, and so come on your hands and feet instead of on your feet only. A very little practice, however, will suffice to give you the knack of leaving go at the exact moment, and as this method of leaving the bar is often called into requisition at the end of a series of combined movements, it should be acquired perfectly.

We cannot too strongly advise our young friends who wish to become gymnasts to pay particular attention to the style in which they perform the exercises. Many a difficult feat is spoiled in appearance by the clumsy manner in which it is executed, and fails to elicit the admiration afforded to a much simpler movement gracefully performed.

The Clear Circle.

This exercise is very difficult, and will necessitate a lot of practice. It differs from the ‘Short Circle’ already described in this important particular, viz., that the circle is performed without any part of the body touching the bar. You must commence by drawing the chest up to the bar from the hanging position, then throw the head back, and, raising the legs, and pulling hard with the arms, endeavour to bring the feet over the bar, describing, as it were, part of a circle. While the legs are passing round, straighten the arms, and you will come into position as in Fig. 19.

Now revolve round the bar, keeping the arms rigid, and the body away from the bar. The whole weight of the body (which must be kept quite straight) will thus be thrown on the arms. Our readers must not be discouraged at the nonsuccess that will attend their first efforts to accomplish this exercise, which, as we have before remarked, is a very difficult one, and requires a deal of practice before the knack can be acquired.

The Muscle Grind.

This, although not difficult to perform, is very showy, and frequently elicits greater applause from an audience than much more difficult feats. Get on to the bar in sitting position, as in Fig. 11, then slide down in front, at the same time putting the arms straight down behind you until the bar comes across the biceps; then communicate a swing to the body until you have acquired sufficient momentum to carry you completely round the bar. The ordinary way in which this feat is performed is with the head going forwards (Fig. 20). The other way (backwards) is more difficult.

It can be done in a third way, with the arms straight along the bar (Fig. 21).

Hanging by the Toes.

This is easier than most people imagine. Whatever difficulty may be found will consist not so much in the actual sustaining of the weight of the body by the toes as in the task of getting the feet into position on the bar. We will suppose, however, that by this time the pupil will have mastered the short circle described on page 23, in which case he will find it easy enough to hitch the toes on the bar instead of bringing them over to complete the circle. This having been accomplished, nothing remains but to leave go with the hands and let the body drop slowly until hanging quite perpendicularly (Fig. 22).

In first attempting this, it is advisable to stretch out your arms, so as to be prepared in case you find your feet slipping off. To drop on to the hands is the easier way of leaving the bar from this position, but it is not the correct one, which is to draw the body up and resume your hold of the bar by the hands.

The Hock Swing.

This is like the sit ‘swing backward,’ except that it is performed without holding the bar by the hands, which of course renders it very much more difficult.

Sit on the bar as far back as possible, and then launch yourself backwards with arms extended, holding tight with the legs, and, with a good swing, come right round the bar into sitting position from which you started (Fig. 23).

Great demand will be made upon your store of confidence in the performance of this feat, but it well repays the practice involved, as it has a very dashing appearance, especially when several turns are done in succession, which you will be able to accomplish after a time.

The Upstart.

This is an indispensable exercise, and one that will be frequently called into requisition by the gymnast as he becomes more advanced. It consists of getting on to the bar by a swing and a jerk, the peculiar nature of which it is rather difficult to describe. First hang by the hands, then bring the feet up to the bar and shoot them out sharply as far as possible (Fig. 24), at the same time pulling hard with the arms.

You will find, after a time, that this will have the effect of bringing you right up on to the bar as in Fig. 6.

The upstart can be performed without the swing, but the arms in this case must be kept perfectly straight. Raise the legs as before, then drop them suddenly and pull the body above the bar. To see the upstart once performed will do more towards teaching its acquirement than pages of explanation. It is purely a knack, which will come to you all at once, after, perhaps, numberless fruitless attempts (Fig. 25).

The Slow Pull-up

is another method of getting on to the bar, and is a feat of strength rather than of agility, great muscular power being necessary for its successful accomplishment.

It is performed by drawing the body up while hanging from the bar. The hands must be well over the bar—in fact, the wrists must rest there. In this exercise it is better to have the thumbs underneath (this is one of the exceptions referred to in page 22), as otherwise, when you come up, your hands may slip off. Fig. 26 shows the position midway.

This is the critical point, and all your strength will be required to get the rest of the way. By raising the elbows a little you will find you will get a greater purchase, and the raising of the legs will counterbalance the weight of the body and bring it up. This exercise always meets with great applause, especially when done several times in succession, a feat that will task your powers to their utmost.

Another strength movement is the

Horizontal (Back and Front).

It consists of supporting the body by the strength of the arms, as shown in Figs. 27, 28.

The Splits.

This must first be practised on a bar reaching not higher than the waist. The feat is to clear the bar as shown in Fig. 29. Some amount of confidence will be required for the performance of this exercise, and there must be no hesitation in the matter, or over you will come on your nose. First practise jumping on to the bar, so as to touch with both feet inside the hands; then try outside, and, when you have become accustomed to this movement, you may make your attempt to go clean over. You must be careful to let go with the hands at the proper moment when in position shown in Fig. 29.

The exercise is usually first acquired on the ‘horse’ (an apparatus which we shall describe in due course), and is much more difficult on the horizontal bar, but as it is a very pretty finish to a series of combined movements, we have introduced it here.

We should recommend your having some one standing in front of the bar when you commence to practise this movement, to catch you in case your feet do not quite clear.

The Long Swing.

This is perhaps the most difficult of all the exercises on the bar, and requires great strength and nerve for its accomplishment. There are very few gymnasts who can do it properly, which is not to be wondered at, considering the amount of practice that it involves. Only the advanced gymnasts, those who have completely mastered all the foregoing exercises (especially the clear circle, which is the preliminary to the long swing), should attempt it.

Start from position as in Fig. 6, and raise the body up (Fig. 30), then descend with a dashing swing (Fig. 31), bending the body backward, and just as you are underneath the bar throw the legs forward and the head back. This will have the effect of bringing you up above the bar. You must now bend the arms slightly, to bring you nearer the bar, over which you should come with the chest thrown out. This position is the most awkward part of the whole swing, for the hands will be found too far over the bar. To rectify this you must make what is known as the shift, which consists of making a rapid turn with the hands, bringing the palms on to the top of the bar, when you can straighten the arms (Fig. 32), ready for another circle.

The long swing can also be performed forward, but it is even more difficult than the one just described.

Combinations.

We have now shown most of the principal movements on the horizontal bar, a great many of which, when properly acquired singly, can be performed in combination. For instance—

Start with the short circle, throw the legs over the bar into sitting position, then sit swing backwards, leave go with the hands, two hock swing backwards, and off the bar on to your feet as in Fig. 18.

Again. Upstart, clear circle (three or four times) into sitting position, sit swing forward, change hands, and hock swing off.

A very dashing-looking feat is the upstart and splits in one movement. Care must be taken not to allow the body to touch the bar, or your impetus will be stopped just when it is required for clearing the bar.

This concludes the Horizontal Bar. We will now proceed to describe the exercises on the Parallel Bars.

The Parallel Bars.

The Parallel Bars are very simple in their structure. They consist of two bars, running side by side, supported by uprights at a sufficient height from the ground to allow the feet to swing clear. The width should not be more than eighteen inches; length about seven feet.

The exercises that can be performed upon this apparatus are various and attractive; some of them comparatively easy, the more advanced very difficult, and requiring great strength and skill in their execution.

Exercises.

Rise into position as in Fig. 33, and walk with the hands to the end of the bars, keeping the arms stiff, legs straight, and toes pointed. Now walk back again. Now proceed along the bars by a succession of jumps with the hands and back again.

Let the body sink down, as in Fig. 34, and hop along in that position forwards and backwards. Be careful to keep the body steady and legs straight.

Position as in Fig. 33. Now commence swinging the legs backwards and forwards. When accustomed to this movement, throw the legs over the bars in front of you (Fig. 35), then bring the hands to the front (Fig. 36), and bring the legs over again between the bars into original position. Do this several times in succession, and vary the exercise by commencing with throwing the legs behind.

The pumping movement is a splendid exercise for bringing out the muscles of the chest, and is performed as follows. Swing the body into a horizontal position, as in Fig. 37; then bend the arms and drop into Fig. 38. Swing the legs forward, and with the impulse this will give you come up into Fig. 39, and finish with a swing back into position from which the movement was commenced. In the backward ‘pump,’ commence from the position as shown in last figure, and drop with the backward swing. It is a pretty movement to combine the two—first forwards, then backwards, in alternate swings, and then to leave the bars by a side movement on to your feet, as in Fig. 40. This last movement is one of the neatest and easiest ways of leaving the bars, and can be done either forwards or backwards, and on right or left side.

After having fairly mastered the pumping movement, you will now be ready for attempting the hand-balance—an exceedingly effective exercise, and not very difficult to accomplish. Commence as for the backward pump, and, with an increased momentum, bring yourself up into a hand-balance (Fig. 41). This movement should be first practised at the end of the bars, as in the event of your overbalancing—a not unlikely contingency—you can save yourself by bending the arms, as in Fig. 42. We should also recommend your having two friends to stand by you, one on each side of the bars, ready to catch you in case of a tumble. Having become proficient in the stationary balance, try to walk along the whole length of bars with the hands, still preserving the balance. This will be found none too easy, as directly one hand is moved forward the balance is altered, and there is a tendency to fall over. The correct method of leaving the bars after balancing is by means of the hand-spring, which is performed by bending the arms as in Fig. 42, and when in that position dropping the legs and pushing away from the bars with the arms; the result will be that you will alight on your feet after having turned a half-somersault. In practising this also you should have two friends ready to catch you, as your first few attempts are nearly certain to be unsuccessful.

The slow pull-up was described in our remarks on the Horizontal Bar, but upon the parallels it is much more difficult of execution. The movement is shown in Figs. 43 and 44. In starting, the hands should be placed well over the ends of the bars—the wrists, in fact, being over—then by sheer strength raise the body up to Fig. 44. This is the awkward point, and all your exertion and power will be called upon to get right up with straight arms.

The following exercise is also very similar to one described for the horizontal bar, but it is more difficult on the parallels. Stand between the bars, catch hold of them with the hands, and stoop down until the shoulders are level with the bars; then raise the legs—keeping them straight—until the body is in position, as in Fig. 45, when drop right over to Fig. 46; then back again, and continue the movement several times. This is splendid exercise for opening the chest and strengthening the muscles of the back.

Vaulting movements, when neatly performed, are very pretty, and should be commenced from the centre of and between the bars. Figs. 47 and 48 will convey the idea to our readers. A great many movements may be gone through while in this position, the necessary impetus being obtained by swinging the legs over the bars.

Fig. 49 shows the most difficult of all the exercises upon the parallels. It is to make the head and shoulders counterbalance the legs, and to hold the body parallel with the bars by the arms. This is known by the name of ‘La Planche.’

We will now proceed to a description of the exercises on the

Vaulting Horse.

The above sketch shows the apparatus (Fig. 50). The dimensions most convenient for use are 5 feet 10 inches to 6 feet in length, and about 16 inches across the back; the height can be arranged as required. It will be seen from the illustration that the legs are telescopic, and can be lengthened or reduced at pleasure.

The two pommels in the centre are about 18 inches apart, and can be removed for certain exercises hereafter described. In that case, pommels level with the back of the horse are inserted to fill up the grooves. In performing a great many of the exercises it is necessary to have a wooden board about 3 feet square, rising in thickness from a feather edge to 3 inches, to be placed on the ground at the side or end of the horse, as the case may be, for the ‘take-off.’ This is not used as a spring-board. It should be solid, and made of deal.

The trunk of the horse is made of a solid piece of wood, and covered all over with cowhide. One end, as will be seen from the engraving, is raised, with a slight bend corresponding to the neck of the animal, which gives it its name.

Many of the exercises upon the horse are similar to those upon the parallels. Our readers can themselves recognise which they are; we shall therefore avoid recapitulation, and only describe those peculiar to the horse.

Start by springing on to the horse with the hands one on each of the pommels, legs hanging straight (Fig. 51). Now swing the right leg over the horse in between the pommels (as in Fig. 52), momentarily relinquishing the hold of the right hand, and immediately the leg has passed resuming your hold; then the same with the left leg. This must be done without touching the horse with the foot, and the body must be supported by the arms the whole time. Then bring each leg back again into original position.

Now try the two movements at once—that is, while the one leg is being brought back the other is to be passed through forward. You will thus always have one leg on each side of the horse.

The next exercise is the—

Leg Spring.

Stand in front of the horse, hands on pommels, then spring up into the saddle into a kneeling position (as in Fig. 53). Then, throwing the arms up, give a good spring forward, alighting on your feet the other side (Fig. 54). You will feel rather awkward at first in attempting the spring, as the legs seem to be glued to the saddle, but it is very easy after having once been accomplished.

Horse Jumping.

Jumping exercises on the horse, when neatly performed, are very effective.

Take a short run up to the board (described above), and jump—off both feet at once—over the back, passing the legs through the arms, and assisting yourself by the hands one on each pommel (Fig. 55).

When in this position shoot out the legs in front of you, and, leaving go of the pommels, come down neatly on the other side. Be careful to gather up the legs well when passing through, or you may catch your feet against the back of the horse, and come down on your nose. There are several forms of this exercise. Fig. 56 shows one of them.

It is rather more difficult than the last, from the legs passing outside the hands. A much greater spring is required to raise you high enough to pass over, and you must be careful to let go with the hands at the proper time, otherwise you will lose command of yourself and pitch forward on to the ground. In practising this movement we recommend your having a friend to stand in front of the horse, to catch you in case of such an emergency.

Saddle Vaulting.

Get on to the horse as in Fig. 57, sitting across, outside the pommels, then catch hold of the pommels as shown, and, throwing the whole weight of the body upon the arms, throw the legs right up, and, with a kind of twist, bring yourself round on to the horse the opposite side of the pommels, retaining your hold all the time. You will then face the opposite direction to the position from which you started. Practise the exercise from right to left, and vice versa.

There are many other forms of saddle-vaulting possible of practice, some of them very difficult, but it is not needful to describe them.

The hand-balance was described in the chapter on the parallel bars. It is a little more difficult of execution on the horse. It is shown in Fig. 58.

The assistance of two friends in attempting this feat is desirable.

Flying over the Horse.

For these exercises the pommels must be removed, and the spaces filled up with the flush ones, as described already. The movement is not unlike leap-frog, as the spring is taken off the board, and you pitch on to your hands in the same manner. But there the similarity ends, for it is a very different matter clearing a boy’s back, from getting over the whole length of the horse.

Commence by placing the jumping-board about 3 feet from the largest end of the horse, then with a run and a spring pitch on to your hands, as in Fig. 59.

After practising this, move the board farther away and repeat; continue the exercise, each time measuring the distance, until you can pitch on to the ends from about 5 or 6 feet.

Now jump up on to the end of the horse, as in Fig. 60, then plunge forwards on to the other end, pitching on to the hands, and clearing the horse, as in leap-frog, coming down safely on the ground in front.

This exercise must be done with dash and vigour. If you are half-hearted about it you will come to grief.

The Hand-rings or Stirrups.

This simple apparatus consists of iron rings attached to two ropes suspended from a cross bar or from a ceiling, about seventeen or eighteen feet in length, and at a sufficient height from the ground to allow the feet to swing just clear. The rings or stirrups (the latter shape is the more convenient) should be covered with leather, and of a thickness affording a good grasp. The exercises that can be performed upon them are neither attractive nor various, but they are useful, and as no section on gymnastics would be complete without their introduction, we will proceed to describe them.

Begin by drawing yourself up, as in Fig. 61, holding one ring close to the shoulder and the other extended at arm’s length. Now draw in the extended arm, at the same time straightening the other, and repeat the movement as long as you are able, first one arm straight, then the other. Keep the head erect, looking straight before you, not at either of the rings. Legs hanging close together, toes pointed.

Now try the slow pull up; this is not so difficult upon the rings as upon the horizontal bar. The wrist should be placed well over the rings, so as to get a good purchase. Then proceed as directed in the horizontal bar directions, and when you have drawn yourself quite up, straighten the arms and press them close to your sides. Now for a stiff one. When in this position gradually extend the arms apart, allowing the body to sink until the shoulders are nearly level with the rings (Fig. 62). Endeavour to keep in this position, supporting the body as long as possible, then lower yourself gradually, until you hang straight down again.

The back and forward ‘horizontals’ (also described in the horizontal bar) are very good exercises to practise on the rings.

Now for some swinging exercises. Take hold of the rings and with a few quick steps forward communicate a swing to the body, which increase by drawing yourself up in the forward swing, and when at its extent lowering yourself with a drop. This will cause you to swing higher each time until your arms and legs are straight and nearly in a horizontal position, as in Fig. 63. When accustomed to this exercise, which should be practised until perfect confidence is attained, you may proceed to the following. Commence as before, and when at the end of the forward swing, draw up the legs over the head, as in Fig. 64, and immediately before commencing the backward swing shoot the legs out straight, and come back to position as in Fig. 63. Continue the movement half a dozen times.

Commence as before, and when at the end of the backward swing, suddenly contract the arms and raise yourself up into the rings, as in Fig. 65, and continue swinging in that position. In order to preserve your equilibrium you must bring the legs forward when beginning to descend, as in Fig. 66.

Another variety of the swing is to support yourself on the rings, ‘grasshopper fashion’ (Fig. 67). A very pretty effect is produced by a combination of the different swings we have described. The order in which they are performed is immaterial, and may be left to the pleasure of the gymnast.

We will conclude our directions for the rings with a description of what is known as ‘dislocation.’

Hang from the rings and draw up the legs over the head, and drop over, as in Fig. 46 (Parallel Bars). Now instead of going back again, push the rings out and away from you on each side. The body, by its own weight, will drop through and cause the arms to twist until you will find yourself hanging with straight arms in the position from which you started. The sensation you will experience when first the exercise is performed is (of course momentarily only) not unlike ‘dislocation,’ hence the name the exercise bears, but after a few successful attempts it is comparatively easy, and is a splendid means of opening the chest.

Climbing.

Although not generally looked upon as a gymnastic exercise, climbing the rope, pole, etc., is so essentially useful, and so likely to prove of service in an emergency, that we devote a few lines to describe the best and most effective method. Those who have never attempted to climb a rope can have but little idea of the severe nature of the exercise. Although unfortunately neglected, in favour of more showy feats by the majority of gymnasts, yet there are a few who make a speciality of it, and climb heights really marvellous. A few years ago, on the occasion of the German Gymnastic Society’s annual display at the Crystal Palace, one of the members ascended a rope from the floor to the extreme height of the centre transept. The arduous nature of the feat may be imagined when our readers are informed that a quarter of an hour was occupied in the ascent. The way of taking hold of the rope is shown in Fig. 68. The legs should now be drawn up and the knees and feet pressed against the rope, and the hands then shifted higher (Fig. 69).

Climbing by the hands only, ‘hand over hand,’ as it is called, is much more difficult, and can only be performed to a limited height. Climbing the pole is more difficult, from the fact that it is unbending and thicker to grasp. Fig. 70 shows the position.

The Ladder.

In nearly every well-appointed gymnasium there are ladders, placed in horizontal or slanting positions, upon which a variety of easy but useful exercises may be performed. ‘Walking’ by the hands is shown on the horizontal ladder in Fig. 71. By moving the hands forward alternately, holding by the outside, you progress from one end to the other, and back again by reversing the movement.

In Fig. 72 another movement is shown, in which progression is made by a succession of ‘steps’ from round to round, first from one round to the next, and afterwards increasing the length of the step by missing four, five, or six rounds, as the length of reach will permit.

Comparatively few years ago bodily exercises were mostly confined to walking, running, and rowing; now, happily, it is an exception not to find some sort of gymnastic exercise desired by boys where apparatus is necessary. My object in this article is to tell as briefly and succinctly as possible, how any one, with a slight knowledge of carpentry, can make at home all that is requisite for a gymnasium, and that too at a comparatively small expense.

As you will, of course, require some tools, I will begin by supposing that you have the ordinary commonplace ones, but may mention that, as you will find the truth of the adage, ‘A bad workman finds fault with his tools,’ you must not attempt to cross-cut a piece of timber with a rip saw, or split your wood by using a gimlet instead of a bradawl, blaming the tools, spoiling the wood and also your own temper.

Let us begin with the construction of the horizontal bar, as it is the simplest apparatus to make, and affords the greatest variety of exercises. There are several ways of forming the supports. We will take the two most suitable, one as a fixture and the other portable, to be used in a room or anywhere else desired.

Horizontal Bar.

With wooden uprights to fix in the ground (See next page, Fig. 1):

Tools.

Materials.	s.	d.
2 Yellow battens 14 ft. long, 7 in. by 21⁄2 in. at 31⁄2d.	8	2
4 Struts, yellow, 4 ft. 6 in. long, 4 in. by 1 in.	1	0
1 Bar 6 ft. long, 17⁄8 in. in diameter	6	6
2 Pins 6 in. long, 3⁄8 of an inch in diameter, at 4d.	0	8
20 nails 21⁄2 in. long	0	4
2 lb. lead-colour paint, at 8d.	1	4
1 lb. ultramarine blue	1	0
	19	0

The first thing to be done is to order your wood of the nearest timber-merchant. There are various kinds of fir-timber, and those mostly used are pine, spruce, and yellow deal. The latter is the best for our present purpose, as it is easy to work and will best stand the inclemency of the weather. I need scarcely tell you where to get the other materials, as most ironmongers and colourmen keep everything you may require in this way.

Having all your materials and tools ready, saw 4 feet off your battens (A A), which will leave 10 feet for the uprights, and as 2 feet 6 inches have to be let into the ground, you will then have 7 feet 6 inches for the height of the bar, which is sufficient for all exercises. You will next fit the 4 feet-pieces (B B) into one end of the uprights by halving them in; this will form the sole-piece to which the struts (C C C C) are nailed. All this part, which goes underground, is left in its rough state; the 7 feet 6 inches above the ground will have to be planed over and the edges rounded off. The uprights can be either left plain or an ornamental turned top may be added. This is a matter of fancy.

Our bar is made of the best straight-grained ash, 6 feet long and 1⁷⁄₈ in. in diameter.

Before fixing, cover the knots with a little patent knotting, then paint the uprights all over with a coat of priming, another coat of lead colour and one of any finishing colour you prefer. Green will soon fade, blue will stand for years.

Portable Horizontal Bar.

Tools.

Materials.	s.	d.
4 Lengths of Yellow deal 8 ft. long, 41⁄2 in. by 11⁄2 in.	5	0
2 Stakes 2 ft. 6 in. long, 3 in. square	0	6
1 Bar, with iron core and screw-eyes, 6 ft. long	10	0
2 Stay-ropes and toggles	2	0
2 Stretcher irons	1	0
Size and Varnish	1	0
	19	6

This bar (Fig. 2), for its simplicity, portability, and strength, has a reputation for being one of the most useful kinds of apparatus made. Not only is it used for a bar, but children’s swings, hand-rings, and trapeze can be attached to it, as the supports can be spread out to allow the bar to stand at various heights by shifting the stretcher irons (A A) up and down. These irons, three-eighths of a inch in diameter, are cranked at each end—i.e., bent at right-angles—and fit into holes in the uprights about 3 inches apart.

There will be very little for you to make in this, viz., the four uprights. After you have planed these over and rounded the edges, mortice 1¹⁄₄-in. square holes through two of the uprights (D), six inches from the top, and bore ³⁄₄-in. round holes through the other two. This is to take the end of the bar (B). The square part is to prevent the bar turning round when you swing on it. You will have to purchase the bar with iron core, as it would be impossible to make it without proper machinery.

Size and varnish the uprights with one coat of size and two of hard oak varnish. In fixing, you merely turn the screw-eye into the floor or stakes, and attach the stays (C C) to them.

Lawn Gymnasium (Fig. 3)

with wooden uprights to fix in the ground.

Tools.—Same as for Horizontal Bar, Fig. 1.

Materials.		s.	d.
2 Yellow battens 15 ft. long, 7 in. by 4 in., at 5d.		12	6
1 Yellow 14 ft. long, 7 in. by 21⁄2 in., at 31⁄2d.		4	1
4 Struts 5 ft. long, 4 ft. by 11⁄2 in.		1	3
4 Runners 3 ft. long, 2 in. by 2 in.		1	0
1 Ash bar 6 ft. long, 17⁄8 in. diameter, with 2-in. square ends		6	6
1 Facia board 6 ft. long, 6 in. by 1 in.		0	6
20 Nails 21⁄2 in. long		0	4
4 Spikes 4 in. long		0	2
16 Screws No. 16, 3 in. long		0	8
2 Pins 6 in. by 3⁄8 in. diameter		0	8
3 lb. lead-colour paint, at 8d.		2	0
11⁄2 lb. ultramarine blue, at 1s.		1	6
	£1	11	2

Fig. 3 represents the Lawn Gymnasium with some of its appendages. My object now is to show you how to construct the frame, and, of course, when that is done you can add whatever you like, as, for instance, climbing-rope or pole, hand-rings (H H), trapeze bar, foot or sitting swing (G), vaulting and horizontal bar (F), etc.

On referring to the quantities you will find there are two yellow battens 15 ft. long; these form the uprights (A A); 3 feet has to go into the ground, leaving 12 feet for the height of the swing. The top (B), 7 feet in length, is cut off the 14-ft. length, the remaining 7 ft. is again cut in the centre to form the two sole-pieces (D D), 3 ft. 6 in. each; these are then halved into the bottom of the uprights in centre, and the struts (E E E E) nailed on as shown. The top can be either morticed on to the uprights or secured by strong iron brackets. The inch facia board (C) is nailed on the top for ornament, as are also the cornice pole-ends.

The 2-inch square runners are secured on the uprights with the 3-inch screws (four to each runner), 3 feet from the ground and 2 inches apart, leaving a groove or space between them for the ends of the bar to slide up and down. For vaulting purposes these runners have to be bored through with a ³⁄₈-in. nose or spoon-bit (a gimlet would split the wood); the holes must be about three inches apart from the top to bottom, and are intended to take the ³⁄₈-in. pin which is to support the bar.

The whole of the wood-work above ground must be planed, and the edges neatly rounded off. It is the custom to burn or char the surface of that part of the timber which has to be let into the ground, to prevent it from rotting, but a good coat of gas tar answers the purpose very well.

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Portable Frame for Trapeze, Rings, or Swing.

Materials.		s.	d.
2 Norway spars trimmed, 14 feet long, at 5s.		10	0
6 ft. 2 in. iron tube, at 71⁄2d. per foot		3	9
2 Elbows for iron tube, at 1s. 41⁄2d.		2	9
100 ft. 3⁄8 in. iron wire rope		10	0
1 Coupling Screw		5	0
4 Stakes 3 ft. 3 in. square		1	4
	£1	12	10

Fig. 4 represents a very simple way of forming the uprights for a swing. It consists of two scaffold poles, or more correctly speaking, Norway spars (the same as used for ladder-making when they have been sawn down the centre). They may be procured at any ladder-makers, with the bark taken off and properly trimmed. The top should be 2 in. in diameter, and the bottom 3¹⁄₂ to 4 inches. The cross-piece (B) to which the ropes are fastened is formed of 2-in. gas barrel, i.e. iron tubing, and is measured by the calibre or inside diameter, therefore 2-inch gas tubes will measure about 2¹⁄₂ inches outside diameter. The elbows, which are bought already screwed, would have to be fitted with iron staples riveted to them, to fasten the wire rope to, and two hooks also riveted through the tube, made of ¹⁄₂-in. diameter iron, 18 inches apart, for attaching the swing.

Cut the iron rope into four lengths of 25 ft. to form the stays (C C C C). One of these stays must be fitted with a coupling screw, for tightening the whole, when fixed. Most telegraph-posts are stayed in this manner; they would, therefore, be a good guide for you to see how the wire ropes are fastened.

The two uprights are not let into the ground; it is best to let them stand on some hard substance, such as a stone or a block of wood, to prevent their sinking when the stays are strained.

The next illustration (Fig. 5) represents another method of constructing a portable frame. This has the advantage of the uprights being readily removed, as the whole consists of tube-iron. The Norway spars are here represented by two 14-feet lengths of 2-inch gas tube. If, however, the length be a difficulty, then get four 7-feet lengths of 2-inch gas tube, two of which may be screwed together to form one upright. The screwed sockets, by means of which the tubes are joined, are supplied with them. A horizontal bar (D) may be added by introducing the T pieces (A A), which should be 2¹⁄₂ inches, to slide up and down the iron tube, and a hole drilled through the T piece and into the tube will enable it to be fixed at the requisite height.

The four stays (F F F F) and stakes (G G G G) just the same as described in Fig. 4.

Any gas-fitter would supply these tubes, but on the score of economy it is best to go to a wholesale house.

Jumping Stands.

Jumping stands are very simple in their construction, consisting of two pieces of square timber (A A) about 4 inches square, bolted to cross-piece (B B) (Fig. 6). In many instances they are merely sunk into the ground without any sole-pieces or struts.

For foot-jumping the stands average 6 feet in height, with three-eighths of an inch holes bored from top to 1 foot from bottom. They are painted and marked feet and inches. A line and sandbags (D D) rest on two pins inserted in the three-eighths-of-an-inch holes, so that should the foot catch in the act of jumping the line immediately falls off.

For pole-jumping the stands must be 12 feet high and strong in proportion, while in other respects they are the same as for foot-jumping.

The Pan-Gymnasticon.

This combination (Fig. 7) consists of a ladder-plank (A), two standing-planks (D D), and standing-ladder (B), all fourteen feet in length, which form the four supports to carry the cross-beam (E), ten feet long, to which may be suspended any apparatus you may wish. This is very similar to the Portable Horizontal Bar (Fig. 2), only carried out upon a large and more elaborate scale. If I were to describe its general construction, I should be merely recapitulating what has already been explained. This apparatus may be made any size, of course proportionately strong, G, G, H, H, and I, represent a bar with triangular ends stayed off to the bottom of the four uprights, which, when made tight, the bar becomes perfectly rigid, so that a trapeze bar may be converted into a horizontal bar if required.

Other useful Apparatus.

Fig. 8 shows a safe and convenient form of swing.

Fig. 9, No. 1, represents a hand-ladder, used in pairs, in place of hand-rings. They are generally adopted in the German Gymnasia.

No. 3. Hand-stirrup, with spring or dog-stools. This shape is preferred to rings, as they command a much firmer grip to the hands.

No. 2. Indian Clubs. This illustration represents the best shape, and is the pattern now generally used.

Figs. 10 and 11 represent Dumb-bells and Bar-bells, with wrought-iron handles. They do not break so easily as if they were cast in one piece. It may be useful to know, when making patterns for dumb-bells, in order to ascertain the weight in metal when cast, that one pound of fir, say pine, is equivalent to about fourteen pounds of cast iron.

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It is our object in this chapter to present to our readers full instructions for the use of the Indian clubs—instructions that, for completeness and thoroughness of illustration, have not before been approached in any work with which we are acquainted.

The origin of their introduction into Europe is not known with certainty, but it is said that we are indebted for them to a military officer who had seen them in use by the Persians. The movements that can be performed with the clubs are almost unlimited in their variety, and are amongst the most useful and beneficial of any gymnastic exercises, having the effect of increasing the muscular power of the shoulders and arms, strengthening the hands and wrists, opening the chest, and also possessing the advantage of rendering the user ambidextrous, or two-handed—that is, of making the left arm, shoulder, etc., as vigorous and able as the right, and developing equally both sides of the body.

If practised properly, the exercises are exceedingly pretty and graceful, and cause the performer to acquire a good carriage and deportment. Although in almost every gymnasium Indian clubs are now to be found, it is surprising how seldom they are used, the pupils generally preferring to acquire proficiency in the more showy feats that other instruments—such as the horizontal and parallel bars—permit of their practising. But we would impress upon our readers that if they will only exercise a little patience and perseverance in acquiring the use of the clubs, they will find that no other gymnastic exercises can surpass them in grace and utility, and give such pleasure both to the performer and his audience.

The advantages of the clubs are many; amongst others—(1) they are inexpensive; (2) there is no danger attached to their use; (3) being portable, there is no fixing required—they can be used either in the open air or in a room; (4) their weight can be adapted to the age and strength of the user.

With regard to the price, they can be obtained of any wood-turner at about 4d. per pound (unpolished). We should certainly recommend the learner to purchase unpolished clubs, for in the course of practice he is sure to bruise them by knocking them together, and the damage shows more plainly upon a polished than an unpolished surface. But when he has become accustomed to the manipulation of the clubs, then he may obtain the more showy article, the cost of which is about 6d. per lb.

Of course, every boy will know that the clubs are made of wood. American elm is the best kind and mostly in use. Sometimes they are turned out of a lighter wood—such as deal—and are weighed to the required extent by molten lead being poured into a hole at the bottom of the club; but we must caution the would-be ‘clubbist’ against buying such an article, for the weight should not be concentrated at the bottom, but should be contained in the wood itself, which allows of the club being properly balanced, without which true grace and elegance can never be acquired.

We now come to a most important consideration—viz., the weight to be used, which should be in proportion to the strength and weight of the performer. It is almost impossible to lay down any law upon the subject, but the following scale may be taken as a guide:—

For a boy of	10	years old,	21⁄2	to	3	lb.	each club.
„	11	„	31⁄2	to	4	lb.	„
„	12	„	41⁄2	to	5	lb.	„
„	13	„	51⁄2	to	6	lb.	„
„	14	„	61⁄2	to	7	lb.	„
„	14	and over	71⁄2	to	8	lb.	„

These figures refer only to the light clubs or dual exercises—that is, when a club is used in each hand. For the single or ‘heavy club’ exercises, of course, the weight can be increased, but of that we will treat later on.

Many of our readers may consider these weights ‘a mere nothing,’ and quite unworthy of their muscular powers. But it is a great mistake to suppose that the benefit to be obtained from Indian clubs is in proportion to their weight, and in the exertion required in manipulating them. On the contrary, the easier the exercise (within reasonable limits, of course), the better, for practice being then a pleasure, it can be sustained for a longer period, and by this means the muscles become gradually developed and subsequent fatigue is avoided.

We have said that the weight of the club should be in proportion to the weight of the user. We will justify this advice by an explanation. We will suppose that a boy twelve years of age weighs six stone, and another boy of the same age weighs six stone and seven pounds; the latter (presuming both boys’ muscular development to be about equal) could use a heavier pair of clubs than the former, because he would have greater weight in his body to counterbalance the weight of the clubs.

In order to impress our readers with the correctness of this principle we would point out to them that, in performing exercises upon a fixed gymnastic apparatus (such as the horizontal bar), the gymnast has only to use muscular exertion proportionate to his bodily weight. If, however, he were to carry about him any weighty articles, or even wear a pair of heavy boots, he would experience a greater difficulty in performing the exercises, and perhaps fail altogether, and his exertions would soon produce fatigue. Therefore, do not be too ambitious in selecting your clubs, but be contented with the weights we have recommended, which, although they may appear small on paper, will be found quite heavy enough in practice. The writer, who has used the Indian clubs constantly for the last ten years, never has a pair of greater weight than eight pounds each.

The length of the clubs must be varied to the height of the performer. With the clubs standing on the ground and the hands hanging down, as in Fig. 1, there should be a space of about two inches between the handles and the tips of the fingers, so that it becomes necessary to stoop slightly in order to grasp the clubs. When swung round they should clear the tops of the toes by about two inches.

Hints as to Dress, etc.

With regard to dress, the ordinary gymnastic suit is the most suitable. ‘The best material is undoubtedly white flannel. A pair of flannel trousers made to fit the legs tolerably closely, with plenty of room in the seat (not baggy, of course), a close-fitting ordinary under-jersey minus the sleeves (to give freedom to the arms), and a pair of canvas shoes without heels, are all that are necessary for wear during actual practice. Add to these a loose jacket of medium thickness to slip on during intervals of rest, and you have your costume complete.’

But for Indian club exercise a special costume is not indispensable—and here, again, their economy is manifested—and all that need be done is to divest oneself of coat, vest, and over-shirt, and practise in ordinary trousers, boots, and undershirt.

Before proceeding to describe the different exercises, we would impress upon the reader most emphatically that, in endeavouring to perfect himself in them, he should bear in mind that, performed gracefully, and with an easy, swinging motion, there is nothing prettier. On the other hand, a jerky and strained action spoils entirely not only the effect from a spectator’s point of view, but also neutralises the benefit that should accrue to the performer.

Exercises for Light Clubs.

First Position (Fig. 1). Place the clubs upon the ground, one upon the right and one upon the left side, slightly in front—about level with the toes. Stand at attention, head erect, shoulders square. Then bend down, grasp the clubs, one in each hand, and raise them up until the hands are level with the shoulders, at the same time separating the legs and placing the feet apart, toes pointing outwards (as in Fig. 2).

You will then be in position to commence Exercise 1 (Fig. 3). Throw out the clubs to the right, and describe a complete circle with them in front of the body from the right to the left, keeping the arms perfectly straight and in a line with the clubs. As they describe the circle the body should be turned slightly in the same direction, and the head and eyes also should follow the course of the clubs from right to left. Continue this exercise at least a dozen times. Should you find any difficulty in accomplishing this with both clubs at once, try one at a time, first with the right hand and then with the left, or vice versâ.

Here we will take the opportunity of informing the learner that he should endeavour to identify himself, so to speak, with the clubs, and consider that they are parts of himself—continuations, in fact, of his own arms. The base of the club should always be kept in a straight line with the shoulder. By this means an equal distance is preserved between the two clubs; otherwise, should they be swung at an angle, they must surely come into collision in the next exercise (and in many others to follow), in which one club travels in an opposite direction to the other.

Exercise 2 (Fig. 4).—Commence as before, and when both clubs are raised above the head, reverse the direction of the left one, and, instead of describing the circle from right to left, swing it from left to right, the right club at the same time continuing its original course. A glance at Fig. 4 will show the exercise; the dotted lines and arrows indicate the direction in which each club travels. In this exercise (and in many others to follow) the clubs cross twice in each circle; care must therefore be taken not to allow them to come into collision (which catastrophe can be easily avoided by following the directions just given—viz., to keep the base of each club in a straight line with each shoulder).

Exercise 3 (Fig. 5).—This is the same as No. 2 with an additional movement—viz., that when each club is raised in its turn above the head to its highest point, the circle is checked and the club dropped behind the head and made to describe a smaller circle in the rear of the shoulder, after completing which the larger circle is resumed. The dotted line in the illustration shows the course of the left club only, but the right club does the same thing in the opposite direction.

Exercise 4 (Fig. 6).—Commence with Exercise 1, and when the clubs are raised above the head allow them to drop and make them describe a small circle behind the shoulders, then resume the larger circle on front of the body.

Exercise 5 (Fig. 7).—This is the first of the wrist ‘twists,’ and is a movement that will tax the power of the fore-arm rather severely. Start from the position shown in Fig. 2, and describe a circle with each club from the wrist in the direction shown by the dotted lines and arrows. In practising this exercise, you will experience a tendency to drop the arms with the clubs, but you must endeavour to keep them in the position shown, making each wrist the centre of each circle.

Exercise 6 (Fig. 8).—Now for a twist in which each club describes a circle in an opposite direction. Again be careful to avoid a collision, and keep the wrists level and opposite each other.

Exercise 7 (Fig. 9).—This is rather difficult, but with a little perseverance you will be able to accomplish the movement, and as it is very pretty it is well worth the trouble. Carefully study the illustration and follow the course of the dotted lines (which show the direction of the right club only; the left club takes a corresponding course in the opposite direction). Keep the hand close up to the chest, almost touching it, in fact. You will observe that the club describes a small circle from the centre of the chest, and is then swung completely round at arm’s length to make the great circle.

Exercise 8 (Fig. 10).—This is a simple swing backwards and forwards, each club being swung alternately in front of the body and behind the head. When the right club is extended at arm’s length almost straight from the shoulder, the left club is passing behind the head and vice versâ.

Exercise 9 (Fig. 11).—This is exactly the reverse of Fig. 5. The illustration will show the movement.

Exercise 10 (Fig. 12).—This is very effective, and if performed rapidly and neatly is sure to elicit applause from an audience. It consists of circles behind the head with each club, in the direction shown by the arrows, one club passing in a downward direction while the other is swinging up.

Exercise 11 (Fig. 13).—This is not very difficult to perform. Keep the arms straight, and beware of a collision. The clubs are swung in a circle across and in front of the body, passing one another twice in their course—once when above the head (as in the figure) and again in front of the legs.

Exercise 12 (Fig. 14).—Now this is difficult, and will take a long time to learn. It is a complication of Exercise 3. Commence with that, and, having got the clubs into a good swing, check the course of the right arm, slightly decrease the pace of the left arm, and throw the right club sharply behind the body, until the base rises a little above the left shoulder (see Fig.), then swing it back to A and B, and continue the original circle, all this time keeping the other club (the left) travelling in a circle, until it becomes its turn to effect the movement that the right one has just completed, and so on, first with the right club behind the body, and then with the left in front, and vice versâ. This is one of the best and prettiest exercises yet described, and will entail long and patient practice; but when thoroughly acquired it will well repay the perseverance expended upon it.

Exercise 13 (Fig. 15).—Another difficult one. The clubs are swung downwards, parallel to each other, and then raised up behind the back (as shown by the dotted arms), then swung to the front again, and in a circle completely round at arms’ length. The left club executes exactly the same movement as the right in the last exercise (12), but with the right club in this the movement is different. The wrist should be twisted sharply downwards, and the club tucked under the right arm; its own weight will then carry it down behind the back, and up to a level and in a line with the right shoulder, reaching that position exactly at the same time as the other club, and both will thus again be parallel, but on the opposite side of the body to that from which they started.

Exercise 14 (Fig. 16).—This is purely wrist-work. The arms are extended straight out on each side, and the clubs passed alternately from the wrists in the front and rear of each arm, describing circles on either side. At the same time that one club is swinging round behind the right arm, the other is swinging in front of the left, and vice versâ. This exercise causes the wrists to become very pliable.

We have now completed our instructions for the ‘light clubs.’ The learner must, of course, acquire the different exercises separately, one by one, but when mastered they can be continued from one to another, making, when so combined, a very effective performance. The movements capable of performance with Indian clubs are almost without limit, but we need not here give further descriptions or illustrations. The performer will find, as he becomes accustomed to the use of the clubs, and attains proficiency in their manipulation, that other movements will suggest themselves, and he will be able perhaps to invent some new and intricate exercise.

Single or ‘Heavy’ Club Exercise.

Roughly speaking, the weight of a club to be used singly should be about the same as that of the pair the performer is accustomed to—i.e., a boy using two clubs weighing 6 lb. each should use one weighing just double. This will be found quite sufficient for sustained movements; if a heavier weight is adopted there is danger of over-exertion, and the exercise cannot be performed in a graceful and easy manner. We think the best shape for a heavy club is that shown in Fig. 17, which, our readers will observe, differs from the light clubs in having a ‘shoulder’ instead of a gradual slope from handle to base.

All the exercises described above, with a few exceptions, can be performed with a heavy club, but, of course, with only one hand at a time—the other hanging loosely down by the side (as in Fig. 1). When one arm becomes tired the club should be changed to the other (see Fig. 17), but without the movement of the club being stopped. The exceptions referred to are the wrist twists, which should not be attempted with a heavy club, the strain upon that part of the arm being too severe.

It was with considerable diffidence that the writer undertook the task of penning this chapter, feeling strongly the difficulty of explaining the numerous and intricate movements in words; but, with the aid of the artist’s graphic illustrations, he trusts that the directions will prove sufficiently clear to enable all readers who desire to become experts in the use of the Indian clubs to succeed fully in their endeavours.

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In the previous chapter are given comprehensive instructions on Indian Clubs. The editor thus gave the clubs the preference, as they are in growing favour amongst gymnasts, and in regular gymnasia are fast driving out the ancient dumbbell, owing to their wonderful power of quickly opening the chest and squaring the shoulders. We say ‘ancient dumbbell’ advisedly, for it is at least two thousand years old. It was first introduced amongst us after being noticed on the Greek vases. The shape there given differed somewhat from that now in use, but there is no break in the chain. The oldest form was that of a pointed capital D, the curved line being the handle; afterwards, as shown on the vases, the athletes adopted the form (Fig. A) from which our present bells are derived. Curiously enough, these bells were used in springing and leaping, the power given by the weights being well known to the ancient as well as the modern records. Lawton’s standing wide jump of 12ft. 6¹⁄₂in. in 1876 was done with dumbbells in his hand, and Howard’s flying jump on Chester Racecourse in 1854, when he cleared 29ft. 7in., was done from a block of wood, with a five-pound dumbbell in each of his hands, quite in the old Greek style. However, it is not with the ancient, but the modern, practice that we have here to do. And we have no space to devote to archæology.

In the first place, then, two pounds is quite heavy enough for any dumbbell, and under any circumstances no bell, even for a full-sized man, should exceed five pounds. Heavy bells of fifty or even a hundred pounds have been used, but they are now obsolete. For merely lifting purposes weight was all very well, but as soon as it was shown that health owed more to suppleness than rigidity, and exercises were designed in accordance with the new theory, heavy bells became simply impossible. When they were used by the very strong they were found to give one-sidedness, and by the weak they could not be worked with at all. Four pounds the pair is heavy enough for any boy, and most boys when they come to try the exercises will often wish that the bells were lighter. A word should be said as to price. Plain bells of cast iron cost from twopence to fourpence per pound; if covered with leather, and thereby made considerably more comfortable to the hand, the price is from fourpence to sixpence per pound. For two shillings a lad can get a pair of bells that will suit him in every way and last him a lifetime. The shape of the bells does not matter; the heads may be round or octagonal, according to fancy, but the handle should be thick enough to give a good grip, and it should be half an inch longer than the hand is wide.

Next, let it be clearly understood that dumbbell practice performed in a slovenly way does more harm than good. It is essential that the exercises be done in strict time, not jerkily, but quickly and accurately, as if to the word of command. When the bells are required to be raised together, they should go up together, not one after the other. When they are required to go up alternately, they should go up alternately, at equal speed, the left as fast as the right; when they are to be held out in front together, they should be held out together, and change to the recovery as soon as the weaker arm begins to yield.

This brings us to our third caution. Never overtire yourself. Ten minutes is quite long enough to practise at a time. Take the exercises in the order in which they are given, advancing gradually from the easy to the difficult, succeeding as you go. Do not practise after much head-work, and do not attempt any of the exercises before or after a heavy meal, no matter how light the bells may be. The best time to practise is immediately after the morning bath, and the best costume to wear is that of the mermaid, or as near an approach to nothing as is consistent with decency. Of course in gymnasia special dresses are worn; but, as absolute freedom is required, the model dress of the gymnast should be easily stowable in a glove-box.

And now for the first exercise (Fig. 1). Stand at attention, holding a bell in each hand. Let the arms and legs be quite straight, the body upright, the heels close together, the toes well apart. Hold the bells so that a line through your hips would pass through the centre of each handle. Move the bells an inch from your legs, and twist them round, keeping your arms straight and working your wrists. Do this backwards and forwards with both bells ten times. Then twist the left bell ten times. Then twist the right ten times; then twist them both together five times; thirty-five twists altogether, counting each reversal of the hand as one, beginning with knuckles backwards, and ending with knuckles forwards.

For the second exercise, stand at attention and bend up your forearms only from the elbow, holding the bells out from your chest with the handles vertical and parallel. Now twist them ten times simultaneously, and then ten times with the left hand, ten times with the right, and five times together. Let your elbows be well back, pressing your sides all through this exercise.

For the third exercise, begin at attention, raise your arms from your sides till they are level with your shoulders, forming one straight line with them (Fig. 2). Let your knuckles be on the top, and do the thirty-five twists as in the former exercises. The arms must be quite straight, and there must be no giving at the knees or bending at the waist.

These three exercises are quite enough for the first morning, even though the bells may be under two pounds apiece. Next time we can run through these three exercises quickly, and then try something rather more complicated.

For the fourth exercise begin at attention, and keeping the elbows against the sides, double up your arms so as to bring the bells against your shoulders. Open your chest as far as you can, throw your shoulders well back, and while in this position take a long deep breath (Fig. 8). In fact, in every exercise take long free breaths as often as possible, so as to expand your chest from within as well as from without. Bring the bells up and down ten times both together. You are now ready for the fifth exercise, which consists in bringing the bells from attention up to the shoulders, as in the fourth exercise, and then thrusting them up straight overhead (Fig. 3). Hold them up as high as you can, keeping your feet on the ground and body erect. Then do the twists ten times together, ten times with the left, ten with the right, five together; then with ‘one’ to the shoulder, and ‘two’ to the hang, you recover your starting position.

In the sixth exercise you bring the bells to the shoulder, and keeping your chest well open, thrust your arms, not overhead, but straight in front of you (Fig. 4), and again do the thirty-five twists. In the seventh (Fig. 12) you bring the bells to the shoulder and open your arms right and left, holding them out high and well back at full length, then recovering to the shoulder, and then down. Then ‘up,’ ‘out,’ ‘in,’ ‘down’ again, and so on for ten times. Keep your shoulders well back during this exercise, and do not lose your uprightness! It is a most important and obviously good practice, should be done with care and regularity, and forms a fitting end to lesson number two.

In our third batch we have said good-bye to the twists. For the eighth exercise stand at attention, bells to side as before, and always start from attention. Let this be understood, and it will save repetition. Bring the bells up under the armpits as far as you can get them (Fig. 5). Bring them up together ten times, then ten times with the left hand, ten times with the right, and five times together.

In the ninth exercise bring the bells up to the armpit, and then extend the arms right and left, starting with the bells brought up in front of the shoulder and reaching the same position as in exercise seven. Then bring the bells back to the armpits and recover. Do this ten times; that will be quite enough for the first trial.

For number ten bring the bells to the armpits, and then take them up overhead as in exercise five. Up together ten times, then with the left and right alternately stroke for stroke ten times each (Fig. 7). Then try number eleven, in which the bells are brought to the armpits, then thrust up, brought down to the chest, and down to the hang—‘one,’ ‘two,’ ‘three,’ ‘four’—ten times together, ten times alternately. Then try number twelve (Fig. 6), in which the bells go to the armpits, then aloft, then down well back on to the tops of the shoulders, then extended with a sweep as in number seven, back to chest, and down—‘one,’ ‘two’ aloft, ‘three’ to shoulder, ‘four’ to the limit, ‘five’ to chest, ‘six’ down to hang.

For our fourth lesson we start as before, upright at attention, ready for the thirteenth exercise. Bring the bells to the armpits, and then aloft together, and then keeping them together, bring them down in front, with the arms and legs as straight as you can until you deposit them at your toes. Then lift them again to armpits, aloft, and down with a sweep to your toes, ten times in all, three motions in each.

Now for number fourteen. Lay the bells at the toes from aloft as in thirteen. Then make a full step to the rear with the left foot, the right foot following. Make a half turn to the right. Step to the front with the left foot, the left hand grasping the thighs just above the knee as the foot comes to the ground, the right arm extended in the line of the right leg. Next seize the bell with the right hand, keeping the lower limbs in position. Now lift the bell above the shoulder to the full extension of the arm, leaning strongly on the left knee and pressing the breast to the front during the ascent of the bell, the lower limbs to the knee, and the left arm forming a continuous line from foot to shoulder. Lower the bell, replace it, and recover. Then upright again, step to the rear, right half turn, step to the front with the right foot, and go through the same motions exactly, only with the other hand. Complete this exercise ten times with each hand.

In number fifteen lay the bells at the toes, then stoop and recover them to the hang, then charge out, as it were, with the right foot, taking a good long step, and throwing out your arm to its full length as you do so (Fig. 9). Keep your left leg straight and your shoulders back, and double up your extended arm so as to bring the bell to the top of your shoulder. Move the bell backwards and forwards ten times, and at each return sink towards the ground, bending as you straighten your arm. Then move as in Fig. 17. Then recover, strike out with the left leg and arm, and repeat all the motions (Fig. 18). In sixteen go through the same preliminaries, but instead of striking the hands straight out strike them aloft, sinking as the arm is extended (Fig. 10).

In the next group of exercises the bells are swung.

For number seventeen (Fig. 12) swing the bells up from the hang to the horizontal, and then round till they meet in front, ten times together, letting them fall each time to the side—one, ‘up,’ two ‘round,’ three ‘down.’ For number eighteen bring them to the front first, and then swing them round to the back and down. Keep the finger in front of the handle all through this exercise; do not twist the bells as they pass to the rear. In number nineteen (Fig. 11) swing to the front, then to the back at extension, then from extension swing overhead till the bells meet, then bring them down to the chest and so to the hang, five motions in all. Then step forward with the left foot and go through the same five motions. Then with the right foot advanced go through the same five motions. The object of all these exercises is, of course, to bring into play as many muscles as possible, giving each a turn in time. Whenever possible an exercise should always be done from the three positions—heels together, left foot forward, right foot forward.

Now for our last group. Ready for number twenty (Fig. 13). Stand erect with bells at the side, bring them up to armpits and aloft, and holding them high in the air together twist your body round to the left as far as it will go, but do not move your legs. Then bring the bells to the chest and lift them simultaneously and alternately thirty times as before, then turn your body to the right and do likewise. In twenty-one bring the bells to the chest, twist the body and strike out straight with them together and separately, first twisting to the left, then right. In twenty-two (Fig. 14) raise the bells overhead and sink to the floor, and with knees bent go through the ten first strokes. Then rise and down again and do the ten strokes with the left; then up and down again for the ten with the right.

In twenty-three, as the body sinks the bells are brought to the chest and the arms are extended, moving round to the front horizontally, and brought to the chest again, much as in the act of rowing. This is a very tiring exercise, and at first makes itself felt in every joint in the body: ten times together is quite enough for the first day’s work. Twenty-four (Fig. 16) is an easy exercise, but a valuable one. Swing the bells aloft, and then bend backwards, letting the arms slowly open and extend backwards towards the ground; then bring them back aloft from behind without bending them, then bend in front, and lay the bells at your toes.

There are other exercises, but they are all, like many we have given, mere combinations easily invented by the proficient. The examples herein are quite enough to bring out the full powers of the dumbbell as a gymnastic appliance, and a steady practice of them for ten minutes a day after the morning tub, will not only set the student well up and shape him properly, but add an inch or so to his girth if not to his stature.

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Juggling with balls, a pastime as pretty as it is entertaining, has also certain special advantages. In the first place, it is really an art, well worthy of the name, which may be easily acquired by members of either sex at any age, and it affords a gentle exercise which is extremely beneficial to the health.

In illustration of this, I may mention a fact which, some years ago, came under my personal notice. An artist friend of mine, finding that his health was giving way under the toil and the strain it was necessary for him to devote to his profession, asked me if I could recommend him some not too laborious exercise to which he might betake himself in the brief intervals of his work. Clubs and dumb-bells were too heavy, he said, and their use moreover rendered his hand unsteady, and so prevented his putting into his picture those delicate touches so necessary for success.

I suggested juggling with balls, as being an exercise less violent and equally healthy. He sprang at the idea, and after giving him some instructions I left him, and soon forgot all about the circumstance.

Several months afterwards I called on my friend at his studio, and, to my surprise and amusement, found him busy—not with his pencil, but with three juggling balls. ‘I’ve done it,’ he cried with great glee, as soon as he saw me; ‘I can shower three! Look!’ And thereupon he recommenced his operations, and soon convinced me that he had become an adept at his new pursuit; and he really seemed to be more pleased to have succeeded with the ‘shower’ than with his picture, which was shortly afterwards exhibited ‘on the line’ at the Royal Academy. That he was in good spirits you will have gathered from what I have just said, and you will readily believe that he could hardly have been so happy unless his health had been re-established.

Nor is the juggling with balls simply a healthy exercise. It must lead to useful, and it may (and often does) lead to very important results. The quickness of hand and eye acquired by the practice is not only valuable in cricket, football, and other sports, but also can hardly fail to prove serviceable in the sterner duties and emergencies of life. If space permitted I could relate many stories of articles, and even life, being saved by the dexterous catch of one who had practised juggling. I am generally called upon, when in a gymnasium, to stand close to any one who is about to try a new exercise, or one attended with risk, either on the horizontal or trapeze bar, in case of a slip; and I entirely attribute my quickness in catching to my proficiency in juggling, the hand being taught instantly to follow any movement the eye may detect.

This subject, useful as I have shown it to be, has, so far as I am aware, never been treated on in any English publication, although in France and in many other parts of the Continent juggling forms an important branch of physical education, and is much practised in the gymnasia.

You may very naturally suppose that it is almost impossible to teach anything of this kind on paper, but it must not be forgotten that in this, as in everything else in life, to ensure success it is necessary to make a good beginning. There is no royal road to learning, and unless a proper foundation be laid the castle will prove to be but visionary. So even on paper I can give you many valuable hints and much practical advice, without attention to which you will never become adepts in the art. You must not suppose, however, that I can make practised jugglers of you in a few lessons, nor must you be too anxious to play two or three balls before you have a perfect command over number one.

The first object to be aimed at is to procure the best sort of balls for your purpose. Of course, anything in the shape of a ball will do—oranges, for instance, tennis or raquet-balls, etc.—but the best are made of hollow brass, two inches in diameter, and these may be obtained at from ten to twelve shillings per set of four. They are made specially for the purpose, their hollowness giving them a lightness which a solid substance obviously cannot possess. It is indispensable that the balls should all be exactly the same weight, otherwise in the rapid passes—such as the ‘shower’ or ‘fountain,’ about to be described—the lighter would be thrown farther than the heavier, and the most skilful performer would fail to accomplish the feat.

Being satisfied with regard to the balls, we will now proceed to the First Practice, viz.,

that is, to throw a ball into the air so that it will descend to the exact point from which it was projected. You will find, at first, that when you have thrown the ball up into the air it will not drop back again into your hand, but you will have to follow its course in order to catch it. The first point to be gained, then, is to throw the ball so that it will drop into the hand which is ready to receive it, and this must be practised with both hands, as the left will have quite as much to do as the right. When you have thoroughly mastered this art, and can catch a ball with decision when thrown from three to four feet in height, you may proceed to the Second Practice, which is called—

What is required now is to throw the ball with the right hand so that it will describe a curve in the air and drop towards the left hand, as shown in Fig. 2; but, instead of catching it with the left, it must be caught with the right. This is the Inside Fall. Now throw the ball back in a similar way from left to right. This is called the Outside Fall. This, of course, sounds easy enough, as it is merely playing at catch-ball, but you will find it very difficult at first to throw the ball several times in succession without deviating from the same course, and this course is of the utmost importance, as, when you are playing two or three balls, unless they follow one another in the same course, the whole play will immediately become inextricable confusion, and they will all fall to the ground. Do not attempt at first to throw the ball higher than three feet, which, indeed, is the height generally required. When you are perfect with the right hand, practise the same play-motion with the left. Let me again impress upon you the necessity, if you would attain proficiency in the art, of using the left hand as much as the right in all these exercises. Without this success is impossible. We now come to the Third Practice, or—

This will be found rather more difficult than either of the former, because in this the arm, as well as the hand, will be constantly in motion. Throw the ball with the right hand, as in the Vertical Fall, keeping the hand in a line with the right shoulder. The moment it is caught, bring the right hand in a line with the left shoulder, throw the ball from that position and catch it, and vice versâ. Afterwards do the same with the left hand. Fig. 3 will show you the practice, the dotted lines representing the movements the ball should take. All these necessary, if somewhat tedious, rudiments of the science having been mastered, we will proceed to the Fourth Practice.

In this exercise both hands are brought into play. The motion of the ball is precisely the same as in Fig. 2, but, instead of catching it with the same hand, you must now pass it from one hand to the other. Practise this at first with the hands a very little distance apart, and do not throw the ball too high. As you improve, gradually increase the height, and move your hands away until they are about three feet distant from each other. Up to this time the ball has been forming a kind of hyperbole or arch in its course. Now, without altering the position of the hands, cause the ball gradually to lower its course until it is thrown in the Fifth Practice, which is called—

This you will find quick work alike for eyes and hands, for, of course, the ball cannot be made to pass in a straight line from one hand to the other without giving it increased impetus and a considerable accession of speed. Gradually move your hands, at first closer to one another, and then farther apart. In fact, continue this exercise until your hands are as distant from each other as you can reach. This will be found excellent practice for the ‘shower’ at which we shall soon arrive. The Sixth Practice is

(as shown in Fig. 6). You will now take a ball in each hand, and commence by throwing that in the right hand vertically (as in Fig. 1), then that in the left in the same manner, alternately. Before the first ball has descended into the right hand, throw the second into the air with the left, so that the two balls shall be constantly in motion. You will now find the advantage of being proficient in the single vertical fall, as otherwise, your attention being distracted from the one ball to the other, you would probably not be able to catch either. Now practise throwing both balls up together, keeping your hands about two feet apart, and taking care that neither ball goes higher than the other. As the last practice was good for the ‘shower’ so you will see that the present will prepare you for the ‘fountain,’ the description of which will follow in due course. The Seventh Practice is termed

This is a repetition of the Outside and Inside Fall, but is performed with two balls at the same time and with both hands. In this exercise great care must be taken to avoid a collision of the balls when they are in the act of passing. To ensure against such a calamity it is necessary that one ball—generally that from the right hand—should be projected slightly higher than the other (as in Fig. 7). This should be practised at various heights until something like perfect accuracy is arrived at, as all the following practices are founded, more or less, upon this very important exercise.

The Eighth Practice is entitled

which must not be attempted until you have made perfect the last exercise. On referring to Fig. 8, you will see that this practice is nothing more than a repetition of the last, with the addition of a third ball. This third ball, however, will seem to you at first to be quite an interloper, and the greatest care must be taken in throwing all the balls regularly, otherwise they will go into a ‘confusion worse confounded.’ The eyes and the hands, however, being by this time pretty well trained, increased vigilance in the former and increased agility in the latter are all that is required to enable you to master the increased difficulty of the performance. The dotted lines indicate the proper direction in which the balls should be thrown, showing how each ball should cross the course of the others without any of them coming into collision. We proceed at once to the Ninth Practice, which is called

This play is almost similar to the last, differing only in this—that, instead of the balls following each the course of the other, they are returned from the left to the right by the course indicated in the dotted lines in Fig. 8, forming an inner fall while the others are passing over them. The effect of the change is very pretty, and though it will perhaps be found somewhat more difficult, you are now becoming so skilful that difficulties will no doubt serve only to stimulate you to fresh exertion. The Tenth Practice is

This is another variation of the same play, in which the over ball is kept outside, whilst the under two are performing a double pass. In this practice you must keep the outside single ball well above the two that are passing underneath, as shown in the dotted lines in Fig. 10. Care must be taken, in this as in every other practice, to avoid collision between the balls. Practice, we know, makes perfect, and nothing but patient perseverance can be recommended to ensure success.

The Eleventh Practice brings us to one of the neatest, prettiest, and most effective feats in ball juggling. It is called

This, undoubtedly one of the most fascinating of all juggling feats, is an art easily acquired by so practised a juggler as you have now become. Take two balls, one in each hand, throw the one in the right hand into the air towards the left, as in Fig. 4, and while it is in the air, ‘pass’ the left-hand ball to the right hand, as in Fig. 5, and immediately throw it to follow the course of the first, continuing this play as quickly as possible, so that there may be one ball always in the air. You will find very little difficulty in showering two balls in this manner with one hand, as it is really nothing more than a Double Inside Fall (Fig. 2); in fact, some expert jugglers can shower three balls with one hand, but this is a very difficult feat, and the balls have to be thrown very high. You can make the attempt if you please, but I do not wish to enter upon matters which may confuse and possibly dishearten you, and will ask you therefore to perfect yourselves in this feat before proceeding to the Twelfth Practice, viz.,

which is accomplished in the following manner. Take two balls in the right hand and one in the left. Throw one after the other in very quick succession in the direction of the Inside Fall (Fig. 2) with the right hand, and as each reaches the left hand, ‘pass’ it from the left to the right, as shown in Figs. 11 and 12, and continue the Shower as long as you please. From the swiftness of their motion, the balls appear to multiply, and your audience will almost be inclined to believe that you are playing with fifty balls, instead of with only three. When you are very expert in this you can proceed to the Thirteenth Practice,

or Grand Shower, as it is sometimes called. This is the same play as the last but with four balls, three of which must be held in the right and one in the left hand. It is hardly necessary to say that the difficulty is greatly increased, as the balls must be thrown much higher, so that there may be more space between them in order to allow time for the rapid passes. In all the Showers, but in this especially, it is advisable to keep the right hand a little higher than the left, as shown in Fig. 13. The Fourteenth Practice, which is the last of the present series, is

This is the most difficult feat of all, as so much depends upon the precision with which the balls are delivered. Commence practising with two balls, and perform a Double Outside Fall with both hands (Fig. 14). You will find this sharp work for the eyes, as you will have to be looking at two places simultaneously as the balls descend. When you can play two balls well in this manner, you will find that

as described in Fig. 15, will not be difficult, as it is done in a ‘swing,’ as it is called, a motion of the body and arms which it is not possible to describe, but which will come naturally to you as you acquire the art of juggling. The Fountain may be varied by a motion which is known as

Instead of throwing up the balls together, present them alternately, as shown in Fig. 16. This has a very pretty effect, and exactly represents the name given it.

Having now given you all the instruction in my power, it only remains for me to make one or two suggestions which I think will commend themselves to your intelligence. In the first place, I would advise you to practise over some soft material, on the lawn if possible, where the dropping of the balls can annoy no one; but if a lawn be not available, then over a sofa, or a bed, or a very soft rug or mat. You are certain to have many a mishap at starting, and I can conceive nothing in a small way more irritating than for a person seated in a room to be perpetually startled by the noise of balls falling overhead. Finally, let me impress upon you the fact that your success depends entirely upon yourselves. The teacher may show how the thing is to be done, but it is for the pupil to do it. Remember that ‘whatever is worth doing is worth doing well,’ and if you think it worth your while to learn the art of juggling, you must devote to it patience, perseverance, and practice. Without these you will never succeed. With them success is certain.

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To make a model steamboat that will go is the ambition of most boys, but the high price of engine and boiler deters many from doing so. In this chapter instructions are given for making a model screw steamboat, the machinery for which every boy can make for himself, by the exercise of a little ingenuity, at a very trifling cost—which machinery, too, may be fitted into any boat, the rigging of which may have gone by the board off the dangerous coast of the duck-pond.

First you must procure your boat; but if you should wish to make the boat yourself you will need no instructions from me, as several capital chapters on boat-building appear in another part of this volume. The only directions I need give are, that your craft shall be very light, and hollowed out as thin as possible, be twenty-four inches long, four inches wide at midships, and three and a half inches deep; the sternpost to be about an inch and a half within the stern, to be raking, and two and a half inches high, as marked in Fig. 1; a strip of lead one-eighth of an inch thick to be fastened along the bottom of the keel; the bows to be sharp, and the boat to have a clean run aft. When the boat is finished paint it, and when dry put it into water, and mark on the sternpost the height the water comes. Now you must bore a hole in the sternpost right through into the boat, in the direction of the top of the stem. This must be done with a red-hot wire; the hole is to be three-eighths of an inch across.

The next thing to do is to get a brass tube from the gasfitter’s, or get a tinman to make you one of tin three-eighths of an inch inside measurement. This tube must be long enough to reach from the sternpost to three and a half inches beyond the top of the stem. Four inches from one end of this tube solder a strip half an inch wide and one and three-quarter inches along, bending the middle of it half round the tube, and bending the ends outwards; punch a hole in each end of this strip; in this end of the tube cut four teeth like saw-teeth, one-eighth of an inch deep, like Fig. 2. Put this tube in the boat thus. Push the end, without the tin strip, through the hole in the sternpost from the inside of the boat, so that the tube is flush with the wood, and fasten the other end by driving tacks through the holes in the tin strip into the boat. Put some putty round the tube where it goes through the wood, to keep the water out. Now make the deck of board one-eighth of an inch thick, plane it, and fix it in its place by pins, leaving a gunwale of half an inch all round. Stop up with putty, and mark with a pencil the boards on the deck. Bore a hole near the stern one-sixteenth of an inch wide right through the deck and boat, coming out under the counter one inch from the sternpost. This is the rudder-hole. To make the rudder get a piece of brass wire one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter, and six inches long; cut your rudder out of tin, and solder it on to the wire, so that the heel of the rudder is flush with one end of the wire. Now push the other end up through the hole in the counter, and bend it down on to the deck; this will form the tiller, and, by pressing tightly on to the deck, will keep the rudder firm and in its place for steering.

Two inches abaft the middle of the deck cut a hole three-quarters of an inch in diameter for the chimney, which is a tube of tin three-quarters of an inch in diameter and four inches long. Bore two more holes in the deck three-eighths of an inch in diameter, one halfway between the stem and chimney, the other halfway between the rudder and chimney; these are for the masts, which are made of wood, and should stand about nine inches above deck; put a pin into the end of each mast, and cut the head off, leaving about half an inch of the pin projecting; put the masts in their places, and the pins will keep them firm by being pushed into the bottom of the boat.

Make the propeller out of a circular piece of stout tin two inches in diameter, cut as in Fig. 3. The dark parts are to be cut away. The projections are to be three-quarters of an inch long. Punch a hole one-sixteenth of an inch in the centre, and fix a piece of brass wire one-sixteenth of an inch, two inches long, in the hole, to form an axle for the propeller. Twist each of the fans of the screw out of the plane of the circle about a quarter of an inch, in the manner of the sails of a windmill, as in Fig. 4. Now make two little wooden plugs three-quarters of an inch long, and half an inch wide at one end, tapering to a quarter of an inch at the other. Bore a hole through each from end to end one-sixteenth of an inch wide. Take the propeller, and put a glass bead, that will fit easily, on the wire, and push the wire through one of the wooden plugs from the large end; bend the wire into a loop at the small end. Next take another piece of wire, two and a half inches long, and make a similar loop at one end, and put the other end through the other little plug, from the small end, and bend the wire into a handle (Fig. 5). Now the only thing we want is the power. This is a strip of strong elastic about three and a half feet long and a quarter of an inch wide; tie the ends together to make a band—a large stout elastic ring will do, or two smaller rings looped together. Fasten a string to the elastic, and pass the string through the tube in the boat, from the stern end; hook the loop on the propeller-wire into the elastic, and push the wooden plug into the tube so that the screw is clear of the rudder; draw the elastic, by the string, through the other end of the tube, and hook the wire in the other plug into it; take off the string and push the plug into its place. You must cut the plug away so that the handle can catch in the teeth cut in the tube. Now the boat is ready for use.

To use it wind up the elastic by the handle at the end of the tube, holding the screw firmly with the other hand. As soon as wound up enough set the rudder and put the boat into the water; release the screw, and the boat will go till the elastic is quite unwound. The distance it will travel will be regulated by the extent to which the elastic is wound up.

I have already described the method of making a small boat move through the water by means of an elastic band, which is simply twisted up and then released, but I have no doubt that many readers would like to possess a simple model boat to work by steam.

Such models can now be purchased at all shops where mechanical toys are sold, at prices varying from one shilling, the smallest, eight inches in length, to about twenty pounds, the largest, five feet in length. Although all these boats really go by steam, the application of the power is different in the different sizes.

The small boats are of course the simplest. In these the steam from the boiler is conducted through a short pipe to the sternpost of the boat, where by its pressure on the water in escaping it forces the boat along.

The next class have a further development of the application of steam-power. In the centre of the boat, close behind the boiler, is a fan-wheel, turning on an axle, which in the case of a paddle-boat carries the paddles, and in the case of a screw carries the propeller. The steam is conducted from the boiler through a short pipe to the front of the fan-wheel, which it blows round as it escapes.

The third class are the steamboats proper, varying in price from five shillings upwards. In these the steam-power is applied as in ordinary engines. The cheapest have one single-action oscillating cylinder, and the better sorts two double-action cylinders.

As the two first-mentioned classes are, after all, only imitations, I do not think it worth while to describe them; and of the third class I have chosen the largest to describe, as I think that if it is worth while making a model at all, it is worth while to make a good one, and the small engines take almost as much time to make, and quite as much care to fit, as the large ones, and unless they are well fitted the loss of power by friction and waste of steam is very great.

The engine here described is a model of a real screw-engine, with a pair of double-action oscillating cylinders, having reversing gear and boiler complete, ready to be put into the boat. It will be capable of driving a boat from four to five feet long, provided it is well hollowed out and that the engine is made and fitted with care, to reduce friction and waste of steam as much as possible.

In this section the exact dimensions of the several parts are given when possible, but, owing to small differences in the size of the cylinders, I am only able to approximate in some cases—in which cases, however, I have used the word ‘about,’ at the same time explaining how to obtain the exact measurements.

In all engines the most important parts are the cylinders, which must be well fitted. Boys who have a turning-lathe and the requisite practice in metal-turning can buy rough castings of all the parts of the engine for a few shillings and finish them up themselves. But as only a few of my readers may be so favoured, I will suppose that the cylinders are purchased ready for use. For these cylinders there is a great range in the prices quoted by different firms, the prices varying for the No. 4 cylinder from eight shillings at one firm to twelve shillings and sixpence at another. Messrs. Theobald and Co., of 20, Church Street, Kensington, quote the lowest prices to me, and have further consented to supply the No. 4 double-action oscillating cylinders for this engine at seven shillings each to any one mentioning this section.

The dimensions of these cylinders are three quarters of an inch in the diameter of the bore, and an inch and a half in the length of stroke—i.e., an inch and a half difference in the length the piston-rod projects from the top of the cylinder when in and out to its fullest.

Get a pair of these cylinders which have the steam-blocks, pivot-pillars, and screw-crossheads complete. Ask for the No. 4 double-action oscillating cylinders. When buying them see that the piston-rods work true, and not to one side; see also that the small indentations on the opposite sides to the steam ports are correctly drilled, so that when the cylinders are swung between the blocks and pivots they work true. To test this, place the block on its back on the table, and put the cylinder on it, with the pivot in the proper hole for it. Now turn the cylinder round on the block and place a pin in the indentation, and if it is truly drilled the pin will not move; but if not, the point of the pin will describe a small circle. You can find out by this pin the exact spot where the pivot-hole ought to be drilled.

We will now set to work at the construction of the engine, and the first thing to be done is to make the top plate (Fig. 1). For this get a small brass plate four inches long and three inches wide, and an eighth of an inch thick, with a projecting piece an inch and a quarter square at one end of it, as in the figure. Get two of these plates, as the second will be required for the bed-plate, but will not have the square projecting piece. Take the first of these plates and square it up, so that each corner is a right angle. Now proceed to mark it as in Fig. 1. Divide the large part lengthwise into two equal parts by the line C D, and crosswise, also into two equal parts by the line A B, these two lines intersecting in the point O. From this point mark off, each way along the lines O C and O D, the following distances. O to x a quarter of an inch, and x to y an inch and a quarter; and through these four points draw the lines e-g, f-h, k-m, and l-n, making them two inches long each, and projecting one inch on each side of the line C D. Join the points e-f, g-h, k-l, and m-n.

Cut out the two rectangles so formed carefully, so as not to injure the lines. This can be done easily by first drilling a small hole, about an eighth of an inch in diameter, near one corner, and then putting a fretwork saw through it and fixing it in the frame, and sawing the metal away just inside the lines. The saw must be kept well moistened with water. The corners can be left circular, which will add to the finish of the plate, and make the cutting with the saw easier.

After the holes are cut they must be finished quite up to the lines, but without injuring them, with a fine-cut flat file. Through each corner of the plate a hole must be drilled an eighth of an inch in diameter, and about an eighth of an inch from the edges, as in Fig. 1. The top plate is now ready for mounting the cylinders on, which we will set about doing.

Take the two steam-blocks (Fig. 2) and draw a pencil mark on each from the centre hole to the bottom, and at right angles to it (Fig. 2). Next place the two blocks back to back on the middle of the top plate, between the two large holes, so that the pencil marks coincide with the line C D, and so that the bottom edges of the faces coincide with the lines f-h and k-m. Be very careful in setting these blocks right. When in their places mark the top plate through the screw-holes in the projecting bases of each, and drill four holes straight down through the plate, making them a little smaller than the holes in the bases of the blocks. Now replace the blocks and fasten them there with two small screws each. These screws correspond with the size of the cylinders, and can be purchased by the dozen, together with taps, for each size, to make the thread in the holes with.

Next take the pivot-blocks and mark them with pencil, as the steam-blocks were marked, and put them on the line C D on the outer sides of the large holes, using the same care to get them properly centred along the line C D, and at right angles to it, and about an eighth of an inch from the lines e-g and l-n. Mark the screw-holes and drill them as before, and fasten the pillars in their places.

Now the cylinders can be hung. Unscrew the pivots about a quarter of an inch and place the cylinders in their places, with the spindles in the proper holes for them in the blocks. Now screw in the wire pivots till they catch in the indentations drilled for them in the sides of the cylinders. They will now swing freely between the blocks and pivots.

Now to cut the bed-plate (Fig. 3). Take your second brass plate and divide it by the lines A B and C D as before. From the point O mark off each way along the line C D the distances five-eighths of an inch from O to x, and three-quarters of an inch from x to y. Through these points draw four lines two inches long, and projecting one inch on each side of the line C D, and parallel to the line A B. Join the lines in pairs as before, and cut out the rectangles so formed. Finish up the edges, and bore a hole in each corner, as in the top plate. On the line A B, and half an inch from each end, bore two holes an eighth of an inch in diameter, and countersink them at the top, as in the figure.

Now the bearings for the crank-shaft must be made. Fig. 4 is a perspective view of one of these. Get two pieces of brass one inch long, half an inch wide, and a quarter of an inch thick, as Fig. 5. Along the face of each block draw a line, dividing it lengthwise into two equal parts, and in the centre of these lines drill a hole right through the brass one-eighth of an inch in diameter. Cut the brass away at the ends (as in Figs. 4 and 5), leaving the projecting pieces a quarter of an inch long and a little more than one-sixteenth of an inch thick. Through each of these flanges drill a hole, to screw the bearings to the bed-plate by. Drill two holes down through the top of the block, passing one on each side of the bearing-hole (as in Fig. 5, the dotted lines showing the positions of the holes). Drill a small hole through the top of the cap into the bearing-hole, for oiling purposes. Cut the block in two along the line passing through the middle of the bearing-hole with a stiff-backed saw. This will make the block as in Fig. 6, having a movable cap which can be fastened in its place with two screws. Screw these bearing-blocks in their places, one at each end of the bed-plate, using the same care to get them properly centred along the line C D and at right angles to it.

We must now make the crank-shaft. This can be made with bent wire one-eighth of an inch thick. But when made in this way it very seldom works steadily and true. The best way is to build it up. You must get a piece of iron wire a quarter of an inch in diameter and about two feet long. Part of this will be required for the screw-shaft; straighten and smooth the wire and polish it up. Cut from the end three pieces, one an inch long, the second two inches long, and the third one and seven-eighths of an inch long. Next get four pieces of flat iron plate one-eighth of an inch thick, one inch long, and half an inch wide. Cut them into the shape shown in Fig. 7. The distance between the centres of the holes is to be a little less than three-quarters of an inch. The largest hole is one-eighth of an inch square, and the smallest hole a little less. The metal is to be left one-eighth of an inch wide round the holes. Take the shortest piece of iron wire and cut one end of it away, leaving a square pin and shoulder; the pin is to be three-sixteenths of an inch long, and one-eighth of an inch square (Fig. 8). Cut both ends of the two-inch piece and one end of the remaining piece in the same way. Counter-sink the largest holes in the plates (Fig. 7) and rivet them on the pins of the portions of the shaft, being careful that they are at right angles to the rods. The plates on the two-inch piece must be at right angles to each other. The pins should fit very tightly in the holes, to make them firm when riveted.

Cut two pieces of iron wire one-eighth of an inch in diameter and five-eighths of an inch long, and at each end of each piece make a pin and shoulder to fit the small holes in the plates, leaving a full quarter of an inch of the wire between the pins untouched. Join the cranks together in pairs by riveting in these wires, being careful to keep the cranks at right angles to the shaft, and also to keep the several pieces of the shaft in the same straight line. Place the shaft on the bearing-blocks in the position it will occupy, with the cranks over the holes in the bed-plate and with the longest end to the after end of it. Mark on the shaft the position and thickness of the bearing-blocks, and cut the metal of the rods away in these places till it is reduced to one-eighth of an inch in thickness, so that it will work freely in the bearing-holes. The crank will now look like Fig. 9.

The next step is to connect the top and bed-plates by four pillars. The length of these will depend on the length of the piston-rod. They must be made of four pieces of brass wire a quarter of an inch thick. Take one of the cylinders and a sheet of paper; on this paper draw a line about six inches long, and at one end mark the point A (Fig. 10). Push the piston-rod in as far as it will go, and push the pivot of the cylinder through the point A, and mark on the line the point B, exactly under the hole in the crosshead of the piston-rod. Now draw out the piston-rod as far as it will go, and mark the point C exactly under the hole as before. Bisect the portion of the line between B C in the point D, and measure the distance between A and D. Reduce this length by the distance the centre hole in the steam-blocks is from the lower edge, and add to it a quarter of an inch for the height of the centre of the bearing-block from the upper surface of the bed-plates, one-eighth of an inch for the thickness of the bed-plate, and a quarter of an inch for riveting.

This will give you the length of the pillars including the pins. File a pin and shoulder at each end, as in Fig. 11, making the pins one-eighth of an inch in diameter and a quarter of an inch long. Rivet a pillar firmly in each corner hole of the bed-plate, and put the top plate on the top ends of the pillars, and rivet them firmly in. Be careful that the pillars are upright. Rehang the cylinders and unscrew the caps of the crossheads. Fit the cranks into the holes in them and screw on the caps.

If the cylinders are made without screw-crossheads the pin of the cranks must be placed through the hole in the heads before riveting the cranks together. Unscrew the caps of the bearing-blocks, and put the crank-shaft into the bearing-holes, and screw on the caps again. Oil all bearings and parts that work together. Now you must get a heavy brass fly-wheel three inches in diameter, which can be purchased with the other things, and costs about two shillings. This wheel has a screw-bolt through one side of the centre block to fix it to the shaft by. Fix this wheel on the long end of the shaft by tightening the screw. It would be better to make a small hole in the shaft for the point of the screw to enter. The wheel must have two iron pins, about one inch long, in the face of it.

Now if all the fittings are well made and oiled, the engine ought to work easily and smoothly without noise if the fly-wheel is spun round.

Fig. 26 at the end of this section represents the engine as finished.

We must now turn our attention to the boiler. For this you must obtain some sheet copper; get the size known as 12-lb. copper—that is, the sheet two feet by eight feet weighs 12 lb. You must also procure some copper tubing one-third of an inch in diameter. Get also the following articles; two brass gauge-taps, 1s. 3d. each; one steam-tap with union, 1s. 6d.; man-hole or water-filler, 1s. 6d.; spring safety-valve set to 30 lb. the inch, 1s. 4d. If these are not already fitted with screw-blocks get them so fitted when buying them. Fig. 12 represents the safety-valve with the screw-block.

Cut out of your copper a piece (Fig. 13) eighteen inches and three-quarters long and nine inches wide. Draw a line A B at right angles to the two long sides, and bisecting them. From A and B mark off the distances shown in the figure. Bore the holes, C, D, E, and F, the sizes marked, and in the places indicated. Bend the plate so that the middle eight inches form a semicircle with a radius of two and a half inches, and the five-inch parts are straight and five inches apart. Turn in the remaining half inch at each side to form a foot for the boiler to stand on. The copper will now be like Fig. 14, and will form the body of the boiler. Take two small sheets of copper eight inches long by six inches wide, and mark one as in Fig. 15 and the other as in Fig. 16. Cut them out carefully, and in Fig. 15 bore two holes one-eighth of an inch in diameter in the places marked. Turn up the edge all round the sides and circular portions of both plates, a quarter of an inch wide, till it is at right angles to the other part of the plate, as in Fig. 17. Fit one of these pieces on each end of the boiler body, so that the turned-up edges of the ends fit outside the boiler body. The Fig. 16 is to fit over the end of the boiler that has the two holes in the top. Solder or braze the ends to the boiler body.

I should strongly recommend all the joints of the boiler being brazed, as in the event of the vessel steaming far from shore, the water running short, and the lamp still burning, it would melt the solder, and the boiler would fall to pieces, but if brazed it would not be injured if made red-hot. If you solder the parts together you can do it yourself from directions given in the section on the magic-lantern, but in soldering copper or brass together both surfaces of the joint must be first tinned over.

If you decide to have the joints brazed you can get it done at the ironmonger’s, if you first cut out and fit the parts together and explain what you require. The floor of the boiler is made out of a piece of sheet copper nine inches long and seven and a half inches wide. Mark it as in Fig. 18. Bend it along the lines into the shape shown in Fig. 19. In the middle of the top make a hole one-third of an inch in diameter. Bore seven holes one-third of an inch in diameter along each of the sides and half way up. Cut a piece of the brass tube six and a half inches long, and braze one end of it into the hole in the top, as in Fig. 19. Cut seven pieces of the tube four and a half inches long each, and connect the holes on opposite sides by brazing the tubes across into the holes, as in the figure. Take the screw-block off the safety-valve and solder it over the hole marked D in Fig. 13 on the inside of the boiler. Solder the screw-block of the steam-tap inside over the hole marked F, and solder on the inside the two blocks of the gauge-taps over the holes in the end of the boiler. The block of the man-hole must be brazed on the outside over the hole C, Fig. 13.

Now fit the floor of the boiler in its place, passing the end of the tube, fastened to the top of it, through the hole marked E in the top of the boiler, and projecting about half an inch, and braze it in. Fig. 20 will show the position of the boiler floor. The top of it is to be two inches from the bottom of the sides. Braze it in firmly, being very careful to make all the joints steam-tight. Screw in the man-hole cover, safety-valve, steam-tap, and gauge-taps. On the top of the boiler and over the projecting pipe solder a piece of brass tube seven inches long and an inch and a quarter in diameter, raking aft a little, for the funnel. Now the boiler is finished and ready to be connected with the engine. But before this can be done we must make the reversing-gear.

Procure a block of brass, three-quarters of an inch wide, one inch long, and half an inch high. Square this up true, and bore a hole right through it from top to bottom, three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter. With the end of a rat-tailed file taper the hole to a little more than a quarter of an inch at the top. Get a piece of brass rod a little more than a quarter of an inch thick, and file one end of it taper to fit the hole, and square off the bottom end of it, making the taper portion half an inch long. Smoothen this with fine glasspaper, and then oil it and dust over it some fine emery-powder, and put it in the hole in the block and grind the two together till they fit perfectly. Cut the taper portion off exactly the length of the depth of the block.

Cut the brass away at the ends of the block, leaving a flange at the bottom, at each end, a quarter of an inch long and one-sixteenth of an inch thick, as in Fig. 21. In each flange bore two small holes, to screw it to the top plate by. Drill four holes, one through each side of the block one-eighth of an inch in diameter, right into the centre hole and at right angles to each other, as in Fig. 21. Wipe the plug and hole quite clean from the oil and emery, and replace the plug. Put a needle-point into one of the side holes, and lying on the bottom of it and pressing against the plug. Turn the plug round in the socket. Now move the needle-point to the top of the hole and turn the plug round again.

Take out the plug, and there will be two lines one-eighth of an inch apart scratched all round it, as in Fig. 22. With a small round file cut two grooves opposite each other in the plug, by filing between the scratched lines, leaving the brass between them one-sixteenth of an inch or less thick, as seen in Fig. 22. Drill a hole one-eighth of an inch in diameter and a quarter of an inch deep down the top end of the plug, and another up the lower end, to fit one of your small screws. Be careful that neither of these holes enters the grooves.

Cut a small circular plate of copper seven-sixteenths of an inch in diameter, and drill a small hole in the middle of it. Give this plate two or three taps with a small hammer in the middle to hollow it a little. Put the plug in its place in the block, and turn it over and place the circular plate on the bottom, with the concave side to the plug, and fix it there with a screw. This will keep the plug from coming out of the block. Solder an iron wire one-eighth of an inch thick and six inches long into the hole in the top of the plug. Fasten the block on to the square projecting piece of the top plate, first cutting out of it a circular hole half an inch in diameter, to let the circular plate at the bottom of the plug drop into. The valve must now be connected with the steam-blocks. Take two pieces of steam-pipe three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter and an inch and a quarter long, and bend them the shape of Fig. 23, so that the distance apart of the ends is the same as from one hole in the top of one block to the corresponding hole in the other.

Cut a hole in one side of the bent piece, as in Fig. 23, large enough for the end of another piece of the pipe to fit into when tapered a little. This piece is to be about three and a quarter inches long, and bent so as to pass from the steam-blocks round the cylinder to the hole in that side of the reversing-valve block. Fit the end of this pipe into the hole in the bent tube and braze it in the following way. Rub a small lump of borax on a moistened tile and rub the joint to be brazed with the mixture of borax and water. Cut a small piece of silver off a threepenny-piece about the size of a large pin-head, and put it on the joint. Now hold the end of the tube in the left hand, covered with a cloth, and with a blow-pipe direct the flame of a spirit-lamp or gas-jet on to the joint till it is red-hot, when the silver will melt and flow round the joint and fix it. If you cannot do this yourself a jeweller or watchmaker will do it for you. Make two of these bent tubes with double ends, and solder them in their places, connecting the steam-blocks with the reversing-valve. You must enlarge the holes, to let the ends of the pipe in before soldering.

Bend a piece of steam-pipe, a quarter of an inch in diameter and eight inches long, so that about two inches of one end stands at right angles to the other part. The bend must be circular, or it will compress the pipe. Solder this end firmly into the front hole in the reversing-valve. Bend another piece of the pipe about the same length so as to go into the after hole of the valve and be parallel with the other pipe. On the top of the boiler solder a piece of pipe about six inches long; one end is to be bent up about one inch and inserted through a hole in the bottom of the funnel, and directed upwards inside, the other end is to project about one inch from the end of the boiler.

In the end of the steam-pipe solder the union of the steam-tap. Next make the stand for the engine and boiler. Make it out of a piece of deal eighteen inches long, five inches wide, and half an inch thick. Screw the bed-plate of the engine on one end of it, so that the after end of the plate is flush with the stand. The wood must be cut away under the square holes, to let the cranks work in. Screw two strips of copper at the other end, for the turned-in feet of the boiler to slide under. Put them so that the end of the boiler will be about three and a half inches from the fore end of the bed-plate. Put the boiler in its place, and bend the steam-pipe so that the union can be screwed to the steam-tap and the exhaust-pipe so that the end of it is opposite the projecting pipe from the boiler, and connect these two ends with a piece of indiarubber tubing.

The spirit-lamp must be in the shape of a closed box, made of sheet copper, four inches wide, eight inches long, and three quarters of an inch deep. In the top cut five holes, as in Fig. 24, a quarter of an inch in diameter. In these holes solder five tubes half an inch long, and projecting from the top a quarter of an inch. These are for the wicks. At the front end of the top solder a screw filling-tap. At this end solder also a piece of small pipe four inches long. This is to be bent so that it will stand upright outside the end of the boiler, and is to act as a vent, to prevent the spirit being forced too freely up the wicks. Fill the wick-holes tightly with cotton. Now fill the lamp half full of spirit. Pour hot water into the boiler till it just flows out of the top gauge-tap. See that all the taps are turned off. Light the lamp and put it under the boiler, and while steam is getting up oil the engine well with sewing-machine oil. In a short time the steam ought to be up and the engine at work. Try the reversing-gear and see if it acts properly. The engine ought to work smoothly and without noise, and the frame ought not to jar.

We must now make the screw propeller. The boat, which I suppose already made, is to be five feet long, ten inches wide, and eight inches deep, without the keel, and hollowed out to about a quarter of an inch thick at the gunwales and three-quarters of an inch thick at the bottom, and must be rather flat-bottomed, as steamships are, so that the inside at the bottom is five inches wide.

Put the engine and boiler in the boat so that the boiler is a little abaft the middle. Cut away the dead wood of the stern to make a hole four inches high and two inches wide, as in Fig. 25. Bore a hole from the hole in the dead wood right through into the interior of the boat, as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 25. This hole is to be directed to the centre of the fly-wheel of the engine. The shaft is made out of the quarter-inch wire. Cut a square pin and shoulder three-eighths of an inch long and an eighth of an inch square at one end of the shaft. Cut a piece of the same wire three and a half inches long and drill a square hole in the middle, and rivet it on the end of the shaft crosswise. In the hole in the stern of the boat you must fix a tube and stuffing-box, which may be got—together with the screw, which is to be a three-fanned one, measuring three inches across the fans—with the other things, of Messrs. Theobald and Co., and similar houses.

Put the shaft in its place inside the boat, with the cross-piece resting across the pins in the fly-wheel, about half way. Mark the end of the shaft so that it will project an inch and three-quarters, and cut it off there. The bearing must now be made out of a strip of brass one-sixteenth of an inch thick, three quarters of an inch wide, and two inches longer than the width of the inside of the boat. In the middle of this bore a hole a quarter of an inch in diameter, and bend one inch of each end at right angles to the other part. In each bent piece drill two small holes, to screw them to the sides of the boat by. Slip a piece of tubing, one inch long and of a size to fit tightly on the shaft, close up against the cross-piece. Put the shaft through the bearing and stuffing-box tube, and put the cross-piece on the pins in the fly-wheel, and screw the bearing to the boat, so that it is close against the tube on the shaft. The screw has a screw-bolt like the fly-wheel to fix it to the shaft by. Drill a small hole in the shaft for it, and put the screw on the end of the shaft and fix it by tightening the screw.

The deck of the boat must be cut the shape of the inside of the gunwales, out of quarter-inch board, and is to be fixed so that the gunwales are one inch high. It must have a hole cut in the middle to go over the boiler and pipes. A hole must also be cut over the engine, and one also in the front part of the deck large enough to admit your hand, to allow of your removing and lighting the lamp. These two holes ought to be covered by movable skylights. A hole must be bored in the deck just in front of the after-skylight for the wire from the reversing-valve to project about half an inch. A wire handle must be fixed by riveting to the end of this, and two pegs driven into the deck, one on each side, in front, to prevent the handle being turned too far to either side. It should only turn one quarter of the way round.

If you have followed these directions your boat ought to steam for two hours and a half without refilling the boiler; though the lamp would not burn all that time. But if you solder a short piece of tube a quarter of an inch in diameter into the front end of the lamp and quite at the bottom edge of it, and have a closed tin tank with a like tube to it in the front part of the boat, and this tank is filled with spirits, and connected to the lamp by a piece of india-rubber tubing joining the two tubes, the lamp will supply itself from the tank as it gets low. The spirit from the tank will not fill the lamp, but will just cover the hole of the tube and keep at that height so long as there is any spirit in the tank. Such an engine as here described would cost to purchase about £7 10s., and the boat with engine complete, quite double that sum.

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It is now some years since one evening at Christmas time I made one of a large family party assembled at the house of a relative. The evening had passed very pleasantly, and we were chatting together, and watching an arrangement which was being made in a recess behind a pair of curtains, before which was a small table. After some little time waiting in expectation, there suddenly appeared from between the curtains the agile gentleman who is portrayed at the head of this chapter. The operator, concealed (all but a portion of his arm) behind the curtains, placing the stand on the table, and cleverly manipulating the wire, caused the figure to dance in the most amusing and ridiculous manner, creating the greatest merriment. Afterwards, some lively jigs and reels being played on the piano, the figure footed it away, cleverly keeping time to the music.

Coming across the stand of the figure brought the memory of it to my mind, and I thought that making and working such a figure would be an amusing occupation for boys in the long winter evenings.

The nigger, when he first came out, was rather an expensive toy, and I have not latterly seen anything quite like it, but it is within the capabilities of any ingenious lad to make one for himself at a very small expense. The one I have described was about eight inches high, and had a proportionately-sized stand; but of course it can be made of any size, though a smaller one would be quite as troublesome to make, and not so funny. We will take the figure as being about the height described.

The stand (A) is a piece of common deal about 13 in. long (for the figure eight inches high; if the figure is made larger or smaller all details will of course also be proportionately more or less). The width of the stand is 2³⁄₄ in., and it is shaped as in the sketch. On top of the stand is a spring-board; this board is shaped as Fig. 2, rather less than ¹⁄₈ in. thick. From A to the shoulder at B is 6 in., and from B to the centre of the hole at D is 9 in., the whole length being therefore 15 in., and the spring-board in consequence projecting 4 in. beyond the end of the stand. At D on the stand is a button screwed to the stand, the screw passing through the hole in the spring-broad, and by tightening up the screw the spring-board can be made more or less rigid as required. The spring marked C C (which can be put in either way; the dotted line is perhaps the least effective way, as the greater the spring—within limits—the better) is made of steel or iron wire, one end being stuck into the back of the figure and the other being bent as in Fig. 3, and put under the button, the screw passing through all, as shown in Fig. 4.

The next thing is the figure. The head you must shape as fancy dictates, and the result will be the criterion of your cleverness as a wood-carver. If you cannot manage to carve a head, you might buy one and stick it on, or make your figure out of a large Dutch doll.

The head and body must be in one piece; the hat may be separate and glued on, or carved with the head, as you prefer. The trunk must terminate as in Fig. 5, to allow the legs to fit in and swing easily. The legs must be made in two pieces (Figs. 6 and 7).

Figures 8 and 9 speak for themselves. The flanges must correspond of course with the slots, and a pin is run through to keep the leg in its place, while it is fitted loosely so as to swing. The lower part of the leg and boot should be made rather heavy, so as to come down with some force on the spring-board.

When you have made your figure you can dress him if you like, but the legs must be left free at the joints. Loose trousers of very light striped stuff can be fitted, but they must not come much below the knee. The figure may be painted a dark brown, the hat red or white, the boots of course black, and the stand green or blue picked out with black, but you must use your taste in these matters. When all is finished it is not difficult to make the gentleman dance; but still your spring-board must be tightened to the right pitch, and the spring wire bent so that the feet of the figure are just off the spring-board; then by slightly agitating the wire the nigger will commence to dance; and it will entirely depend on its owner’s tuneful ear whether he dances in time to the music or not.

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Many a penny have I invested when, as a lad, visiting such places of amusement as the Crystal Palace, Polytechnic, London Crystal Palace, and Pantechnicon, in obedience to the entreaty forming the sub-title of this chapter, placed on the cases containing models and figures; and I yet very vividly remember the delight experienced from seeing the models start into motion. Indeed, even now, though arrived at man’s estate, I rarely miss dropping a penny into the coffer of any case containing a moving model when I chance to come across one.

Now these models, complicated as they may sometimes seem, can be easily made by any boy who can use his tools, and, as the construction and exhibition of them will afford great amusement, I propose in this chapter to give detailed practical instructions for making them.

The subjects I have chosen are a windmill, a yacht in full sail, a watermill with real water, dancing niggers, etc., so that there should be sufficient variety to suit all tastes and skill.

The windmill being the simplest in construction of the working models, we will take it first. The model, with the necessary pictorial background, is to be enclosed in a case, which will bear somewhere on the front of it the legend forming the title of this chapter, and the sails will go merrily round on dropping a penny into the box, thus practically illustrating the old song, ‘Money makes the mill to go.’ The cost of the whole model and case will be something under 8s. Now for the construction.

We will make the case first. For this get some half-inch deal board, 12 in. wide, and plane it smooth on both sides. Cut the pieces for the back, top, bottom, and sides, and square them up true. The dimensions of these pieces are as follows: the back, 20 in. long and 12 in. wide; the top and bottom pieces, 12 in. long and 10 in. wide; and the two side pieces are each 20 in. long and 10 in. wide.

Having cut and trued up these pieces, proceed to form them into a box by joining the edges by dovetailing, if you are skilful at cabinet-making, or get some friendly carpenter to do it for you, if you are not up to the work. If you cannot manage either to do it yourself or to get it done for you, the parts can be joined with glue and screws, but the side pieces will have to be cut one inch shorter than for dovetailing, in order that the top and bottom pieces may fit in flush with the back piece.

The front of the box is to be closed by a door, of which the upper 12 in. is of glass. Make the door out of a piece of half-inch board, 8 in. by 11 in. for the bottom piece, and fasten to each end a strip of wood 20 in. long and ¹⁄₂ in. square, so that one end of each strip is flush with the lower edge of the board, leaving 12 in of each strip projecting beyond the upper edge.

These strips should have a groove ¹⁄₈ in. deep cut in them to hold the glass. This you had better get cut for you. Put your glass, which must be about 11¹⁄₄ in. wide and 11 in. long, into the grooves, and the upper edge of it will be half an inch from the ends of the strips. Fasten it in by a cross-piece of wood ¹⁄₂ in. square and 11 in. long, glued and screwed to the two side strips.

If you prefer it, the glass can be put in the door after the manner of window-panes. In this case the side and top strips must have a rebate cut in them, and the top edge of the wooden portion served in the same way. You must choose for yourself which method you will adopt. Either will do, but the latter is perhaps the neater.

In the top of the right-hand end of the wooden portion cut a slot large enough to allow the necessary penny to pass freely. The door you will fasten to the box with two small brass hinges, and you must put a small brass hook on the other side of the box to keep it fastened. But it will be better if you do not hang the door till the inside arrangements are completed, for fear of breaking the glass.

Fig. 1 represents the case and model complete. Divide the interior of the box into two portions by a horizontal partition, fastened to the back and sides by glue and screws. The space below the partition is to be 7 in. deep. In the right of this space fit a cash drawer 9 in. long, 3 in. deep, and 3 in. wide, to hold the pennies. The side of this drawer nearest the machinery must have a slot cut in it for the starting lever (A, Fig. 3) to work in. The sides of the case are made of wood, so that the working of the model can only be seen from the front and so that the flow of pennies will be larger.

Paint the back of the inside of the case to represent a landscape, or a suitably coloured picture can be pasted in, and serve the horizontal partition in the same manner to represent ground, blending the back and ground together in a natural manner. Paint also the top board to represent sky.

Make the mill out of wood or cardboard. It is to be 7³⁄₄ in. high, and the holes for the spindle carrying the sails 5³⁄₄ in. from the bottom. The sails are to be 9¹⁄₂ in. across, and can be made of wood or cardboard, or, better still, wood cross-pieces with cardboard sails. Make the spindle of iron wire ¹⁄₈ in. in thickness. It should be about 3¹⁄₂ in. long. Flatten one end of the wire and drive it into the centre point of the cross-pieces of the sails, being careful to keep it quite square and upright.

Pass the spindle through the holes in the back and front of the mill, and put a knob of sealing-wax on the end, to prevent it working out when the mill is at work. If the mill is made of cardboard, the inside must be strengthened with wood to support the spindle.

We will next turn our attention to the mechanism to set the mill in motion. Very few of my readers possess the tools and skill to use them necessary to cut and fit the wheels, and, as it would come very expensive to get them made specially, it will come very much cheaper to buy one of the cheap eight-day clocks, which will suit our purpose admirably. These can be procured at most of the suitable shops, and will cost about 5s. 6d.

Take the frame and works out of the clock case, and remove the pendulum and hands, as you will not require them. If you now turn round the spindle on which the minute hand fits, you will notice that, although the parts that carry the hands are in motion, the rest of the wheels are stationary. On examining these hand-turning wheels carefully, you will notice that the one carrying the minute hand is fixed on the central spindle by jambing only, and that it turns a small flat wheel which, in turn, gives motion to the wheel carrying the hour hand. This wheel is fixed to a tubular spindle, which fits over the spindle of the minute-hand wheel, which itself is tubular and jambs on the central spindle. Now, as you will not require this movement, take off the hour-hand wheel, and after removing the small flat wheel, replace it and fasten it, together with the minute-hand wheel, to the central spindle with solder.

Some of the cheap clocks have the minute hand fixed direct to the central spindle, the hour wheel only being tubular. In this case the hour wheel and the spindle must be soldered together after the small flat wheel has been removed. As you will not require the escapement wheel, push on one side the small spring clip that presses on the end of the spindle, and it will drop out.

You will now want a pulley wheel (B, Fig. 3). One of the wooden sheaves used in Venetian blinds for the cords to run over will do very well indeed, or if you possess a lathe you can turn one for yourself. It should be 1¹⁄₂ in. in diameter and ¹⁄₄ in. thick, having a small hole right through the centre, of a size to fit tightly on the hour spindle of your works. Fig. 2 represents the frame after the wheels not required have been removed. Fig. 3 represents the starting lever and pulley. This pulley must have a notch ¹⁄₄ in. deep cut in one rim, for the hook of the lever to fall into and stop the machinery. This pulley must not be more than 1¹⁄₂ in. in diameter, or you will not be able to get at the winding-up pin.

The frame carrying the wheels must now be mounted in its place under the horizontal partition. For this purpose fasten with screws a block of wood to the floor board, or back of the case, in such a position that the front of the frame is about 5¹⁄₂ in. from the front of the case, and so that the centre of the wooden wheel is about 4 in. from the horizontal partition, and immediately under the spindle carrying the sails of the mill. The horizontal partition must have a slot cut in it, inside the mill, for the connecting cord to pass. The frame is to be fastened to the supporting block by screws, but before doing this you must make the all-important starting and stopping lever.

Get a piece of iron wire ¹⁄₈ in. thick, and about 10 in. long. Flatten one end and bend down about half an inch of this end to form a hook, standing about at right angles to the length; place this hook in the notch of the wheel when it is a little beyond the centre of the pulley, as seen in the cut, and cut the wire to such a length that the other end of it will be about 1 in. from the side of the case, when the gear is in position. Drill a hole crosswise through the wire about 3 in. from the hook, and fasten a small wire to the gear-frame, standing at right angles to it, about 2¹⁄₂ in., measured horizontally from the spindle of the pulley, and near the top. This is for the lever to turn on, as shown in the cut. At the free end of the lever solder a piece of tin bent up on three sides like a small tray, with the edge not bent at the extreme end. This tray or scoop should be about 1¹⁄₂ in. square, and is to catch the penny as it is dropped in.

The hooked end of the lever must be weighted, to slightly outbalance the other part, so that the hook will drop into the notch in the pulley. The frame can now be put in its place and fixed to the block with screws. Bend the long end of the lever till the scoop is 3¹⁄₂ in. from the under side of the partition. In bending the lever you must also see that the scoop is horizontal, or the penny will not remain in it long enough to start the gear. Now connect the spindle of the sails and the wooden pulley-wheel by passing a silk cord or fine string round both tightly, and knotting the ends together.

Now on winding up the spring and pressing down the lever the works will start into motion and the sails will revolve. The speed can be regulated by placing the sails at such an angle that they will offer more or less resistance to the air.

The slot in the door for the insertion of the penny must be cut three-quarters of an inch below the upper edge of the wooden partition, and inside you must fasten a tin trough to conduct the penny to the scoop at the end of the lever. This trough must slope downwards to the edge of the scoop, or the penny will not fall into it, but remain just inside the hole.

The model is now complete, and works as follows: The spring having been wound up and the door closed, the works are kept from moving by the hook of the lever catching in the notch of the pulley, but on a penny being put into the hole, and sliding into the scoop at the other end of the lever, its weight presses down the scoop end and lifts the hooked end out of the notch in the pulley, which turns round, and continues to do so, carrying the sails of the mill round with it till the notch again comes under the hook, which (the penny having fallen out of the scoop into the drawer) falls into it and stops the machinery, giving one revolution of the pulley for a penny. The pulley being twelve times larger than the spindle of the sails, these will revolve twelve times each time the model is started. The model will work about 204 times each time it is wound up.

Having finished the windmill to your satisfaction, we will now turn our attention to the construction of a model requiring rather more complex machinery. This is shown at Fig. 4, and represents a cutter-yacht sailing on the port tack, on a lee shore; which, if carefully made, so as to produce the effect of the rolling and pitching of a real yacht upon a real sea, will catch many a penny.

The case is made exactly in the same manner as the former one, and has the same dimensions, but has no horizontal partition, only a cross-piece in the front, half an inch square.

The inside of the back you must paint to represent a cliff and sky, or you can paste a coloured picture of the same on it.

The yacht is to be 5 in. long, and is to be set in a sea of silk, which will be described further on. If you prefer it, a full-rigged ship can be substituted for the yacht. For the machinery you will require, as before, an eight-day clock movement, some brass wire, and three or four pulley-wheels. Fig. 5 shows the front view of the mechanism when complete, and Fig. 6 the end view of the same.

As was the case in preparing the works for the windmill, you will require to make some alteration in the wheels, but in this case, as the hour and minute movement will be required for the starting gear, the minute spindle only is to be soldered to the central spindle, and the small flat wheel retained in its place. The escapement wheel must also be retained. B (Fig. 5) is one of the wooden pulleys, 1 in. in diameter, fixed to the minute-hand spindle, and is in connection with another pulley-wheel of the same size (B), turning on a screw fixed in a block of wood fastened to the floor-board in such a position that the centres of the two pulleys are the same height from the floor and 4¹⁄₂ in. apart. O is a lever of wire about 7 in. long, working on a pivot passing through it about 2¹⁄₂ in. from the end C. This end is connected with the keel of the boat, and the other end is weighted, to balance the boat.

Now take your boat, and at each end of the keel fix a small brass plate having a hole drilled in it (FF, Fig. 5), 4¹⁄₂ in. apart, and fix another plate drilled in the same way at C, about 2³⁄₄ in. from the stem of the boat. Take two pieces of wire 5 in. long and bend one end of each into an eye and the other end into a hook, crosswise with regard to the eye, and hook a wire into each of the plates FF, on the keel of the boat, and connect the other ends with the pulleys B and B by two small brass screws passing into the fronts of BB, as shown in Fig. 5, and arrange the pulleys so that one of the pivots shall be up while the other is down.

All these joints and connections must work freely, although not loosely. The two pulleys, BB, you must connect with a cord passing round both. The pitch of the vessel is regulated by the distance the pivot screws are from the centres of the pulleys, which should be about half an inch. You must next make the regulating gear or fly E (Fig. 5). To do this you must take out the pin from the left-hand lower corner of the frame-plate and prise up the plate and take out the fourth wheel near R (Fig. 5), and on the spindle of it fix a pulley, which can be readily done in the following manner. Cut a small notch in one side of the hole in the centre of the pulley just large enough to admit a piece of your wire. Solder about half an inch of this wire along one side of the spindle about the middle of it, and force the pulley on to the spindle over this piece, and it will jamb lightly and be keyed to it. Fig. 7 will show you how to cut the hole in the pulley.

Now return the wheel to its place and re-fasten the frame-plate. Next you must make the fly E. Get a small brass pulley about ¹⁄₄ in. in diameter, and to it solder a strip of tin cut to the shape shown, but being wider in proportion at the ends, say 1 in. wide and 4 in. long. Twist the ends of this fly askew like the fans of a screw propeller, so that it will catch the wind in revolving. Now fix a block of wood to the bottom of the case and fix the fly to it by a small brass screw passing through its centre, so that it works freely and is 3¹⁄₂ in. from the centre of the driving pulley R and level with it. Fasten a block of wood to the back of the case, in which you must fix the screw N (Fig. 5) for the lever O to pivot on. You must next make the starting gear. This is shown in Fig. 8.

As we require the pulleys BB to revolve about twelve times, and as they are attached to the minute-hand spindle, the hour-hand spindle will revolve once. Therefore, on this spindle fix behind the pulley B, by soldering, a circular plate of tin or brass, a little larger than the pulley, and cut in one edge of it a slot a quarter-inch deep and one-eighth of an inch wide. Make your lever as before, but long enough for the hook to catch in the teeth of the wheel C, Fig. 8; and solder a piece of tin to the lever, to fall at the same time into the slot in the disc A, Fig. 8. This piece of tin must be long enough to keep the hook free of the teeth of the wheel C during the revolution of the disc A. The length of the other part of the lever is to be the same as for the windmill. Fig. 6 shows an end view of the machinery. K is a wire connecting the keel with the lever Q, and helps to give the rolling motion so suggestive to voyagers.

Fix your gear into the case in such a position that the keel of the boat will be 7 in. above the floor of the box, and bend the starting lever so that the scoop will be the same distance from the floor and front of the box as in the former case. You have now to make the sea. Get a piece of silk of the kind called Persian, dark green or ‘undecided’ blue, about 18 in. square, and in the middle of it cut a slit 6 in. long, and in this slit fasten the hull of the boat with glue, puckering up the silk, to form the waves on the sides of the vessel. Crumple the whole of the silk into miniature waves, and glue the edges round the edges of the case and to the strip of wood fastened across the front 7 in. from the floor. Touch the crests of the waves with white paint. The silk waves will rise and fall with the motion of the vessel, and appear themselves to be the cause of that motion. If the silk has a tendency to drop in, it can be supported by a floor-board, 7 in. from the bottom, with a hole cut in the centre 5 in. long and 2 in. wide for the boat to work in, and a slot cut for the wire K, Fig. 6. Be very careful that all the joints and connections work easily, or a jerky motion will be the result.

Wind up the works and drop in a penny, and the lever hook will be lifted out of the escapement wheel, and round will go the pulleys, causing the little ship to pitch and roll till the slot A comes round again, when down falls the lever hook and stops the movement. The pace of the movement can be regulated by the angle of the fans of the fly catching more or less air.

As the minute spindle revolves twelve times, the pulleys will revolve only once, which will give about seventeen revolutions each time of winding.

Fig. 9 is a view of a case of dancing ‘niggers,’ and is easily made. In the sketch the figures are one-third the real size.

The case measures 9 in. high, 7 in. wide, and 7 in. deep. The back forms a hinged door by which you can get at the gear. The slit for the penny is in the top, and near the right-hand back corner. The legs of the right-hand figure are both made separate from the body and jointed at the knees. They are fastened to the body by small pins, to allow of free working. This figure you must strengthen by glueing a piece of wood behind it 1 in. long, ¹⁄₂ in. wide, and ¹⁄₄ in. thick. The other figure has only the left leg moveable, and must not be jointed at the knee. Glue a strip of wood about ¹⁄₂ in. wide and ¹⁄₄ in. thick right up the back of this figure, and glue it to the floor board. The left leg must have a similar piece of wood glued behind it, and projecting ¹⁄₂ in. longer at the thigh end. Fix the leg to the body by a small pin, for it to work freely on, and in the piece of wood projecting fix, at right angles, a piece of wire about 2 in. long, and cut a curved slit in the background for this to work in, when the figure is about 1 in. from it.

This background you must make out of cardboard, and fix about 3 in. from the front of the case, which is glass. The background you can paint to any design you please, such as a street scene, or on the sands, and the floor to correspond.

Behind the right-hand figure cut a vertical slit in the background about ¹⁄₈ in. wide and 2 in. long, so that the centre of it comes opposite the centre of the figure when the feet are just touching the floor. Fix a piece of wire about 7 in. long into the centre of the figure behind, and at right angles to it, and bend this wire downwards at right angles about 2 in. from the figure. About 1 in. behind the background fix an upright block of wood, to come as high as the centre of the figure, and in front of it fix two small staples, one near the top, and the other about 2 in. lower, but directly under it. Into these slip the end of the wire attached to the figure, after passing it through the slot in the background. This will keep the figure in its place and allow of its moving up and down.

Prepare the works as for the yacht model, and also insert a pulley (A), as shown in Figs. 10 and 5. This is connected with another pulley (B, Fig. 10), which is fixed to a block by a screw that is countersunk below the face of it, and to which is fastened by a small screw two wires working freely and passing one to the wire from the left-hand figure, and the other to the cross-piece of the wire from the right-hand one, and connected with them by the ends being bent into rings. From the cross wire to the figure to the right is also hung a drop wire with a small weight at the end, to help to pull it down. Fig. 11 will explain the fixing of this gear. A fly must be also fitted to the movement, to check the pace. This can be fixed to the pulley (B) or in front of the escapement wheel. The stopping motion is the same as in Fig. 8, but more slots may be cut in the disc, to regulate the length of time allowed for a penny.

The works you must fix behind the background so that the starting lever comes conveniently for the penny in its fall.

With these three examples of the necessary clockwork you will be able by the exercise of a little ingenuity and the power of contriving to make moving models of any subjects that may suggest themselves to you, such as the following: a steamboat with revolving paddle-wheels, cobbler mending shoes, soldiers marching, etc., etc.

I will now tell you how to make the model shown in Fig. 12, consisting of a water-mill working with real water, a small fountain in the middle, and children playing at see-saw in the background.

This model is worked with water-power only, and has no clockwork. The case you must make larger than in either of the former cases—24 in. high, 14 in. wide, and 14 in. deep; the height of the floor of the model from the bottom of the case 4 in., and the depth of the upper partition 4 in., the intermediate space closed by a glass door 16 in. by 14 in. The case must be made out of ¹⁄₂ in. stuff and well dovetailed together. In the right-hand bottom corner a drawer for the pennies with a slot in front. The back or one of the sides should have a door in it, to get at the machinery, should it at any time require attending to.

You must now make two zinc tanks, the top one air-tight, to occupy the whole of the upper space, the other also air-tight at first, to occupy the space left in the lower partition by the drawer. The top tank will be 13 in. by 13 in. by 3¹⁄₂ in., and will have a small receiver, about 6 in. square by 1 in. deep, soldered to the bottom of it, and communication with it by a small hole, as shown in E, Fig. 13, about a quarter of an inch in diameter, and having also a small pipe passing from it to the outer air through the large tank. This pipe is not shown in the figure, but it is soldered to the top and bottom of the tank and the ends filed off flush. The zinc for the bottom and sides of the tanks can be cut out of one piece, as shown in Fig. 14. The edges of the tops should be turned over, to add strength. The soldering must be made air-tight. The background of the picture is a false back inserted about 2 in. from the true one, behind which the pipes are placed connecting the vessels together, as shown in Fig. 13, which is a back view.

These pipes must be carefully soldered in. A is the air-pipe to supply reservoir F when in use; B is the pumping-pipe, in the middle of which is fixed an india-rubber force-ball, to be procured at any india-rubber shop, in which is a small pin-valve, to prevent the water flowing back. This pipe extends from the bottom of tank G to the top of tank F, leaving a space of about ¹⁄₈ in. between the ends of the pipes and the metal of the tanks. C is a small pipe by which the water from the basin of the fountain is run into G. E is the receiver into which water from F runs, and from which two pipes lead, one to the wheel of the mill, and the other to the fountain. K is a regulating tap, to govern the supply of air and regulate the amount of water passed into E. D is the stopcock connected with the starting lever, which is about 6 in. long and soldered to the handle of the tap. This tap must work easily, and yet be air-tight.

The lever must be counterweighted, to close the tap when the penny has fallen off the scoop at the end of the lever. H is a small pipe fixed in the top of the tank G to allow the air to pass out when the water is running into it through C. The basin of the fountain should be made of zinc, and fastened to the tube C, and the jet is formed of the end of a blow-pipe connected to the tube from E. The rockery you must form of cinders and paint them to a suitable colour. The mill-wheel should be made of zinc and painted, and the water from it conducted to the basin of the fountain. The other pipe from E you must conduct to a position suitable to set the wheel in motion.

The see-saw you must place so that it can be set in motion by the axle of the mill-wheel, which is carried out long enough under the rockery-bank to reach it, and has a cross-piece of wire soldered to it at a point immediately under one of the figures, and which in revolving tips up one end of the board.

This end of the board is made, slightly heavier than the other, which will make it return to be again tipped up. We will now see how the model is worked. Pour water into the basin of the fountain till it is full, and open the starting lever as shown in Fig. 15. The bottom vessel will now be quite full. Now work the force-ball, which will pump the water out of G into F, the air rushing into G through the pipe H. As soon as the upper tank is full the starting lever is to be closed, and the model is ready to begin work. Now as F, Fig. 13, is an air-tight vessel, no water can run from F into E. But as soon as a coin is dropped into the scoop at the end of the lever A, Fig. 15, its weight presses it down and opens the cock D, which allows the air to be drawn into F, and consequently allows water to pass into E, Fig. 13.

The quantity of air allowed to pass is regulated by the extent to which K, Fig. 13, is opened. The water being in E, and this vessel communicating with the atmosphere through the pipe not shown in the Figs., the water falls into the two pipes, and is conducted by one to set the wheel in motion, and by the other to the fountain-jet, through which it issues and again falls into the basin, and thence again into G.

An ingenious and inexpensive timekeeper may be made by any boy for a few pence and a little labour. Buy a sheet of millboard, the thicker the better—size, 27 in. by 22 in.—cut off a strip 10 in. by 27 in., and shape it as shown in Fig. 16, the top part to be 10 in. square, and the lower 17 in. by 4 in. Next mark off the remainder of the millboard into three equal parts of 4 in. each, as shown in Fig. 17, then, with a straightedge and a sharp knife, cut half through the lines AA. This will form the two sides and back of the case. The funnel (B, Fig. 18) should be made of tin, with a square top to fit over the millboard, and have a very small aperture at the point; any tinman will make this for 3d. or 4d. The spindle (C, Fig. 18) must be 3³⁄₄ in. long, 3¹⁄₂ in. deep in front, diminishing to 2 in. at back, have a screw-shaped groove from end to end, and work on a small spindle or axle, projecting 1 in. in front, for the hand to be connected to, and ¹⁄₂ an inch at rear. If the young horologist has not a lathe at his disposal, the spindle can be obtained from a turner for a few pence. The weight may be made of a piece of shaped stone, or of an empty stone ink-bottle, from the neck of which the cord passes over the bar (C), round the grooves of the spindle, and out of the hole (K). A small weight, such as a bullet, must be fastened to the other end. A piece of canvas should be glued round the edges of the case, and the whole painted with a good coating of Brunswick black, over which any design may be made, either with gold lines, grotesque figures, or coloured pictures. The dial should be of white paper, 7 in. in diameter, and the hand cut out of the spare millboard and then gilded. Four small reels (E, Fig. 17), such as are used for silk, should be glued on the back, to keep the case from the wall, and a ring fastened to the top to hang it by.

It is now ready for the motive power, which is obtained by the falling of sand, as in the hour-glass. The sand must be first well washed, dried, and sifted, to remove all stones, then poured through the case top to within two inches of the cross-bar (C, Fig. 18), the weight resting on the surface. As the sand runs through the funnel-point the weight will descend with it at the rate of about 1 in. per hour. The flow of sand will be perfectly equable from the time the case is filled until it is nearly empty, which is explained by the fact that the sand lies in a succession of conical heaps, only the first of which presses on the bottom, the others throwing their weight on the sides of the case. A gallon of sand will be more than sufficient to fill the cases, and as it falls it should be caught in a vase placed beneath for that purpose. In winding up the clock the inside weight must be raised to the cross-bar by pulling down the bullet end of the cord, and the sand poured through a paper funnel into the top of the case, care being taken to set the hand to the right hour. A clock of the dimensions here given will work for about twelve hours, but by lengthening the sand-box the working hours will be increased in proportion. It will save time and trouble to have a double supply of sand and two vases, and use them alternately. Of course one does not pretend that such a simple clock as this will keep accurate time.

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‘What shall we do to amuse the boys?’ was the question asked at a friend’s house. ‘They are tired of Christmas trees, and it is so difficult to think of anything new.’

‘Well,’ I suggested, ‘why not have a Christmas ship?’

A Christmas ship! We never heard of such a thing! What is it?’

And this was the commencement of the planning and building of the vessel in question. To commence was a comparatively easy matter, but before she was finished and ready for her cargo the shipbuilders got rather weary. But you see they had to do everything for the first time, and with little or no previous experience. By attention to the details given in this chapter, those who go in for this Christmas ship will get on faster than we did, profiting by our experience, and not having to retrace their steps and do things over again, which was often the case with us in our first attempt.

When all was finished, the ship, as she appeared in the library, was an extremely pretty sight, her long black hull illumined by the light from the open ports, through which was caught a glimpse of her main deck with its fittings. Around her extended a very realistic sea, ruffled in miniature waves, and far above, towering over the heads of the young people present, were her lofty masts with their complicated rigging. Some of the sails were set, while others were stowed on the yards. Deep down in her hold were most of the presents, while many others were suspended from her yards and rigging, which too were lighted up with small coloured lanterns.

Everything had been kept a profound secret until the library door was thrown open to the guests, and the Christmas ship, glowing with her illuminations and crammed full of presents, stood before them. Such was her capacity, that, although there were some thirty or forty young people ready and eager to plunder her, it was not until they had made three successive raids on the goods and cargo that the hold was declared to be empty, and even then in some of its recesses there still remained a few unappropriated gifts. And now to the details of her construction.

The first operation is to make the frame or stand. This is shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, as well as in the sketch of the ship complete. It is marked H H H H in Fig. 3. The size of the stand will of course entirely depend on the size you intend making the ship, but it should be in about the same proportion to the hull of the vessel as is shown in the diagram (Fig. 2). If the ship is to be 5 ft. long and 3 ft. wide, the stand should be 8 ft. long. You will require two pieces of 11-in. deal plank, ³⁄₄ in. thick, and a short piece about 3 ft. long, which will be used as follows. For the hold of the ship you must get a suitable box, which may be obtained from the grocer. An old currant or biscuit box will do. We used a Florence oil case, which answered very well with the V end turned down and the bottom taken off (see Fig. 6). Fig. 7 shows the manner in which the boards for the stand are arranged round the box. A is the box, B an 11-in. board with a slot about 2 in. deep cut to fit the box. C is a similar board the other side, and D D are two filling pieces placed between the long boards to fill up the space left at either end of the box. A couple of cross pieces may be placed at the dotted lines to secure the frame together. The top of the box is left flush with the upper edge of the stand.

In Fig. 3 the dotted line shows the outline of the box. When the stand is made and put together, the simplest plan to adopt is to take any large packing case which the stand will cover, by about a foot at each end and a few inches at the sides, and nail the stand down on this case. A block of wood must then be put under where the box for the hold comes, of sufficient thickness to keep this box up just flush with the top of the stand, and when the block is nailed down the box can be screwed to it. No fastening will be necessary at the top, as the stand should fit all round it too closely to prevent it working. Care should be taken that there are no nails or splinters inside the box, or when the presents are being taken out some one’s fingers may suffer. It is a good plan to glue some smooth thick wrapping paper over the inside of the box after it is screwed down.

The sides of the ship, which are only the height of the vessel above water, can be made of thick cardboard. Millboard will do, but it cracks easily. The shape of the side having been cut out, a couple of lines must be marked within which the ports are to be cut. The lower edge of the port should be about two inches above the water-line, and the ports themselves two inches high and three wide, the whole height of the vessel’s side out of water amidships being about 6¹⁄₂ inches (this is for a 5 ft. ship), while at the bow it will be an inch or so higher and half an inch at the stern (see Fig. 1). In cutting the ports you will find a sharp chisel the best tool to use, particularly if you are operating on thick millboard. When the ports are cut out the pieces of millboard cut away will do for port lids (see Fig. 10). A is the ship’s side, B the port lid, which is hinged on to the upper port sill by a piece of calico D D, glued on; C is the tricing line for raising or lowering the port. Fig. 9 shows the battens (A A). These are about an inch high and three-quarters thick; they are screwed down on the stand just inside the line the side of the ship will take, and serve to secure the lower part of the ship’s side by glue or screws; or another batten can be run outside the ship’s side—the two battens taking one side of the ship between them, and this is the stronger plan. The deck should be made of a stout piece of deal board, about three-quarter-inch; it must be strong, as it serves to bind the whole fabric together, and the sides are none too strong. This deck is the upper deck, the main deck being formed by that part of the stand inside the vessel’s hull, and the main hatchway being the box. The deck must be placed just at the top of the line of ports (see A A in Fig. 8), so as to leave room between the two decks, and also to leave a bulwark all round the upper deck. The stern may be made of a piece of deal an inch thick, shaped as Fig. 11. Fig. 12 shows the section and the way the edges are bevelled off at A A. The bows can be fastened together by screws or glue, to a wedge-shaped piece of wood put between them (see Fig. 13). C is a triangular block of wood shaped to suit the vessel’s lines, B B the millboard sides, A is a piece of millboard or wood shaped as Fig. 14. The part A A goes between the sides which terminate at the line B B, shown in Fig. 8. The hook B is formed by a piece of wire inserted into the end of the knee of the head, and is used to hang a small figure for a figure-head. Those little plaster angels which have a small wire eye between the wings from which they are generally suspended by elastic, are the most suitable, as the wings fit on either side of the bowsprit, and the figure looks very well.

	Fig. 11.
FIG 10	FIG 12	FIG 13
FIG 14		FIG 15

The most effective part of the affair has now to be described, and that is the way the hold is lighted up. Fig. 2 shows this. A is a common paraffin lamp, with say a three-quarter inch burner (though an inch is better); L is a tin reflector so fitted as to throw the light downward and forward toward the bow; at K is a strong partition to secure the lamp from being upset or damaged while the hold is being pulled about for presents; M M shows the line of the main deck, opening from which is the box P. The rays from this lamp light up the whole length forward of the main deck, and, if the ports are open, send a bright radiance from them through the room.

The upper deck must be fitted with a hatchway of sufficient size just over the box which constitutes the hold, and this hatchway must be so placed that every part of the box can be reached through it even by a small child. The ports may be made to open and shut simultaneously by bringing all the tricing lines into one hauling part, which on being pulled hauls up all the ports at once. This is very effective if the ports fit well, as the room can be darkened, and the ports being suddenly hauled up, the whole interior of the ship is shown brightly illuminated.

The fittings for the lamp on the upper deck have next to be considered. The principal part is the funnel, which can be made of an old canister by cutting it down where soldered together, reducing it to the required diameter and boring holes along the lapping and lacing it together up the side. This is better than soldering, as the heat of the lamp cannot affect the joint. The lower ends of the tube are cut and opened out as at Fig. 4, and a kind of tin washer is cut out (Fig. 5), the inner circle just being large enough to slip over the funnel, but being stopped by the lower ends. The outside circumference of the washer must be large enough to cover these ends. By screwing the washer down on the upper deck, having previously slipped the funnel through it, the funnel is firmly fixed in position, the rake being determined by the way in which the lower ends are cut. To further steady the funnel and make a neat job, a small bridge is cut out of another tin canister or piece of sheet-tin or zinc, as at Fig. 4, B B. This may be made of any suitable width and pierced with a hole in the centre to pass it over the funnel; it is then bent down to the required curve, the ends joining the bulwarks and fitting in the upper deck. A light rail may be fitted, as shown in the elevation, or if the tin is cut as Fig. 4A the side pieces A A can be bent up to form a rail. This bridge may be painted with japan black, which can also be used for those parts of the vessel which require to be painted black.

The partition K (Fig. 2) must be made to remove, working in slides, so that the reservoir of the lamp, by taking off the chimney, can be got out for filling and trimming; the chimney is got off by pushing it up the funnel far enough to clear the lamp.

It will have a good effect if a poop and topgallant forecastle are fitted, as in Fig. 8. C is the poop and D the forecastle. These decks can be made of millboard, and light strips of wood are glued along inside the rail or bulwark, the top of which comes about half an inch short of the top of the rail. The small deck is then placed so as to rest on these strips; it can be fitted with a rail as shown, or not, as the builder decides.

The sea is made of green glazed calico, which must be large enough to cover the stand and hang over all round, touching the floor and concealing the rough stand and its supports. A long slit is made in the centre line of the calico, to pass it over the ship’s hull, and it is then glued along the ship’s sides before they are painted, care being taken that this is carefully done, no rucks or puckers being left. The waves are made by rolls of thin paper introduced here and there, under the calico and glued to the stand, and wherever a wave crest appears the calico is touched up with white paint, and if this is artistically done the effect is very good.

The sides of the ship are now painted black, and if the calico comes far up on the side, it must be painted over and considered as part of the vessel’s side; but along the water-line there should be a certain amount of undulation indicated by the paint, and at the bows and here and there along the side, a little white paint must be put, to show the broken water and foam, while the vessel’s wake should also be indicated by lines of foam diverging at an angle from the course of the ship. Copper may be shown by a copper-red just at the bow and stern along the water, but all black will do very well. The streak containing the ports should be painted white, the outside of the ports black, and the inside red.

The rigging will now have attention. The masts may be made in only two pieces; the topmasts, topgallant masts, and royals being all in one. The lower masts should be rather stout, and can be made of common deal; they must be firmly stepped in blocks secured below for their reception, and the mainmast must be so placed as not to unduly interfere with the hold being got at. The rigging and spars and sails of a ship are given in full with diagrams in other articles in this volume, and need not be repeated here.

The character of the rigging and the number of sails set must depend on the ideas of the builder. The ship may be made at anchor, to save trouble, with all her sails stowed, and a good effect can be easily produced by furling the sails, as is the case with the lower yards in the first illustration. Any rough piece of canvas the proper size will do for this. The ends are made fast to the yardarms, the corners are then folded behind (away from the bows) to the middle of the sail, in order to make a bunt, and the sail rolled up and secured to the yard by lashings of thread or string.

To look well, the sail when stowed should be much larger in the roll at the middle and diminish off to nothing at the ends.

Those stays which it is intended to suspend lamps from should be of wire, and the topgallant yards, if used for a similar purpose, should also be of wire, and if the yardarms are used for this purpose short pieces of thick wire should be lashed to them.

When all is ready, to allow of free access to the hold without damaging the sails or rigging, it is best to brace the head yards sharp up and the main yards aback. This is shown in Fig. 15. By doing this a sufficient space is left on one side of the ship. A A is the fore-and-aft line of the vessel, B the fore yard, C main yard, showing the space B C. D is the mizen trimmed in the same way as the fore yard. The ship would then be ‘hove-to,’ which is an almost stationary position adopted when speaking another vessel or waiting for a boat, etc.—in this case for her Christmas visitors.

I do not think any explanation will be necessary as to the presents. The smaller ones, whatever they are, can be just mixed up together in the hold, and if there are any of a superior character, they can be very well fixed in various places in the rigging.

The Christmas ship in which I had a hand was well found in boats, anchors, cannon, etc., all of which were distributed among the boys of the party. In conclusion, I can only hope that, should you decide to build such a vessel, it may prove a source of amusement to yourselves and gratification to your friends, and no doubt very many will be only too anxious to learn when the good ship Santa Claus is likely to arrive.

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This chapter is intended to fully describe the constructive details of miniature steam-engines. It is proposed to first give an idea of the general principles which govern steam-engines, and to explain the various characteristics and methods of constructing different types of engines. The boiler and its several fittings and attachments will be duly described, and then minute directions given for constructing engines with oscillating and slide-valve cylinders. Illustrations of both vertical and horizontal engines will be given, and also sketches in all cases where they will serve to explain more fully the meaning of the text.

This is a brief outline of the scope of the present chapter. Those readers who have acquired only slight manual dexterity in the use of tools will find little difficulty in making the engines illustrated, if the instructions given are carefully followed. In each case the minute details of the various processes incidental to our engineering work will be carefully described, so that those unacquainted with the mechanical arts will be able to comprehend the method of procedure.

Model engines, in every stage of manufacture, from the rough castings direct from the foundry to the complete, highly-finished working model, may now be purchased in nearly every town of importance throughout Great Britain. Though this trade is of but recent growth, its continual extension proves that model engines are objects of interest to a large number of the rising generation, and hence it is felt that information as to their manufacture will prove acceptable to very many readers.

It will be advisable to gain an insight into the principles which govern the action of a steam-engine, and to learn some of the technical peculiarities, before proceeding to attempt its manufacture. There are numerous text-books on the steam-engine, which may be studied with advantage, and which show the theoretical principles.

The modern engine, which now claims our attention, is the result of numerous successive improvements. The application of steam as a motive power was probably originally made by Hero, who, 150 B.C., constructed, or at least described, an Æolipile. This was a hollow sphere with hollow bent arms attached; when water placed inside the sphere was heated, and steam generated, it issued from the arms, and reacting on the air caused the sphere to rotate. A model of this, the primogenitor of the modern steam-engine, can be bought at many opticians’ shops for about one shilling.

The commencement of the eighteenth century began the first steps towards the development of the modern form of engine. Savery and Newcomen made improvements, which were perfected by James Watt, who was born at Glasgow in 1737. Amongst other valuable improvements he first contrived to convert the reciprocating motion into a rotary one by means of the crank. In the year 1800 Watt retired from business, leaving the steam-engine in much the same condition as we find it now. The application of steam-power for locomotion on both land and water followed, and now stationary, locomotive, and marine engines, driven by steam, are distributed all over the civilised world.

The varieties of model engines are in many cases indicated by their names. Stationary engines are intended to be fixed, as those used for driving machinery. Locomotives are those which are intended to travel by steam, and are self-moving. Marine engines are those used to propel ships. Of these three classes we shall deal only with the first and third in the present chapter. Locomotives are much more complicated in their construction, and consequently are more difficult to make.

Horizontal engines are those having the cylinder lying with its axis in a horizontal position. Vertical engines have the cylinder upright; sometimes they are designated by the latter adjective. Beam engines have an oscillating beam; one end is connected to the piston and the other to a rod which drives the crank. Cylinders are single-acting when the steam is admitted only at one end, and consequently with these the crank is only propelled during half of its rotation. Double-acting cylinders are provided with valves which admit the steam at each end of the cylinder alternately. Oscillating cylinders are fitted to oscillate with the motion of the crank, and the steam-valves are usually contrived to act by this oscillating motion. Slide-valve cylinders have a sliding valve, worked by a rod connected to an eccentric on the crank shaft, which opens the steam ports to alternately admit live steam and exhaust at both ends of the cylinder. Slide-valve cylinders are invariably double-acting.

Boilers, which are the vessels in which water is converted into steam, are usually described by their shape and position. They may be cylindrical, spherical, etc., and horizontal or vertical. The construction also forms a distinguishing characteristic. Tubes are usually inserted in the boiler to convey the heat from the fire. These tubes—which are more properly called flues, especially in large boilers—vary in number from one of large gauge to scores of small ones, thus naming the respective boilers single-flue or multiflue. It may be advisable to mention here that tubular boilers are those in which the water circulates in the tubes, and the fire impinges on the outer surface. When the fire operates inside the tube it is called a flue. A tube carries water; a flue carries flame and the volatile products of combustion.

Boilers, or steam generators, that are used to contain the water which, when converted into steam, drives the engine, require to be sufficiently strong to withstand an internal or bursting pressure. This pressure is very great in high-pressure engines, but in models it is generally very low, and seldom exceeds twenty pounds to the square inch. The evaporating capacity of the boiler is according to the requirements of the engine it has to supply. The resistance of the piston to the steam shows the pressure at which it should be supplied. Boilers are generally tested, by means of a hydraulic pump, to stand a pressure at least double that at which it is intended to use them. It is unsafe to generate steam in any vessel that has not been properly tested. This fact cannot be too strongly impressed upon the mind of the reader.

Suppose a double-action cylinder, 1-inch bore and 2-inch stroke, is to make one hundred revolutions of the crank per minute, let us see how much steam will be wanted to drive it. The area of the piston is ·785 inch, and each revolution of the crank will require the cylinder to be filled twice—that is, one stroke in each direction. This will take a column of steam ·785 inch in diameter and 4 inches long for each revolution, or 314 cubic inches of steam per minute. If the speed is greater, the quantity of steam must be increased proportionately; and when running at the rate of one thousand revolutions per minute—a speed often attained—3,140 cubic inches of steam will be wanted to supply the cylinder. That is at the rate of about 100 cubic feet per hour.

The pressure of the steam has not yet been taken into account, but it obviously forms a most important factor in the calculation. Water in an open vessel boils at a temperature of 212° Fahr. Provided that the vessel allows the steam to escape freely, all the heat that can be applied will only generate steam at the same pressure, though it will escape faster. As the bubbles of steam ascend to the surface they escape, having only the pressure of the atmosphere to overcome. When water is confined in a closed vessel, like the boiler of a steam-engine, the temperature may be raised to considerably above the usual boiling-point. The heat is always proportionate to the pressure, and steam at a pressure of 120 lb. per square inch is equivalent to the heat represented by 345° Fahr.

A correct knowledge of the fact that pressure depends on temperature cannot be urged too strongly on the mind of the model engineer. In many model boilers it is quite impossible to raise the heat sufficiently to produce an adequate pressure. Boiling water at 212° Fahr. does not produce any available pressure of steam, it merely counterbalances the weight of the atmosphere, which is 15 lb. to the square inch. By increasing the heat, which can only be done in a closed vessel, available pressure is obtained. Thus 228° = 5 lb., 241° = 10 lb., 251° = 15 lb., and so on. The steam, and the water from which it is generated, and with which it remains in contact, have both the same temperature.

A cubic foot of water weighs 62·5 lb., and it will produce 882 cubic feet of steam, at a pressure of 15 lb. to the square inch above the normal atmospheric pressure; this is equal to a temperature of 251° Fahr. If the pressure is raised to 150 lb., which requires a temperature of 371°, only 187 cubic feet of steam will be produced. Steam is elastic, and hence the more it is compressed the greater will be its force. If one cubic inch of steam, at a pressure of 30 lb., is admitted into a cylinder, and the supply cut off when half filled, the steam will expand till it has filled the cavity, and in increasing its bulk twofold its force will diminish in inverse ratio. The pressure will therefore diminish to 15 lb. to the square inch. The expansive force of steam is always at work on the piston of the engine, and it varies in accordance with the arrangement of the valves.

Let us now trace the effect of the steam when admitted to the cylinder. When the governor valve is opened the steam flows along the pipe to the slide valve chest, and if one of the ports are open it reaches the cylinder. In traversing the pipes which conduct it to the cylinder the steam is cooled considerably and its force diminished. In course of time the parts become heated to a certain extent, and then the loss of power is less. When the steam enters the cylinder it at once exerts a certain force on the piston. This has the effect of turning the crank shaft, and in due course the slide valve closes the steam inlet. Now the steam within the cylinder acts expansively, and continues to drive the crank shaft to the end of the stroke. Then the exhaust port is opened, and allows the spent or dead steam to escape. At the same time the inlet at the other end is opened and the live steam rushes in and exerts its full pressure on the piston, causing it to travel in the opposite direction. The opening and shutting of the steam ports is effected by an eccentric on the crank shaft. In treating of the construction of these parts, the relative sizes will be given and the correct motion explained.

The most simple form of toy engine is that illustrated herewith. It consists of a tin boiler, a single-action oscillating cylinder, and a fly-wheel. These parts are sold ready for putting together at a very low price, and a complete engine may be bought for a couple of shillings, though one of ‘superior make’ at twice that sum is by far a preferable investment.

The drawing represents the most simple way of constructing a steam-engine, and, if the workmanship is fairly good, a working model will be produced. First is the boiler; a tin box 1³⁄₄ in. deep and 2 in. in diameter, will serve for this. The joint at the side should be made by folding the edges of metal over each other, and then soldering. The top and bottom are both soldered on their respective places, steam-tight, of course. The top of the boiler must be provided with small bosses of metal, soldered on the inner side, into which the pillar (Fig. 3) and the safety-valve (Fig. 5) are screwed.

The tin plate is not sufficiently thick to afford a hold for the thread on the pillar and valve. A disc of brass, say the size of a sixpence, and ¹⁄₈ in. thick, is soldered on the under side of the lid, and the holes, which are tapped to receive the pillar and valve, are bored and threaded before the lid is fixed. By this means a strong hold is secured for the fittings. The screw plug A (Fig. 1) is similarly provided for. When each piece is screwed into its place a little hemp or cotton, placed between the shoulder of the ‘fitting’ and the surface of the tin plate, will assist to ensure a steam-tight joint.

The standard or pillar is brass, about 2 in. long from end to end. Any form may be given to it, according to fancy, the one shown in Fig. 2 being perhaps as good as any. The lower part is circular, ¹⁄₂ in. in diameter, and it has a flat face on one side, against which the valve face of the cylinder works. Fig. 3 shows this. The centre of the pillar is bored up in the middle of the screwed part to meet one of the holes a b, it is immaterial which. The other hole is bored right through the pillar to the opposite side, and forms the exhaust port, the one communicating with the central hole in the pillar being the steam port. For the sake of distinction we will suppose that a is bored into the central hole, and b is bored through the pillar; then, when the pillar is screwed on to the boiler, and steam is generated, it issues from the port hole a.

The upper end of the pillar is bored through at right angles to the flat at the bottom (see Fig. 2). Through the top a piece of brass tubing about ⁵⁄₈ in. long is fixed, generally by soldering; this is the bearing for the crank-shaft. The crank-shaft itself is a piece of steel wire bent to the form required. The fly-wheel is fixed to one end, and prevents the shaft coming out of the bearing, the bend of the arm serving the same purpose at the other end.

The cylinder itself is shown at Fig. 3, and also in Figs. 1 and 2. The piston, piston-rod, and bearing which fits the crank-pin are shown in Fig. 4. It will be evident that the dimensions of this engine are microscopic. The bore of the cylinder is ⁵⁄₁₆ in., and the barrel itself is often made of triblet-drawn brass tube. The enlarged part at the bottom is a casting with a flat face, as shown in Fig. 3, on one side. Some makers use a casting for the entire cylinder, but the tube is perhaps the cheaper method of making. A piece of good tube is sufficiently accurate in the bore for use as bought, so that the trouble of boring the cylinder is dispensed with. The base, for the tube to fit in, is bored to the external diameter, and the tube fixed with solder. The lid or cover is fixed only by being snapped on. Its object is only to guide the piston-rod.

A reference to Fig. 3 will show the working of the oscillating valve. The face of the pillar is shown on the right. On this, a is the hole from which the live steam issues, and b is the exhaust hole. These holes are technically called ports. The hole c is bored through the pillar, and takes the trunnion, or pin on which the cylinder oscillates. Fig. 2 shows this trunnion-pin prolonged and having a nut on the end. A spiral spring around the trunnion, between the nut and the pillar, keeps the valve face in close contact with the pillar face. Again, turning to Fig. 3, the holes in the cylinder on the left are:—c, into which the trunnion is screwed; and d, the steam-way.

When the cylinder is in the position shown in Figs. 1 and 2, the port-hole d (Fig. 3) is over the solid metal between the holes a and b. On turning the fly-wheel the crank draws the piston out very slightly and inclines the cylinder sideways, bringing the port d over a. The live steam from the boiler at once enters and forces the piston upwards, and on the crank reaching the highest point the cylinder is again vertical and the hole d is mid-way between a and b. The momentum of the fly-wheel carrying the crank round brings the hole d opposite b, and allows the steam to escape. There is no force to keep the engine going during this part of the time except the momentum of the fly-wheel. When the cylinder again inclines to the opposite side d comes over a, and force is again applied under the piston. This will keep the engine going.

The single-action oscillating cylinder, being supplied with steam at one end only, exerts power only during half the revolution of the crank. The return stroke is dependent entirely on the momentum of the fly-wheel, which also has to drive the steam out of the cylinder. Steam only acts in the lower part of the cylinder, and as there is no power tending to force off the cover, it may be simply snapped on like the lid of a pill-box. The piston, Fig. 4, has for its head a disc of brass, with a V-shaped groove in its edge. This is packed with hemp or lamp cotton, to make it fit the cylinder steam tight. The rod is a steel wire about ¹⁄₁₆ in. diameter; it is fixed in the piston by riveting, to save the trouble of screwing. The end of the rod has a small piece of brass fixed on to it which fits on the crank-pin.

The crank itself is all of one piece; a straight length forms the shaft; it is bent at right angles to form the throw, and a piece bent from this, parallel to the shaft, forms the pin. This is the most simple way of making a crank, and when large quantities are made the wire is bent upon a template. A better type of crank is made by using a steel rod for the shaft, a brass arm riveted on to it, and a steel pin riveted into that. In the portion of this chapter devoted to the horizontal engine will be found a more complete description of such a crank.

The safety-valve, Fig. 5, is very important as a safeguard in working. Though they are sometimes omitted, yet safety-valves are essential for security. They allow steam to escape from the boiler when the pressure exceeds a certain amount, and thus the danger of an explosion is removed. The valve illustrated in section has a spiral spring to keep the valve itself on its seat. This is effective when the power of the spring has been definitely gauged, but when the valves are put together haphazard no dependence can be placed on the pressure at which the valve will blow off.

The body of the valve is A, shown in section. B is the valve itself, fitted to a rod, D; it rests on the conical seat of A, and is pressed down by the spiral spring within the barrel of A. The body is screwed into the boiler by the thread at the bottom, and the steam coming up the hole C presses on the under side of the valve B. When the pressure of the steam is sufficient to overcome the pressure of the spiral spring the valve is lifted and the steam escapes through the holes F F. The cover E is screwed on the body part and confines the spring; it has a hole through its centre to allow the valve-rod D to pass. Especial attention should always be given to the safety-valve when heat is to be applied to a boiler. See that the valve is not fixed to its seat or in any way confined, or an explosion may follow the want of care.

The engine shown by the illustrations is usually mounted on a three-legged stand, which raises it about two or three inches. A wire stand may be made according to fancy, or perhaps some contrivance may be improvised to support the boiler at a convenient height for applying the heat under it.

A small lamp burning methylated spirits—that is, spirits of wine—will supply the requisite heat. It should have a clean and dry wick of lamp cotton; the size of the flame may be regulated, to an extent, by the amount of wick which is drawn out. The lamp must not be quite filled with spirit—about two-thirds full will be ample—and thus the spirit will not be liable to overflow.

When charging the boiler it is best to use boiling water from a kettle. This will save the time which would be lost in heating cold water with the spirit lamp. The water is poured in through the water-plug hole, A, Fig. 1. The boiler must only be filled to a little over half way. The plug is screwed in again and the lamp put under; steam will be generated in due course, and if the fly-wheel is turned in the right direction by hand for a few turns the engine will presently work of its own accord.

It is scarcely necessary to say that the engine above described is of the most simple kind, and every unnecessary detail is omitted. I will now proceed to describe engines of a more elaborate character.

Small model engines are composed mainly of brass castings and of steel which requires no special forging for the purpose. The screws or bolts used to unite the parts are usually purchased in a finished state. Makers of these employ machinery which acts almost automatically, and the screws are sold at a very cheap rate. Larger models require special forgings for the crank shaft, and the castings employed are of iron, which is considerably cheaper than brass.

The castings are made from patterns which are counterparts of the object required. These are imbedded in sand, and leave a matrix, into which molten metal is poured, producing, on solidifying, a facsimile of the pattern. The operation is always carried out in a foundry, where the necessary furnaces and moulding appliances are at hand. The founders charge for the rough castings by weight, and they cost merely a trifle over the value of the metal. It is, however, necessary to supply the requisite patterns before a founder can proceed to do his part of the work.

All vendors of castings have patterns from which their castings are moulded, and of course they charge, in addition to a profit on the cost of the metal, something for the use of the patterns. The patterns for a founder’s use require certain modifications, which it is unnecessary to explain in detail. Some are made in two or more parts, with pins to hold them together. Some have projections affixed to them; these make prints in the mould to receive cores, which form holes in the casting. Those patterns which enter deeply into the moulding sand are made tapering, to draw out easily. In all cases they must be made sufficiently large to allow for shrinkage in the metal. Ordinary iron castings shrink about one-eighth of an inch to the foot; brass about half as much again. Pattern-makers use a ‘contraction-rule’ to work by; this is made longer than the standard measurement, and patterns made according to it are the correct size to allow for shrinkage.

From what has just been said it will be readily understood that vendors of castings charge various prices for their goods. Nor in every case is the quality in accordance with the price, and it is difficult to give the exact prices that should be paid for good castings. Speaking generally, the price is regulated by the weight, and the rate per pound is decided by the seller. In the catalogues issued by various firms will be found the prices charged. As an example of the difference, I notice that a certain size of bolts made by one firm are retailed by shopkeepers at rates varying from 33 to 200 per cent. profit; the same rule probably holds good in all other items.

Those readers who are not possessed of a lathe will not have the means of finishing the cylinders and some other parts which have to be turned. These can, however, be bought in various stages of completion, and the beginner who has only a screwdriver may now purchase the component parts, and, having screwed his engine together, he may claim some merit for his share in the erecting department.

Sets of castings quite finished and ready to be screwed together are now sold. These are generally of the cheaper class, and, tacked on cards, may be seen in the windows of opticians. The prices for the complete engine, with boiler, lamp, and all other parts, range from about five shillings upwards. A few words on the better type of partially finished parts.

These castings are more expensive than those quite rough, but they afford an opportunity of displaying considerable skill and judgment in completing them.

Boring the cylinders is the operation most likely to baffle the tyro. This is done by vendors of castings for about two shillings and sixpence for cylinders 1-in. bore. This charge includes turning the flanges ready to receive the covers, and also boring the steam-ways and cutting the port-holes. When all this has been done it will be necessary to use a lathe to turn the covers for the cylinder, and also for making the piston. The cylinder may be purchased complete with the covers screwed on and the slide-valve fitted. One an inch in the bore costs half a guinea. Every piece of an engine may be bought separately in a finished state, so that they only require putting together, and when the young engineer has not the requisite tools for doing the work his best plan will be to purchase the finished parts.

A glance at an engine will show that nearly every part of it has been fashioned on a lathe. This tool is indispensable for all kinds of engineering work, but as it is somewhat costly it frequently occurs that tyros are compelled to forego its ownership and get the necessary turning executed by a professional latheman. Those readers who are happily possessed of the king of tools—or the father of mechanism, as the lathe has been aptly dubbed—will have the advantage of being able themselves to execute the work throughout.

A few particulars of the different kinds of engines which a beginner may make, will assist him in deciding as to the form and size best suited to his requirements. An idea of the general forms and peculiarities of engines may be gleaned from what has been already said. It is a matter entirely at the choice of the maker whether he will build a vertical or a horizontal engine—whether it shall have oscillating or slide-valve cylinders, and whether it shall be of microscopic dimensions or a powerful model. All these points are for the consideration of the constructor, and some hints will be of service to, and assist him in arriving at a useful result—that is, the production of a working model.

The dimensions of the cylinder to an extent indicates the power; the pressure of steam must also be considered. The friction in models is very great in proportion to their size, and hence the very small ones are often barely able to generate sufficient power to keep them going. The bore of the cylinder governs the area of the piston, and this multiplied by the pressure of steam and the length of stroke gives the power of the engine.

Let us compare the power of two small cylinders, one half-inch in bore and one-inch in stroke, the other one-inch bore and two-inch stroke. We will suppose the pressure of steam to be the same in both cases, viz., ten pounds to the square inch. Speaking off-hand, many tyros would be apt to say that one cylinder was twice the size of the other, and, as a natural deduction, twice the power. Comparison will at once show the fallacy of the idea.

The area of the half-inch cylinder is nearly two-tenths of a square inch, that of the other nearly eight-tenths. Thus we see that the larger one has four times the area; also the length of stroke is twice as much. According to the rule given above we find the power thus: ²⁄₁₀ × 10 × 1 = 2, and ⁸⁄₁₀ × 10 × 2 = 16. So that the power of the larger cylinder is precisely eight times that of the small one. In every case it is necessary to allow a certain percentage of the power to overcome friction. The smaller the engine the greater will be the percentage lost in friction. These simple facts will at once show that size is a most important consideration. If the friction in the small engine was two pounds, the power would not drive it, whereas if it were that much in the large one, there would still be fourteen pounds of available power.

A cylinder 1³⁄₈-inch bore and the same length of stroke, viz., 2 inches, would give exactly double the power of the 1-inch bore cylinder just mentioned. If the bore was increased to 2 inches, the power would be exactly four times that of the 1-inch bore, the length of stroke and pressure of steam remaining the same.

The velocity of the piston also forms a factor in calculating the power, which is increased in the same proportion as the velocity. It will be readily understood that when the pressure of the steam is constant, the speed of the engine will depend on the amount of work it has to do. It must also be remembered that the pressure of steam against the piston is by no means necessarily the same as it is in the boiler. In passing from the boiler to the cylinder the steam pressure is always reduced, and the greater the distance, and more exposed or tortuous the steam-pipe, the greater will be the loss of pressure.

Every one knows that the power of steam-engines is given in ‘horse-power.’ This was a term originated by James Watt, and it is now universally adopted. The mechanical equivalent is a lifting power that will raise 33,000 pounds 1 foot high in one minute. On this estimate the power of an engine is calculated. The rule is this: Multiply the pressure on the piston by velocity per minute and divide by 33,000. The velocity of the piston is twice the length of stroke in feet multiplied by the number of revolutions per minute.

Let us calculate the horse-power of the 1 × 2 inch cylinder, already dealt with at a pressure of 10 pounds, the speed being 100 revolutions per minute. By the previous calculation we found that the pressure was 16 pounds. The velocity is ⁴⁄₁₂ × 100 = 33¹⁄₃ (feet). Multiply these together, 16 × 33¹⁄₃ = 533¹⁄₃, and divide ⁵³³⁄₃₃₀₀₀ = ·016. That is, the engine is ¹⁶⁄₁₀₀₀ of a horse-power, or capable of raising 528 pounds 1 foot high in one minute. That is supposing all the power was available for duty. In large engines about 20 per cent. is allowed for friction, and in the model we must allow at least 50 per cent. This at once reduces the calculated power to half.

The power of an engine is the nominal, and the duty is the actual work that it will perform. When the horse-power of an engine is spoken of it must be taken in a qualified sense. By urging the furnace greater effect may be obtained, and by keeping the furnace low an effect less than the nominal power is produced. Duty is the term used to represent the amount of work absolutely done; it disregards the size of the engine, and simply inquires how much work is done by a given expenditure of fuel. True economy in working will add to the duty of an engine, whilst woful waste in no way affects the power.

In order to supply the requisite quantity of steam, boilers should evaporate at the rate of one cubic foot of water per hour per horse-power; that will produce 1700 cubic feet of free steam. The capacity of a boiler should be four or five times as much as the water it boils off per hour, and the steam space should be at least ten times as large as the consumption of steam at each stroke. The heating surface should be from fifteen to twenty square feet per horse-power. Many circumstances tend to modify these rules, but they maybe taken as fairly reliable.

Engines of the horizontal type are usually employed to furnish the power required to drive fixed machinery in factories. The construction is simple, and the form is adapted for fixing readily anywhere where a tolerably level foundation is to be found.

The several illustrations given herewith are drawn to scale, and they will show at a glance constructive details which could not well be explained in letterpress. Fig. 1 shows a plan view, and Fig. 2 an elevation of the complete engine. In both drawings the lettering is the same. The bed-plate A A is the foundation on which the parts of the engine are fixed. A piece of sheet brass is used for small models, but larger ones have cast-iron foundations. Cylinders 1¹⁄₂ inches in the bore and upwards are usually mounted on iron bed-plates, the saving in cost of metal being considerable when the castings are so large. Cast bed-plates have a moulded edge, which adds both to their strength and appearance. Sheet metal has to be mounted on columns sufficiently high to raise the fly-wheel above the ground-level.

The cylinder is shown in Figs. 1 and 2 at B; at C (in Fig. 1 only) is the steam-chest containing the slide-valve. D is the fly-wheel fixed on the shaft E, which has at its opposite end the crank F. The piston-rod is shown passing through a guide G fixed to the bed by two screws. The connecting-rod from the piston to the crank-pin is marked H. The eccentric is shown at I, and the rod from it to the steam-chest is the eccentric-rod. J J, Fig. 2 only, show two screws which fix the cylinder to the bed-plate. These references are sufficient to enable the inexperienced reader to identify the principal parts of the engine. By carefully studying the drawings the whole combination of the machine will be understood.

Each of the chief component parts which possess any intricacy of detail are shown on a much larger scale. The description of each one may be taken as generally applicable to engines of the type shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The dimensions are suited to the size known as ‘³⁄₄-inch bore and 1¹⁄₂-inch stroke.’ These measurements refer to the cylinder. It will not be difficult to modify any of the minor details to suit another size, whether it be larger or smaller.

A section of the cylinder is shown in Fig. 3; the piston and its rod are absent, to prevent confusion of the parts. The cylinder with the covers on is 2 inches long and 1³⁄₈ inches diameter across the flanges. The bore is ³⁄₄ inch and 1⁵⁄₈ inches (full) long. The face of the cylinder where the valve works is level with the diameter of the flanges. This face is shown at Fig. 4, where the size and position of each porthole may be seen. The rectangle represents the steam-chest itself, and the four small circles are the screw-holes in the valve-face for attaching the steam-chest.

Returning to Fig. 3, the steam-ways are shown at A A. These are drilled from the ends to meet the inlet ports B and C, which are closed by the slide-valve (see Fig. 5). The exhaust way is at D, and the port-hole communicating with it needs no special mention. The steam inlet is E; the threaded exterior is for attaching the steam-pipe from the boiler. The glands and stuffing-boxes, for keeping the piston and valve-rod steam-tight, are shown in section. G G are the glands screwed into the castings; the parts bored out to receive the packings are marked H H. It will not be necessary to make special reference to the body of the cylinder, the covers, &c., as the reader will have become acquainted with these in the previous chapters.

By reference to Fig. 3 the passage of the steam may be traced. It enters at E, filling the steam chest, and as the valve is shown it could find no outlet. The valve on being moved would uncover one port, say B, and allow the steam to enter by the steam-way A, through the slot filed in the edge. When in the cylinder it would force the piston towards the bottom, the action of the eccentric meanwhile pushing the valve along and further opening B. When the piston had made half its stroke the valve would commence to close again, and by the time the end was reached the valve would be again in the position shown. The momentum of the fly-wheel would carry round the eccentric, and with it the valve would move so as to open the way from B to D, thus allowing the steam in the cylinder to escape. The port-hole C would also be opened to the live steam, which would then exert its pressure on the lower side of the piston. By the motion of the valve the steam is let into B and C alternately, and thus the reciprocating motion of the piston is maintained.

The slide-valve is shown at Fig. 5, where A is a view of the face. The centre is hollowed out, as shown at B of the section, to allow the steam to pass into the exhaust. The back is shown at C; the saw-cut receives the valve-rod, which is thinned down to fit it. The face of the valve, that is, all the outer part of A, is made perfectly flat, to fit steam-tight on the valve face of the cylinder. Contact is ensured by the pressure of the live steam in the steam-chest; this is always more than that of the exhaust.

The crank-shaft, marked E in Fig. 1, is shown alone full size at Fig. 6. This is a rod of round steel ¹⁄₄ inch in diameter, the total length is 3¹⁄₈ inches. At the right-hand end it is reduced in size a length of ⁷⁄₈ inch, to receive the fly-wheel and the driving pulley. These are generally screwed on to a thread cut on the shaft, but wedging is a more workmanlike way of securing driving wheels and pulleys. The two journals are to rest in the bearings shown at Fig. 7; the neck at the left-hand end is to receive the crank-arm. The collars on the shaft outside of each journal are of the widths shown. One of the bearings for the crank-shaft is shown at Fig. 7. A is a side view, B an edge view, and C a view from the top; in this the dotted lines represent the screw-heads. These bearings are usually brass castings; they are fixed on the bed-plate by two screws each, and the cap is also held on by two other screws. Various designs may be obtained, but the one illustrated is as good as any. The thickness of the bearing is nearly ¹⁄₄ inch. The height must be precisely that which will bring the centre of the crank-shaft level with the centre of the piston-rod.

Fig. 8 is the crank-arm, giving an end and side view. It should be made of steel and fixed on the shaft by keying, though more often it is screwed on. The thickness is shown about ³⁄₁₆; the shape may be according to fancy. The hole at the bottom is for the crank-pin, which is riveted in. The ‘throw’ of the crank is an important point, and it must never be so much that the piston touches the ends of the cylinder. In the present case the ‘throw,’ that is, the distance from the centre of the crank-shaft to the centre of the crank-pin, is ⁵⁄₈ inch. This gives 1¹⁄₄-inch stroke; there is plenty of space in the cylinder for another ³⁄₁₆ inch, and possibly the nominal stroke, 1¹⁄₂ inches, could be managed by using a thin piston-head. The crank-pin is shown at the top of Fig. 10.

The guide-block, Fig. 9, serves to guide the piston-rod, and steadies it against the influence of the crank. The shape is shown by the illustrations. The hole for the piston-rod is bored on a level with the axis of the cylinder and the centre of the crank-shaft. The block is secured to the bed-plate by two screws, holes for which are shown in the top view.

Fig. 10 shows the crank-pin and three views of the head of the connecting-rod. The crank-pin is steel, ³⁄₁₆ inch diameter, turned down to ¹⁄₈ inch at the journal and at the neck, which is riveted into the arm (Fig. 8). The head of the rod is fitted with a cap, held by two screws, so that it may be placed over the crank-pin into the groove. The other end of the rod, which is forked, is shown at Fig. 11. Here a section and elevation are given; the round piece, called the cross-head, which receives the two screws (see section), is bored to fit the piston-rod, and it is clamped to this by the points of the screws shown. The sides of the fork are bored to fit freely over the threads of the screws, so that it may oscillate with the motion of the crank. The position of the cross-head on the piston is determined when the engine is together; it is placed so that the piston slides midway between the ends of the cylinder.

Fig. 12 shows the eccentric and the eccentric strap. The first is a piece of brass; the large circle has a groove turned in it to receive the strap, and the boss is eccentric, as shown in the left-hand figure. The amount of eccentricity is ¹⁄₁₆ inch, which gives a travel of ¹⁄₈ inch to the slide-valve. These eccentrics are turned on a mandrel having double centres, one pair serving when turning the boss, and the other when turning the eccentric itself. A set-screw tapped through the boss serves to secure it on the crank-shaft.

The strap on the right of Fig. 12 is cast in the form shown, the centre is bored to fit the groove in the eccentric, and the strap then cut in halves through the lugs. These lugs serve to take screws, which hold the strap together. The projecting piece on the right is to receive the eccentric rod, which is screwed into the strap at this point.

This completes the description of the various parts of a model horizontal engine. A glance at Figs. 1 and 2 will show the relative position of each.

Herewith are drawings of an engine with an oscillating cylinder. This form of construction economises space and weight; it is also more simple than slide-valve cylinders. In all oscillating engines the cylinder is mounted on trunnions or gudgeons, so that it may swing to and fro through a small arc, and allow the piston-rod to follow the motion of the crank. No connecting-rod is required in this engine, the piston-rod being attached direct to the crank-pin.

The illustration shows an engine specially adapted for propelling a model boat. The entire machine is kept low down, which is generally necessary for small boats. The fly-wheel is shown much heavier than are those attached to toyshop engines, but it is not unnecessarily large. Experiments show that a weighty fly-wheel is required on an engine which has the constant drag of a screw propeller to overcome. This fact is ignored by some makers of engines, and I have known cases where a useless engine has been made effective by the substitution of a much heavier fly-wheel. (See page 132.)

The framework on which the cylinder is mounted, and which also generally serves to carry the bearings for the driving shaft, may be of almost any design. There is no set pattern for this purpose, and it rests with the designer to fashion his pattern according to fancy. The form shown possesses the essential characteristics. It is strong, yet light; there is a good base by which to secure the engine to the hull of the boat. Suitable provisions are made for the bearings of the crank-shaft, also for the valve-face and the cylinder trunnion. So long as these are provided for, the mere contour is of little importance.

Fig. 1 gives a side elevation, and Fig. 2 an end view of the same engine. The cylinder is 1 in. bore and 1 in. stroke. The length without covers is 1¹⁄₂ in., that allows ¹⁄₄ in. for thickness of piston, ¹⁄₁₆ in. for each of the projections of the two covers, and the same distance left vacant at each end. The diameter of the cylinder across the flanges is 1¹⁄₂ in., and a semicircular rib is shown in the middle. Each cover is held on by six hexagon-headed bolts, placed equidistant round it, tapped into the flange. These bolts are not shown in the lower cover.

The piston-rod is shown out from the cylinder to its fullest extent. The rod is of round steel ¹⁄₈ in. diameter. The crank-pin head is of brass screwed on to the end of the rod. Though shown as a solid piece, it would be better if this head was cut across horizontally at the diameter of the crank-pin, and the cap secured by two screws. The crank-pin is marked E. It is steel riveted into the disc which forms the crank. A crank-arm would do equally well, and the disc is shown simply as illustrating a different plan. The disc F is fixed on the crank-shaft either by screwing, by a transverse pin, or by a key.

The crank-shaft is ¹⁄₄ in. steel, and should be turned smooth and parallel to fit the hole in the standard. This hole should also be smooth and parallel, which it will be if properly bored with a suitable tool. A long bearing has no more friction than a short one, though a contrary opinion seems to be prevalent. A small hole for supplying the oil necessary for lubrication should be made near the middle of this bearing. The same remarks apply to the bearing H through which the trunnion passes.

The fly-wheel is marked A in Fig. 1; it is cast-iron, 2¹⁄₂ inches in diameter and ³⁄₄ in. wide on the rim. The rim should be half an inch thick at least, and the boss in the centre as wide as the rim. If bored fairly true, the casting need not be turned on its edge, though it will look better if bright. A small key should be used to fix the fly-wheel on the shaft. This latter, shown broken off in the drawing, projects slightly, and carries a small disc with two pins, which engage in a fork on the end of the propeller shaft and so drive it, and the screw is attached to its end.

The valve-face of the standard, B, Fig. 1. must be made perfectly flat and at right angles to the boring for the crank-shaft C. Fig. 3 shows the face of this standard as it would be seen in Fig. 2 if the cylinder was removed. It is convenient to turn the valve-face in the lathe, and at the same time cut the circular groove, which, after being stopped by plugging at both top and bottom, forms the supply and exhaust ports respectively. The face may be made flat by filing when a lathe is not available, and the groove cut by means of a circular cutter. This is an annular bit with teeth on its edge, which cut a channel but do not touch the inner part.

Through the centre of the valve-face a hole is bored to receive the cylinder trunnion. This trunnion, Fig. 4, is a steel pin screwed into the valve-face of the cylinder (see Fig. 3, section of cylinder showing valve-face and steam-ways). The outer end is threaded for a nut, D; this has a washer beneath it, and keeps the cylinder close against the standard, with the faces of the valves held together steam-tight, yet so that the cylinder may oscillate freely. A spiral spring beneath the nut is sometimes used, but in good work the adjustment is made with a pair of lock-nuts. The hole through the standard must be perfectly at right angles to the face, and the trunnion in the cylinder must also be perpendicular to the valve-face, or the two faces cannot come together steam-tight.

The stuffing-box, 1, of the piston is made with a gland drawn down on the packing by two screws. This arrangement is shown in section at Fig. 5. The method of fitting the gland, whether by screwing direct into the boss of the cylinder cover, as shown at the right in Fig. 5, or by screws tapped through the flange, as in the left-hand illustration, is quite optional. By referring to Fig. 5, the construction of the two forms of stuffing-boxes will be understood. The gland belonging to each is shown separate immediately above the sections. The same lettering is used in both. A is the cylinder cover, with the projecting boss into which the gland B is fitted. The space for the stuffing or packing is marked C. This is filled with lamp cotton, and when the gland is screwed down the cotton is compressed, so that it makes a steam-tight fitting for the piston-rod to slide in. The hole for the piston-rod is shown through the centres of both sections. As before explained, the gland on the left is secured by two screws shown in the section; it is fitted into a plain cylindrical hole. The other gland is threaded to screw direct into the cylinder cover, which is tapped to receive it. The first method is the one always employed in large engines. The screwed gland has a milled edge, so that it may be turned with the thumb and finger.

The action of the valves in a double-action oscillating cylinder will be best explained by reference to Fig. 3. This shows the face of the standard and the section of the cylinder. There is a flat face to the cylinder, usually circular; this has the two steam-ways a, a, bored in it. These holes meet others, drilled from the ends of the cylinder, parallel with its bore, and conduct the steam to the ends of the cylinder through the passages at b, b. On the face of the standard are two holes a and b drilled from the back, one to receive the steam from the boiler, the other to take the exhaust pipe. These holes are not bored through, but communicate with the circular groove c, d. This groove is stopped at e and f. The cylinder is placed against the standard and held close to it, as shown in Fig. 1, by means of the trunnion illustrated by Fig. 4.

When the cylinder is vertical, as shown in Fig. 2, the port-holes are opposite the solid part of the face e and f. Suppose live steam issues from a and fills c, directly the cylinder is moved on one side and one of the port-holes comes over the groove e, the steam enters the cylinder and, pressing against the piston, compels the crank to revolve. By the same motion the other port is uncovered into d, and the dead steam escapes. When the cylinder again reaches a vertical position the steam-ports are again closed, but the momentum of the fly-wheel carries it over the dead centre, and then the positions of the ports are reversed. The one formerly over the exhaust now opens to the live steam and vice versâ. Thus the steam is admitted alternately at both sides of the piston, and so the engine continues to work.

A few words on model boilers and their construction will now be advisable. They have been mentioned several times incidentally in the course of these sections, but, with the exception of the small tin boiler for the oscillating engine first described, particulars of their construction have been omitted. It is not an easy task making a steam boiler, and in most cases it will be found cheapest in the end to purchase ready made.

The materials most generally used are brass and copper; sometimes iron, or what amounts to the same thing, tin-plate, is employed. Brass or copper, from the ease with which they can be manipulated, are the best for a beginner to work on.

Brass can be bought in the form of tube of sufficient size for small models, and strong enough to stand the steam pressure. The edges of the bought tube are brazed together, and thus the joint is made nearly as strong as the other part. The tube is afterwards drawn, and, except from a slight discoloration, the joint is not noticeable.

Brass tube, from two inches to six inches in diameter, cut in lengths suited for boilers, is sold by most of the model engineers. The price of the tube ranges from about 2s. per foot for the small to about 10s. per foot for the large size; the short length necessary for a boiler being charged at about the same proportion. This is merely for the tubular body part of the boiler, and it may be placed vertically or horizontally as required.

The ends or flanges which have to be fitted on are extra pieces. Sometimes a plain disc of metal is fixed by soldering with pewter; but this plan should be strenuously avoided. The ends should at least be brazed on. It is best also to use discs with a rim round them to fit over the boiler tube. This gives a much stronger hold than is possible with a plain disc of sheet metal.

Castings used for the boiler ends must be quite free from any flaws, or the weak part will be apt to give way under the steam pressure. It is often advisable to use castings, which may be made of a shape exactly suited to certain requirements. An inverted cup-shaped casting for the lower end of a vertical boiler gives a good heating surface. A flue for the chimney must be put in it, and this goes up to the top end of the boiler, which may appropriately be dome-shaped.

The flue and both ends of the boiler should be brazed in their places, not soft-soldered. Some prefer to use silver solder for such purposes, and this is an excellent material. When the joints are made to fit properly, as they should do before soldering, only very little solder is required to unite the parts. Borax is used as the flux, both for the alloy employed in brazing and for silver solder. The heat required to flow these properly may be got from an ordinary gas jet, with the burner or nipple removed, using a common blow-pipe to urge the flame.

A horizontal boiler is frequently only a plain tube, with the ends soldered in, and supported on legs to raise it sufficiently to allow a lamp to be put underneath. The heat applied in this manner does not take effect as it should. The flame is deflected from the surface of the boiler, and, moreover, any breath of wind stirring will blow the flame aside. A plain saddle-shaped boiler is much better; in this form the heating surface is large, and the heat from the furnace is applied to it direct, and cannot well be deflected.

Flues or tubes are very desirable in any form of boiler, and one or the other should be used. The plain straight chimney put through the boiler is the most simple form of flue. If this is of spiral form, like a corkscrew, the effect is infinitely increased, because the heat, instead of ascending straight up through the vertical tube, is met at every turn with a fresh surface of metal. In winding its way through a spiral tube, the heat is absorbed in a way quite unattainable when a straight tube is used. Several small tubes are of course better than one large one of the same area. By increasing the number of flues the cost of making a boiler is also increased, and it is to save expense that large flues are used.

Boilers for locomotives, which are required to make steam very fast, have an immense number of tubes running through them. The space between the tubes, which is occupied by the water, is often very small, and in fact the tubes are put as closely together as possible. As the heat rushes through them it is absorbed by the water in contact with the tube, and turns it into steam. The greater the heating surface the more readily is the steam generated.

Tubes are often put across the fire-grate; they are then called cross-tubes. Two, placed one above the other and crossing each other, will give a large amount of heating surface. By adding this simple contrivance to a vertical boiler with a straight flue it may be made to give off much more steam. One or two cross-tubes generally suffice to convert a useless boiler, that is, one that will not generate enough steam, into an effective one.

The fuel used to heat small boilers is generally spirits of wine. This is put in a suitable receptacle and burnt through a cotton wick. Several wicks are used in large boilers, and they are placed to heat the largest surface available. Spirit lamps are a source of danger if proper precautions are not taken. Unless there is a free outlet for the air within the lamp, it will be expanded by the heat and cause the spirit to rise too quickly in the wick. Sometimes it will overflow, and then it burns wherever it may be. Care must therefore be exercised in using spirit fuel. In model boats it occasionally happens that the spirit overflows, and the boat is all ablaze. An iron tea-tray, or some such utensil, should be used to stand the boiler on when the furnace is to be lighted.

Charcoal is a better fuel, when there is sufficient space in the fire-box to contain a supply. The waste steam from the cylinder must always be conveyed to the chimney and escape up it to make a draft through the fire. Without this it cannot be made to burn sufficiently fierce for the purpose. A charcoal fire will act very well, with a little attention, and except for the smallest engines it is always preferable to methylated spirit.

As it is not possible to give any adequate instructions on boiler-making in the limited space at my disposal, the above hints are chiefly intended for the guidance of purchasers.

A safety valve should always be fitted to a steam boiler. One of the spring valves has been illustrated in the chapter treating of the small oscillating engine. The lever safety valve is more certain in its action, especially in model work, and is better adapted for stationary purposes. A weighted lever is of no use to a locomotive or marine boiler, as the motion of travelling would disarrange the gear. The safety valve of every engine should be tested frequently, to make sure that it does not stick in its place and that all works perfectly free.

A glass gauge, by which the height of water may be seen at a glance, is frequently attached to boilers having any pretension to high-class workmanship. There is a good deal of work in a properly made gauge, and the cost is correspondingly high. Two or three stop-cocks are required in a gauge, and these involve good workmanship, or they will not stand the pressure. Leaky taps are a sign of inferior work.

Gauge cocks are sometimes used instead of the water gauge just mentioned. These are plain taps with straight noses. Two are wanted on a boiler; they are screwed in, one at high-water and the other at low-water level. By turning on these taps it is easy to see whether the water is within these limits; but the precise height cannot be ascertained. The gauge-glass is therefore much preferable.

Whistles are fitted to boilers only as ornaments. They are quite useless as signals, except such as can be given by word of mouth, are not required in working model engines. These attachments are made to sound by allowing the steam to act as the breath does in common whistles.

Force-pumps are used to force water into the boiler to make up for that converted into steam, and conveyed through the cylinder. These pumps are actuated by an eccentric on the crank-shaft, and, at every revolution of the crank, throw a small quantity of water into the boiler. When we consider how much water is evaporated to make the quantity of steam used for each revolution of the cylinder, we may arrive at an idea of the work required of a force pump. Practically the water to be injected at each stroke is too small to be dealt with, unless a large cylinder has to be supplied. The only way to work a force pump for a model satisfactorily is by gearing, so that a stroke of the plunger is performed about once to each hundred revolutions of the crank.

A better plan for feeding small boilers is by hand. The force pump is attached to the boiler in the usual way, but not connected to the engine. The plunger is worked by a hand lever, and when it is seen that water is wanted in the boiler, a few strokes of the lever will suffice.

Governors are used to control the speed of the engine. Without any such contrivance the engine runs at a speed corresponding to the work it has to do. The heavier the load the slower the speed, and immediately that the load is decreased the speed increases. A governor consists of a pair of balls, which are attached to arms pivoted to an axis revolved by the engine. The faster the speed the greater is the centrifugal force of the balls, and by connecting these with a valve, called a throttle valve, in the steam pipe, the supply of steam is reduced as the speed increases. By this means a uniform rate of speed is attained, irrespective of the steam pressure or the duty demanded of the engine.

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I propose in this chapter to give a few practical hints showing how to build a perfect model of an inverted-cylinder direct-action engine with link-motion reversing gear, like the sketch below, which represents a type in daily use on the river and sea. Such a model, having a fixed cylinder, has not the friction of other types, and therefore it gives more power, size for size, than an oscillating engine, and does not get so easily out of order.

You must of course have a lathe, which I will therefore suppose you to possess; but should there not be a slide-rest to it, you must get the cylinder bored by a professional turner, for which he will charge about two shillings, according to the size of your castings.

Let me first briefly explain the action of the steam in the engine by a diagram (Fig. 1, p. 139). The cylinder A is bolted into the standard, B; the ports or steam-passages are shown at C; and the slide-valve that allows the steam to pass alternately to each side of the piston is marked D, in its case F. G G are the stuffing-boxes, which have to be packed with lamp-cotton greased to make them steam-tight, H is the piston, with its rod finishing in a cross-head J, which is cut with a groove to slide up and down the standards to guide it and prevent the piston-rod being bent out of shape. K shows the connecting-rod, attached at its lower end to the crank L. M is one of the eccentrics working the slide-valve. N is the main shaft, resting on the plummer blocks O O, having a heavy fly-wheel at P and the coupler at Q. R is the top cylinder plate, drilled to screw in the grease-cock, of which I will presently give a drawing on an enlarged scale, S is the bed-plate, T the steam supply, and X the exhaust.

You will observe that the steam is coming in at the top of the cylinder, through the top port, as shown by the arrow, pressing the piston down and allowing the waste steam that has already raised the piston to escape through the lower port, and so into the exhaust. By that time the slide-valve is raised (by the eccentric) sufficiently to cut the steam off from the top port, which by that means is in its turn put in communication with the exhaust, and allows the steam to pass out of the top part of the cylinder, whilst it admits it to the lower portion, and so on alternately.

And now to the practical work. After having the cylinder bored, as already mentioned, get a piece of oak or other hard wood 1¹⁄₂ inch square and about 6 inches long. Turn one end of it in the lathe, so that it fits the inside of cylinder, and drive it on. Then put it in the lathe again, and turn the flanges A (Fig. 2) down, and be very careful that they are quite true and square.

The top and bottom cylinder-covers, with the stuffing-box, come next. Screw a piece of hard wood on the end of your lathe mandrel, turn it down to about a quarter of an inch less in diameter than the flanges of your cylinder, make a small hole for the stuffing-box to be driven in, as in Fig. 3. You can now turn the edge and side—that next the cylinder. The projecting part A is to be the exact size of the diameter of cylinder. When this is done, take it out and place it in another chuck, and drill and turn the stuffing-box out, and screw it to receive the gland (Fig. 4).

Now chuck the top cover and turn it down to size. The piston is a casting, and has to be turned in the lathe to fit the cylinder, and a groove run round it to hold the greased cotton to make it steam-tight. Whilst in the lathe drill a hole in the centre, and tap it to receive the piston-rod, which you can make out of steel wire. Then pass one end through the stuffing-box on cylinder-cover and screw it on the cross-head J (Fig. 1), having first filed it up quite square and true and finished it off with emery. Now take the standards B (Fig. 1), and finish them up with a file in the same way, and be careful that the insides forming the guides for cross-heads are quite true. We can now make the lagging for cylinder. Get a piece of mahogany the length of the outside circumference of cylinder and the width of the distance between flanges of same. Then plane it down to about an eighth of an inch and score it with a penknife every eighth of an inch down its width; it will then bend round the cylinder, and you can fasten it on by a couple of brass bands, screwing the ends down near the slide-valve case.

We will next tackle the steam-ports in the cylinder B (Fig. 2). They are simply two holes drilled side by side until they reach the openings C C (Fig. 2) in the casting; they must not be drilled any farther.

Now place the ends on cylinder and drill through them so as to screw them on to the flanges. The slide-valve case is a casting with separate lid (Fig. 5), and has to be faced up with a file, and four holes drilled through the lid and corners to screw on to the cylinder face. The boss on lid must now be drilled and tapped for steam-pipe to be screwed in.

The slide-valve itself is like Fig. 6, has a hollow cast in its face, and a small projection on the back (B), which you must make a narrow groove in with a saw, and file the end of the valve-rod down to fit it, as shown at C, Fig. 6.

The face of the cylinder and also of the slide-valve must now be made to work steam-tight by rubbing on a perfectly flat stone until true, and then putting some emery and oil on a board and working them up until they are quite true.

The eccentrics may now receive attention. They will require to be chucked twice, and the true centre marked. Do not drill it out yet, as the hole for the crank-shaft must not be in the centre, but half the travel of the slide valve from the centre. For instance, if the valve travelled one inch you would have to drill hole for shaft half an inch out of true centre of eccentric.

The straps (Fig. 7) have to be turned quite true to the size of the groove on eccentrics, then taken out of lathe and cut through line A B with a fine saw, and screwed together at C C. A hole has now to be drilled at D and tapped for the eccentric rods to be screwed into, one of which will have to be bent like Fig. 8, so as to allow it to work on to the quadrant. It is the neatest way to key the eccentrics on to the shaft with a small steel wedge.

The quadrant (Fig. 9) is of brass, and will have to be finished up with a file and emery, and the holes A B B drilled through. The shaft ought to be turned up in the lathe as well as the fly-wheel and coupler, with a slight groove sunk in where the plummer blocks support it, so as to take the thrust.

The reversing quadrant with the lever attached I have shown at Fig. 10. It is best cut out of brass. The notches are cut with a small file after the two pieces have been brazed together with a small piece an eighth of an inch thick between either end. It is then screwed on to the slide-valve case.

The lever is drilled at A, B, and C with small holes, and can be made of flat steel wire; A is for a pin to work into a joint or hinge on bed-plate. B is attached to the hole A (Fig. 9) by a small length of brass rod, so as to work easily. Cut with a slot at each end and then drill like Fig. 11.

The small spring D (Fig. 10) is to keep the ratchet down in place, and is best made from a watch-spring, and the handle F is turned out of some brass wire.

The different-size drills you will require can be easily made from various steel knitting-needles warmed, filed up to shape, and then tempered to a light-straw colour.

We now come to the grease or oil cocks, which I have mentioned before. They can be bought ready finished at most model shops, but for those who like to make everything for themselves, this is the way to proceed. Fig. 12 is a section showing interior oil chamber that allows the cylinder to be oiled without stopping the engine by turning off cock A and opening cock B, then filling with oil; then shutting B and opening A allows the oil to descend into the cylinder and lubricate the surface.

Now for the method. Chuck a piece of brass wire about a quarter of an inch in diameter in the lathe, and turn up to external shape; then turn out cup C and drill through from end to end with fine drill; then enlarge chamber D with small bent graver, and take out of lathe and drill through at right angles to previous hole at A and B with larger drill; then put plugs of brass wire in and fit them with emery and oil; rivet over one end, and the other turn up into a handle. Then turn them in straight line with the oil-cup, and drill through with the small drill again. Tap the end E, and screw into cylinder cover, when it is finished.

To keep the boiler full of water as the fire empties it by driving it off in steam, the usual thing is to use a force-pump worked by an eccentric on shaft; but, as the friction is excessive, it takes a great deal of power away from a model. It is best, therefore, to work it by a hand lever, and the pump may be screwed on to the side of boat, the suction A (Fig. 13) being led through the boat’s side and riveted over, and the supply B brazed into lower part of boiler. C is the lever, and D the plunger, which must be quite true, and turned up in the lathe; likewise the valves E and F and the stuffing-box tapped and drilled. It is best to work it up from a casting, and the outside smooth down with an old file. The projection G will then have to be drilled and the lever pivoted through, having first cut a slot at H to allow the lever to rise and fall.

I will now describe a method of making an injector, or machine for filling the boiler with water by the power of the steam alone, and not in connection with the engine.

The injector was an accidental discovery by a Mr. Gifford, and has now become a universal favourite on board both large and small craft, as it works splendidly without affecting the engine. So you can run the boiler up with water whilst the engine is at rest in harbour or otherwise. And another great advantage over pumps is that the steam, being mixed with the water, raises it in temperature to nearly boiling-point, and so is a great saving in fuel.

Fig. 14 is a section of the instrument as fit for model work, and if you will follow these instructions carefully it will act well.

It consists of three parts—the cone A, the cone B, and the casing C. The steam is admitted at D, and the water at E, the waste water overflows at F, and the hot steam and water is projected with great force into the boiler through the pipe H, which should be led to the bottom of boiler well below low-water mark, and it is quite imperative that the steam-pipe should come from top of boiler as so to get plenty of dry steam, and must not be tapped on to any other pipe.

The injector can be fastened to side of boat by brass band and screws, and the water-supply pipe brought through the side and riveted, as in the case with the pump. The injector will lift water several inches, but it always works better if the water can flow into it freely.

Now we will set to work at it. Take a piece of brass rod and chuck it in the lathe and turn two cones the shape of A and B (Fig. 15). Take them off the lathe and drill A through as far as practicable, and finish with a small rhymer, having first made a small hole right through not larger than a knitting-needle; then tap the port C with an internal screw to take the steam-pipe, and turn a screw on the outside at D.

Now, with the rhymer bore out the conical hollow at E in B, and tap it outside at F and inside at G, in the same manner as the former cone; then drill a small hole right through from end to end, and a smaller one at right angles to the other right through at H. This communicates with the overflow, and takes off the water not carried into the boiler.

Next take a piece of brass tubing five-eighths of an inch in diameter, and turn a screw at each end inside (Fig. 16). The screws turned on the outside of the cones must be the correct size to fit these; then drill a hole at A, and screw in a small tube for water-supply with tap; then drill another at B for the waste water to escape by. Finally, screw in the cone A (Fig. 15) and attach it to the boiler by a pipe, and the nearer the boiler the better, as if the steam condenses before reaching the injector it will stop working. The steam-pipe must of course have a tap to cut off steam when not required.

We must now screw in the lower cone B (Fig. 15) until there is an annular space between the two cones not exceeding a sixteenth of an inch. Then screw in the small pipe at C (Fig. 15), and attach the other end into the boiler below the water-line, where it must have a stop-valve to prevent the water returning.

To start the injector, turn on the water-tap until it runs out of the overflow freely. Then turn on the steam full power, and the overflow will cease, or nearly so. Should it still drip at the overflow, reduce the water supply by the tap accordingly.

It requires carefulness and patience to make an injector, but when done, and working properly, there are few boys with a mechanical turn of mind who would not think themselves well repaid in watching and controlling its mimic action. They would then have an engine fit to show to their most critical friends, and one they might well be proud of; and I shall be content if I have helped in any way to contribute to their happiness.

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Those who class model engines as mere toys, and fit only to amuse the very youngest members of the human family, entirely forget the important place they hold in the estimation of inventors and those interested in mechanism as a means by which they can practically carry out their ideas, because models not only have the advantage of cheapness in construction as compared with the full-sized machine, but also the still greater advantage of being, from the small size and light weights of their parts, capable of construction by the inventor himself without having to employ strangers.

I suppose there is no taste more universal amongst boys, old as well as young, than that for mechanism and engineering. What boy does not feel interested in the models displayed in the various shop windows in our large towns, and what lad with any mechanical bent but has a longing to make one for himself and feels an intense pleasure in being able to do so? And it is with the intention of helping those who would like to build one, but have not the necessary knowledge, that I purpose to explain, as simply as possible, the best method of building model locomotives.

In previous pages of this volume, practical instructions by skilled writers have been given on model stationary engines of a simple make, and also on engines for steamboats, but of all models the locomotive has the greatest charm for most boys, and not unjustly so, as when well finished and carefully painted it has a very handsome appearance, and moreover has the additional charm of its locomotive power.

Those of my readers who have practically carried out the instructions in the previous chapters just referred to, have become, I have no doubt, by this time quite au fait in handling their tools and feel at home in their workshop; but for the benefit of those boys who have had no practical experience, let me give a word or two of advice before we begin our locomotive.

First then, with all engineering work, either large or small, great care must be taken to get the measurements perfectly correct in spacing out the various parts to be joined together, and do not think, because it is only a model you are making, that any off-hand way will do, because you will find before the engine is half finished that great accuracy is necessary if you wish your model to be a working one.

A slight mistake in the measurements of a large engine will cause so much friction as to take half its power to overcome, and the same thing occurring in a model would stop it entirely.

Then with respect to any part you may require to solder, be careful always to make the brass or other metal you wish to unite quite hot. You will then get a good firm joint.

Do not just touch the metal with the soldering iron and then take it away. You might certainly stick the parts together slightly in that way, but they would be sure to come apart the first time they received a blow or any pressure was put on them.

Soldering on the best work should be used very seldom, and all the fastenings should be either done by riveting, screwing, or brazing; and I need hardly remark that no part of a boiler should be soldered which comes in direct contact with the flame of the lamp or furnace.

Brazing, with the exception of very small articles, is beyond the ordinary powers of an amateur.

Even to braze the seams of a model boiler requires a forge fire or very powerful gas-blast, which is too expensive for most boys to get; but small things, such as a broken slide, valve rod, etc., can be easily brazed by using a gas blow-pipe, and as it will cost you very little to make and will prove a useful tool for sweating in solder as well as brazing, I will briefly explain.

Fig. 1 is a section of the blow-pipe complete.

To make it, first get a small piece of brass tube (A) of about half an inch diameter and five inches long; drill a hole at two inches from one end, and insert a piece of gas tube (B) and solder it in place.

Next take a piece of glass tubing a quarter of an inch diameter and about seven inches long, hold one end in a gas flame, and when red-hot draw it out to a fine point, then file round and break off the tip, leaving a small hole.

Next squeeze a sound cork into the tube A as at C, and drill a quarter of an inch hole through its centre and insert the glass tube D, and the blow-pipe is finished. To use it you connect the pipe B with a gas bracket by a rubber tube, and the glass tube D must be fastened to a pair of bellows by means of another piece of rubber tubing; the bellows should have an air-bag attached, to enable you to keep a constant pressure up and prevent having a jerky flame.

When requiring to braze any article, bind the parts together with some very fine brass wire and cover it up with a little powdered borax and water, then lay the article on a piece of charcoal, and if it is necessary to preserve the temper of the steel you are about brazing, cut a potato in half and push each end of the steel rod into the halves, which will prevent the temperature of the rod getting too high.

When you have it all nicely fixed, turn on the gas and light your blow-pipe, immediately work the bellows with your foot, and by either pushing in the glass tube D, or drawing it slightly out, you can regulate the shape of the flame as required.

Then bring the flame to bear on the joint, well supplied with the borax, and soon you will find the brass wire melt and run into the joint like water. It must then be neatly filed up, and the join will be scarcely visible.

Having made this useful tool, I will mention a few others you should get before commencing work; they will not cost much.

A centre punch or pointed steel spike for marking metal for drilling, etc., and a small riveting hammer, three or four files of different degrees of fineness, a screw plate and taps, and also a small hand-drill with a set of drills to fit, will be most useful; and of course very little can be done without a good firm vice.

If you have a lathe, so much the better; it will enable you to save lots of odd coppers for turning various parts. Curves for bending metal on you can easily make from pieces of bar iron, holding them in the vice when working on them.

When you have your tools ready, the materials are required you intend working on, which will consist of several sheets of brass and copper, the castings and various-sized screws and bolts; and having got these all together, we can set to work on our locomotive.

I think it would be better to first give you directions for making a simple one of about fifteen inches, and then to proceed to a more perfect model after.

In a previous article you will find a description of the action of the steam in the cylinder, and although that is in a marine engine, the action is precisely the same in the cylinders of a locomotive, and you should therefore read the description carefully and thoroughly understand it; there is also given a method of turning the cylinders, and hence I shall not describe the process again, but consider that you already know sufficient about it, should you wish to make your cylinders in preference to buying them ready finished.

At the commencement of this chapter is a drawing of the model we are about to build in its finished condition, and Fig. 2 is a side view of the same, of which A is the boiler, B the chimney, C a screw head to fill boiler with water, D the steam chest with safety valve on top, E the whistle, F the steam tap to start the engine with, HH are the leading and trailing wheels, and I the driving ditto, K the cylinders, L the frame, M the buffers, N a set thumb-screw to fasten a tender on by, O is the lamp, and P is a small tap, used to ascertain the quantity of water in the boiler. The handrails R and S complete it; and I think this is sufficiently clear for you to perfectly understand the general working arrangements of the model.

Locomotives, whether real or only model ones, can all be divided into three principal parts, viz., the carriage or framework, the engine or cylinders and parts connected with them, and the boiler, and we will now proceed to make each part in turn, beginning with the framework.

First take a sheet of brass for the bed-plate, about one-sixteenth of an inch thick, and cut it to an oblong shape, four inches wide by fourteen inches long, as in Fig. 3, and be very careful that the corners are right angles. This is to be hammered out quite flat and filed up smooth, and finished with emery cloth held round a flat piece of wood; you must also cut a hole in it for the boiler to rest in as at C, beginning half an inch from B and making the hole eleven inches long by one inch and a half wide, taking care it is quite central on the line AB, or you would get your engine lopsided, and you must take the same care in setting the chimney, steam dome, etc., as when not exactly central it gives a bad unsightly look to an otherwise well-finished model.

The next step is to cut out the side frames (Fig. 4), drilling holes at A B C for the axles to work in; you can finish both sides in the same way, and, turning the bed-plate upside down, fasten the frames on at a quarter of an inch from either side by small angle pieces, as in Fig. 5, or by soldering, which is much quicker. Then fasten by the same means a piece across each end about half an inch deep, and the frame is ready for the wheels.

These can be had ready finished, but if you have the castings, they must be chucked in the lathe and the tires turned up to the form shown in Fig. 6. The small wheels should be about two and a half inches diameter and the driving wheels four inches. The rim B should project a little over one-sixteenth of an inch, and the rest of the edge should be bevelled off slightly as at A.

The spokes may then be filed up smooth, previously drilling out the centre hole for axle before removing it from the lathe.

Great care must be taken to turn both the driving-wheels to exactly the same diameter, or one wheel would travel farther in a revolution than the other, and as they ought to be both fixed rigidly on to the crank shaft, the engine would never travel in a straight line, but would always run in a circle. You will require some steel wire for the axles, and can fasten them to the wheels by soldering or by cutting a slot with a fine file in the centre of wheel, as at A, Fig. 7; then filing a small portion of the ends of the axle flat, drive in a brass wedge made from a piece of wire, which will hold them together firmly.

The crank shaft or axle must be hammered up to shape, making it hot occasionally in the gas flame whilst working it.

The cranks should be at right angles to each other, and the throw of the crank is to be half the distance of the cylinder stroke. For instance, say the cylinders are an inch and a half in stroke, the distance between A B (Fig. 8) will be three-quarters of an inch; you must then ease the size of crank at A, to prevent the piston knocking the cylinder ends.

The cylinders require such extreme care in turning that it is by far the best plan to buy them ready to put on your framework; and if you get a pair of oscillating ones three-quarters of an inch bore and about an inch and a half stroke, you will get sufficient power to drive your locomotive several miles an hour.

Fig. 9 shows you an underneath view of the framework and the position to place the cylinders in, which should be supported by a couple of lugs (A A) screwed to the bed-plate B which must have a piece cut out on either side to allow the driving-wheels (C) to work in, as at D, because, being larger than the others, they project beyond the top of the bed-plate, as shown in Fig. 2. You can now screw on by means of the hook F the buffer-beam, previously cut from a piece of mahogany, five inches long, half an inch thick, and one inch deep, nicely squared and sand-papered.

Drill a hole at G and pass the shank of hook through the beam and piece of brass in front of frame, and screw up tight with nut H.

The buffers can be properly turned up and fitted with springs, but that I will explain when making our more perfect model, and content ourselves now with a couple of brass flat-headed screws, such as are used in connections of electric batteries, and which form capital imitation buffers, one having to simply screw them into the beam about one inch from either end, leaving them projecting about half an inch.

The framework is now sufficiently complete to be lacquered. First polish every part intended to be bright, carefully removing all traces of file-marks and any grease that may be on the work by a little acid; and after drying it place it on a sheet of iron held over the gas—or fire, if clear—until it is moderately warm. You can then apply the lacquer with a small brush, taking care not to go over any part more than once. The lacquer can be had at most model shops, and is cheaper to buy ready-made than to prepare yourself.

The spokes of the wheels should be painted; black-lined on green looks very well, and the ordinary tube oil-paint, mixed with a little mastic varnish, is the best to use.

The buffer-beam should be varnished, and the cylinders ought to have a coat of paint, leaving the cylinder-covers and the flanges bright.

The frame may now be put aside to dry, covered up from dust by a paper box, whilst we proceed to make the boiler (Fig. 10).

This is a most important part of the locomotive, and is the cause of a great many failures and unsatisfactory working, even amongst the professionally-built models. I well remember how, when a lad at school, I fell deeply in love with a beautiful highly-polished brass locomotive of about the size we are now building, which was displayed in an optician’s window. Having made inquiries about the price, and got it reduced from to £5 to £4, with a promise to keep it for me, I set to work to save my pocket-money, and for some months rigidly abstained from all kinds of tarts and toys; and when finally the last shilling was saved which completed the amount, and I carried it—my first model—home in triumph, no boy was ever happier. But, oh! the bitter disappointment when, after getting up the steam and trying to start the engine, I found it would not work.

I was too young then to find out the reason, and the man who kept the shop, not being a practical mechanic, could give me no help, and although, after we had tried it together, he offered to take it back, I decided to keep it with a view to remedy the defect, if possible; but it was a long time before I found out that the fault lay in the boiler not being able to supply sufficient steam for the cylinders, in consequence of not having enough heating surface acted on by the lamp.

Since that day I have made numerous models, and have always taken precautions to avert such a difficulty, and although the method I am about to describe entails a little extra work, you will feel well repaid for the trouble when you find what a splendid head of steam can be kept up.

The boiler should be eleven inches long by three inches and a half in diameter, and you can buy copper tubing of that size which is very suitable for the job, or you can form it from a sheet of copper or brass bent to shape round a wooden roller, and either riveted or soldered together. You must then turn two circles of brass about an eighth of an inch thick for the ends, and polish the outside of each nicely.

Then push them into either end of the boiler about an eighth of an inch from the edge, as in A (Fig. 11); they can now be soldered in place, and you will find your gas blow-pipe very useful here. The projecting flange should be hammered down all round, like B (Fig. 11), which can also be sweated afterwards with solder, and finished off with a half-round file.

When filing solder or lead, only use an old worn file, as the soft metal soon fills up and spoils a good one, and although it can be melted out by heat, it is not advisable to do so.

You will now require to drill a hole at A (Fig. 10) for the chimney, which should be three-quarters of an inch in diameter. Then cut a slot in the bottom of the boiler six inches long by an inch and a half wide, commencing a quarter of an inch from the forward end of the boiler.

Now take a sheet of copper and cut a piece about six inches and a quarter long by six inches broad, and bend it over a wooden roller to the shape shown at Fig. 12, keeping it an inch and a half apart between A B. Cut also two other pieces of copper to the shape of your bent sheet (Fig. 12), and make it long enough to reach to the dotted line. These form the two ends, which may be placed an eighth of an inch from the edges, as in Fig. 13, and soldered in place, and the projecting rims turned over and sweated with solder from the outside in the same manner as you did to the boiler-ends in Fig. 11. Then drill a three-quarter-inch hole at B (Fig. 13) for the bottom of chimney-tube to go into, and cut a piece of three-quarter-inch brass tubing of sufficient length to pass out at top of boiler about half an inch, as shown at A (Fig. 10). You can then hammer out a rim or flange on the bottom end of chimney-tube, and push it up through the hole in the copper box and solder it in place from the top, as at A (Fig. 14).

Now drill a couple of small holes at each end of the box B C (Fig. 14); these should be rather more than an eighth of an inch in diameter, to allow an eighth of an inch tube to pass through.

Get two twelve-inch lengths of hard-drawn steam-piping of an eighth of an inch in diameter, and with your screw-plate put a thread on each end of about half an inch in length, then drill some holes in any odd piece of brass plate, and with the screw-taps form eight nuts to fit the threads on the piping, and finish them up to shape with a file.

Then take the piping and bend it very gently, to prevent it cracking, round a bar of iron or handle of some tool held in the vice until it is of the form shown at Fig. 15. Do each one the same, and then mix a little turps with some white lead and smear each end where you have formed the screws, taking care not to get any into the tubes, and they might have a plug of paper put in temporarily to prevent it.

Now put a nut on at either end as far as the thread will allow it, and smearing a little white lead round the holes drilled in ends of box B C (Fig. 14), push the tubes in from the inside and screw up firmly with the remaining nuts in the position shown at Fig. 16. The inside nuts can then be tightened up with a spanner, and if you have carefully done this you will never be troubled with any leakage, no matter what pressure you may get in the boiler.

These tubes are immensely strong, and from their small size the water in them is raised quickly to a higher temperature than that contained in the rest of the boiler, causing a continual circulation to take place and a constant supply of steam to be formed.

The box can now be placed in the boiler through the slot cut in the bottom, taking care that the top of box is not more than half way up the boiler, as in B (Fig. 10). This will leave a portion projecting below the lower edge of boiler, like C. This part protects the flame of the lamp from being blown away by the draught caused by travelling along, which would cause you to lose steam. Solder it firmly in position from the outside, to prevent the flame touching any soldered portion. Also solder neatly round A (Fig. 10).

The chimney can be made from another piece of three-quarter brass tube. Chuck it in the lathe, and turn it up bright, and put a collar on it at A (Fig. 17) to allow it to push on to the piece of tube left projecting at A (Fig. 10).

The top of chimney, or bell-mouth, B (Fig. 17), will require turning in the lathe also, and fitting on neatly.

The steam-chest D (Fig. 10) is a brass casting you can turn up also, and after cutting a circular hole in top of boiler of about an inch in diameter it can be either screwed or soldered on, previously putting the steam-pipe E in position by drilling a hole at F, and after bending it as shown, pass it through at F and solder in place.

The top of pipe E should be about a quarter of an inch from top of inside of steam-chest.

Before soldering on the steam chest drill a couple of holes, as at G H (Fig. 10), one for the small lug G to be screwed into, which holds one end of the lever of the safety valve, and that at H should be drilled conical with a rhymer, and the valve H can be turned in the lathe, and afterwards ground to fit the hole with a little emery and water, by means of a slot cut across the top and worked round with a screw-driver.

The spring-case of safety-valve is easily made from a piece of the one-eighth of an inch brass tubing, and using some small, hard brass wire to form the spring of. When finished it should be hooked to the eye screwed into boiler at V.

The manhole, or screwhead, K, is used to refill the boiler by when it has steamed low, and will require to be turned up to shape; and the bed L it screws into can be firmly soldered on the boiler, having first drilled a hole slightly larger than the diameter of the screw itself, which should be sufficiently large to allow an ordinary tin funnel to be used to refill by, and the screw ought to be large enough to hold a leather washer under the head to keep it steam-tight.

The whistle M will require a hole drilled for it to be screwed into, and that, as also the steam-tap N and water-tap O, can be bought cheap ready to put on, and is more satisfactory than making them yourself. But should you wish to do so, the method I have already described in Chapter X. of making an oil-cup applies equally to these.

The tap O should be screwed in at a slightly higher level than the top of box B, and when working the engine, should steam issue from it when turned on instead of water, you ought to immediately blow off steam by safety-valve H. Then unscrew K, and refill the boiler with water.

By this time the framework will no doubt be quite dry, and you can then clean and polish the boiler and attach it to the frame by a screw or solder at the forward end, and the steam-pipe N can be screwed on to the projecting piece of tube left at F, whilst you also screw a short length of pipe into the steam-box of engine through a hole in the bed-plate. Then bend it up to the steam-tap and solder them carefully in position; this will hold the after end of boiler firmly.

Go over every soldered joint to see if any small hole is left, and re-solder where necessary, as a hole in the boiler not larger than a pin’s point would prevent you getting any adequate pressure of steam, as the water would all blow out.

When so far complete, you can either lacquer or paint the boiler as suits your fancy, and whilst it is drying there will be time to make the lamp (Fig. 18).

It is simply an oblong box made of tin or any piece of thin metal you may have, and should be one inch and a quarter wide by five inches long, and about three-quarters of an inch deep. To make it, cut say a piece of tin four and a half inches by five inches, and bend it to shape, then solder the two edges together and cut two ends to fit. Push them in and solder in place.

Then cut three pieces of brass quarter-inch tubing into three quarter-inch lengths, drill holes in top of lamp and insert them, allowing about a quarter of an inch to project, as at A (Fig. 18); then solder them on four pieces of bent wire (C C C C), by which to hang the lamp by means of two wire pins run through them and small holes drilled in sides of projecting piece C (Fig. 10).

The screw-filler B (Fig. 18) will have to be soldered in also, and when complete the tubes A may be filled with cotton wick, and the lamp about three parts full of methylated spirit, which will give a clear smokeless flame.

You can now start your locomotive by filling the boiler about three parts full of hot water, and then hooking the lamp underneath; you will soon get a good pressure of steam up.

See that all the taps are turned off; and if there is no leakage from careless workmanship, you will find, on turning the steam-tap on, the locomotive will run beautifully, and will travel at great speed either on a smooth oil-cloth or wood floor.

I will presently explain how to make a set of rails, on which she would run much quicker still; but for this engine, if you make a small tender of the shape shown at Fig. 19, and fasten it at any angle by the set-screw on the foot-plate of the engine shown at N (Fig. 2), the model will run in any sized circle you may wish, without lines, according to the angle at which you fix the tender to the engine.

Wooden coal trucks, etc., you can easily make to complete the train if you wish; but of course each one is an extra load for the engine to draw, and will prevent it going as quickly as when alone.

Tin is the best material to use for the tender, as no great strength is required; indeed, it should be made as light as possible. The wheels and axles you must finish in the same manner as those on the engine; and it could be made into a tank, to hold an extra supply of spirit, by soldering a piece of tin round the inside, and covering it in with another piece cut to shape, and fitted with a screw-nut to fill by, as shown in Fig. 18.

If you have carefully followed these simple directions, and also practically carried them out, you will be able, and no doubt anxious to try your constructive powers on a more complete model, and I will therefore endeavour to help you to do so.

Should you be able to draw, you will find it a great help if you carefully sketch out on a sheet of cartridge paper the locomotive to the exact size you intend building it.

You can then take all the measurements from it, which will prove to be a saving in time and trouble. Of course the larger you make the engine, the more expensive the castings and materials will be; but if you persevere in making the locomotive I am about to describe, you will have a model of real value to you, and which would probably cost fifty pounds to buy ready finished; and if you turn the wooden models for the castings yourself, and use sheet-iron for the framework, etc., where possible, the total expense will not be so very great.

Fig. 20 is a side view of the locomotive in its finished state, and we will begin to work at it in the same manner as in the former model, viz., with the framework; but as some of my readers may have a preference for some special type of engine other than the one drawn, they can easily build it from the following directions, and keeping the same proportion in size as in Fig. 20, which is drawn to ¹⁄₈-inch scale.

The entire length should be about three feet two inches, and the bed-plate thirty-five inches by nine inches wide. The driving-wheels are eight and a quarter inches in diameter, and the leading wheels five and a quarter inches, and about six and a half inch gauge, viz., the space between the lines on which the wheels run.

The cylinders should be one and three-quarter inch bore by two and a half inch stroke, which will give sufficient power to drive the engine at a high rate of speed, with 30 lb. to 50 lb. of steam. The boiler is twenty-eight inches long, including smoke-box, by five inches diameter.

Fig. 20 enlarged (200 kB)

In Fig. 20 I have lettered the various parts, and it will be well to look over them carefully, as this engine differs materially from the previous model in its arrangement, being constructed exactly similar to a real engine.

A is the chimney, B steam-blast used to increase the intensity of the fire, and is worked by rod C running through the hollow handrail D, and ending in handle F. G the steam-dome and safety-valve is the same pattern as previously used, H extra safety-valve, worked from foot-plate; I steam-whistle, K wind-guard, L starting-lever, M smoke-box (with door), N O spring-buffers; P is the line-clearer, or wheel-guard; Q leading wheels, and R R driving ditto; S one of the cylinders, with piston-rod and guides bolted to frame, and showing double connecting rod at T T; U U are the springs which support the weight of the boiler, etc., on the axle-bearings; the spring on rear wheel does not show, being inside the safety-guard and handrail V. W is the back-pressure valve, through which the water is thrown by the force-pump into the boiler; and X is the blow-off tap to clear the model from all water after having used it; and Y shows the side of ash-pan.

Now to commence making the framework. This should be made of one-eighth of an inch sheet-iron, squared up perfectly true and flat, and cut out as shown in Fig. 21, commencing four inches and a half from A, and leaving six inches at B, and cutting it six inches wide there by eight inches long, and continuing it four inches wide for the rest of the distance. Be careful to keep it quite central on the line A B, and leave two connecting strips one inch wide, as at C C.

The side-frames come next. These must be much stronger, and quite different from those used in our previous model, and should be cut from the same eighth of an inch plate-iron to the shape shown in Fig. 22.

The centre of slot B is seventeen inches from one end, the centre of A ten inches from B, and centre of C thirteen inches from B.

In marking out work always measure from a fixed centre, for if you add one measurement to another any slight inaccuracy gets increased with each fresh measurement, and you might finally get the different portions out of place.

The slots are each an inch and a quarter wide by two inches deep, leaving one inch of iron at top as shown. The ornamental spaces can then be cut out, which lightens it considerably without weakening it much.

The frames, after being smoothed up, can be fastened to the bed-plate in the manner described before by angle-irons or knees riveted on. Two end-pieces must also be prepared an inch deep, and the ends hammered square at right angles, and then riveted to the bed-plate and side-frames, as shown by the rivets in Fig. 20.

Then drill three holes in them about an inch and a half from either end, and one in centre by which to bolt on the buffer-beams by means of a couple of screws put in from the back.

The buffer-beams should be mahogany, one inch wide, two inches deep, and ten inches long, squared nicely and sand-papered. A hook can then be made (Fig. 23), and, a hole being drilled in the centre of beam, you can pass the hook-stem through and into central hole of framework, and screw up tightly with nut at back, which will hold all firmly in place.

The buffers for this model must be made properly with springs to take the pressure, should you let it run into anything.

Turn out a wooden mould in the lathe and get four castings in brass made from it. Fig. 24 is an ordinary kind of buffer in general use, and, being in section, shows you the working arrangement of the spring, A is cast with a square base-plate two inches square, as in front view B, and is secured to buffer-beam by four flat-headed screws. The piece C must be turned true, and just the size to slide in and out A easily. Each part must be finished up in the lathe. A should be about an inch and a half long.

Drill a hole in beam to allow the head of pin to work in freely, and another hole in base-plate of buffer the size of pin, whose head prevents the spring forcing C entirely away from A.

The spring should be made of thick steel wire; the buffers can then be screwed on as just mentioned. The wheel-guard, or line-clearer P (Fig. 20), can next be cut out to shape and bolted on to frame, and should just clear the line by a quarter of an inch.

We will now proceed with the axle-bearings and springs U (Fig. 20). The wheels can be finished up in the same manner as previously described, so I need not say anything further about them.

Make a wooden model like Fig. 25 and get six castings in brass made from it. They then must be filed up square and smooth and fitted into the slots cut at A B C (Fig. 22), and either screwed or riveted on by the side holes.

Before finally fixing them prepare six brass bearings (B, Fig. 25). They must fit exactly, and slide easily in the inner surface of A, and a hole is to be drilled centrally through each five-eighths of an inch in diameter. These take the axles, which in this model are all straight, and three-quarters of an inch in diameter, shouldered off to five-eighths for the bearings.

The springs next require attention. Four pieces of either sheet iron or brass are wanted in each support an inch and a half long by a quarter wide. A hole is to be drilled at either end, as shown at C in Fig. 26. A should be three-eighths of an inch wide, drilled through and a pin put in, and all riveted together loosely.

The spring is best made from clock-spring, and cut to shape as at D. The top-piece requires to be made hot with your blowpipe, and then the ends turned over to hold the pin B. Each piece of spring must be slightly shorter than the upper, and the ends nicely graduated off, and when ready held together by the brass band F, which has a small hole drilled at F to hold the end of pin by which the pressure is directed on to the axle-boxes, as shown in Fig. 20. A hole is also to be drilled in bed-plate over centre of each axle-box to allow pin to pass through, and also a smaller one an inch and a half on each side for the support A (Fig. 26) to screw into. They can all be fitted into position.

The cylinders come next, and should be, as previously mentioned, an inch and three-quarters bore by two and a half inch stroke. These should be of the fixed slide-valve pattern, with double eccentrics fitted on middle axle-shaft, and reversing-lever brought to quadrant on foot-plate, as I will show presently, and for the method of making them I will again refer you to my article on the Model Launch Engine, and will simply give you in Fig. 27 the modified form necessary to suit a locomotive, in which A A are the eccentrics, B slide valve-rod, with guide G attached; C C the bed-plate, D the balance-weight, and F the rod leading to quadrant and lever on foot-plate. The cranks are put on outside the wheels and fastened by keys, as in Fig. 20.

The connecting rods T should be cut to the form shown in Fig. 28, and the ends squared out and a brass bush filled in with a hole drilled from top (A) to oil by, and a set-screw B fitted to adjust the bearings perfectly.

Although these little things give extra work in fitting a model, they add considerably to its finish and lessen the friction.

If you wish to fit a force-pump, it should be placed centrally between the cylinders, and be worked by an eccentric on main shaft, but a pump on a model locomotive is of very slight use unless it is arranged to work by hand also.

In Fig. 29 I have given a practical method of arranging one to be worked either way as desired. A is the pump, B the eccentric on main-shaft to work it by steam power; but when requiring to work the pump by hand, you have only to push up hook connection at C, which disconnects it from eccentric, and then by working the handle D, which is screwed into bottom of plunger C, the water is forced into boiler.

This pump is a little more troublesome to make, as it requires an extra stuffing-box at F, but it is very neat and useful, and the handle lying quite out of the way, does not spoil the appearance of the model.

G is the exhaust water-pipe bent up to the back pressure-valve on boiler, and H the supply-pipe carried on to rear of engine.

You will find two small blow-off cocks on each cylinder very handy to get rid of the condensed steam when starting the engine with cold cylinders, as without them the cylinders get choked, and you stand a good chance of getting scalded by the hot water being thrown up the chimney with considerable force.

The blow-off cocks can be connected with a tye-rod, and both worked from the foot-plate by a single handle.

The parts being all finished to your satisfaction, you should paint the bed-plate black, and side frames red, and when dry carefully line them black and white, and also pick out the rivets with black.

Of course individual taste has a great deal to do with the finish of a model, so I will leave it to you, merely suggesting you should get a fine lining tool to finish with, and when all is complete put it aside to dry whilst we proceed to build the boiler.

This will require the greatest care, but with due attention you will be able to turn it out well. Some sheet copper will be required one-eighth of an inch thick, and although this is more expensive than iron, it does not rust, and is more suitable for the work in hand.

First cut a piece nineteen inches long by sixteen wide, and bend it round, forming a cylinder five inches in diameter; the lap must be closely riveted, and then the two ends hammered out into a flange outwards, leaving the body of boiler seventeen inches long, as in Fig. 30; B is the shape of piece to be next riveted on at after end, then take another sheet nine inches wide, and hammer a half-inch flange round it so as to fit over the dotted line in A.

Then rivet them firmly together, and also another piece in after end.

It will now have the appearance of Fig. 31, and should be four and a half inches deep from A to B, and forming a copper box six inches wide from B to C, and eight inches from C to D.

Then rivet together another box to form the inner casing four and a half inches wide by six and a half inches long and nine inches deep.

The bottom of this must be hammered outwards to the dimensions of BC CD, as shown in section Fig. 32 at AA. A hole is next to be cut out in the centre of rear plate, and also the rear part of inner casing which comes opposite to it, and one three-quarter inches by two and a half, forming an elliptical opening for the furnace door.

A casting of that shape and three-quarters of an inch thick, which is the distance between the inner and outer casing BC, must be procured and drilled with holes every three-eighths of an inch, and firmly riveted in position, as shown in section at D.

Two pins or lugs (FF) should project on either side of the inner surface to support the fire-bars and ash-pan, and the bars should be made of cast-iron, and small enough to be got out easily by tilting up one side, and the bars ought to run lengthways of the engine.

You next require some hard-drawn brass tubing three-quarters of an inch diameter, and must cut the pieces slightly over seventeen inches long, then drill ten holes in the inner plate as at E (Fig. 32), and in the position and arrangement shown in Fig. 33. These tubes should have a wire ring brazed on about a quarter of an inch from either end, and then being placed in their respective holes in tube plate, the projecting portion is to be beaded back with a flange, or you can fit them in as described previously (Fig. 16) by each being double-screwed and nutted. These tubes allow the smoke and flame to pass through from the furnace to the smoke-box (M Fig. 20), and so away up the chimney, and by the large surface they expose to the fire, help to raise steam very quickly.

If you just add together the combined surfaces of these tubes, you will find there is more than two square feet of surface exposed and acted on by the fire, which enables the boiler, although small, to make steam rapidly. In some large engines three hundred tubes are fitted. The steam supply-pipe and regulating lever-handle should now be made and placed in position, and Fig. 34 shows the shape to make it.

A B are the front and rear plates of boiler, C is the supply pipe, bent with a screw end downwards after passing plate A, and then upwards into steam-dome, where it should be securely fastened by a cross-piece; D is the tap or valve, which can be turned on or off from the foot plate by means of the long rod F, ending in lever-handle G.

The rod must be fitted with a stuffing-box, the same as those used on the cylinders, and packed with cotton to prevent loss of steam by leakage; and when this is all firmly fixed, the forward end of the boiler can be furnished with tube-plate, riveted on and the tubes flanged over.

You should now take the boiler to a practical brazier and have it properly hard-brazed in every join and round each tube, and you might cut the hole for steam-dome and have it brazed on at the same time. If this is properly done you never need be in fear when the water runs low, as the boiler might get almost red-hot without injuring it much. Of course it is not advisable, as it would blister and spoil the appearance of the paint outside. This is a good opportunity to test the boiler before fitting it up, and you should fill it with water through a hole drilled in top of dome, and then fix on the test-pump, which you could borrow from any engineering-shop. If too far away from town to do that, you must make use of the force-pump attached to your model, and work it by hand, watching the pressure-gauge in the meanwhile. Test it to 100 lb. per square inch, which will be sufficient, as 50 lb. will be a fair working pressure. Should you have to test it with your own pump, the pressure-gauge will have to be bought then, as that is an article you cannot make yourself. A small gauge of Bourdon’s make, of an inch and a half diameter, will cost about twenty-five shillings, and although it may seem a rather high price for such a small thing, it is absolutely necessary to have it, as you could not tell what dangerous pressure you had raised in the boiler without it.

This being done, proceed to make the smoke-box, which should be three inches deep, and of the same shape and dimensions shown in Fig. 35. This and the chimney can be made of iron, hammered up to shape and finished with a brass ring. The smoke-box can be screwed to the forward flange on boiler. The door is drawn open to show the amount of bulge it should be hammered to.

In the centre a hole should be drilled through which to pass the screw used to close it, which is attached to the loose bar A. The handle B is then screwed up tight.

The door is circular and must be large enough to overlap the opening about half an inch, and have a couple of bright iron or brass eyes (C) riveted on to form the hinge.

We can now make the back pressure-valve (Fig. 36). A is a front view, with plate by which it is bolted on to boiler, as at W (Fig. 20).

It is very simple to make, and consists of the casting A with the top and bottom covers, and the ball-valve B, which ought to be ground with a little emery-and-oil to fit perfectly. It acts in this manner. The water being forced up C from the pump, raises B and passes into the boiler. On the up-stroke of pump the pressure is removed from under B, and pressure of steam in boiler causes it to fall back and close opening entirely, preventing any water passing away from boiler. A small flange can be put on each outer side of boiler near furnace to support it on bed-plate level with smoke-box.

The boiler should now have a coating of flannel, cut to shape and wrapped round the body part, and a casing of sheet tin put over it and secured by brass bands, and small nuts underneath, as shown in Fig. 20.

The steam supply-pipe can now be connected with the cylinders, and it should be made forked, as in Fig. 37. A leads from steam-pipe, and branches off to each cylinder, where it must be screwed up with white lead.

The exhaust-pipes (B B) should be of larger tubing, and bent round up the sides of smoke-box, so as to be out of the way when you require to clean the tubes. A small brass pipe (C) must also be passed through chimney, and bent upwards and fitted with tap, which should take steam from top of boiler, and be used as shown at D and F (Fig. 20). This helps to raise steam very quickly.

Fig. 38 is a rear view of the foot-plate, and shows the necessary fittings you must either make or buy to complete the model. The cocks you can manage easily, but the water-gauge is beyond most amateurs’ skill to turn out satisfactorily. A is the furnace-door, B two gauge-taps, C starting lever-handle, D spring-balance safety-valve, F wind-guard (with two look-out hobs), G steam-whistle handle, H pressure-gauge, K steam-blast handle, M glass water-gauge, N the quadrant and-lever for reversing the engine, O the rear buffer beam (with buffers), P the wheels showing axle, R R the springs for same, and V is the safety-guard rail on either side.

When these fittings are made, holes must be drilled in rear-plate for each, and then firmly screwed in place with white-lead: and the glass tube in water-gauge and the stuffing-box in gland of starting-lever should be packed with tallow and cotton wick.

The entire engine can now have another coat of paint.

The smoke-box chimney and rear-plate should be black, and the body any colour, according to fancy, leaving the brass bands bright.

When lined and quite dry it should have a coat of the best hard, clear varnish, and again be allowed to dry thoroughly before using it, which by this time, I have no doubt, you are anxious to do. Whilst it is drying you will have time to make the lines for it. And you should get some square bar-iron, cut it into six-foot lengths, if you wish the lines to be portable, and drill a hole in each end half an inch deep. They then can be joined end to end by a wire, pin, or plug.

The lines must be kept at a proper distance apart by being secured to pieces of wood placed transversely underneath by screws passing through holes drilled in the rails at about every six inches. You can then lay them down end to end and form a long line. If you want a circular line, each section must be bent to a portion of a circle; one of about thirty feet diameter is suitable for this model.

When finished, place the locomotive on them and get up steam. Fill the boiler with water by means of a funnel until you see it rise up three parts of the way in the glass water-gauge. Then see that all taps are turned off and light the fire. Charcoal forms the best fuel to use, as it gives a clear, hot fire, without smoke.

Try occasionally if you have any steam by lifting safety-valve, and when there is any turn on the blast-tap, which will soon draw up the fire, and you will presently see the pressure rise, and be indicated in the pressure-gauge.

When showing 30 lbs. of steam you might start her, turning on the cocks on cylinders until no more condensed steam issues from them. Then shut them off and turn on steam full power, and watch your model travel, gradually increasing its speed; and I hope you will have many pleasant hours’ enjoyment in running your locomotive and showing its action to your friends, which will well repay you for the time spent in building it.

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THE UNIVERSAL NOTATION.

Problem No. 1.—By Herr Meyer.

White to play and mate in two (2) moves.

The Endings of Games.

Beginners sometimes are apt to capture a superior man for an inferior one, and thereby forget the danger in which they leave their K, as the following moves show:—

	White.	Black.
1,	P d4	P d5
2,	O f3	N f5
3,	O c3	P e6
4,	N g5	O f6
5,	P e3	N d6
6,	N d3	N g6
7,	N g6:	P hg6:
8,	K M	O c6
9,	L d3	O b4
10,	L b5†	K e7
11,	L b7:	M b8
12,	L a7:	O C2:
13,	O e5	M b6

White threatened O c6†. If the N d6 had taken the O e5, White would have lost the M a1 for the O c2, but have won the O f6 for a P.

14,	M a c1	O b4
15,	P a3	O c6

If O a6, then O a4. The position is now interesting. If White would try L b6; then Black would win by N e5:. White should now play O c6:† and then P f4, but forgetting the danger at h2, plays

16,	O d5:†	P d5:
17,	M c6:	N e5:
18,	M b6:

The P d4 ought to have taken the N e5. The position is now—

Black to play and mate in six (6) moves.

Solution.

	18,	N h2:†
19,	K h1	N d6†
20,	K g1	M h1†
21,	K h1:	L h8†
22,	N h6	L h6:†
23,	K g1	L h2‡

The Endings of Games.

The following diagram illustrates a mate in three moves, which the beginner should learn early, and which is obtained from the original position of the thirty-two pieces by the following eleven moves:—

	White.	Black.
1,	P e4	P e5
2,	P f4	P d6
3,	P d4	P d4:
4,	L d4:	O c6
5,	N b5	O f6
6,	O c3	O h5
7,	O f3	L f6
8,	P e5	P e5:
9,	P e5:	L g6
10,	N d2	L g2:
11,	KM	L f3:

White to play and mate in three (3) moves.

Solution.

12,	L d8†	K d8:
13,	N g5††	K e8
14,	M d8‡

Problem No. 2.—By G. Chocholous.

White to play and mate in two (2) moves.

The Endings of Games.

In the last two games we gave the first move to White, but will now give it to Black, and show another series of moves, which lead to a pretty termination.

	Black.	White.
1,	P e5	P b3
2,	N c5	N b2
3,	P d6	P e3
4,	O f6	O f3
5,	N g4	O c3
6,	K M	N e2
7,	N f3:	P f3:

It is better for White to take with the P than with the N, for the M h1 can move to g1, and occupy the important g file, in which the black K stands.

8,	O c6	M g1
9,	O e7	O e4
10,	O e4:	P e4:
11,	O g6	P d4
12,	P d4:	P d4:
13,	N b6	P a4
14,	P c6	N c4
15,	L h4	L d3
16,	L h5	K d2
17,	O h4	P d5

White is now tempting Black to give the check with the O.

18,	O f3†	L f3:
19,	L f3:

White to play and mate in four (4) moves.

Solution.

	19,	M g7:†
20,	K h8	M g8††
21,	K g8:	M g1†
22,	L g2	M g2:‡

Problem No. 3.—By W. Furnival.

White to play and mate in two (2) moves.

Problem No. 4.—By H. F. I. Meyer.

White to play and mate in two (2) moves.

The Endings of Games.

The following is the termination of a game played by Adolph Anderssen:—

White to play and mate in five (5) moves.

Solution.

	Black.	White.
1,	L e6†	L e6:
2,	O d7 (threatening a mate with the M at b8).
		L d7:
3,	M b8†	K b8:
4,	P d7:	Any move.
5,	P d8 L‡

Solutions.

Problem No. 1.—1, P e8 O, any of four moves. 2, O d6 or f6, mate, accordingly.

Problem No. 2.—1, K c5, K g2: (or, Q, R, S, T, U). 2, L f3:‡.—(Q) O g1. 2, O g3‡.—(R) O h2. 2, O f2‡.—(S) O d2 or e1. 2, L h7‡.—(T) O g5 or h4. 2, L b1‡.—(U) O d4 or e5. 2, L b1 or h7‡.

Problem No. 5.

White: K a6; L f5; M a5, h1; N g1, h5; O b8, d1; P b2, c2, d5, g6, h3. Black: K c4; L g8; M h4; N f1; O a3; P a4, b4, b6, g2. (13 + 9 = 22 pieces.) White gives mate in two moves.

Problem No 6.

White: K b7; L f4; M d8; N a2; P a3, e5. Black: K c5; M h5; N f7, g1; O a8; P a5, b5, c2, c7. (6 + 9 = 15 pieces.) White gives mate in two moves.

Problem No. 7.

White to play and mate in two (2) moves.

Problem No. 8.—By G. Hume.

White to play and mate in two (2) moves.

The following game was played, and the mate in eight moves announced by H. F. L. Meyer.

	White.	Black.
1,	P b4	P e5
2,	N b2	P d6
3,	P b5	P a6
4,	P c4	P b5:
5,	P b5:	N e6
6,	P a4	N e7
7,	P e3	O f6
8,	O c3	K M
9,	O f3	O b d7
10,	O g5	P h6
11,	O e6:	P e6:
12,	N c4	P d5
13,	N b3	O c5
14,	N c2	P c6
15,	P d4	O c d7
16,	P e5:	O e5:
17,	O d5:

White wins a P, but the move is really a bad one. He ought to have played K g1 M f1.

	17,	O d5:
18,	N e5:	N b4†
19,	K e2

The K could not well move to f1, for the O would have checked at e3, and then taken the L.

	19,	L g5
20,	N b2

The N might have moved to f4, but then the black L would have taken the P g2, and won. Indeed, White’s game is hopeless, as the following diagram and the solution show:—

Black to play and mate in eight (8) moves.

Solution.

	20,	M f2:†
21,	K f2:

If K d3, the mate follows in three more moves by L e3:, O b6, and P c5.

	21,	L e3:†
22,	K f1	M f8†
23,	N f5	M f5:†
24,	L f3	M f3:†
25,	P f3:	L f3:†
26,	K g1	N c5†
27,	N d4	N d4:‡

General Remarks on Games.

The openings and endings of games, which we have already explained, will assist a beginner in understanding the following observations.

Begin by moving the centre P’s (in the e and d, and also in the c and f files), then move the N’s to the fourth, third, or fifth squares, and the O’s to the third or second squares in the central files. Do not play the L too soon. Place the men so that they protect one another, that they guard the K, and that they can easily attack the opponent’s men, especially the K. Always look out that your K is safe against checks, or, at any rate, against any that would be hurtful. Especially watch the vulnerable points f1 and f7. Do not play your K out early in the game, but try to move it together with one of the M’s, especially on the K’s side, in order that your officers may have freedom of action, and then you will in most cases do well to let the g and h P’s remain in their places. When, however, most of the officers (especially the L and the two N’s) have been exchanged, then you must generally bring your K forward to support your P’s, etc. Sometimes you can be patient with the KM movement, namely, wait for a favourable opportunity to perform it on the right or left. Move the long way when your opponent has taken the short one, and you are able to attack him with your officers and pawns. In rare cases you move your K freely into the second row, mostly to f2 (or, if black, to f7), and this especially for the purpose of uniting your two M’s.

Do not give check unless you see the necessity for it. Give an early check if thereby you can force the K to move and thus prevent the KM movement. Be mindful of discovered checks, in which, besides the L and the M, the N is often active.

When you see a good move try to discover a still better one.

Generally keep the L so that it may not be pinned by an M or an N, or be attacked when an O checks.

In covering a check from an N or an M it is in most cases best to interpose a piece of the same kind in order to prevent the piece being pinned for a long time: but when the L checks, then you should interpose your L only, when you cannot well attack it by interposing an inferior piece, or when you cannot protect yourself with an O.

Try to attack two or three men at once in order to capture one; by doing so endeavour especially to make an attack upon the two principal pieces, the K and the L. The fittest pieces for this are the L and the O, and sometimes the M.

Let your P’s protect one another, use them for attacking the officers, try to get them into open files, and avoid doubling them. Push them forward on the side on which your opponent has placed his K, unless you have your K on the same side and wish to keep it safe against checks. Sometimes you can with safety place your K before an adverse P.

Try to get an open file for your M’s, and according to circumstances to move one or both into your opponent’s second row. Moving both into one file or row is called doubling them. Try to clear your P’s away in those files in which you can attack the K with your M’s. When you advance a P, consider if your opponent will take it with his P or push his on.

Do not exchange pieces unless you obtain an advantage by doing it, but when you have an advantage, then do it as often as possible. Sometimes you can with advantage give an M for an N or an O.

If one of your men is attacked and you cannot defend it, then try to make a counter-attack, and always consider the subsequent moves. Do not always take a piece which is offered to you, but consider the consequences.

If your L and another officer (M, N, or O) be attacked, and you can save the former but not the latter, then you will do well, if you can, to give the L for two minor officers, and then save your officer.

When you have a passed P, try to preserve it and to protect it by P’s. A P in the sixth or seventh row well supported is generally worth an officer.

Towards the end of the game you must use your K as an attacking officer. Keep it from an adverse O, so that it cannot easily be checked—that is, so that it stands in the same diagonal with one square intervening.

When each of you is left with an N and two or three P’s, then the game, as a rule, is easily drawn if the N’s stand on squares of different colours. Your K should generally be kept on a square of a different colour from that on which the adverse N stands. Let your P’s and N protect one another if you are afraid of losing, but keep the P’s on squares of a different colour when you wish to prevent the adverse K from coming near them.

Do not exchange an N for an O indiscriminately, for an N can impede the march of P’s more readily than an O. And when the major officers are off, remember that two N’s are stronger than an N and an O, or two O’s. Prevent an isolation and doubling of your P’s, for two of them protect each other against the K if the topmost is a passed one and no officer left. You can often give your last officer for one or two P’s, for these latter may win, whilst a minor officer very rarely can. Two P’s in the sixth row win, in most cases, against an M.

Lastly, when you are about to give mate, be mindful of stalemate.

Each of the two players places alternately one of his sixteen men, beginning with the K, upon any square of his first three rows. The two N’s may, if preferred, be placed on the same colour. A check within the first sixteen moves must immediately be covered, and should it not be possible to cover, then the player checked has lost the game. When all the men are placed, then the moving and taking begin, the player whose turn it is to play having the move. The K M move, that is, castling, is not permitted. The pawns move, and take in passing. A white P in the first row, or a black P in the eighth row, can start by moving one, two, or three squares, or such a P may first move one square and afterwards one or two squares, but in his adversary’s territory only one square at a time. When moving two or three squares it can be taken in passing. A black P on g 8 moving to g 5 can be taken by white P’s standing on f5, f6, h5, or h6. When a P reaches the last square, then the player promotes it and chooses any one of the seven officers which is not on the board, but when all the officers are on, then it remains a P for ever.

The letters from K to P are used for the six kinds of pieces, thus:—

The first game of this kind was played in June, 1887, between H. F. L. Meyer (White) and J. Swyer (Black). It is a so-called diagonal game, because the K’s are placed diagonally opposite one another (on h1 and a8); it would have been a straight game if the black K had been placed on h8. Both players surrounded their K’s with the P’s, and thus made sure to be safe against checks for a long time. The moves are the following:—

	White.	Black.
1,	K h1	K a8
2,	P g1	P a7
3,	P g2	P b7
4,	P h2	P b8
5,	P f2	P c8
6,	P h3	M d6
7,	M e1	M d8
8,	M e2	P a6[172]
9,	P f1	P b6
10,	P f3	P c7
11,	P g3	P c6
12,	N b2	N h8
13,	N a2	N h7
14,	O d2	O f7
15,	O e3	O h6
16,	L c1	L f8

The men are now placed thus:—

17,	N a3	P c5
18,	O d c4	P b5
19,	O d6:(a)	P d6
20,	O d5	N d5
21,	M e3	P c4
22,	P f4	N d4
23,	M e7	P c6
24,	O b4	N f6
25,	M 7 e6	N g7
26,	O d3:	P d3:
27,	L d2	P c5
28,	L d3:	P b4
29,	L d5	O g8
30,	N c1	O f h6
31,	P g4	O f6
32,	L f3	O h g8
33,	P g5	O e8 (b)
34,	N d5	Resigns. (c)

Notes.

(a) Black thought he might give the M for the O, and work the P’s through.

(b) He loses time in moving the O’s. He ought to have prevented the attack on the P b7.

(c) It is now useless to defend b7, for if M d7, then M e8:, and if L f7, then M e7.

The two players, same as last mentioned, agree to play a so-called Pyramid Game, that is, to place the Kings on e1 and e8, and to place the eight Pawns around each in the shape of a pyramid. After these nine moves they proceeded to place the remaining officers as follows:—

	White.	Black.
10,	O d3	M h8
11,	N f3	O c7
12,	M a1	O d6
13,	M a2	L h7
14,	N c3	N g7
15,	O b3	M b8
16,	L b2	N g6

The board now presents the following appearance:—

Now the moving and taking began thus:—

17,	N g7:	P g7:
18,	O e5	N e4
19,	P d3	N f3:
20,	O f3:	P f6
21,	P c4	P e5
22,	L c3	O e6
23,	M a5	P e4
24,	O fd2	L h1
25,	P g3	M h2
26,	O e4:	O e4:
27,	P e4:	L g1
28,	M f5	O g5
29,	O d2	P g6
30,	M f4	O h3
31,	M f3	O f2:
32,	M a5	O g4
33,	M g5	P g5:
34,	L g7	O f6

If he had played P d6, there would have followed 35, L g6:†, K d7; 36, L f5†, K c7; 37, L g4:, etc.

35,	L g6:†	K f8
36,	M f6:†	P f6:
37,	L f6:†	K e8
38,	L g6†	K e7
39,	L g7†	K d6
40,	P c5†

and the game was a draw by perpetual check, for if K c7, then 41, L e5†, K b7; 42, L b2†, K c6; 43, L f6†, etc.

These two games show a remarkable variety in the arrangement of the pieces, and some beautiful new problems can be constructed in accordance with the placements and movements of the Pawns. Indeed, some ancient problems gave the impulse for the invention of this kind of game in June, 1874, when the first game of a similar arrangement was played between H. F. L. Meyer and H. J. C. Andrews. In 1874, however, the sixteen men were placed on the board all at once.

It seems an odd thing that in this prolific age of literature the most fascinating of all nineteenth-century games should lack a recognized authority as to its play. It is probably for this reason that Double Chess has so long a time languished in comparative obscurity, winning its way by slow degrees only into club and family circle.

No two strangers could be found to agree as to the rules which should govern its play, and the most imperative rule of all, namely, that of absolute silence, has been broken again and again with a royal disregard of all fine or penalty.

Time after time has it been our lot to sit over a foolish game where one’s partner would insist either in giving way to vocal bursts of impatience, or authoritatively insist upon a move which happened to chime in with his or her ideas. It must be confessed that the fair sex are most to blame in this matter. Though we are reluctant to upbraid them, we have no hesitation in saying that the infringement of this golden rule of silence is one of the fruitful sources of the hitherto unpopularity of the game.

How often have the writers waited in mute agony lest an exclamation of triumph or despair from their partners should reveal the imminent development of a well-planned scheme, and how they have plodded on, more from courtesy than any real interest, after such an event has taken place. We must insist that a heavy penalty for a breach of this golden rule should be rigidly enforced.

Let not the astute Single-chess player delude himself with the notion that he can march triumphantly to victory in this new game. Save that the pieces move in the same manner (with one exception) as in Single Chess, there is no similarity between them, and we must say that the relative interest of the two games is in favour of the younger born. At any rate, the writers think so. Beginners grow weary of Double Chess because they find it occupies an unreasonable length of time. This is caused by the fact that they maintain a desultory kind of warfare, each one selecting an adversary and fighting him on his own account.

If the Double-chess player will remember that it is absolutely essential to watch his partner and second his moves, this state of things will speedily disappear. Those who wilfully neglect this may as well content themselves with Single Chess. No matter what their powers of calculation, they will never make decent Double-chess players.

Another imperative rule is always to make your attack to the right and defend on the left, taking care to guard your king against check by a double guard. These two rules will be referred to again at their proper time; but we cannot too strongly insist upon them, though, properly speaking, they have no place in the introductory remarks.

We have seen a very sensible and modest little brochure, by Captain George Hope Verney, which, unfortunately, is printed for private circulation only. We willingly bear testimony to its merits.

We must endeavour to combat the popular error that Double Chess is too complicated for ordinary players. Any one acquainted with the moves and rules of ordinary chess can soon become a proficient, and as for the notion that it requires a great Single-chess player to make a good Double-chess-player, we must call attention, by way of analogy, to the fact that gamekeepers generally make wretched rifle-shots.

Exception must be taken to the name, ‘Four-handed Chess,’ given by some players to this game. Why not Four-brained Chess, or Four-person Chess, on the same principle? Must we call Single Chess Two-handed Chess? Double Chess let it be called, since it has exactly double the number of pieces engaged.

The diagram which we give will afford an accurate idea of the board used in the game of Double Chess.

It should consist of one hundred and sixty squares, twenty-four extra squares on each side of the central squares.

It is advisable to have the board to fold in two, the blanks on each corner being convenient for the reception of taken pieces, enabling players to see at a glance the amount of their own or their opponents’ losses.

Having placed the pieces on the board as shown in the diagram, taking care that the queens are on the same colour, the adversaries proceed to try for first move, an unquestionable advantage for eight moves.

This is done in the following manner: Red takes one of Black’s and one of his own pieces, and Black guesses, as in Single Chess. White and Green do the same. The conquerors then repeat, as in Single Chess. The victor has first move, and begins the attack, which should be directed towards his right-hand adversary.

His partner is now bound to remember that to him he must look for guidance, guessing at his plan of attack, and aiding him to the best of his ability.

Should the first mover decline to attack he will move on the left, say his king’s bishop’s knight to king’s bishop third for defence.

This will be sufficient warrant for his partner to make the attack and take the lead, as it is obvious that first mover wishes to follow instead of leading. In such an event, after the first round number one must look to number three for guidance.

The change is, at the best, a confession of weakness, and we cannot recommend its adoption, as in this game dash is most essential to success.

Each player makes a move in turn from right to left, and any player moving out of his turn (Rule 11) may be compelled to move the piece on which he has placed his hand, while his adversaries may also move out of their turn. The justice of this is obvious when one reflects that the mere indication of a piece may give a clue to the mover’s plan of attack or defence.

No consultation or suggestion of any kind is allowed as the game proceeds (Rules 1 and 11). Those who cannot restrain shuffling their feet, wriggling in their chairs, or grimacing over a certain move, had better be avoided as partners. Such a proceeding is more than undignified.

The pawns move only one square at a time, taking obliquely, as in Single Chess. When friendly pawns meet they leap over each other, and continue their progress until they reach partner’s king-row, when they return.

No object is gained in causing your pawn to reach your partner’s king-row, except that coming back it takes in reverse way.

It is therefore advisable when they meet to permit them to remain together for mutual protection, as in such position they command four squares-forward and backward.

Should pawns by repeated captures reach the adversary’s square, they become any pieces their player chooses to name, and such pieces cannot be taken except by a piece equivalent in rank, or by a king or queen (Rule 8).

As, however, it is next to impossible for a pawn to reach adversary’s square, seeing that it can only do so by repeatedly capturing antagonists, this advantage goes for very little.

A pawn on the return march should be marked by tying a piece of thread or a ring round its neck. But it will be found that but few, if any, pawns will have to be so treated, and this most likely will occur at the end of the game, when one or other of the kings is hard pressed, and the pawn is hastening to his assistance.

No player is allowed to expose either his own or his partner’s king to check, and, though he is not compelled to cover his partner’s check, it is advisable in most cases, when able to do so, as it will be found that when the king is checked by one adversary, the other will profit by it to obtain a piece and a position.

Bear in mind that in this game everything depends on mutual assistance and self-sacrifice. In nine cases out of ten the one who refuses to sacrifice in order to save his partner from checkmate brings speedy defeat on each.

Castling is not allowed; it is therefore advisable to get out one’s knights as soon as possible in order to give castles an opportunity of moving out of the way of a sudden combined attack.

Another advantage in getting out the knights is that their greatest value is at the beginning of the game.

Towards the end of the game, in consequence of the combined action of the pawns, and the distances to be traversed, a knight’s value is greatly reduced.

We have found it advantageous to exchange a knight for a bishop towards the middle of the game.

The great object of the game is by combined action to suddenly checkmate one adversary. His pieces, though not removed from the board, are then dead, and cannot return to life until the checkmate is removed.

They cannot be taken, but are practically useless, except as offering the shelter of inert matter to partner’s pieces.

One partner having been checkmated, the antagonists concentrate their attack upon the remaining one, with the enormous advantage of having two moves to his one!

Only, therefore, by making desperate sacrifices to release his partner from checkmate can the non-checkmated one hope to save the game, except his adversaries should stalemate him, when it is drawn.

While one is checkmated the adversaries may move in and out amongst his pieces with impunity, and should adversaries’ kings do so, they are not exposed to check, as the pieces are considered dead.

This is most important, as it enables the adversaries, having once secured checkmate, to render it permanent by pieces of lesser value, withdrawing important pieces to fight against remaining partner, who, although combating single-handed, may be numerically superior to both.

It is lawful to open adversary’s checkmate for the purpose of capturing any of his pieces, who by that means are returned to life. But it should be borne in mind that if in doing this stalemate is given, the game is drawn.

Though the adversary may at any time open checkmate, he cannot in the same move take a piece, but his partner may do so, and he may close the checkmate again at his discretion when it comes to his turn. (See Rule 4.) The game is only won by both partners being checkmated.

A game is drawn when only one piece is left on the board, or when only pawns are left, as it is then impossible to secure a double checkmate.

But should each partner have a piece, or one of them two pieces, the game should be fought out, as, with the assistance of their kings, they may secure a double checkmate.

The adversaries have the forlorn hope of either taking one of their pieces—in which case the game is drawn—or of securing a stalemate.

This latter event, unlike the former case given, in which one was checkmated before the stalemate, will be a victory for them, as one king is free to move.

It is as well for beginners, having reached that stage of the game in which only two pieces are left, to declare the game drawn, with the honours of war attached to those with the two pieces left, as the game in that event will probably last long enough to tire out the patience of all engaged. Some ten years ago the writers sat from six o’clock in the evening until half-past four the following morning over a game which had dwindled down to the above-mentioned dimensions, and had all but given up the task as hopeless ere the desired result was obtained.

The pieces may range all over the board, as in Single Chess, and are equally at home in partners’ squares as in their own.

RULES AND PENALTIES.

1. Absolute silence must be maintained. Should a player give vent to an exclamation of vexation when his partner is about to move a piece, the adversaries may claim a pawn from any of his squares which does not expose him to check.

2. A player checkmated may not indicate to his partner how to obtain his release.

3. No piece may be moved which will discover check to player or his partner.

4. No player can release his antagonist from checkmate by taking any of his pieces.

5. Any player may call attention to the fact that his partner’s queen is in check.

6. But his own being in check, he may not direct attention to that.

7. A king is not in check by any of his partner’s pieces.

8. A pawn-piece can only be taken by a piece of its own rank, or by king or queen.

9. A player putting his hand on a piece must play it. If he remove his hand, the move must be considered as completed.

10. Adversaries’ kings cannot stand next each other on adjoining squares.

11. Should a player play out of his turn, both his antagonists may play out of theirs, and they are allowed to ask each other which of them is desirous of moving first.

12. No piece may be removed from the board unless legally captured.

13. A pawn can only move one square at a time, and not two squares first move, as in Single Chess.

14. The game is only won when both partners are checkmated. Should it be relinquished before such an event, it is to be considered drawn.

15. A player may not move his checkmated partner’s pieces.

16. Antagonistic pawns may not leap over one another.

17. A player may not take a piece while his king is in check, except to release himself from check.

18. A king may not move out of check if by so doing he exposes his partner’s king to check.

19. With kings and one piece only remaining, or with pawns only, the game is drawn.

REMARKS.

Never reproach your partner for having made a blunder. It is useless blowing up the groom after the horse is stolen; and as it is essential above all things that a cool head should be kept over this fascinating game, if your partner is inclined to be nervous, and you ‘nag’ at him, you may as well consider the game lost.

We remember an instance in America when a really good player, who had been wofully badgered by his partner for some blunders, remained for an hour and a half studying the board, lest he should make a false move and once more encounter his partner’s terrible sarcasm.

At the expiration of that period he arose without making the move, and vowed, as he could not see that which his partner deemed so important, he would never play another game of Double Chess. As far as our party was concerned, he kept his word, and thus a very enjoyable evening’s amusement was broken up.

It is almost needless to add, that while refraining from rousing your partner’s temper, it is equally important that you should control your own. It is very provoking to have a trap suddenly sprung upon you, thanks perhaps to your partner’s want of perspicuity, and lose an important piece just when you imagine you had a brilliant game in hand.

But however provoking this may be, getting angry will only make matters worse, for we defy an angry man to see two moves ahead. Keep cool, bow gracefully to the opposing storm, and wait with sweetness of temper for the turn of the tide.

Calmness and breeding are nowhere more requisite than at the Double-chess table. One cannot bully a stupid player into playing well, and the only thing to be done is to play the game rigorously, and give or take no more than the fixed rules require.

By adhering to this, all unpleasantness will be avoided, and this charming game will grow more and more in popularity. Should you unfortunately discover that constitutionally you are incapable of controlling your temper, abandon the game for ever. You will reap the reward of your self-denial in the knowledge that you will never again mar the pleasure of those whom Nature has cast in firmer mould.

Theoretical knowledge is of value, but practically it will be found more advantageous to play a straightforward game than to indulge in any scheme calculated for a great number of moves ahead. It is of the last importance that your partner should know what you are about, and aid you in your plans, else, despite your brilliant play, your airy fabric may vanish.

Therefore by all means choose such moves as will most readily lead him to divine your method of attack, bearing in mind that it is more important he should know it than that your adversaries should remain in ignorance of it.

Since the attack should invariably be made on the right-hand adversary, and the great danger is that you may be held in check by one foe while the other sweeps away your pieces, it is obvious that your left-hand defence must be of double strength, to prevent this result being obtained. Your knights in the early stages of the game will be found of value in this respect, and your bishops and queen should, as far as possible, be kept in readiness to swoop to your partner’s assistance, while he will be ready to aid you in a similar manner. Get out your castles as speedily as possible, even if you sacrifice a pawn in doing so, as they are of more importance in this game than in Single Chess, and are not nearly so well protected in their original positions. Your queen is of far more value than in Single Chess, and to capture her the sacrifice of a castle and bishop is, in our opinion, not too great.

Great care must be exercised in her movements. Calculate well, ere you place her in position, that you cannot be checked in two moves, or you lose her to a certainty.

We place the relative value of the pieces in Double Chess in the following scale:—

Queen	=	10
Castles	=	6
Red Bishop	=	5
White  „	=	4
Knights at beginning of game	=	3
Kni„ts a  „  the end	=	2
Pawns	=	1

although practically the last are of little value; certainly not half so valuable as in Single Chess.

Other players may place a slightly different value on the pieces, but this will in a great measure depend on their play. While some work the queen to death, others rely more on their other pieces—in our opinion the wisest play in the long run.

THE BOARD AND MEN.

We have found a board of two-inch squares suit our purpose, and those which fold in the centre, leaving a blank in each corner, seem to us the handiest.

If bone black and white and red and green men cannot be obtained easily, the ordinary wooden black and yellow, and bone red and white, will answer the purpose just as well, but any turner will turn a double set for about two pounds.

Captain George Hope Verney says, in his Four-Handed Chess:—

‘I use two sets of Staunton men. One set is of black and yellow wood, and the other is of red and white bone.

‘The latter was made to order for me at the Civil Service Store in the Haymarket, at a cost of about eighteen shillings.’

The base of the king measures one and five-eighths of an inch, and is three and a half inches high.

EXAMPLES IN OPENING.

First round—Black king’s pawn to king’s third; green ditto; white ditto; red ditto.

Second round—Black bishop takes red bishop; green queen takes black queen; white queen takes red queen; red king takes white queen.

Third round—Black king takes green queen; green moves queen’s pawn one, white king’s knight’s pawn one, red king’s knight to royal square.

Fourth round—Bishop takes knight’s pawn.

Thus at the beginning of the fourth round red and green find themselves obliged to put up with the loss of a bishop and pawn, and a strong attack, to be followed up by the knights, will be directed against red, who is severely crippled. Should green check black king, it will do him no good, as black king’s bishop is protected by white.

Red and green have drawn disaster upon themselves at the beginning of the game by imitating their opponents’ move, and black and white thus early starting with an advantage and well-defined attack, should win the game, since red has not only lost a piece and pawn, but also a move.

Should green check black king third round, he will lose his bishop. Should he take white’s bishop, black will retreat without breaking square, as that would liberate red’s castle. He will thus save his partner a pawn.

A variation of the same opening will be for black second round to play his knight to bishop’s third, thence to castle four. If this opening is not seen through and frustrated before four moves, green loses his queen. But red can easily frustrate the design, or green king’s bishop’s knight to bishop’s third will suffice.

These two openings will suffice for the beginner; and our readers can now follow up the subject as far as they wish.

CIRCULAR CHESS.

Of chess in the middle ages there were no less than fifty-four varieties—not gambits, but different ways of playing the game. To one of these, known as Double Chess, we have already devoted some pages; and we now give the variety known as Circular Chess, which was played on a board of the same pattern as the illustration, on which the pieces were arranged as shown, the line with the arrow-heads representing the edge of the board in the ordinary game, and the movements taking place right and left from it.

A pawn attaining this line is exchangeable for a piece, as in the common game, but it offers no barrier to the passage of the men. The moves are in all respects the same as in ordinary chess. The peculiarity of the shape, however, considerably reduces the importance of the bishops and increases that of the rooks and queens.

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It has been said by one who has a right to express an opinion on the subject (Mr. Wylie, of Fife, the greatest player and analyst in Scotland) that Draughts is a more intricate and ingenious game than its proud rival, Chess, of higher antiquity and of more intellectual scope. So much so, that in a hundred years a man could not exhaust its varieties. Edgar Allan Poe, the author of The Raven, expresses a like opinion: ‘The higher powers of the reflective intellect are more decidedly tasked by the unostentatious game of Draughts, or chequers, than by all the elaborate frivolities of Chess.’

Without venturing to discriminate between the merits and claims of the two games—both of which I love—I purpose attempting to show my readers some of the prominent features of the ancient and honourable game of Draughts.

You are all, doubtless, acquainted with the form of the draught-board and men; with the fact that the game is played by two persons on a board of sixty-four squares, with twenty-four men, twelve of one colour and twelve of another. At starting, the men occupy the three rows of squares on opposite sides of the board. The men may be placed on either colour, but for convenience of notation it is usual to select the white squares. The moves of all the men are alike—diagonal from square to square, in an upward direction from the player. They take by passing over the captured man into a vacant square beyond. One, two, or more men can be taken by the same move, always providing that there is a vacant square to pass into at each jump. When a man has arrived at either of the four squares on the opposite side of the board he is crowned, and becomes a King. The crowning is a simple ceremony—merely placing one draughtman, of the same colour, on the top of the other. The kings have the power of moving forward and backward, one square at a time, diagonally. The object of the game is to capture all your opponent’s men, or so to block them in that they cannot move. The player who first accomplishes one of these ends wins the game.

One or two rules are absolute. The offered man must be taken, when the player says ‘Take,’ and a man touched must, if it can, be moved.

In placing the board for the game, the double corners must be at the right-hand of the player, which brings us at once to the

NOTATION OF DRAUGHTS

—the method by which the moves of a game or problem are recorded. It is not necessary to show a diagram of the Numbered Board if you remember the order of the figures. The first white square on the left hand, uppermost, is 1, and the rest go from left to right, horizontally, till we arrive at the last white square on the right, 32. In recording the moves of a game we say 11 to 15, 24 to 19, and so on. A very little practice will make you sufficiently familiar with this easy system of notation, and soon enable you to play a game by memory without the board.

To show you the nature of a Problem, and the way to record its solution, I will append a diagram.

The difficulty here is the first move. That discovered, all the others follow as a matter of course. This is the solution:—

White.				Black.
10	to	6	1	2	to	9
18	to	14	2	9	to	18
15	to	22	3	13	to	17
22	to	13	4	29	to	25
13	to	17	5	25	to	30
17	to	22	6	30	to	25
22	to	29	7	4	to	8
11	to	4	8

by which you will see that Black’s moves are all forced, and White wins the game.

Draughts is played in three ways: the Winning (and most usual) game, the Losing, and the Polish game. The last, not much practised in this country, is played on a larger board, and the men take backwards or forwards.

THE RULES.

Draughts, as played in Great Britain and in all English-speaking countries, is governed by a few simple and easily-understood Rules, as follows:—

1. The board is to be placed with the double corner to the right hand of the player.

2. The choice of colour is determined by lot. After the first game the men are commonly changed.

3. Black has invariably the first move.

4. A man touched, except for the purpose of adjusting it, must be moved if there be an open square into which it can be moved.

5. A man moved over the angle of a square must, if it can, be moved to that square.

6. A man en prise must be taken; or if it be left untaken by accident, it may be ‘huffed’—that is, taken off the board by the adversary. The ‘huff’ is not a move, but the player insisting on it, huffs and moves.

7. Five minutes is the limit of time for considering a move; when a piece is en prise, one minute only is allowed. Penalty: loss of the game.

8. A false move must be replaced, and a legal move made.

9. A wrong man removed from the board can only be replaced by consent of the adversary.

10. When two kings only remain on the board, the game must be won in twenty moves on either side, or abandoned as drawn.

11. With three or more kings, or men, to two, the player with the weaker force may insist on the game being won within forty moves on each side, or be drawn. In each of these cases notice must be given by the player that he will count the moves.

12. When two or more men are taken at one coup, no man captured must be taken from the board till the combined move is completed.

13. A man moved up to the last row of squares on the other side must be immediately crowned; but the king cannot play till a move has been made on the other side.

Bye-laws.—No pointing over the board or obstruction to the adversary is allowed.—Matches, unless otherwise agreed, consist of an equal number of games.—All disputes to be decided by an umpire or other disinterested player.—Neither player is allowed, without the consent of his opponent, to leave the room during the progress of a game.—Any breach of the rules involves the loss of the game.

Above all, keep your temper!

Problem I.

TWO KINGS TO ONE.

A common practice with young players is to give man for man; but this is only advantageous when you are a piece ahead, and even then it is sometimes found difficult to win within the twenty moves allowed. There is, however, no secret in the matter. The player with two kings can always force a win if he knows how to set about it. From any part of the board he can, in about eight or nine moves, drive the single king into the double corner, and when he is there he wins in eight moves, thus:—

Black.			White.
10	to	6	5	to	1
14	to	10	1	to	5
6	to	1	3	to	9
1	to	5	9	to	13

It is at this point the tyro generally makes a mistake. Instead of moving away, he presses on his adversary, and gives him a chance of escape. He must move into square 15, not into 14:—

10	to	15	13	to	17
15	to	18

Now whether White move into 13 or 21, he is equally pinned by the Black at 22.

Of course a like series of moves in the other double corner produces a like result.

In the above, and all the other diagrams, the Black men occupy the upper half of the board.

To show, however, the mischief of unscientific play, we will suppose the kings to have got into the following position, when Black, with the move, can do no more than effect a drawn game:—

Here Black must give away a man. He must go to either square 17, 25, or 26. Let us suppose he moves to 26, White takes, and goes into square 31. Now, if Black go to 25 instead of 17, he loses the game in two moves. White moves to 26, and pins him on 22, in either the three squares to which he is compelled to go.

TWO KINGS TO TWO.

In ordinary circumstances, two kings to two must be a draw. Neither player can force the other out of the double line. Suppose, however, you can get the pieces into this position:—

Black, with the move, wins by playing a king from 26 to 23, and taking two for one. Beware, in the position shown, that you do not move backward instead of forward. Should you do so, you may perhaps get into some such fix as this:—

White must, moreover, be careful not to get his men into a line with a square between into which Black can move, technically known as ‘The Breeches.’

This is a trap into which young players are very apt to fall. Beware of it. Had White the move, he, of course, could easily win, either by fixing the Black king in a side square, or by the double-corner moves already shown.

THREE KINGS TO TWO.

When you are left with three kings to two, you must effect an exchange, or the game may be prolonged indefinitely. It is sometimes rather difficult to force an exchange, but it is not impossible if you go the right way to work. The possessor of the two kings commonly gets one in each double corner. The mode of attack in this case is to get your three kings into a line, so as to enable you to give king for king. However hard the other player tries he must eventually succumb. Take a common case. Place the kings on the board as in the diagram, the White on 32 and 5, the Black on 10, 18, and 19:—

If Black play he moves into 6 or 24. White has the choice of two moves only, either of the double corners.

Black.			White.
19	to	24	5	to	1
18	to	15	1	to	5
10	to	6

Now, whether White move from 5 to 1 or from 32 to 28, he must submit to an exchange, for Black backs up his king, takes one for one, and then wins in the usual way.

Suppose White has the move. He can only go into squares 1 or 32. Say he moves into 32; Black has only to go from 18 to 15, and what has his adversary left? Nothing but to submit to an exchange at the next move, after which the rest is easy, as already shown with two kings to one.

FOUR KINGS TO THREE.

As a rule the player with the superior force must win, but in some positions it is very difficult to force an exchange. Take this:—

White, with the move, has but one square, 28, into which he can move. Black, with the move, would of course win by going into the same square, and soon compel an exchange. Suppose White move—

White.			Black.
32	to	28	24	to	20
28	to	32	23	to	19
31	to	27	22	to	18
27	to	31

If he play 27 to 23 his adversary takes from 18 to 27, and leaves himself after the exchanges with two kings to one. White prolongs the struggle by moving from 27 to 31, to which Black replies by playing

			19	to	24
32	to	27	24	to	28
27	to	32	18	to	23
31	to	27	23	to	26
30	to	23	28	to	24
27	to	31	24	to	27
31	to	24	20	to	18	,

which leaves Black with two kings to one, when he wins in ten or twelve moves.

This last is an instructive position, as it shows how the greater force must conquer. Generally the same result happens in other and more vastly important contests. The game of Draughts, like the game of war, can only be successfully played by an intimate union of strategy and might.

THE MOVE.

If each player had equal skill, and each made the proper move, then the player who took the first move would win. This sentence sounds like a truism, but it is open to argument. Throughout every game it is important to know which of the two players ‘has the move’—that is, the power to fix his adversary man for man on every available square. The first moves of a game do not directly affect its final result, but when the men have become fewer and fewer, it is of the greatest consequence to know on which side lies the forcing power. To make this plain, place a white man on square 4, the top right-hand corner, and a black man on square 30, the second from the left in the lowermost row of squares. Black, having to play, moves from 30 to 26, and do what he may, White must be stopped at square 19. Try it. White, having to play first, cannot, on the contrary, prevent his opponent from making a king. This simply shows the theory of Having the Move.

To discover whether you Have the Move, several plans are at your service. The easiest is this: Count one for each man of both colours which stand on columns having a white square at the foot. If it is your turn, and the total of the addition be odd, you Have the Move; if it is your opponent’s turn to play, the move is with him.

Place the men as in the following diagram, and you will soon find that either colour moving first has the move, and therefore ought to win.

Another Plan, by some considered more certain, is this:—

If you desire to know if any one of your men has the move of any man on the other side, examine the position of both. If there is a black square on the right angle under his man you Have the Move. For instance, you have a black man on 30, and white has a man on 3. The right angle is the black square between 31 and 32. With your man on square 29 or 31 the right angle would be found on the black squares on one or other side of the straight line below the white man, and he, therefore, would Have the Move. The value of this plan is that it holds good with any number of men.

A Third Plan.—Count the men and the squares. If the men are even and the squares are odd, or if the squares are even and the men odd, you Have the Move. With even men and even squares, and odd men and odd squares, the move is on the other side.

To apply this theory. When you have the move do not exchange, if you can avoid it, or you may lose the move. For example, place the men thus:

When all the men, both Black and White, on the lettered column (a, b, c, d,) are added up, the total is odd, and the side having to play Has the Move. If no men are on the lettered squares, then take the figured squares, 1, 2, 3, 4; but do not combine the two. Apply the theory to the above position. We find that there being 9, an odd number of men, on the lettered columns, White Has the Move, and having it, would win:

White.				Black.
28	to	24	—1—	8	to	12
30	to	26	—2—	2	to	6
24	to	19	—3—	6	to	10
21	to	17	—4—	9	to	13
26	to	22	—5—	1	to	6
32	to	28	—6—	6	to	9
28	to	24	—7—

What, now, can Black do but play, and lose a man and the game? He has but two squares, 15 and 11, open to him. His defeat is decisive and complete.

TO REGAIN THE MOVE.

Change man for man till only one capturing piece remains on the board. Suppose Black had men on squares 12 and 15, and White had men on 24 and 28. What should White do? Nothing more simple. He plays from 24 to 19. Black must take the offered piece and be taken, when his remaining man on 12 is fixed by the White on square 19.

A further example. Place the men thus:—

Here it would appear that Black must win. But White, playing first, forces a win.

White.								Black.
32	to	28		—	1	—	King	25	to	22
28	to	24		—	2	—		22	to	18
24	to	19		—	3	—		18	to	22
19	to	15		—	4	—		22	to	17
15	to	18		—	5	—		17	to	13
18	to	22		—	6	—		13	to	9
30	to	26		—	7	—		9	to	14
26	to	23		—	8	—		14	to	10
23	to	18		—	9	—		10	to	6
18	to	14		—	10	—		6	to	1
14	to	9		—	11	—		1	to	5
9	to	6		—	12	—		5	to	1
6	to	2	King	—	13	—		1	to	5
2	to	6		—	14	—		5	to	1
6	to	10		—	15	—		1	to	5
10	to	15		—	16	—		5	to	9
15	to	19		—	17	—		9	to	14
27	to	23		—	18	—		14	to	10
23	to	18		—	19	—		10	to	6
18	to	14		—	20	—		6	to	1
14	to	9		—	21	—		1	to	5
9	to	6		—	22	—		5	to	9
6	to	1	King	—	23	—		9	to	5
1	to	6		—	24	—		5	to	1
6	to	9		—	25	—		1	to	5
9	to	14		—	26	—		5	to	1
14	to	18		—	27	—		1	to	5
18	to	23		—	28	—		5	to	9
23	to	27		—	29	—		9	to	14
19	to	23		—	30	—		14	to	9
23	to	18		—	31	—		9	to	5
18	to	14		—	32	—		5	to	1
14	to	9		—	33	—		1	to	5
22	to	17		—	34	—		5	to	14
17	to	10		—	35	—		21	to	25
10	to	15		—	36	—		25	to	29	King
15	to	19		—	37	—		29	to	25
27	to	32		—	38	—		25	to	22
19	to	24		—	39	—		20	to	27
32	to	23		—	40	—		22	to	17
23	to	18		—	41	—		17	to	13
18	to	14	, and wins next move.

The beginner who follows the moves of this game with an understanding brain, will learn more about the scientific theory of Draughts than he could acquire by a year of miscellaneous play.

COMMENTS ON THE LAWS.

As stated on page 182, the rules are few and simple. The explanations and remarks are in brackets.

1. The board is to be so placed as that the double corner is at the right hand of the player. [Some play on the white, and some on the black squares. For convenience of numbering the board and recording the moves, the white squares are now generally adopted.]

2. The choice of colour is determined by lot, and the men on either side are placed on the alternate squares in three lines immediately in front of the player. [The black or the white squares, as may be decided before starting.]

3. Black has the first move, and the men are changed with each game. [Thus giving in turn the first move to each player.]

4. The player who touches a man, except for the purpose of adjusting it, must move that man, if it can be legally moved.

5. A piece moved over the angle of a square must be moved to that square. [This is a newly-adopted law, to prevent the undecided mode of moving backward and forward adopted by some players.]

6. A man en prise must be taken if intimation be given by the player offering it. If by accident it is left untaken, the piece which should have taken it may be huffed. [It is at the option of the adversary to huff or let the offending piece remain.]

7. The player cannot stand the huff, when he is told to take a man, or men.

8. The huff is not a move; and after taking off the huffed piece, the player moves. [Thus ‘huff and move’ is a well-understood direction.]

9. A player taking one piece only when two or more can be legally taken, may be huffed on the completion of his move.

10. When a piece is en prise it must be taken within a minute. [This is to prevent the delay in which some indulge.]

11. Five minutes is the limit of time for considering a move. The penalty for exceeding the time allowed is loss of the game. [This law applies more particularly to match games.]

12. A piece abandoned is a completed move. [In all games this law should be observed, as nothing is so annoying to an opponent as to be asked to allow a move to be amended.]

13. A false or illegal move must be rectified, or the game resigned; such move may be allowed to remain, at the option of the adversary. [By a false move is meant the moving backward, or sideways, or on to the wrong-colour square.]

14. If a player in the act of taking remove one of his own men from the board, it cannot be replaced, except by consent of the opponent.

15. When three or more kings are opposed to a weaker force, the game must, when the opponent gives notice to count, be won within forty moves, or abandoned as drawn.

16. When two kings are opposed to one, the game is to be declared drawn, unless the player with the stronger force win in twenty moves. [From any part of the board two kings can win against one in fifteen or sixteen moves.]

17. Notice must be given of the intention to count the moves. [Twenty or forty, as the case may be; one for the combined move of both colours.]

18. When several pieces can be taken in one continuous move, no piece may be taken up off the board until the move is completed. The player failing to take all the men may be huffed. [As in Rule 9.]

19. When a man arrives at a square in the last row on the opposite side of the board, he must be immediately crowned. But the king cannot move till the opposing player has made his move.

20. Kings can move backward or forward, one square at a time only; and, to take two or more pieces in one move, there must be a vacant square behind each individual piece.

21. Disputes are to be decided by an umpire, or a majority of the company.

22. Matches must consist, unless otherwise agreed, of an equal number of games. [The rules for regulating a match should be determined and stated in writing. An umpire should be appointed.]

23. During the progress of a game neither player is allowed to leave the room, except by permission of his opponent.

24. Pointing over the board, loud talk, or any other behaviour likely to annoy or confuse an adversary, if persisted in, forfeits the game.

25. No bystander is allowed to advise a player, or interfere with the progress of a game.

26. A breach of any of the above laws is punishable by the loss of the game, if in the opinion of the umpire such breach was intentional.

ADVICE TO YOUNG PLAYERS.

Play with better players than yourself. Observe the openings.

Look well over the board before making a move.

Never touch a man without moving it.

Leave off when your mind is fatigued, and never persist in playing when you stand but small chance of winning.

Waste no time in considering an inevitable move. Take the offered piece without hesitation or delay.

When you are a man ahead, exchange as often as you can, but at the same time beware of man-traps and spring-guns.

Abandon a line of play the secret of which is discovered by your adversary; and when a piece must be lost, make no attempt to retain it. Sometimes it is safer to give up a man than to defend a weak position.

Make your kings as quickly as you can. Avoid all cramped positions. Back up your men in phalanx fashion:—

and move rather towards the centre than to the sides of the board. Be careful not to move out your men too soon from the safety of the back row.

Play with your head as well as with your fingers. Avoid banter and loud talk. Boast not of your victories. Win modestly, and lose with good temper. Punctuality is the politeness of kings. Courtesy is the grand characteristic of good draught-players.

There is a good deal of amusement and no little skill in the Losing Game. As its name denotes, this game is the reverse of Draughts proper. The object is to lose all your men; and he who accomplishes that object wins.

The whole or main secret of the Losing Game is to play towards the sides of the board, and to so arrange your men as to be able to give up two, three, or more at a single coup. After a little practice you will discover that even with a dozen men on the board against, say, two or three, you may win—that is, you may compel your adversary to take them all. Or with a single king you may take man after man, and then, at last, commit graceful suicide. Or you may compel a king to take several men. Much depends on Having the Move. Here, for instance, is a position in which a king is forced to take eight men and lose the game:—

Black has only two squares into which he can go, and then he must allow White to give away his men one after the other. If White moves first, Black gains the opposition by losing his king, and wins the game.

In the next diagram, again, is a position in which White can compel a single Black man to take all his eleven pieces one after the other.

White, moving upward, first gives his king, and then the man on 24, after which he offers the man on 31, which White must take and become a king. The remaining moves are simple, but White has to play carefully, or he may enable the Black king to sacrifice himself and win.

The Losing Game offers numerous opportunities for calculation and combination; but what we have shown is sufficient to enable young players to understand the theory. Excellence will come with practice and perseverance.

The Polish game is played on a board of a hundred squares, ten each way; but for all ordinary purposes the regular English board of sixty-four squares will do as well. The board is set in the usual way, with a double corner at the right hand of the players, no matter which colour be chosen.

Two great and essential differences exist between English and Polish Draughts. In the foreign game the men take backward and forward, one square at a time, as many pieces as are en prise, and the kings leap over any number of squares, wherever and whenever there is a piece to take. As, in our own game, a piece touched must be moved, and all the other rules of the English game are to be observed. On the Continent, where the game is much more common than with us, the crowned man is called a queen, just as the game itself is Damen, a game for ladies. With them, as with us, the White squares are usually chosen.

It is by exchanges that good players at Polish Draughts parry moves and prepare combinations. It is well to give man for man, or two for two. By that means the game is strengthened, and thus it often happens that a single man can confine several of his opponent’s pieces.

The lunette—the placing a man on a square between two men of the other side—is much more frequent in the Polish than in the English game. Look well to the position before you enter the lunette; and having entered it, before you decide on your move. It is often a snare, which the good player will try to avoid.

Concentrate your men towards the end of the game, for then the slightest error may be fatal.

Two, three, or more pieces may sometimes be advantageously sacrificed to obtain a king, which, in this game, is very powerful. Make your kings as soon as you can, and play them with judgment. With a king and a man against two or three kings, hesitate not to sacrifice your man, for the game may be almost as well defended by the king alone. Between equal players, the game often results in a draw; but there is no saying how numerous are the combinations which may lead to victory or its reverse.

It is not necessary to give the moves of a game, as, except for its two grand distinctions, Polish Draughts is similar to the English game.

Here, then, we have pretty well all that can be taught on paper respecting this branch of the game. The next step is How to Open a game with advantage. This I shall proceed briefly to show; and after that the excellence is to be acquired by practice alone. Draughts, in all its varieties, is an admirable game, inculcating patience, caution, tact, and scientific calculation. Those who would excel in its practice must be content to go slowly. There is no royal road to Draughts. Perseverance and failure are the parents of success.

Usually it is necessary to begin at the beginning; but in Draughts and Chess, as in other games of skill, players commence playing, and even attain some degree of aptness, before they actually conquer the alphabet, the science, of the several amusements. There is no great harm in this plan, however. Do we not all learn to talk before we know anything of grammar or orthography; to sing before we understand even the notation of music; to argue and discuss before we get even the haziest notion of logic? Of course we do. And then we naturally endeavour to go back to first principles, and so correct our mistakes by aid of rule and system.

I told you some pages back that there were various accepted openings to the game of Draughts—the Old Fourteenth, the Single Corner, the Laird and Lady, the Glasgow, the Whilter, and some fifty others. All the really safe, sound, and favourable openings, however, proceed from the five here named. The rest are well enough to know, but in practice they are risky and fantastical.

To properly understand what follows, it is necessary that you should so completely conquer the notation of draughts as to be able to follow the moves in your mind’s eye without seeing the board. This is not nearly so difficult as you may think. Number your board as in the diagram below, and place the men in the order of play.

Here we have the Black men on the upper half of the board, though whether the White or the Black occupy that position the order of their moves is the same. The usual plan is for the Black to take the first move, and for the players to change the pieces with each game. By this method each player begins alternately, and always with the Black men. Our games will be so arranged, if you please.

Let us commence, then, with the best of the openings—

THE OLD FOURTEENTH.

Black.						White.
11	to	15	—	1	—	23	to	19
8	to	11	—	2	—	22	to	17
4	to	8	—	3	—	17	to	13

These three moves on either side constitute the Old Fourteenth Opening. From this point, at which the game is perfectly even, spring many variations. The most common and accepted moves on each side are—

15	to	18	—	4	—	24	to	20
11	to	15	—	5	—	28	to	24
8	to	11	—	6	—	26	to	23

The following is now the position. Both sides are well placed, and the game, if played thoroughly, should end in a draw, with White for preference.

Black has now the choice of two moves. We will suppose that he defends his position by moving from 9 to 14.

The first double column gives the moves from the position in the diagram; six moves on each side having been made. The other columns show six variations. The star indicates the losing move in each case.

12				26	*	22	25		22
13	9	-	14	9	-	14	18	-	25
14	31		26	31	-	26	29		22
15	6	-	9	5	-	9	9	-	14
16	13		6	26		23	27		23
17	2	-	9	1	-	5	6	-	9
18	26		22	22		17	13		6
19	1	-	6	11		16	2	-	9
20	32		28	20		11	22		17
21	3	-	8	7	-	16	15		18	..			..			9	*	13
22	30		26	25		22	17		13	32		28				26		22
23	9	-	13	18	-	25	18	-	27	18	-	27				3	-	8	..
24	19		16	29		22	13		6	19		16				23		18
25	12	-	19	3	-	7	14	-	18	12	-	19				14	-	23
26	23		16	22		18	32		14	24		8				31	-	27
27	13	-	17	15	-	22	10	-	17	3	-	12				15	-	18	5	*	9
28	22		13	19		15	21		14	31		24				22		6	27		18
29	8	-	12	10	-	28	1	-	17	9	-	13				13	-	22	1	-	5
30	24		19	17		3	26		22	26		22				27		18	30		26
31	15	-	31	22	-	26	17	-	26	7	-	11				1	-	10	9	-	14
32	26		22	3		8	30	*	23	30	*	26				18		14	18		9
33	12	-	19	16	-	20	5	-	9	1	-	6				10	-	17	5	-	14
34	22		8				23		18	26		23	24	*	19	21		14	26		23
35	14	-	17	white wins.			7	-	10	11	-	15	11	-	15				15	-	18
36	21		14				31		26	24		19	28		24	white wins.			22		6
37	10		17				9	-	13	15	-	24	15	-	18				13	-	22
38	8		3				26		23	28		19	22		15				6		2
39	7	-	10				13	-	17	6	-	9	13	-	31				7	-	10
40	25		21				18		14	20		16	15		11				32		28
41	17	-	22				17	-	21	10	-	15	14	-	18				22	-	25
42	20		16				14		7	17		10	11		7				23		18
43	10	-	14				3	-	10	15	-	24	31	-	26				14	-	23
44	16		11							23		19	21		17				19		16
45	31	-	26				black wins.			24	-	27	26	-	22
46	11		8							10		6	17		13				white wins.
										27	-	31	18	-	23
										6		2	7		3
	draw.									black			black
										wins.			wins.

If you play out these games carefully you will see that there is a reason for each move, and thus demonstrate that Draughts is a scientific game possessing no element of luck or chance.

THE LAIRD AND LADY.

The opening known as the Laird and Lady is a favourite with players north of the Tweed. Rare fine players at Draughts are the Scotsmen. They carried the game across the Atlantic, where it is popularly known as Checquers, or, as the New Englanders spell it, Checkers.

The first two moves on each side in the Laird and Lady are the same as those in the Old Fourteenth.

Black.						White.
11	to	15	—	1	—	23	to	19
8	to	11	—	2	—	22	to	17

Then comes the variation which distinguishes it,

9

to

13

—

3

—

17

to

14

This Black follows on with a move which compels an exchange.

10	to	17	—	4	—	21	to	14
15	to	18	—	5	—	26	to	23

White’s last move supports the advanced man on square 14. Then Black proceeds with what at first sight seems a weak move:—

13

to

17

—

6

—

19

to

15

From this point the game is even, though the advantage would certainly seem to be on the side of the White. The following is the position at the point arrived at:—

From this position there are almost endless variations. Drummond, a well-known writer and specialist, gives no fewer than thirty; and, generally, they end in favour of White, the second player—proving that this opening is hardly so good as the Old Fourteenth or the Single Corner, which may be considered the standard games of first-rate players.

We give the moves of a completed game in this opening, showing the moves from which the variations spring.

Black.						White.
11	to	15	—	1	—	23	to	19
8	to	11	—	2	—	22	to	17
9	to	13	—	3	—	17	to	14
10	to	17	—	4	—	21	to	14
6	to	10	—	5	—	25	to	21
10	to	17	—	6	—	21	to	14
15	to	18	—	7	—	29	to	25
11	to	16	—	8	—	19	to	15
(or 1 to 6
19	to	25
4	to	8
26	to	22, &c.)
16	to	20	—	9	—	26	to	23
(or 26 to 22)
1	to	6	—	10	—	31	to	26
13	to	17	—	11	—	15	to	10
6	to	15	—	12	—	23	to	19
4	to	8	—	13	—	19	to	10
8	to	11	—	14	—	24	to	19
11	to	16	—	15	—	26	to	22
(or 11 to 15)
17	to	26	—	16	—	30	to	23
5	to	9	—	17	—	14	to	5
7	to	14	—	18	—	5	to	1

And White wins. Now try the variations indicated. Had Black at his fifteenth move gone from 11 to 15, the best he could have done would be to draw. See:—

11	to	15	—	15	—
12	to	19	—	16	—	19	to	16
20	to	27	—	17	—	27	to	24
7	to	11	—	18	—	32	to	16
2	to	11	—	19	—	16	to	7
18	to	25	—	20	—	25	to	22
15	to	18	—	21	—	30	to	21
11	to	16	—	22	—	10	to	6

And the game is drawn.

It may be useful, in this place, to give a

Table of the Principal Openings.
Title.	1st Move.			2nd Move.			3rd Move.			4th Move.			5th Move.
Double Corner	9	-	14
Single Corner	11	-	15	22	-	18
Ayrshire Lassie	11	-	15	24	-	20
Second Double Corner	11	-	15	24	-	19
Cross	11	-	15	23	-	18
Whilter	11	-	15	23	-	19	7	-	11
Will o’ the Wisp	11	-	15	23	-	19	9	-	13
Dyke	11	-	15	22	-	17	15	-	19
Maid o’ the Mill	11	-	15	22	-	17	15	-	18
Defiance	11	-	15	23	-	19	9	-	14	27	-	23
Glasgow	11	-	15	23	-	19	8	-	11	22	-	17	11	-	16
Laird and Lady	11	-	15	23	-	19	8	-	11	22	-	17	9	-	13
Fife	11	-	15	23	-	19	9	-	14	22	-	17	5	-	9
Old Fourteenth	11	-	15	23	-	19	8	-	11	22	-	17	4	-	8

Of these, some already named—Old Fourteenth, Laird and Lady, &c.—are the best for practice. We therefore present another set of games in the

OLD FOURTEENTH.

As before, the key-game appears in the first double-column; and the variations spring from the point indicated. The moves are given consecutively; the first player going from 11 to 15; his opponent from 23 to 19, and so on to the end.

	GAME			2			3			4			5			6			7
1	11	-	15
2	23		19
3	8	-	11
4	22	-	17
5	4	-	8
6	17		13	25		22
7	15	-	18	15	-	18
8	24	-	20	22		15
9	11	-	15	11	-	18
10	28		24	17		13
11	8	-	11	7	-	11							9	-	14
12	26		23	24		20							29		25
13	9	-	14	10	*	14	3	*	7				10	-	25
14	31		26	29		25	29		25				19		10
15	6	-	9	2	-	7	11	-	15				6	-	15
16	13		6	26		23	26		23				26		23
17	2	-	9	7	-	10	15	-	24				8	-	11
18	26		22	21		17	20		19				30		26
19	1	-	6	14	-	21	9	-	14	10	*	14	11	*	16
20	32		28	23		7	32		28	30		26	24		20
21	3	-	8	3	-	10	6	-	9	7	-	11	1	-	6	7	*	11
22	30		26	25		22	13		6	19		15	20		11	28		24
23	9	-	13	9	-	14	2	-	9	2	-	7	7	-	16	3	-	7	2	*	6
24	19		16	22		17	30		26	26		22	26		22	24		19	24		19
25	12	-	19	11	-	15	1	-	6	12	-	16	2	-	7	15	-	24	15	-	24
26	23		16	27		23	26		22	22		17	22		17	26		22	26		22
27	13	-	17	15	-	24	7	-	11	7	-	10	7	-	10	11	-	15	11	-	15
28	22		13	28		19	22		15	32		28	23		19	20		11	20		11
29	8	-	12	8	-	11	11	-	18	10	-	26	16	-	23	7	-	16	24	-	28
30	24		19	31		26	31		26	31		15	25		22	27		11	11		8
31	15	-	31	11	-	15	9	-	13	11	-	18	18	-	25	8	-	27	12	-	16
32	26		22	32		28	26		22	17		10	27		2	32		23	22		17
33	12	-	19																3	-	12
34	22		8	white wins.			white wins.			white wins.			white wins.			white wins.			17		10
35	14	-	17
36	21		14																white wins.
37	10	-	17
38	8		3
39	7	-	10
40	25		21
41	17	-	22
42	20		16
43	10	-	14
44	16		11
45	31	-	26
46	11	-	18
	draw.

As in the previous examples, the asterisk shows the losing move. Young players should get this opening by heart. In the first game, you see, all that White can do is to draw; in the others he wins.

THE SINGLE CORNER GAME.

This a good and sound opening. Properly conducted, it gives the win to the first player. As in the Old Fourteenth and the Laird and Lady, the first move is from square 11 to square 15. The variation occurs in the second move, which is 22 to 18 instead of 22 to 19. Thus—

11	to	15	—	1	—	22	to	18
15	to	22	—	2	—	25	to	18
8	to	11	—	3	—	29	to	25
10	to	15	—	4	—	25	to	22
4	to	8	—	5	—	24	to	20
12	to	16	—	6	—	21	to	17

The position of the men is now as follows, without any great advantage on either side, with Black to move:—

It will be well for the students to play out the game from this position.

Now let us take some variations most usual in this opening. The first game is played from the initial move, and the variations from the places marked. It will be easy for any two players with the Numbered Board before them to follow the moves.

	GAME			2			3			4			5			6			7
1	11	-	15
2	22		18
3	15	-	22
4	25		18
5	8	-	11
6	29		25										10	-	14	9	-	13	9	-	14
7	4	-	8							24		19	24		19	24		20	18		9
8	25		22							16	-	20	11	-	16	1?	-	16	5	-	14
9	12	-	16	11	-	16				28	*	24	27		24	27		24	24		19
10	24		20	24		20				7	-	11	16	-	20	8	-	12	11	-	15
11	8	-	12	8	-	11				30		25	31		27	24		19	19		16
12	27		24	27		24				11	-	16	7	-	10	10	-	15	12	-	19
13	10	-	14	9	-	13				18		15	19		15	19		10	23		16
14	24		19	24		19				9	-	14	10	-	19	6	-	15	14	-	18
15	7	-	10	5	-	9				22		18	24		15	31		27	21		17
16	32		27	28		24				3	-	7	6	-	10	7	-	10	18	-	25
17	9	-	13	10	-	15				18		9	15		6	27		24	30		21
18	18		9	19		10				5	-	14	1	-	10	2	-	7	6	-	9
19	5	-	14	6	-	15				26		22	23		19	24		19	16		12
20	22		18	32		28				14	-	18	14	-	23	15	-	24	9	-	14
21	1	-	5	16	-	19				23		14	27		18	28		19	27		23
22	18		9	23		16				16	-	23	8	-	11	10	*	14	8	-	12
23	5	-	14	12	-	19				27		18	22		17	18		9	32		27
24	26		22	26		23				20	-	27	9	-	14	5	-	14	15	-	18
25	13	-	17	19	-	26				32		23	18		9	22		18	17		13
26	22		13	30		23				10	-	26	5	-	14	1	-	5	1	-	6
27	14	-	18	1	-	5							17		13	18		9	28		24
28	23		7	24		19				black wins.			2	-	6	5	-	14	11	-	15
29	16	-	32	15	-	24							26		22	19		15	23		19
30	30		26	28		19							20	-	24	11	-	27	7	-	11
31	3	-	10	7	-	10							30	*	26	20		2	26		23
32	21		17	31		27							12	-	16	27	-	31	18	-	22
33	11	-	15	2	-	7	19	*	16				19		12	26		22	21		17
34	26		23	19		16	10	-	14				11	-	16	12	-	16	14	-	21
35	2	-	7	10	-	15	16		7				28		19	2		6	23		18
36	31		27	16		12	3	-	10				16	-	30	16	-	19	11	-	16
37				7		10	20		16				32		27	6		9
38	Draw			20	*	16	2	-	7				30	-	26	14	-	17	black wins.
39				11	-	20	16	*	12				22		17	21		14
40				18		11	14	-	17				26	-	22	19	-	23
41				10	-	14	21		14				27		23	22		18
42				22		18	10	-	26				22	-	18	31	-	26
43				13	-	17	31		22				23		19	18		15
44				18		15	7	-	10				18	-	15	26	-	22
45				17	-	22	12		8				19		16	14		10
46				15		10	10	-	14				3	-	7	22		18
				22	-	26							12		8
				10		6	black wins.						15	-	11	white wins.
				26	-	31
				6		1							black wins.
				black wins.

The asterisk, in each case, shows the losing move. These games, however, by no means exhaust the variations in the Single Corner Game.

THE GLASGOW OPENING.

This mode of opening the game was, and is, a favourite one with Scottish players. It is a strong and sound game for the Black, beginning, like the Old Fourteenth, the Single Corner, and the Laird and Lady, with the move from square 11 to square 15. Presuming that Black always commences, the first moves are:—

Black.						White.
11	to	15	—	1	—	23	to	19
8	to	11	—	2	—	22	to	19
11	to	16	—	3	—

This third move of the Black is the variation which gives the Glasgow its special character. The move 4 to 8 instead of 11 to 16 would have been the Old Fourteenth. White’s safest reply is—

						24	to	20
16	to	23	—	4	—	27	to	17

Had White replied with 26 to 19, he would have lost by his opponent playing 10 to 14. As it is, Black’s next move is forced:—

7	to	16	—	5	—	20	to	11
3	to	7	—	6	—	25	to	22

From this point the game is even, though certainly Black has the best position for attack and defence. The situation is shown in the diagram:—

Black takes the man on square 11, which gives him a leading place on the board.

Instead of playing 25 to 22, many think that 28 to 24 is a better move. This, however, is open to question. Let us proceed with the game from the above point.

7	to	16	—	7	—	28	to	24
16	to	20	—	8	—	32	to	27

The last move of White gives him a certain advantage, but he must be careful not to move the man from square 24 to square 19, or Black by giving the man on 10 will win two for one. Black proceeds:—

12

to

16

—

9

—

30

to

25

If White had moved 27 to 23, he would have lost a man, for Black would have taken the piece on 24, and obliged his opponent to go from 31 to 24; and then, by moving into square 20, compelled White to go from 24 to 19, and have gained the exchange by giving the man on 10. Therefore 30 to 25 is the best.

4	to	8	—	10	—	26	to	23
2	to	7	—	11	—	17	to	13	24 to 19 W. wins
10	to	14	—	12	—	22	to	18
7	to	11	—	13	—	24	to	19
8	to	12	—	14	—	19	to	15	25 to 22 W. wins

Black has now the choice of two moves. Apparently he must lose a man, but by moving 16 to 19 he forces an exchange, which leaves him either even or a man ahead, according to White’s play. He moves from 16 to 19, and White may either take the man on 11 or the two men on 19 and 11.

16	to	19	—	15	—	23	to	7
14	to	32	—	16	—	7	to	3
20	to	24	—	17	—	15	to	11
32	to	27	—	18	—	31	to	26
24	to	28	—	19	—	11	to	7
28	to	32	—	20	—	7	to	2
12	to	16	—	21	—	3	to	8
16	to	20	—	22	—	8	to	12
27	to	24	—	23	—	12	to	16
24	to	28	—	24	—	16	to	19
32	to	27	—	25	—	26	to	22	(forced, or Black gets the breeches and wins a man)
27	to	24	—	26	—	19	to	23
28	to	32	—	27	—	23	to	26
24	to	27	—	28	—	26	to	23
27	to	18	—	29	—	25	to	15

And the game assumes the following position:—

Which is to win? It is Black’s move.

THE WHILTER OPENING.

This, like many others, is a modification of that best of all openings, the Old Fourteenth; the moves are—

11	to	15	—	1	—	23	to	19
7	to	11	—	2	—	22	to	17

This is the opening. It may proceed in many ways. The better, perhaps the best, plan is thus:—

9	to	14	—	3	—	25	to	22
11	to	16	—	4	—	26	to	23
5	to	9	—	5	—	17	to	13

Had Black moved 16 to 20, he would have lost a piece by his opponent playing 29 to 25—

3

to

7

—

6

—

29

to

25

which leaves the position thus:—

Black now usually plays from 1 to 5, and has a good sound strong game.

---

As a game for one player there is no superior to Solitaire. Apparently easy and simple, it is really intricate and scientific. Governed by a well-defined principle, chance forms no element of its practice. Like Chess and Draughts, it is entirely a mental and demonstrable game, full of variety, and affording ample scope, in its almost endless combinations, for the display of thought and ingenuity.

Solitaire is played on a board of thirty-three holes, in each of which a marble or glass ball is placed. Solitaire boards are made, but the game may be just as efficiently played on a properly marked piece of card-board, with draughtsmen or counters instead of marbles. This plan, indeed, is preferable to and cheaper than any other.

The method of play is as follows:—One marble is removed from its place, and then another is passed into the vacant hole. Take up the marble over which you jump, and continue to take piece after piece, always going in straight lines and never in diagonals, till you bring back the last marble from the hole whence the first was taken. One marble only can be taken at one jump; but, as in Draughts, you may proceed to play, and take, with the same marble, so long as there is a piece en prise with a vacant hole in the line behind it. The repetition of the figures will show the continued move of the piece.

There are other modes of playing Solitaire—as by indicating a special hole, distinct from the starting-place, in which to lodge the last marble, leaving two, three, or four marbles in a particular position, ending in the hole next the original one, and so on; but the above, the more usual plan, should be first learned. We will now give a diagram, and show you how to start from and return to the centre hole. Remove the centre marble. Jump from 1 in the upper limb to 1, the middle hole, taking 16-18. Go from 2 on the right limb of the diagram to 2 above the centre, taking 3-5. Proceed from hole to hole as indicated by the figures, and you will find that the last move will land the marble in the centre. Practise this till you can play the Centre-hole Game without the use of the diagram. It looks easy enough; but just try it before you condemn Solitaire as mere child’s play.

Presuming you have familiarised yourselves with the principle of the game, I present another diagram:—

Remove the marble from the upper right-hand corner hole and proceed as before, going from place to place, as shown by the figures on the diagram. Get this by heart, and play the game without the problem.

In this, one of the best positions, remove the left-hand upper marble, and play the game according to the plan in the diagram below. You will find this an easy game to remember.

This may be altered by ending in any other hole. You should, however, thoroughly conquer the game as presented before you attempt any variation. It is not sufficient to play with the diagram before you. The problem is presented as a game to be learned, and once thoroughly learned, it is difficult to forget it.

The following is a pretty but somewhat difficult position. It will be sufficient to give the diagram without remark other than this: Conquer it before you leave off, and do not be disheartened if you fail to succeed the first time you attempt it without the diagram.

You will understand that these positions given may be varied by starting from a similar place in either leg of the board. It is sufficient to mention this. To give players many variations would occupy too much space.

Here we have one of the most difficult and yet most interesting of positions. Proceed as before, taking care to learn the game so as to play without the numbered diagram. Remove the black marble.

Solitaire may also be played by two persons, the object of one of them being to defeat the other by contrary or opposite moves. Double Solitaire is, however, somewhat deficient in the one great element of all antagonistic games—variety.

---

I am not sure that this game was not played by the boys of ancient Greece and Rome; or perhaps even by boys in a yet earlier age of the world. At any rate, it is a very, very old game, of whose origin nothing whatever is known. Under these circumstances, it would be easy to gossip on for a page or two, and talk about anything likely to seem interesting; but it is pleasanter, and much more practical, to tell you how, with the assistance of our Solitaire-board, and some draughtsmen or counters of wood, bone, or metal, you may play it yourselves.

For Fox and Geese you need seventeen counters of one colour, to represent the Geese, and one counter of a different colour for the Fox. You prepare the board thus: place the Fox in the middle and the Geese in front, as in the diagram below.

Like Chess and Draughts, it is purely a game of strategy for two players. The usual plan is for each player to take the initiative in turn, the Fox in one game and the Geese in another. Unlike card games, it contains no element of chance or ‘luck.’

The whole motive of the game is for the Fox to catch the Geese, or for the Geese to drive the Fox into a corner from which he cannot escape. Properly played, the Geese, with the first move, must always win; but in this game, as in real life, the more cunning creature is not seldom successful.

The plan of the game is this. The Geese march forward only in straight lines, down or across; the Fox can move forward, backward, or sideways on the straight lines, not the diagonals. The Fox takes any Goose that may be en prise with a vacant space behind, as in Draughts; and so long as he can take, he continues his move. When he succeeds in following up and catching all the Geese, one after another, he wins. But the Geese, if they only go boldly to work, can drive him away. They must go forward as a phalanx with determination, filling each vacant spot, and leaving no loophole into which the enemy can jump or creep. All depends on united and determined action. United they conquer; separated they fall. When their number is reduced to six, it is impossible for them to confine the Fox. But there is no reason why it should be so reduced. Look at the diagram. If we call the upper left-hand spot 1, and number the board horizontally to 33, at the lower right-hand corner, we shall soon see how the attack may be conducted. The Fox is in the centre; the Goose on either of the central junction lines can move without fear of capture, and the Fox must retreat. Having, say, moved 11 to 18, the Goose on 6 moves on to 11. The Fox is still without power to harm. The Geese proceed to go forward, and in this way ultimately force their enemy into a corner, or they may beguile him by offering a bait. Say the Goose on 15 moves to 16, the Fox must take him and lose his central position of attack. The Geese follow up their advantage; and, unless they commit some grievous error, they pin Master Reynard in a corner, whence he can by no means get out. The whole principle of the game is Advance. Go forward with the stronger force; fill up all vacancies. Directly a Goose moves on, back him up. Surround your enemy and compel him to retreat. As to the Fox, his tactics must be bold, yet cautious; determined, yet crafty; daring, yet subtle; adventurous, yet shrewd! Very like real life, is it not?

The game can be varied by placing the Fox on another spot; or by insisting on his catching all the Geese; by the latter taking the horizontal limits of the board only, or by offering odds, and so on; but the plan here given will be found ample in providing rational amusement for winter evenings. Less scientific, certainly, than Chess or Draughts, it affords abundant opportunities for thought and mental calculation.

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This game is of Japanese origin, and the name means Go = five, and Ban = board. It has, however, become gradually corrupted into ‘Go-bang,’ and thus it is now generally written.

In Japan it is played on a board of more than three hundred squares, but in Europe on boards of sixty-four squares (as in chess and draughts), or on larger boards. The Japanese have schools for the study and practice of the game, and divide the players into nine classes. A late account says that at present there is no player of the highest (the ninth) class living; but one of the eighth class, named Murase (in German spelling pronounced Moo-răh-sey), is editing a periodical, in which he publishes the theory of the openings, actual games, problems, poems, &c.

This game of Go (or game of five) is in China called Ki (= Kee), and was invented there about 2,000 years B.C. It is therefore older than chess. It was introduced into Japan about 1,100 years ago, and was there brought to higher perfection.

It is played by two persons. In Japan they use more than a hundred men on each side. If played on the chess-board, then generally one plays with twelve white men, the other with twelve black men. The aim of each player is to get five men in a line—i.e., five of his men close together in a straight line, either in row, a file, or a diagonal. In Japan each player tries to form a chain with his men around the others, etc.

The play is carried on thus:—The players decide as to first move; afterwards they begin alternately. The first player, say White, places a man on any of the sixty-four squares, then Black places a man on any of the remaining sixty-three squares: thereupon White puts down his second man on any unoccupied square, and so on until all the twenty-four men are placed. Now the moving begins. The first player moves one of his men to any of the next unoccupied squares, but must not leap over a man, and the second player proceeds in the same manner. So the play continues until one or the other succeeds in getting five men in a line.

Thus the play consists in placing and moving. If a player be not sufficiently attentive he can lose in the first part of the game. The moving may extend from two or three to any number, according to capacity of the players.

The game requires a great deal of watching, for the ‘Go,’ or ‘Five,’ can be made in any of four directions—horizontally, vertically, or on the right and left diagonals. There are eight lines for each of the two straight ways, and seven lines for each of the two diagonal ways; in all thirty lines. Four positions of the ‘five’ are possible in a row or a file, and as many in each of the longest diagonals, whilst the shortest diagonal permits of only one position, so that the number of all positions is 4 × 8 + 4 × 8 + 2 (4 + 3 + 3 + 2 + 2 + 1 + 1) = 96.

Many players prefer this game to draughts. It may also be played by four persons, taking partners as in ‘whist,’ when each player receives six men. Odds can be given in this game, a superior player having eleven against twelve men.

Whenever a player has three men in an open line the opponent must stop him, for should he get four, then the adversary could block him on only one end. This blocking, however, is not necessary if the second player can first make ‘five.’

The student will learn the method of playing from the games we shall give with explanations. The system of description is the International Chess Notation, as will be shown on the frame of the diagram to follow. The letters in brackets after the moves will refer to the explanatory notes.

The following two games were played between G. W. S. and H. F. L. M.:—

White.			Black.
1.	d4.		d5.
2.	e4.		e5.	(i).
3.	f4.		c4.	(j).
4.	f5.		e6.
5.	f7.	(k).	f6.
6.	g6.		d3.
7.	g4.		h4.
8.	g4.		g3.
9.	e3.		d2.
10.	c5.		f2.	(l).
11.	e2.		f3.	(m).
12.	b3.		g7.	(n).

The men are now placed as shown in this diagram:—

Now the moving begins:—

	White.	Black.
13.	b3 c3.	f2 e1 (o).
14.	e2 f2.	d5 c6.
15.	f2 e2 (p).	e1 d1.
16.	c5 d5.	d1 c2.
17.	d5 c5.	c2 b3.
18.	f7 e7.	e5 d5.
19.	e7 f7.	d2 c2 (q).
20.	e2 d2.	g7 h6.
21.	c3 b2.	c2 c1 (r).
22.	g6 g7.	f6 g6.
23.	g5 f6.	e6 e7.
24.	g7 f8 = five.

Notes.

(i) Experience has shown that it is best to occupy the central squares, for the men then have the greatest freedom of action.

(j) This move is necessary, for if Black had placed the man on c5, White would have won by placing his next man on c4 or g4.

(k) He must block the line at a2 g8, just as well as Black must now block the f file.

(l) The last six moves were all forced for Black.

(m) A weak move, which places the black men awkwardly. He would have done better to place it on b3 in order to force the last white man to go to a2, and then Black could have placed his last on c3, and try to make a ‘five’ in the a5 e1 or the a6 f1 or the c file.

(n) Necessary, for if placed on b6 or a5, White would have won thus:—g6 g7, f6 g6, g5 f6, followed by g7 f8.

(o) Endeavouring to bring this man to the other side of the board.

(p) He is afraid of e1 e2.

(q) A bad move, for although he can block at h6, he can afterwards not stop the g or f file. Black should have tried to move from c6 to a2.

(r) Must. White now wins easily, even if e6 stood on e7, for g6 g7, e7 f8, f7 g8, f6 g6, f4 e5, g6 f6 (else f5 f6), f5 g6.

Between H. F. L. M. (White) and G. W. S. (Black).

White.		Black.
1.	e4.	d5.
2.	d3.	c4.
3.	f5.	c2.
4.	g6.	h7 (i).
5.	e5.	e6.
6.	b3.	e3.
7.	d4.	c3.
8.	c5.	f4.
9.	d6.	d2.
10.	g5.	e7.
11.	g7.	e2.

The position is now so interesting that we give it on a diagram.

It appears at first sight that White might now place his last man on h8 and win. Black would then be obliged to place his last man on f6. White would continue f5 g4, and Black must answer h7 g8, and White would now win with e5 f5, followed by h8 h7, if Black could not play e7 f7 and come first in making ‘five’ in the diagonal a2 g8. To prevent these ‘five’ of Black, White would have to play g7 f7 (instead of e5 f5), and then Black would win easily by c3 b2, followed by e3 f2. White therefore must place his last man so that he can at once stop the approaching line of ‘five’ in the second row. He might place it on f2, but does better to put it on g3, and thus compel the last black man to go to g4. Therefore the game went on thus:

	White.	Black.
12.	g3.	g4.

All the men are now well placed, and the moving can begin.

13.	g7 f7.	e3 f2.
14.	b3 b2.	f4 f3.
15.	g3 g2.	f2 g3.
16.	g5 f4.	g3 h4.
17.	g6 h5 (j).	g4 g5.
18.	g2 g3 (k).	d5 c6.
19.	h5 g4 (l).	f3 g2.
20.	g4 f3.	e6 f6.
21.	f7 e8.	e7 e6 (m).
22.	e8 d7 (n).	e6 d5.
23.	d7 c7 = five.

Notes.

(i) These two moves of Black were compulsory.

(j) Must, because he cannot stop the line at d1.

(k) White now threatens to win by c5 c6 and on to c7.

(l) A good move to go on to h2.

(m) He ought to have played c6 d7, then the game might have proceeded thus: e8 d8, d7 c7; e4 d5, e7 d7; d6 c6, c4 b5; d3 c4, h4 g4; c5 b4, any; e5 e4 = five.

(n) There are now two lines for White, and only one can be stopped.

The third game between these two players had twenty-four moves, lasted about half an hour, and was won by the second player (M.). The fourth game lasted two hours, had seventy-five moves, and was won by the second player (S.).

Played between H. M. (White), and L. S. (Black).

White to play, and win in five moves.

The white men are on the squares b4, c2, c4, c5, c6, c7, d4, e3, e4, e5, f2, and g4.

	White.	Black.
1.	g4—f3	g3—g2 (a)
2.	f3—e2	d2—e1
3.	e3—d2	a5—a4 (b)
4.	b4—b3	(any move).
5.	b3—b2 = five.

Notes.

(a) He must prevent the man going from f3 over g2 to g1.—If he were to play g3—g4, White would answer e4—f5, and win in two more moves by making a ‘five’ in the diagonal a7 g1.

(b) Any other move would not prevent White from making ‘five’ in the second row, for Black must not move the man c3, as White would obtain ‘five’ (or even six) in the c file.

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Nobody can very long reside in Madagascar, or in the central parts of it at any rate, without occasionally observing little companies of the natives bending eagerly over some mathematical-looking diagram rudely scratched on a roadside stone, or on the top of a rock, or, more roughly still, on the sun-baked clay of the wayside. If you look a little at the figure of the diagram, and consider the multiplicity of squares, diagonals, and adjacent parallelograms involved in it, you may think the people are discussing some Malagasy rider to one or other of the propositions in the Second Book of Euclid. Take the trouble to ask, however, and you will find that they are simply playing at their national game, the Fanòrona.

The fanòrona board is a rectangular parallelogram, divided into thirty-two equal spaces. Gather these, in your eye, into eight larger squares, containing four each; draw the diagonal lines in each of the eight, and the fanòrona figure is complete. Forty-four movable pieces are required for the game—twenty-two on each side.

With the Malagasy these are usually little pebbles and potsherds, or beans and berries. We, however, will call them the Black and the White pieces. The two players sit opposite each other, having the long sides of the fanòrona adjacent to them. The pieces are then arranged on the corners or angle-points; not on the squares, as in chess or draughts. There are five of these long lines on the board, each containing, of course, nine angle-points, and the pieces are thus arranged:

Black:	First	Line	1	.. ..	9
	Second	„	1	.. ..	9
White:	Fourth	„	1	.. ..	9
	Fifth	„	1	.. ..	9

The third, or central line, is occupied by the eight remaining pieces, placed alternately, thus:

Black	1, 3, 6, 8
White	2, 4, 7, 9

One point remains unoccupied, the central angle-point of the board, the fifth of the third line. This represents the royal seat in the public gatherings, but in the fanòrona game it is called the foibeny (‘navel’).

The object aimed at by each of the players is, as in draughts, to remove the whole of the adversary’s pieces from the board. But much caution is required, for we shall see that a few pieces well posted may easily annihilate more than four times their number in weaker situations; and, as in real warfare, even the very numbers of a force may sometimes prove their ruin. A few examples here will show the various ways in which the game may be opened, the manner in which the pieces are moved, and the adverse pieces captured. Let us suppose that the pieces are all placed, as just described above (see diagram 1). For convenience of description let the five lines on which the pieces are posted be called respectively A, B, C, D, E, instead of first line, second line, third line, etc. Any one of these letters, then, with a numeral appended, will be an easy reference to the piece that is to be moved, or to the vacant point to which a piece has to be removed, or to a hostile piece that has to be captured and removed from the board (see diagram 2). Then remember:

Firstly, that a piece may be moved in any direction,—forward, backwards, sideways, or diagonally to the first station in that direction, if such station be vacant.

Secondly, if there be now no other vacant station between the attacking piece just moved and the enemy’s pieces along that line, these, whatever their number, are captured at once, as far as they stand in unbroken order on the line attacked. If, however, a vacant position occurs in their line, or another hostile piece is among them, then only the piece or pieces nearest the assailant are captured.

Thirdly, the pieces of the enemy may be captured by a retreat as well as by an advance. A piece that has been standing in a station adjoining to some piece or pieces of the enemy may capture it or them by retreating one point along that line, if such point happen to be vacant. The limitation defined immediately above applies in this case also.

Fourthly, at the beginning of a game one move only is permitted to the first side. After that side has moved once, any piece that is moved is permitted to run amuck in the enemy’s lines, and go on as long as he finds foes to capture, provided (a) that he does not return immediately to any point he has just left, and (b) he cannot take a foe behind him immediately after taking one in front of him, nor one on his right hand immediately after taking on his left hand, and vice versâ. ‘Don’t eat at both ends, like a leech,’ says the Malagasy proverb.

Let us suppose that White is going to move first at the commencement of a game. There is only one vacant point on the board into which he can move a piece, namely, the foibeny or central point, which we may term C5, as it is the fifth point of the third line. There are four white pieces, any one of which may be moved into the vacant post, those on C4, D4, D5, D6. If he advances D5 to C5, then he immediately captures Black’s pieces on B5 and A5. Black may now retaliate by withdrawing his piece on B6 to A5, thereby capturing White’s pieces on C7, D8, E9. White may now, in any one of several ways, inflict a series of severe strokes on the unfortunate Black. Thus, for example:

D6, to	C7,	taking	B8, A9; then
„	B6,	„	A5;
„	B5,	„	B4, B3, B2, B1.

Now the White piece must stop awhile, for although the Black piece at B7 is under his range, yet in taking it he would be transgressing the two laws mentioned above. He would have to return to B6, which he has just quitted, and he would be ‘eating at both ends like a leech,’ which is improper. But the Black piece on B7 may now very properly provide for his own safety and circumvent his assailant by advancing thus:

B7, to	C7,	taking	D7, E7; then
„	D6,	„	E5; then
„	D5,	„	D4, D3, D2, D1; then
„	E5,	„	C5, B5.

These moves are not given as examples of what the Malagasy would consider good play, but simply to show the modus operandi of the game.

If the game happens to terminate in a ‘draw,’ which is frequently the case, then the combat may be recommenced on the same terms, the other side now taking the first move. Should one of the players have been defeated, however, he is not allowed to play on the same footing as before, for the game must be altered in a kind of mocking condescension to his weakness. The new form of the game is called véla; the one who has conquered is the mpàmpihinam-béla (he who allows to graze at large). The defeated is hómam-béla (a poor sheep not to be molested for awhile in his pasture-ground). The véla game is opened by the vanquished, and the victor exposes such of his pieces as he chooses to surrender to his antagonist. These pieces may only be taken singly, and the generous conqueror refrains from taking any of his enemy’s pieces until he has parted with, one by one, seventeen of his own; then with the remaining five he begins his campaign against the undiminished forces of his antagonist. If he be a skilful player, however, he has managed meanwhile to occupy the fortress positions of the game, and the hosts of the enemy are probably huddled together in such situations that he will come down on them ‘like a wolf on the fold.’ If the hómam-béla is again defeated he is only allowed to play the véla form of the game until he has redeemed himself by a victory. Or he may choose to humiliate himself by openly confessing his inferiority, though, as one of my informants says, ‘few of the Malagasy are willing to do that.’ In ancient times grace was accorded to the beaten combatant on condition of his kneeling down before his conqueror and bleating like a sheep (mibàrarèoka), in confession of his weakness.

Here is a specimen of the véla game, including the preliminary sacrificial moves by which Black gives up, one by one, the fated seventeen pieces. Then the time of reprisals comes, and the five survivors take the field, and give and take no quarter.

Véla Game.
White.						Black.
1.	C4	to	C5	takes	C6.	1.	C3	to	C4.
2.	C5	„	C6	„	C4.	2.	B4	„	C3.
3.	D4	„	C5	„	B6.	3.	A7	„	B6.
4.	C5	„	B4	„	A3.	4.	A8	„	A7.
5.	D5	„	C5	„	B5.	5.	A2	„	A3.
6.	E5	„	D4	„	C3.	6.	A9	„	A8.
7.	C2	„	C3	„	C1.	7.	A3	„	A2.
8.	D2	„	C2	„	B2.	8.	B1	„	B2.
9.	B4	„	B5	„	B3.	9.	A4	„	A3.
10.	C3	„	B3	„	A3.	10.	A2	„	A3.
11.	D4	„	C3	„	B2.	11.	A3	„	A2.
12.	C2	„	B2	„	A2.	12.	A8	„	A9.
13.	B5	„	B4	„	B6.	13.	A5	„	B6.
14.	B4	„	B5	„	B6.	14.	A7	„	B6.
15.	B5	„	B4	„	B6.	15.	B7	„	B6.
16.	B4	„	B5	„	B6.	16.	A9	„	A8.
17.	C6	„	B6	„	A6.	17.	Now begins Black’s attack.
							B8	to	A7	takes	C9;
								„	B7	„	C7, D7, E7.
18.	D9	„	C9	„	B9.	18.	C8	„	B8	„	D1, E8.
								„	C7	„	D6;
								„	D8	„	E9;
								„	E7	„	C9;
								„	D6	„	C5;
								„	C6	„	E6;
19.	B6	„	A6	„	C6.	19.	B7	„	B6	„	B5;
20.	A6	„	A7	„	A8.	20.	B6	„	C5	„	A7;
								„	C4	„	C3;
								„	D4	„	E4;
								„	C3	„	B2;
								„	D2	„	E1;
								„	C1	„	E3;
								„	B1	„	D1;
								„	B2	„	B3.
21.	D3	„	C3.			21.	A1	„	A2.
22.	C3	„	D4	„	B2.	22.	A2	„	A3.
23.	E2	„	D2.			23.	A3	„	B3.
24.	D2	„	C1 and wins.

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These puzzles, known as the ‘Thirty-four Game’ and the ‘Fifteen Game,’ on their introduction amongst us some years ago, created general interest wherever tried. Both games are played on the same board. The ‘blocks’ may be readily made by any lad. They can be cut out of cork, wood, or other suitable material, and may be square or round in shape, the numerals being written on the upper side, thus—

Let us describe the ‘15’ game first. Place the blocks, numbered 1 to 15, on the board irregularly, and then, by sliding them about from square to square, but without removing them from the board, arrange them in the following order:—

This looks simple enough in theory, but to any uninitiated reader who may think it easy of accomplishment in practice, we need merely say, ‘Try it.’

The ‘34’ puzzle consists in arranging the blocks, numbered 1 to 16, so that they will add perpendicularly, horizontally, and from corner to corner; also in arranging the 4 in each corner, the four outside numbers of the two centre lines, and the four groups in each corner; in all, sixteen different ways, and each produce the same total—34.

The ‘15’ puzzle would appear to have been, on its coming to England a few years ago, strictly a new introduction, but the ‘34’ was not only tolerably well-known, but seems to have been familiar to the Arabs in the ninth century. The nature of the game we have already described.

Now a word on the ‘15’ game. A skilful writer has pointed out how, while with two figures only two different arrangements can be obtained, three figures can be placed in six different orders, viz.:—3 1 2—3 2 1; 1 3 2—2 3 1; 1 2 3—2 1 3. Then, while there are thus six different orders that can be produced with three figures, if a fourth figure be placed in every one of the four different positions with regard to these six orders, we shall have four times the different number of orders that can be had with three figures. In the same way by multiplying these twenty-four different orders by five we shall have the number to be obtained with five figures. The rule, therefore, to find the number of different orders that may be obtained with any number of figures is to multiply all the different numbers used by each other. Thus, with six figures there will be 720 different orders; with seven, 5,040; with eight, 40,320, and so forth until we come to fifteen, when it will be found that the enormous number of 1,307,674,368,000 represents the different orders in which the fifteen numbers can be placed. This, of course, is the number of arrangements in which the cubes in the game of ‘15’ can be placed in the box. Let us consider how long it would take to test the solution of the different arrangements possible. Let us suppose that the cubes were worked to their consecutive or 15—14 order at the rate of one in every five minutes, which would, working day and night, be at the rate of about 105,000 arrangements a year. In this case it would take not less than twelve million years to test all the different arrangements!

The question now arises, whether out of this enormous number of different arrangements there are certain of them that cannot be shifted into the required consecutive order. The answer is, that exactly half of these arrangements are soluble, and the other half insoluble. The whole question turns upon the fact that in the arrangement of a certain number of figures in a row, otherwise than in consecutive order, the arrangement is made up either by an odd or an even number of transpositions. In the total number of different rows in which any given number of figures can be arranged, half of them will consist of rows containing an odd number, and the other half an even number of transpositions, just in the same way that in the numbers one to one hundred there are fifty odd and fifty even numbers. Take the case of six figures, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. If the first pair of figures is transposed the row will read 2, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6. In this row there is an odd number, namely, 1, of transpositions. If from this order the second pair is transposed the result will read 2, 1, 4, 3, 5, 6, and in this row there is an even number (2) of transpositions made from the original consecutive order. Suppose the last pair is transposed, the order will be 2, 1, 4, 3, 6, 5, and an odd number (3) of transpositions has been made. This may be continued until all the different rows possible have been worked, when it is evident that the first, third, fifth, etc., rows will each consist of an odd number of transpositions, while the intermediate rows will each contain an even number of transpositions.

Suppose we take the third row given above, 2, 1, 4, 3, 6, 5, this contains an odd number of transpositions. It is therefore impossible, by making an even number of transpositions each time, to bring 2, 1, 4, 3, 6, 5 to the original position of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, because it contains an odd number of transpositions, one of which will always remain, and cannot be eliminated by any even number of transpositions. Just in the same way we cannot, by the addition of even numbers, to any quantity or amount, to an odd number, produce an even number as the result. Every arrangement of a certain number of figures in a row contains therefore an odd or even number of transpositions which must be made before the figures can be brought into consecutive order, but it is immaterial whether these transpositions are made in such order as will the soonest produce the consecutive order, so long as they are made, and the number, whether odd or even, is noted.

By writing down a row of fifteen figures, and transposing two numbers each time, and noting whether an odd or even number of transpositions are required to produce the consecutive order, it can be ascertained whether the cubes, in this order, can or cannot be moved into the consecutive order. If the required number of transpositions is an odd number it will be impossible.

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This is a good indoor game for boys, which I believe has not yet appeared in any form in England. It is a modification of one played by the students in Germany, but adapted to English words, and with a special arrangement of the figures, which the original game does not admit of, the words not being so suitable.

The above diagram is chalked on the floor, the figures being about one foot across and one foot apart. Then one player takes his place on the middle figure, facing Fig. 6. The other players then sing the old rhyme of the ‘Crooked Man’ to the ‘King Pippin Polka,’ known also as ‘My mother said,’ etc.

Then the player, with his feet together, jumps to No. 1, No. 2, etc., as the words ‘man,’ ‘mile,’ etc., are mentioned. He must not turn round, or put his feet outside the figures. The others keep time by clapping with their hands. If the player jumps to a wrong figure, or to one before it is sung, he pays a forfeit, especially for the last line.

The verse is then repeated to the second part of the tune, the player jumping to each figure before it is mentioned, and giving a second jump on it, before going to the next. The last line finishes off with a wild repetition of the figure, the player stepping from one figure to the next as fast as he can, finishing on No. 7 to the last word. The player must place both feet on Fig. 7 to the words ‘and they,’ then the right on Fig. 1, and so on, to the last one. The great difficulty in the last line is to get the left foot from Fig. 4 to Fig. 6 in time. This is done by passing the right foot behind the left, when moving it from Fig. 3 to Fig. 5, which will enable the player to finish without tying his legs in a knot. The words and the numbers of the figures for the player to jump to are here given (commencing on No. 7 and facing Fig. 6)—

1. There was a crooked (jump to Fig. 1 to the word) man,
   He went a crooked (jump to Fig. 2 to word) mile,
   He found a crooked (Fig. 3) sixpence
   Against a crooked (Fig. 4) stile;
   He bought a crooked (Fig. 5) cat
   That caught a crooked (Fig. 6, and pause) mouse.
   And they all lived together in a little crooked (Fig. 7) house.
2. There (jump to Fig. 1) was a crooked (2nd jump on Fig. 1) man,
   He (to Fig. 2) went a crooked (2nd Fig. 2) mile,
   He (Fig. 3) found a crooked (2nd time Fig. 3) sixpence
   A- (to Fig. 4) -gainst a crooked (2nd Fig. 4) stile;
   He (Fig. 5) bought a crooked (Fig. 5) cat
   That (Fig. 6) caught a crooked (Fig. 6) mouse,
   (Step to Fig. 7, left foot) And they (right to Fig. 1 to word) all (left to Fig. 2) lived (right to Fig. 3 to) together (left to Fig. 4 to) in a (right behind left to Fig. 5) little (left to Fig. 6) crooked (both feet to Fig. 7) house.

The game is played with five bones, and the stages are as follows:—

1. Beginnings.—The five bones are gathered in the palm of the hand and thrown up, any number being caught on the back of the hand; they are then tossed up again, and caught in the palm. One is selected, thrown into the air, and one at a time the remainder picked up, while the one thrown is in the air. This must be caught and again thrown for the next bone. The bone thrown up is called the ‘dab,’ and must be caught clear, without touching any part of the person but the right hand under all circumstances of the game.

2. Ones.—The five bones are thrown on to the table, and the dab selected is thrown up, and the remainder are taken up, one by one, without touching any other bone.

3. Twos.—The same again, but two taken up for each throw of the dab.

4. Threes.—Three picked up, and then one.

5. Fours.—Four picked up.

In twos, threes, and fours, it is permitted by consent of the adversary to push the selected bones together while the dab is in the air. The touching of any other than the selected bones, or the failure to pick up the proper number, forfeits the turn.

6. Short Spans.—Two bones are placed on the table, each side of the left hand, one pair close to the thumb, the other pair at the tip of the little finger. Each pair must be taken up separately, without any pushing together.

7. Long Spans.—A bone is placed at the extremities of the thumb and little finger, stretched out to the widest. Another pair is put in the same way about six inches farther on the table. These pairs must be taken up without any touching together: any bone displaced may be put back again three times; failure on the third trial forfeits the turn.

8. Creek Mouse.—The five bones are tossed from the palm, and any number caught on the back of the hand; all but one are shaken off; the remainder are then gathered into the palm, without disturbing the one on the back, which is then tossed and caught in the palm, with the others.

9. Second Creek Mouse.—The five bones are tossed from the palm as before, and one is retained on the back. The remainder are taken one between each finger and thumb, the one on the back is then tossed and caught in the extended palm.

10. Bridges.—The hand is laid on the back on the table, the bones held between the fingers are then dropped in a row on the table. An arch is formed with the first finger and thumb of the left hand at about six inches from the left-hand bone of the four. They are then one by one pushed through this bridge; when all are through the left hand is removed, and the four are taken up at one sweep. No touching together is allowed.

11. Cracks.—The bones are thrown on the table, and the four picked up one by one; the dab in falling and being caught to make a distinct crack on the one picked up.

12. No Cracks.—Same as before, but the dab must be caught without touching the other bone. The slightest sound forfeits the turn.

13. Exchanges.—The four bones are laid at the corners of a square, a full span on each side. The first bone is picked up from the lower right-hand corner, and at the next throw is exchanged for the one above. This is exchanged for the one at the top left-hand corner, this for the lower left, and that is placed at the point of starting. The bones are then taken up in diagonal pairs.

14. Everlastings.—The whole of the bones are tossed from the palms, and any number caught on the back. These are tossed from the back and caught in the palm; and any that have fallen in the first toss have to be picked up while the whole of the others are in the air, so that at one moment there may be four dabs and one to pick up. This task, as the name implies, approaches the everlasting.

The game is an excellent one for exercising and developing that perfect sympathy between the eye and the hand which is certain to be of great service in after life.

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