The Boston School Atlas

The Earth, on which we live, is nearly a round body, the distance through the centre from north to south, being twenty-six miles less, than the distance through from west to east. That it is a round body is proved, 1st, By having been circumnavigated, or sailed round; 2d, From the appearance of a vessel approaching the land, the top of the masts being seen first; 3d, By the shadow of the earth upon the moon, during an eclipse of the moon.

This cut represents, in a striking manner, the mines and caverns as they exist under the land and ocean. The mine here exhibited, is a picture of a salt mine in Poland, Europe. The grotto is under the island Antiparos in the Mediterranean Sea. A mine is a cavern made by man, in digging for the articles found in the earth. A grotto is a cavern formed by nature.

Physical Geography, or Geography of the Earth, is a description of the earth’s structure and surface. The surface consists of two elements, viz, water and land; only one-third part being land.

Civil or Political Geography defines the boundaries and extent of the various countries in possession of the different nations of the earth. Civil Geography also treats of government, religion, commerce, the characteristic features of the principal races of men, and various other subjects.

Statistical Geography is a description of States, Kingdoms, Empires, or Cities, with reference to their population and resources.

Comprises Oceans, Seas, Lakes, Gulfs or Bays, Havens or Harbours, Straits, Channels, Sounds, and Rivers.

An Ocean is a large expanse of water not separated by land.

A Sea is a lesser extent of water than an ocean, almost surrounded by land.

A Lake is a large collection of water in the interior of a country;—generally fresh. A salt water lake is called a Sea.

A Gulf or Bay is a part of the sea extending up into the land.

A Haven or Harbour is a small portion of water, almost enclosed by land, where ships may lie safely at anchor.

A Strait is a narrow communication between two large collections of water. If it be so shallow as to be sounded, it is called a Sound.

A Channel is the deepest part of a river. A Strait is also sometimes called a Channel.

The vapours which rise from the surface of the earth ascend to the clouds, whence they fall in dew, snow, or rain, to water the earth, and supply springs, and small streams or rivers.

A River is an inland stream of water flowing from an elevated portion of land into some larger stream or body of water. The commencement of a river is called its SOURCE, or RISE; the direction to which it flows, its COURSE; and its communication with any other water, its MOUTH.

If the mouth of a river, which flows into an ocean or sea be wide, and is affected by tides, it is called an Estuary or Frith.

A Cataract or Falls is formed by a sudden declivity or precipice in the course of a river, over which the water falls with great force.

A Canal is an artificial passage for water, supplied from an elevated lake or river; and is constructed for the purpose of inland navigation. Canals often pass under mountains and over rivers.

Standing water, and low grounds filled with water, are called Morasses, Bogs, and Fens; or, as in the United States, Swamps.

Is divided into Continents, Islands, Peninsulas, Isthmuses, and Capes; and is diversified by Plains, Mountains, and Valleys.

A Continent is a large tract of land nowhere entirely separated by water. There are two continents, viz. the Western and Eastern.

An Island is a portion of land surrounded by water.

A Peninsula is a portion of land almost surrounded by water.

An Isthmus is the neck of land which joins a peninsula to the main land.

A Cape is a point of land, projecting into the sea. A mountainous Cape is called a Promontory.

A Plain is a large extent of level country. A plain naturally destitute of trees is called a Prairie; when entirely destitute of vegetation, it is called a Desert.

A Mountain is a lofty elevation of land. If it send forth smoke and flame, it is called a Volcano.

The opening at the top of a volcano, from whence issues the flame, smoke, &c., is called a Crater.

If the elevation of a mountain be small, it is then called a Hill.

A Valley is a tract of land, bounded by hills, and generally watered by a river.

A Shore or Coast is that part of the land which borders upon a body of water.

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A Map is a picture of the whole, or of a part, of the Earth’s surface, on a plane or level. Generally the top of a map represents north; the right hand side, east; the bottom, south; the left hand side, west. West, east, north, and south, are called the Cardinal Points.

Young persons in studying maps, imbibe an idea that the top of a map represents the highest part of a country; but this is a great mistake, as will be at once seen, by looking at the maps, and finding many rivers flow north, and recollecting that water cannot flow up hill. That part of a country is the most elevated, which contains mountains, and where rivers have their source.

Cities and towns are represented on maps by an o; rivers, by black lines running irregularly; mountains, by dark shades; deserts, by clusters of small dots; boundaries, by dotted lines.

The Axis of the earth is an imaginary line passing through its centre from north to south. The extremities of the Axis are called the Poles.

The Equator or Equinox, is an imaginary circle, surrounding the Earth from west to east, at an equal distance from the poles. See Map of the World, fig. 2.

A Meridian, or Line of Longitude, is a circle crossing the equator at right angles, and passing through the poles. See fig. 4.

Parallels of Latitude, are lines, drawn across maps, representing circles equally distant in every part from the equator. See fig. 3.

The Tropics are two circles parallel to the equator, at about 23 degrees and 28 minutes from it. The northern is called, the Tropic of Cancer; and the southern, the Tropic of Capricorn. See fig. 2.

The Polar Circles are drawn at 23 degrees and 28 minutes from the poles. The northern, is the Arctic, and the southern, the Antarctic Circle. See fig. 2.

A Degree is the 360th part of a circle, and contains 69½ English miles; each degree is divided into 60 equal parts, called minutes; and each minute into 60 equal parts, called seconds. They are marked (°) degrees, (’) minutes, (”) seconds.

The Longitude of a place, is its distance from any given meridian, as Washington, London, or Greenwich, and is reckoned in degrees, &c. on the equator. Longitude is marked in figures, either on the equator, or at the top and bottom of the map, and can be reckoned only 180 degrees east or west, that distance being half of a circle. Longitude, on most of these maps, is reckoned from the meridian of Greenwich, near London.

The Latitude of a place is its distance in degrees, &c. north or south from the equator, and is expressed in figures on the sides of the map. Latitude can never exceed 90 degrees.

The Zones are portions of the Earth’s surface divided by the tropics and polar circles. There are five zones, viz. one torrid, two temperate, and two frigid zones. See Map of the World, fig. 1.

The Torrid Zone is included between the tropics, and is distinguished for extreme heat, and luxuriant vegetation; the climate is generally unhealthy.

The Temperate Zones are included between the tropics and the polar circles; they have a healthy climate, and produce the greatest abundance of the most useful commodities.

The Frigid Zones lie between the polar circles and the poles, and are remarkable for extreme coldness of climate and general barrenness of soil.

A Hemisphere is half a globe. The map of the world is divided into the western and eastern Hemispheres; and the equator divides it into northern and southern Hemispheres.

The Diameter of the earth, that is, the distance through its centre, is about eight thousand miles; and its Circumference, that is, the distance round it, is about twenty-five thousand miles.

In tracing the relative situation of places, the pupil must remember to follow the direction of the parallels and meridians, and not be governed merely by the apparent direction of one place from another. Thus, on the map of the world, Iceland appears north from Newfoundland, but it is northeast. Therefore, the direction towards the top and bottom of maps is not always exactly north and south; but to go north you must proceed toward the north pole; and south, toward the south pole;—following the direction of the lines.

The preceding principles should be rendered as perfectly familiar to the pupil as the letters of the alphabet. To secure this object, the learner is required, in the following pages, to define a continent, an ocean, latitude, longitude, &c. in connexion with the subject of questions on the maps. It will also be useful, after the pupil has passed the map of the world, frequently to require similar definitions to be repeated, when naturally suggested by the subject, and thus impress the learner with the necessity of being always prepared to answer them. This method furnishes a general review of Elemental Geography through the whole course of studying the maps, and will give variety and pleasure to the exercise.

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QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF THE WORLD.

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N. B. The Questions in Italics are to be answered by referring to the preceding elementary principles.

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1. Of what two elements is the surface of the earth composed? 2. Of which is there the greater part?

3. How is land divided? 4. What is a Continent, and how many are there? 5. Which contains the more land? 6. By what is the surface of the land diversified? 7. Asia, Europe, Africa, and America, are called the Grand Divisions of the earth;—which of them is largest? 8. Which is smallest? 9. How is North America bounded? 10. South America? 11. Europe? 12. Asia? 13. Africa? 14. Which way is South America from Africa? 15. Europe from North America?

16. What is an Island? 17. What large island lies south from Asia? 18. Where is New Zealand? 19. Which are the principal of the East India Islands? 20. Of the West India Islands? 21. Of Australasia? 22. Of Polynesia? 23. Australasia, Polynesia, and the East India Islands, are sometimes embraced under the general name Oceanica;—which of these groups contains the largest islands? 24. Where is Owhyhee, where Capt. Cook was slain? 25. St. Helena, where Bonaparte ended his life?

26. What is a Peninsula? 27. Which of the divisions of the Eastern continent is a peninsula? 28. Is South America properly a peninsula or an island?

29. What is an Isthmus? 30. What isthmus connects Asia with Africa? 31. North with South America?

32. What is a Cape? 33. Which are the principal capes of New Zealand? 34. Where is the Cape of Good Hope? 35. Cape Horn? 36. Which is further south?

37. What is a Plain? 38. A Prairie? 39. A Desert? 40. A Mountain? 41. A Hill? 42. A Volcano? 43. A Crater? 44. In which Grand Division is the Great Desert?

45. What is a Valley? 46. A Shore or coast? 47. What part of the coast of North America approaches nearest to Asia? 48. What ocean washes the eastern coast of America? 49. The western? 50. What sea forms the northern boundary of Africa?

51. What does Water comprise? 52. What is an Ocean? 53. Name the oceans. 54. Which is the largest? 55. What is a Sea? 56. Where is the Caspian sea? 57. Yellow sea? 58. Chinese sea? 59. The Sea of Ochotsk? 60. The Mediterranean sea? 61. The Black sea? 62. The Red Sea? 63. The Caribbean sea? 64. The Aral sea? 65. The Arctic sea, or ocean? 66. The Antarctic?

67. What is a Lake? 68. Which contains the largest lakes, the western or eastern hemisphere? 69. Which is the largest lake in the world? 70. Where is it situated? 71. Which is the largest lake on the eastern hemisphere? 72. In which of the Grand Divisions is it?

73. What is a Gulf or bay? 74. Where is Hudson’s bay? 75. Baffin’s bay? 76. Gulf of Mexico?

77. What is a Haven or harbour? 78. A Strait? 79. Where are Hudson’s straits? 80. Davis’ straits? 81. Straits of Gibraltar?

82. What is a River? 83. Where is Mackenzie’s river? 84. The Amazon river? 85. The Senegal river? 86. What is meant by the rise, course, and mouth of a river? 87. If the mouth of a river be wide, and is affected by tides, what is it called?

88. What is a Cataract? 89. A Morass or Swamp?

90. What is the Equator? 91. What countries does it intersect? 92. Which of the East India Islands does it intersect? 93. Into what does the equator divide the earth?

94. What countries does the tropic of Cancer cross? 95. The tropic of Capricorn?

96. What is a Hemisphere? 97. What islands in the western hemisphere are under the equator? 98. What is a Degree, and into how many is the equator divided? 99. How many degrees is the equator from the poles?

100. What is a Meridian? 101. What is Longitude? 102. What is the longitude of Madagascar? 103. Of the Azores? 104. Of Ireland?

105. What is Latitude? 106. What are Parallels of latitude? 107. What is the latitude of New York? 108. Of London? 109. Of Canton? 110. Of Spitzbergen? 111. How many degrees further north is Pekin than Canton? 112. Boston than Morocco? 113. What are the Tropics? 114. What are the Polar circles?

115. What are Zones? 116. What countries are in the Torrid Zone? 117. What in the Northern Temperate? 118. What in the Southern Temperate? 119. Has much land been discovered in the Frigid Zones?

120. What oceans, seas, &c. must a ship navigate in sailing from Boston to Canton? 121. From New York to Rome? 122. From the Island Jamaica to Otaheite? 123. In which of these voyages would the ship pass the Cape of Good Hope? 124. In which, Cape Horn?

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In a general point of view, the surface of the earth may properly be considered as one vast ocean, in which are placed a great number of islands, whose sizes are various. Two of these islands are called CONTINENTS;—because it has hitherto been impossible to sail round them, owing to the frozen state of the waters of the Arctic seas. That which has been for the longer space of time inhabited by civilized nations, is called the eastern, or old continent, and contains Asia, Europe, and Africa. The other comprises America, and is named the western, or new continent. New Holland, a large tract of land situated in the midst of the most extensive mass of waters, is by some called a continent; but it is more proper to consider it as the largest island in existence. An island differs from a continent only in size, and the name continent is given to certain extensive portions of land, for the sake of convenience in geographical descriptions.

The bottom of the basin of the ocean has irregularities, similar to those seen on the surface of the land; and, if the waters were dried up, would present to view, mountains, valleys, and plains. Islands are therefore, the flattened tops of mountains, situated in the midst of the sea. Immense masses of rocks are found in many places under the water, and often rise so near the surface, that they are dangerous to navigation. Near Marseilles, there is a quarry under the sea, from which marble is obtained. These facts prove that the sea is not bottomless, as some people suppose, although there are some places so deep that no bottom has yet been found. It has been supposed, by many geographers, that the depth of the abysses of the ocean, are equal to the heights of mountains on land, and therefore that the ocean is in no place more than thirty thousand feet deep. The greatest depth that has ever been measured without finding bottom, is four thousand six hundred and eighty feet.

The chief characteristic of the ocean, is the saltness of its waters, which renders them disagreeable to the taste, and unfit for the use of man. Thus mariners are often, although surrounded by water, in danger of perishing from thirst, when their supply of fresh water has been exhausted, while they are yet at a great distance from land. The cause of this saltness is not yet ascertained. It is supposed that by the constant agitation of the waters the ocean preserves its purity.

The Arctic ocean is constantly frozen over, and immense pieces of ice become detached, and being driven about in the ocean, are often dangerous to navigators. Some of them are more than a mile long, and rise to the height of one hundred and fifty feet; others rise but a few feet above the waves, and form floating fields of ice of great extent. These fields are often visited by the natives of Greenland, in their canoes, while pursuing their seal fisheries. Ships are sometimes, while sailing in these dangerous waters, surrounded and crushed between these masses of ice.

The form which the shores of the land presents is very irregular; in consequence of which, the ocean extends towards the interior of countries, and thus forms inland seas, gulfs, &c. which are in reality parts of the ocean, detached, but not separated from it. The different names, as sea, bay, &c. are given for the sake of convenience.

The level of the sea is nearly the same in all parts of the globe, except in some inland seas, &c. For this reason all the measurements of the heights of places and mountains are calculated from this level.

The ocean is subdivided into portions, which are known by different names, viz. the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic or Northern, and Antarctic or Southern oceans. The situation of these may be seen by reference to the map of the world.

The Atlantic ocean varies in extent, from seven hundred to four thousand miles in breadth from west to east, and is nine thousand miles in length.

The Pacific ocean extends from north to south about eight thousand miles, and from west to east about eleven thousand miles,—almost half round the globe.

The Indian ocean extends from north to south about four thousand miles, and from west to east varies from twenty-five hundred to six thousand miles.

The Northern ocean is encircled by the coasts of the two continents. Its greatest extent in one direction is computed to be three thousand miles.

The Southern ocean lies south from the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, and surrounds the south pole.

The most remarkable phenomenon which occurs throughout the extent of the ocean is the Maelstrom. This is a whirlpool by which a ship or any thing which comes within the reach of the circling current is swallowed up.

This whirlpool is in the Atlantic ocean, near the coast of Norway, Europe.

Mountains form the principal feature which presents itself on viewing the surface of the land. These immense heights have their descents, more or less steep, and their exteriors greatly diversified. Some of them present a surface of naked and rugged rocks piled one upon another; others show an abrupt and almost perpendicular surface, which conveys to an observer an idea that the mountain has been cut from top to bottom, so as to show the interior. Sometimes mountains seem, when viewed from particular points, to show the form of the head of a tiger, a bear, a man’s face, &c.

Some are composed of columns of basaltic rock, so regularly formed and disposed that they seem to have been formed by art. The columns are five or six sided, and appear to be divided into joints, at intervals of about thirty feet. The Giant’s Causeway in Ireland, is a remarkable instance of this natural curiosity.

At this place there are ranges of these columns which extend into the sea several hundred feet, and their tops present an almost level surface of pavement.

Mountains have often large cavities in their interiors. In Norway, Europe, there is a remarkable instance of a singular natural formation of a mountain. Mount Torghat is pierced through with an opening one hundred and fifty feet high, and three thousand long; at certain seasons of the year the sun lights up the interior of this passage from one end to the other.

Defiles or passes are narrow natural openings or roads through a chain of mountains, and often form the only communication from one part of a country to the other. There is a famous defile of this kind at the Cape of Good Hope, Africa, which is called Holland’s Kloffe.

This pass is so situated that it forms the only communication from the country of the Hottentots to the country beyond the mountains. One hundred men could here successfully oppose the march of an immense army.

A defile sometimes forms the bed of a river, by which means the stream passes through a chain of mountains. In the United States there is an instance of this, where the opposite sides of the defile are connected together at the top by a natural bridge of rock.

A Plateau is a plain of immense extent, which is formed of an extensive surface of elevated land. Some plateaus are eight thousand feet above the level of the sea. Lofty mountains often rise from these plateaus, many of which are volcanic.

Volcano is a word taken from the name which the Romans gave to the God of Fire. It now designates those mountains which are subject to eruptions of fire, smoke, stones, and lava. The irruption of a volcano is a most awful and majestic phenomenon. The earth is shaken, and rumbling noises are heard, which sound like thunder. Smoke and fire begin to issue from the top of the mountain.

Suddenly the fire becomes extinguished, and red-hot stones are thrown out; then the crater is filled with a burning liquid called lava, which looks like metal in a melted state. At last, the lava overflows the sides of the crater, and runs down the sides of the mountain, destroying every thing which lies in its path, and covering cities and cultivated fields with a sea of burning matter. Sometimes the lava is too heavy to be elevated to the summit, and bursts out from the side of the mountain.

The cities Herculaneum and Pompeii, in Italy, were entirely destroyed, A. D. 79, by an irruption of Vesuvius.

Herculaneum was discovered by digging away the ashes and lava, in the year 1713. Pompeii was discovered about forty years afterwards.

The height of mountains is measured from the level of the sea.

The highest mountains in the world are the Himmaleh mountains, in Asia.

The second in point of elevation are the Andes mountains, in South America; Chimborazo is the highest peak.

The highest mountain in North America is Mount Elias,—in Europe, Mont Blanc,—in Africa, the Atlas mountains.

A traveller in South America has lately asserted, that he has discovered a mountain in Peru, which is higher than the Himmaleh mountains in Asia. If this be a fact, it will probably soon be confirmed by the testimony of other travellers.

The highest volcanic mountain in the world is Cotopaxi, one of the Andes, in South America. Other celebrated volcanoes are Popocatepetl, in North America,—Mount Etna, Stromboli, and Vesuvius, in Europe,—and Mount Hecla, in Iceland.

Mountains are sometimes found standing alone; but generally many of them are united in a range, or ridge, which extends many miles, and, in some instances, through the whole extent of a continent.

In ascending mountains it will be found, that as you proceed towards the top, the climate grows continually colder; and after passing beyond the height of about 17,000 feet from the level of the sea, you arrive at a region where snow and ice cover the ground during the whole year. This contributes much to the coolness and salubrity of the climate of countries where such high mountains are found.

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COMPARATIVE LENGTHS OF RANGES OF MOUNTAINS.

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Small streams are called Brooks, Rivulets, and sometimes Creeks. In the study of the maps they are called branches of rivers.

Many small streams, being formed in the mountainous and other elevated parts of a country, flow together, and form a large current of water which takes the name of a river, and is constantly augmented in its course, by other brooks, &c. and by rain, until it discharges itself into an ocean, sea, lake, or some other river.

The length of rivers has not been so definitely ascertained as the height of mountains. The length of the same river varies in the statements of different geographers, and this difference is owing to the principles on which their measurements are made, some measuring the windings of the river, and others only the valleys through which they flow.

The longest and largest river in the world is the Amazon, in South America. It is more than 150 miles wide at its junction with the Atlantic ocean. The body of water is so great that it constantly flows into the ocean, and is not affected by tides. The commotion caused by the meeting of the tide and the current of the river, sometimes renders navigation dangerous.

The longest rivers in North America are the Missouri and Mississippi.

The longest river in Asia is the Kian Ku. In Europe, the Volga. In Africa, the Nile.

The Missouri flows into the Mississippi about 1300 miles from its mouth, and is, in fact, the main river. And the length of the Missouri is given, in the opposite table, from its source to the mouth of the Mississippi.

The Missouri and Mississippi rivers, taken together, have no rival in the world, for length of course, the size and number of their tributaries, and the vast extent of country through which they flow. The Mississippi is called by the native Indians the ‘Father of Waters,’ and the Missouri, the ‘Mother of Floods.’

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Rivers are supplied with water principally from springs, and the melting of snow upon high mountains. Mountains attract clouds around their tops and sides, and by this means become saturated with water, which, finding its way through the fissures of the rocks, forms springs. In this manner probably all springs are formed, whether they are found on mountains or plains. Heavy rains also augment the quantity of water, and often after a heavy fall of rain, many rivers are so swollen that the water overflows their banks, and the flood sweeps away every thing that is within its reach.

The Mississippi is subject to inundations during the spring, and the banks of the river being higher than the adjacent country, the water never returns to the river, but seeks other channels. These inundations greatly enrich the lands.

The banks or shores of rivers present very different appearances, according to the formation of the land through which they pass. The banks of some rivers are but little elevated above their level, and slope gently down to the water’s edge; others flow through rocky channels, and are walled on each side with high and almost perpendicular precipices.

Sometimes a precipice occurs immediately across the course of a river, and the water falling nearly perpendicularly over, forms a cataract or falls.

They are often obstructed by rapids which render navigation difficult and sometimes impracticable. A rapid is a gradual descent in the bed of a river, where the current is swift, and the water shallow.

Some rivers suddenly disappear, by flowing into a chasm, and are lost in the earth. Some of these again issue from the earth at a great distance from where they disappeared.

Rivers present obstacles to the route of roads, and many expedients have been invented by the ingenuity of man to obviate them. In many places bridges are built of wood, stone or iron; and where the current is too swift, or the channel too deep to permit a bridge to be built, the passage is made in boats. But the most astonishing project that has been undertaken for this purpose is the Tunnel under the river Thames, at London, England. A road is here dug out under the river, and is nearly completed. A view of the work is given in the cut.

The tunnel consists of two brick archways for carriages, and two foot paths. The passages are divided by a line of arches, between the pillars of which are placed gas lights. This undertaking was commenced in the year 1825. The whole length is thirteen hundred feet, and each archway is about fourteen feet in width. The thickness of the earth between the bed of the river and the tunnel is about fifteen feet.

A country, possessed of large and navigable rivers, enjoys a great blessing. They form a means of internal communication, by which the productions of the inland country are brought to the city and seaport. Their currents are made use of, by the aid of machinery, to manufacture many of the necessaries and luxuries of life.

Many rivers whose waters are pure, afford water for the use of the inhabitants of neighboring cities.

London and Westminster, England, are supplied from the New river; the water is here brought thirty-eight miles through a canal. The Schuylkill river in Pennsylvania, United States, supplies the city Philadelphia with good and wholesome water, for the use of the inhabitants.

These works are ingeniously constructed at Fair Mount on the eastern bank of the river. The water is raised by the action of an engine, moved by the water power of the river itself, and deposited in large reservoirs, from whence it is conveyed by iron pipes to every part of the city. The aggregate length of the pipes already laid exceeds 63 miles. Three reservoirs have already been constructed which contain ten millions of gallons, and a fourth has been commenced which will contain ten millions more, being a quantity sufficient for the use of the city Philadelphia ten days.

Lakes are of four distinct classes.

1. Those which have no streams of water running into nor from them. They are generally very small, and of little consequence.

2. Those which have streams flowing from them, but none flowing into them. These are mostly supplied with water from subterraneous springs. Some of this class form the sources of large rivers, and are generally situated on elevated land.

3. Those which have streams flowing both into and from them. These, by a continual flow of fresh river water, preserve their clearness and sweetness; and often, besides the river which seems to flow through them, have sources of their own near their shores, or from springs at their bottoms.

4. The fourth class is ranked among the phenomena of nature. They have no visible outlet, but receive the waters of rivers which flow into them. The Caspian sea, in Asia, is an instance of this kind. These lakes probably lose the surplus of their waters by evaporation produced by the heat of the sun.

The waters of lakes which receive their supply from springs and rivers, partake of their qualities. There are some lakes whose waters are exceedingly clear and transparent. Lake Wetter in Europe is so limpid that a piece of money can be seen at the bottom at 120 feet depth.

In many parts of the earth are found caverns, or deep cavities and grottoes, which are remarkable on account of their great extent, and for the grand and imposing appearance of the rocks which compose the sides and roof.

Fingal’s cave, in the island Staffa, one of the western islands of Scotland, is a noted cave.

It is thus described by a celebrated traveller. ‘The mind can hardly form an idea more magnificent than such a space, supported on each side by ranges of basaltic columns and roofed by the ends of those which have been broken off, between the angles of which, a yellow matter has exuded, which serves to define the angles exactly, and at the same time vary the color with a great degree of elegance. To render it still more imposing, the whole is lighted up from without, so that the farthest extremity is visible, and the air within being agitated by the motion of the water, is perfectly wholesome, and free from the noxious vapors with which caverns are usually filled.’

Some caverns are of great depth, descending in some instances, eleven thousand feet. Others, after a descent, assume a horizontal direction, and are formed into many grottoes. The most remarkable grotto known, is the Grotto of the island Antiparos, in the Archipelago sea. The principal chamber of this cavern is exhibited on page 3.

In many caverns, water is found at a great depth, and this circumstance, together with the fact that water is obtained by digging deep wells, seems to prove that there are sheets of water under ground, which extend to considerable distances.

The earth contains many mineral substances beneath its surface, which are useful to man. These substances are dug out, and thus immense mines are formed. Gold and silver are obtained in great quantities in South America. Iron, the most useful of metals, is obtained in various parts of the world. Annexed is a representation of the iron mine at Dalmora, in Europe. The iron ore is not dug out as in mines of coal, tin, &c. but is torn up by means of gunpowder.

The descent into this mine is by means of buckets attached to ropes.

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The Earth has generally been considered by geographers under four Grand Divisions, viz. America, Europe, Asia, and Africa. Besides these, there are four clusters of Islands, which according to some geographers constitute other divisions, viz. Australasia, Polynesia, the East India Islands, and the West India Islands.

AMERICA is the largest of the divisions, and was unknown to the civilized world till the year 1492, when it was discovered by Christopher Columbus. It however takes its name from Americus Vesputius, who came to the country about seven years after. The face of the country is distinguished by lofty mountains and extensive lakes. Among its rivers are found the largest in the world.

Most of the metals, minerals, trees, plants, and fruits found on the other continent, are produced in abundance here, and many of them in greater perfection. The climate of America is found to be ten degrees cooler than the climate of the other continent in the same latitude.

EUROPE is the smallest of the divisions, but is distinguished above all the others for its advancement in military power, and in civilisation, science, and literature.

ASIA is remarkable for having contained the “garden of Eden,” where our first parents were placed. In this division, the Jewish, the Christian, and the Mahometan religions had their origin. Its soil is more fertile than that of any other division, and its inhabitants more numerous.

AFRICA is less known than any of the other divisions. The greater part of the inhabitants are in a state of barbarism. Nearly three-quarters of Africa lie in the torrid zone, and the dark complexion and savage character of the inhabitants, and the ferocity of its wild beasts, seem in unison with the excessive heat of the sun, and the frightful aspect of the deserts.

The West India Islands lie in the Atlantic Ocean, between North and South America, in the torrid zone. They belong principally to European nations.

Australasia, Polynesia, and the East India Islands are sometimes included under the general name of Oceanica. These islands present every variety of surface and climate, and produce many of the luxuries of life in abundance. They also abound in volcanoes.

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1. By whom and in what year was America discovered? 2. After whom was it named? 3. What is remarkable in the climate of America? 4. What are the principal divisions of North America? 5. In what part are the British Possessions? 6. Mexico? 7. The United States? 8. Greenland? 9. The Russian Possessions? 10. Guatimala? 11 to 16. How is each one of these divisions bounded?

17. What range of mountains extends through the whole length of North America? 18. What is its course? 19. Near which coast is this range? 20. What range of mountains is in The United States? 21. Which is the highest mountain in North America?

22. Which are the principal lakes? 23. Bays and gulfs? 24. How is Lake Nicaragua situated? 25. Which is more northwardly, Hudson’s or Baffin’s bay? 26. Where is Repulse bay? 27. Wager? 28. James’s? 29. Bristol? 30. Campeachy? 31. Honduras? 32. Where is the Gulf of Darien? 33. Gulf of Mexico? 34. Gulf of St. Lawrence?

35. What large river flows from the lakes, north from The United Slates, to the Atlantic Ocean? 36. How is Lake Winnipeg connected with Hudson’s bay? 37. Slave lake with the Arctic sea? 38. Where is Columbia river? 39. What is its course? 40. Into what does it flow? 41. Which is the largest river in North America? 42. What rivers form the boundary, in part, between Mexico and The United States? 43. What river flows into the Lake of the Hills? 44. Into the Gulf of Mexico? 45. Hudson’s bay? 46. Gulf of California?

47. How is America separated from Asia? 48. Newfoundland from New Britain? 49. How is Baffin’s bay connected with the Atlantic ocean? 50. Where are Hudson’s straits? 51. How is Nootka sound situated?

52. Is California an isthmus or a peninsula? 53. Where is Cape Farewell? 54. Cape Mendocino? 55. Icy Cape? 56. What cape is at the southern extremity of Nova Scotia? 57. How many degrees further north is Cape Race, than Cape Corrientes?

58. What islands are near the western coast of North America? 59. What is the latitude of Vancouver’s Island? 60. How are the Bahama Islands separated from Florida? 61. Where are the West India Islands? 62. Which of them is largest? 63. To what nations do they principally belong? 64. Where is North Georgian Island?

65. In what part of the United States is the Oregon Territory? 66. The Missouri Territory? 67. In what part of the British Possessions is Labrador? 68. Is the direction towards the top of a map always exactly north, and towards the bottom always exactly south? 69. What directions are exactly north, and south? 70. Which way from Newfoundland is Cape Farewell? 71. Which way from the northern extremity of Labrador is Cape Farewell? 72. Which way from the Fox Islands are Bhering’s straits?

73. On what island is Havanna? 74. Kingston? 75. Where is Quebec? 76. Montreal? 77. How far south does Florida extend? 78. How is it bounded on the east and west? 79. Between what parallels of latitude do the United States principally lie?

80. In what zone does North America principally lie? 81. Does any part lie in the Northern Frigid Zone? 82. From what meridian is longitude computed on the map of North America? 83. Which way is St. John’s, the capital of Newfoundland, from New York? 84. Quebec from Mexico? 85. Halifax from Boston? 86. Which way from the Bermuda islands is Newfoundland?

North America is divided into portions belonging to different nations. It embraces every variety of soil and climate, and its peculiar features are great ranges of mountains, long rivers, and extensive lakes. Previously to its discovery by Columbus, it was in possession of tribes of wandering Indians, most of whom were savages. They were remarkable for strength, courage, and activity, and showed all the peculiarities incident to the savage life, in the greatest degree.

Russian America is chiefly valuable on account of its fur trade. It is an exceedingly cold country, and is still, mostly in possession of native Indians.

British America comprises Canada, New Wales, and Labrador, New Brunswick, and the neighboring islands, together with the extent of country between Hudson’s Bay and the Russian Possessions. Canada and New Brunswick are the only parts which are settled by any considerable numbers of civilized people, nine tenths of the country being still inhabited by Indians.

Furs are the staple article of the commerce and trade of the country. The Northwest Fur Company have an establishment at Fort Chipawyan, where the Indians resort to sell their furs.

Mexico. The coasts of this country are level and low. Towards the interior the land gradually rises, until it attains an elevation of 6700 feet above the sea, and then forms an immense plateau. The climate is hot and unhealthy, except on the plateau, where it is salubrious. Mexico contains the richest gold and silver mines in the world, and the pursuit of these treasures led the Spaniards, when they first discovered the country, to oppress the natives.

The city Mexico is situated in the midst of this plateau, and is surrounded by mountains. It is one of the most magnificent cities in the world;—its streets are regular, and its buildings truly elegant. The churches are adorned with gold and silver.

Above is the view of the great square. In the centre and opposite the Cathedral, is an equestrian statue of Charles IV. on a pedestal of marble. This was cast in Mexico, and weighs 40,500 pounds. It is one of the handsomest monuments in the world.

Guatimala. The climate is like that of Mexico. Volcanoes abound, and not less than twenty are constantly burning. Logwood and mahogany are obtained here in vast quantities.

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Note. The pupil must not think that the opposite map gives a view of the whole extent of the territory of the United States; it represents only that part which is divided into States, and settled. A view of the whole is given on the map of North America; and by comparing the two maps, he will easily understand what part is here represented.

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1. The United States constitute a Republic; how is the government administered? 2. How many States and Territories are in this Republic, including Oregon Territory? 3. How is Maine bounded? 4 to 30. How are the other States and Territories severally bounded? 31. What States are north from the 40th parallel of latitude? 32. What south?

33. There is a range of mountains which extends almost through the whole of the United States; what is its general course? 34. Through what part of Virginia does it run? 35. What mountains are in Tennessee? 36. In Alabama? 37. Where are the Lead Hills?

38. Is the water of lakes generally salt or fresh? 39. What lakes lie between the United States and Canada? 40. How is Lake Michigan situated? 41. Moose Head Lake? 42. Flambeau Lake? 43. Lake St. Clair? 44. What lakes are near the source of the Mississippi river? 45. What is a lake called if its waters be salt?

46. What bays are located on the south coast of Florida? 47. Where is Narraganset bay? 48. What large gulf is south from the United States?

49. What is a Sound? 50. Where is Albemarle sound? 51. Pamlico sound?

52. What river rises in the northern part of Maine, and flows through New Brunswick into the Atlantic? 53. What is the course of the Mississippi river? 54. Of what States does it form the eastern boundary? 55. Of what the western? 56. What rivers flow into it from the east? 57. What from the west?

58. Of what state does the Ohio river form the northern boundary? 59. Of what states the southern? 60. Where is the Great Kanhawa river? 61. What is its course?

62. What are the principal rivers of Virginia? 63. North Carolina? 64. South Carolina? 65. Georgia? 66. Alabama? 67. Mississippi? 68. Tennessee? 69. What large river unites with the Mississippi, near St. Louis? 70. What rivers flow south into the Ohio? 71. What river flows through Arkansas territory into the Mississippi?

72. Where is Cape St. Blas? 73. What capes at the mouth of Chesapeake bay? 74. What capes on the coast south from Cape Hatteras? 75. What strait connects lakes Huron and Michigan?

76. Which way is Long Island from New Jersey? 77. Where is Mount Desert Island? 78. Sullivan’s island? 79. Royale Island? 80. What two islands lie near the mouth of St. Mary’s river?

81. How are the following capitals and chief towns situated, viz. Richmond?

• 82. Norfolk?
• 83. Raleigh?
• 84. Columbus?
• 85. Cincinnati?
• 86. Indianapolis?
• 87. Vincennes?
• 88. Vandalia?
• 89. Kaskaskia?
• 90. Jefferson city?
• 91. Nashville?
• 92. St. Louis?
• 93. Arkopolis, or Little Rock?
• 94. Frankfort?
• 95. Lexington?
• 96. Knoxville?
• 97. Charleston?
• 98. Milledgeville?
• 99. Tuscaloosa?
•   100. Tallahassee?
•   101. Natches?
•   102. New Orleans?
•   103. Mobile?
•   104. Washington?[1]

105. Which way is Maine from New Jersey? 106. Georgia from Ohio? 107. Michigan from Massachusetts? 108. Indiana from North Carolina?

109. Which way are Philadelphia, Washington, and Baltimore from Boston? 110. Which is furthest?

Note. Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, are called The New England States;—New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, New Jersey, and Delaware, The Middle States;—Virginia, North and South Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, The Southern States;—Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri, The Western States.—111. In what part of the Union are these sections severally situated?

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1. Which of these States is more eastwardly? 2. Which extends further north? 3. Which of them has any sea-coast? 4. What state lies east from New Hampshire? 5. What state south?

6. How many counties are there in New Hampshire? 7. What counties border upon Massachusetts? 8. What on Maine? 9. What counties lie along the Connecticut river? 10. What counties in the interior?

11. What mountains are there in this State? 12. In what part of the State are the Pigwacket mountains? 13. In what county are they?

14. What lake in the northern part of Coos county? 15. What river flows from Lake Umbagog into the state of Maine? 16. Which is the largest lake in New Hampshire? 17. How is it situated? 18. Which way from Squam lake, is Ossipee lake? 19. Which is more eastwardly, Smith’s lake, or East pond? 20. In what county are Enfield pond, and Newfound lake? 21. How is Sunapee lake situated?

22. What river bounds New Hampshire on the west? 23. What rivers, in Coos county, flow into the Connecticut river? 24. What river flows from East pond, into Great bay? 25. What river flows from Lake Ossipee, into Saco river? 26. Where does the Merrimack river rise? 27. What is its course through New Hampshire? 28. What state does it enter after leaving New Hampshire, and which way flow? 29. Into what does the Contocook river flow? 30. The Nashua river? 31. The Mascomey river? 32. The Piscataqua river? 33. At the mouth of what river is Hinsdale?

34. In what county, and on what river, is Concord, the capital of the state? 35. In what county is Portsmouth? 36. Is Portsmouth a seaport? 37. In what county is Amherst? 38. Keene? 39. Charlestown? 40. Haverhill? 41. Lancaster? 42. Dover?

43. On what river are Peterboro’ and Jaffrey? 44. Claremont? 45. Which way is Keene from Concord? 46. From Amherst to Portsmouth? 47. From Washington to Jefferson?

48. How many counties are in Vermont? 49. Which of them lie south from the 44th parallel of latitude? 50. What two are crossed by it? 51. Which is in the interior? 52. What counties are in the north part?

53. What country lies north from Vermont? 54. What state lies south? 55. What west?

56. What range of mountains runs through the centre of the state? 57. What is its course?

58. What lakes lie west from Vermont? 59. What north? 60. What lake is in Addison county? 61. What islands are in Lake Champlain? 62. What is their general name?

63. What river bounds Vermont on the east? 64. What rivers flow into the Connecticut river, north from the 44th parallel of latitude? 65. What south? 66. What two streams flow from Bennington county into the state of New York?

67. What river flows into Lake Champlain at Whitehall? 68. In what part of the state is Otter creek? 69. Where does it rise? 70. What is its course? 71. Through what counties, and into what lake, does it flow? 72. How many branches has White river? 73. What rivers, in the northern part of the state, flow into Lake Champlain? 74. Into Kilbourn’s lake?

75. In what county, and on what river, is Montpelier, the capital of the state? 76. In what county is St. Albans? 77. Newfane? 78. Guildhall? 79. Manchester? 80. Danville? 81. Woodstock? 82. Middlebury? 83. Rutland? 84. Chelsea?

85. Which way from Windsor to Burlington? 86. From Montpelier to Irasburg? 87. In which corner of the state is Bennington? 88. Brattleboro’?

89. Which is further north, Montpelier or Concord? 90. Portsmouth or Bennington? 91. What is the latitude of Middlebury and Haverhill? 92. Which way from Claremont to Rutland? 93. Which way from Plymouth, New-Hampshire to Plymouth, Vermont?

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1. Which is the largest of these States? 2. Which is smallest?

3. Into how many counties is Massachusetts divided? 4. What county is in the western part? 5. Through which does the Connecticut river flow? 6. Which is the largest county? 7. Which counties lie in the northeastern part? 8. Which in the southeastern part? 9. Boston and Chelsea constitute what county?

10. What mountains form the western boundary of Massachusetts? 11. Where are the Hoosack mountains? 12. In what part, and in what town of Massachusetts is Mount Tom? 13. Mount Holyoke? 14. Wachusett mountain? 15. Saddle mountain?

16. Where is Massachusetts bay? 17. Barnstable bay? 18. Buzzard’s bay? 19. Vineyard sound? 20. Wellfleet harbor? 21. Holmes’ Hole?

22. What river rises in New Hampshire and runs through the northeastern part of Massachusetts? 23. What rivers in Massachusetts flow into the Connecticut river from the east? 24. What from the west? 25. In what part of Massachusetts is Charles river?

26. What is a canal? 27. What canal runs from Worcester to Providence? 28. What direct water communication between Merrimack river and Boston harbor?

29. Where is Cape Ann? 30. Cape Cod? 31. What peninsula lies north from the entrance to Boston harbor? 32. What island lies off the town of Ipswich? 33. Which is further east, Nantucket or Martha’s Vineyard? 34. What county do the Elizabeth Islands and Martha’s Vineyard constitute?

35. Which way is Worcester from Boston? 36. Concord from Worcester? 37. Which is more northwardly, Springfield or Northampton? 38. Which way from Taunton to Plymouth?

39. Where are the following celebrated manufacturing towns? viz. Amesbury? 40. Monson? 41. Ware? 42. Lowell? 43. Pawtucket? 44. Waltham? 45. Leicester? 46. Through what town does the Ware river flow?

47. What counties lie in the western part of Connecticut? 48. In what part is New Haven county? 49. Through which does the Connecticut river flow? 50. Which lie east from the Connecticut river?

51. What mountains are in Connecticut?

52. Where is Long Island Sound?

53. What river rises in Massachusetts and flows through the western part of Connecticut? 54. Through what towns does the Quinebaug river flow? 55. With what river does it unite, and form the Thames?

56. For what purpose are canals constructed? 57. What canal runs from the Connecticut river at Northampton to New Haven? 58. Through what towns does it run?

59. What are the counties of Rhode Island? 60. What large bay in Rhode Island?

61. What rivers in Rhode Island? 62. Through what towns, does the Pawtuxet river flow? 63. In what part is Pawtucket river? 64. Where is Pawcatuck river?

65. To what county of Rhode Island, does Block Island belong? 66. On what island is Newport? 67. On what island is Jamestown?

68. Where is Point Judith?

69. Which way is Providence from Boston? 70. New London from Providence? 71. New Haven from Springfield? 72. Providence from Plymouth? 73. Hartford from Newport? 74. At the head of what bay, are the city and harbor of Boston situated? 75. Providence? 76. What large island lies south from Connecticut?

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1. New York is divided into 56 counties; how many of them are on Long Island? 2. Which lie north from the 44th parallel of latitude? 3. Through which does the Hudson river flow? 4. What counties border on the river St. Lawrence? 5. Through what counties does the Delaware and Hudson canal run?

6. What counties lie west from the meridian of Washington? 7. What are some of the interior counties? 8. On what island is Richmond county? 9. What counties border on Lake Ontario? 10. On Lake Champlain? 11. On Lake Erie?

12. Where are the Catskill mountains? 13. Where is Crane’s mountain?

14. What lake lies north from the western part of New York? 15. Which way from New York is Lake Erie? 16. What lake separates New York from Vermont?

17. Where is Lake George? 18. What small lakes lie in the northern counties of New York? 19. Which is more northwardly, Oneida or Otsego lake?

20. Which is most westwardly, Cayuga, Seneca, or Salt lake? 21. What lake lies between Ontario and Yates counties? 22. North from what part of New York state is Long Island sound?

23. Where is Sacket’s harbor? 24. What bays are on the southern shore of Lake Ontario? 25. Where is Sag Harbor?

26. What rivers divide New York from Canada? 27. What river runs south, through nearly the whole extent of the eastern part of New York? 28. By what is it connected with Lake Champlain? 29. What city is at its mouth?

30. Through what part does the Genessee river flow? 31. What river communicates with the Hudson, near Troy? 32. What with Lake Ontario, near Brownsville? 33. Where is Tonnewanto creek?

34. What navigable water communication is there between Syracuse and Oswego? 35. The Grand canal runs through the State, from west to east; at what place does it commence? 36. At what place does it join the Hudson river? 37. In what part of the State is the Delaware and Hudson canal?

38. Where is Montauq point? 39. How is Cape Vincent situated? 40. Where is Crown point?

41. Where is Galoop island? 42. Which way from New York is Long Island? 43. How is Staten Island situated? 44. Where is Fisher’s island? 45. In what river is Grand Isle?

46. On what river is Albany, the capital? 47. Which way is it from New York city? 48. What are the principal towns on the Hudson river? 49. On what river is Utica?

50. How is Rochester situated? 51. Where is Lockport? 52. Which is further east, Herkimer or Rome? 53. In what county is Ithaca? 54. On what river is West Point? 55. Where is Fort Ticonderoga? 56. How is Fort Erie situated? 57. Which way from Fort Niagara to Fort Erie?

58. Which way from Albany is Northampton in Massachusetts? 59. Which way from Poughkeepsie to New Haven in Connecticut? 60. In what county is Saratoga Springs? 61. What navigable water communications are there between lakes Ontario and Erie? 62. What States lie east from New York? 63. What states lie south?

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ENVIRONS OF NEW YORK CITY.

What river divides New York city from New Jersey? What river separates it from Long Island? Which way from New York is Brooklyn? Which way from it is Jersey city? In what county is New York city? Which way from New York city are Manhattanville and Haerlem? Where is Coney island? What island lies southwest from New York bay? What islands in New York bay? Where are the Narrows? Where is Fort Lafayette? On what island are forts Tompkins and Richmond? Which way from New York bay is Newark bay? What canal joins the Hudson river at Jersey city? In what part of New York bay is the Quarantine station?

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1. Name some of the counties that lie along the northern boundary of Pennsylvania? 2. The eastern? 3. The western? 4. The southern? 5. In the interior?

6. Through what counties does the Monongahela river flow? 7. The Alleghany river? 8. What county borders on Lake Erie?

9. What range of mountains runs through the State? 10. What other mountains are in the State?

11. What lake borders on the northwestern corner of Pennsylvania?

12. What river forms the eastern boundary? 13. What river rises in New York, and flows through Pennsylvania into Chesapeake bay? 14. The city Philadelphia is situated between two rivers, and extends from one to the other; what are those rivers called?

15. What rivers unite at Pittsburg and form the Ohio? 16. Through what part does the Juniata river flow?

17. Where is the Lehigh river, the vicinity of which abounds with coal? 18. The Schuylkill river is also celebrated for the coal mines in its neighborhood; where does it rise? 19. What is its course? 20. Into what does it flow?

21. On what river is Harrisburg, the capital of the State? 22. In what county is Pittsburg? 23. Which is more northwardly, Sunbury or Easton?

24. What town lies on Lake Erie? 25. In what county is Carbondale? 26. Which is more westwardly, Lancaster or Columbia? 27. Which way is Harrisburg from Philadelphia? 28. From Carlisle to Bethany?

29. What counties in Maryland, are west from Chesapeake bay? 30. What east?

31. What river divides Maryland from Virginia? 32. Into what does the Petapsco river flow? 33. Between what counties does the Pawtuxent river flow?

34. How is Annapolis, the capital, situated? 35. What is its latitude? 36. On what river is Baltimore? 37. At the mouth of what river is Havre de Grace?

38. How far south does Maryland extend? 39. What State is south from it? 40. Which is more northwardly, Annapolis or Baltimore? 41. Cambridge or Chestertown?

42. Into how many counties is New Jersey divided? 43. Which of them are south from the 40th parallel of latitude? 44. In what part of the State is Monmouth county? 45. Name some of the northern counties.

46. Which is more northwardly, Great or Little Egg harbor? 47. Where is Barnegat bay? 48. Where is Sandy Hook? 49. Cape May?

50. On what river is Trenton, the capital? 51. Which way from Trenton to Bordentown? 52. What bay divides New Jersey from Delaware?

53. What are the counties of Delaware? 54. Which is furthest north? 55. Which furthest south?

56. In what county is Dover, the capital, situated? 57. At the mouth of what river is New Castle? 58. Where is Georgetown? 59. Where is Cape Henlopen?

60. Which way from Harrisburg to Trenton? 61. From Trenton to Dover? 62. From Annapolis to Pittsburg?

63. What States lie east from Pennsylvania? 64. What State north from New Jersey? 65. How can a person sail from Trenton to Baltimore, and not pass Capes May and Henlopen?

66. Which is largest, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, or Maryland? 67. Which is smallest? 68. Which of them border on the Atlantic ocean?

69. What cities and towns are in the District of Columbia? 70. What river runs through it? 71. On which side of the river is Alexandria? 72. What is the latitude of Washington? 73. Of what is Washington the capital?

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ENVIRONS OF PHILADELPHIA.

Between what rivers is Philadelphia situated? In what county is Philadelphia? What island is in Delaware river, opposite the city? What county lies north from Philadelphia county? Which way is Germantown from Philadelphia city? What separates Camden from Philadelphia? Where is Petty’s island?

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1. Name the Western States. 2. Which lie north from the Ohio river? 3. Which south? 4. Which west from Mississippi river? 5. Which does Mississippi river bound on the west? 6. What two large rivers run through Kentucky and Tennessee?

7. The Territory which lies north and west from Missouri state extends westward, to the Oregon Territory; what is it called? 8. What Territory lies south from Missouri state? 9. What States south from Tennessee?—[For answer to this question refer to the United States.] 10. What State east? 11. What State lies east from Kentucky? 12. What State east from Ohio? 13. What Territory lies north from Ohio and Indiana? 14. What north from Illinois?

15. Of what State is Columbus the capital? 16. Is Ohio a mountainous state? 17. What lake lies north? 18. What river on the south and east? 19. On what river is Zanesville? 20. What joins Ohio river at Portsmouth? 21. What river flows through the northwestern corner of the State? 22. On what river is Athens?

23. What river flows into Lake Erie at Sandusky? 24. What joins the Ohio at the southwest corner of the State? 25. What is the course of the Miami river? 26. Of Ohio river?

27. What water communication is there between Cincinnati and Dayton? 28. What is the general course of the Ohio canal? 29. What towns in the northern part of the State are near the course of the canal? 30. What in the southern part? 31. To what town does a branch of the Ohio canal run? 32. At what place does it communicate with Lake Erie?

33. What towns on Ohio river? 34. On what river is Columbus, and in what part of the State is it? 35. Which way is Cincinnati from Columbus? 36. Which is most westerly, Marietta, Cincinnati, or Gallipolis? 37. Where is Steubenville? 38. On what river, and in what part of the State, is Fort Defiance? 39. Which way is Jackson from Jefferson?

40. What State does Lake Michigan bound (in part) on the north? 41. Where is Fort Wayne? 42. What river forms part of the western boundary of Indiana? 43. Which of the branches of the Illinois river has its source in Indiana? 44. What are the branches of the Wabash? 45. How is Indianapolis, the capital situated? 46. What towns on the Ohio river? 47. Which way is Vincennes from Indianapolis? 48. Connersville from Vincennes? 49. Which way from Crawfordville is Jacksonboro’?

50. What lake separates Illinois from Michigan? 51. What three rivers form the western, southern, and (in part) the eastern, boundaries of Illinois? 52. Which is the largest river in Illinois? 53. What river in the northwestern part of the State?

54. On what river is Vandalia, the capital? 55. Where is Kaskaskia? 56. Which way is Edwardsville from Vandalia? 57. How is Shawneetown situated? 58. What town is on Lake Michigan? 59. In what part of the State is Peoria? 60. Which way is McLeansboro’ from Jacksonville?

61. What mountains are between Kentucky and Virginia? 62. What river rises in the eastern part of this State, and after passing through Tennessee, flows north, into the Ohio? 63. Where is Licking river?

64. On what river is Frankfort, the capital? 65. Which way from Frankfort to Maysville? 66. Which is more westerly, Henderson or Louisville? 67. What town on Mississippi river? 68. Which is more northwardly, Madisonville or Barbourville?

69. What mountains are between Tennessee and North Carolina? 70. What range runs through the State? 71. What lake is in this State? 72. How is it connected with Mississippi river? 73. Describe the course of the Tennessee river. 74. What are the branches of the Tennessee river, and where do they rise?

75. On what river is Nashville, the capital? 76. Which way from it is Murfreesboro’? 77. In what part is Memphis? 78. Which is more northwardly, Winchester or Knoxville? 79. Which is furthest north, Washington, Munroe, or Jackson?

80. Of what state is Jefferson city the capital? 81. What mountains are in that State? 82. What large river flows through the state? 83. Does it flow west or east? 84. What river joins the Missouri at 15° long. west from Washington? 85. What river in Missouri is of the same name as one in New Hampshire and Massachusetts?

86. What are the principal towns on Mississippi river? 87. Which is more northwardly, St. Louis or St. Charles? 88. Which is most westwardly, Franklin, Jefferson, or Jackson?

89. Of what is Detroit the capital? 90. What lakes appear on this map to border upon Michigan Territory? 91. What are some of the rivers? Note. For the whole shape of Michigan and Northwest Territories, the learner must refer to the map of the United States, as neither of them is fully exhibited on this map.

92. What is the latitude and longitude of Zanesville? 93. Of Vandalia? 94. How can a person travel by water from Cleveland to Dayton? 95. Which is further north, Columbus or Indianapolis? 96. Frankfort or Jefferson city? 97. Which is further east, Nashville or Vincennes? 98. Which way from the capital of Ohio must you travel in order to pass in a straight line through the capitals of two other of the western States? 99. What Territory is north from Illinois? 100. Between what parallels of latitude do the Western States lie?

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The United States of North America are classed into four groups of States, each group having a distinguishing name. First, New England; second, the Middle States; third, the Western; fourth, the Southern States. This division arises from local distinctions, which exist in the character and pursuits of the inhabitants, or is founded on physical causes.

New England includes the six States lying east from Hudson river and Lake Champlain. This general name was given to this part of the country by the first settlers, or, as they are generally called, ‘the pilgrim fathers,’ who left England, their native country, and landed at Plymouth, in December, 1620, in order that they might enjoy religious freedom. This section of the United States is distinguished for the industry of its inhabitants, and for being the most populous part of the Union. Great attention is paid to agriculture and commerce.

The features of New England are mountainous; and the soil is various, producing in abundance, grass, grain, and a variety of fruits. Its climate is salubrious.

There is probably no place in the world where education is so widely spread through all classes of the people; there being schools in each town, supported at public expense.

Is an uneven and mountainous State. Its soil is peculiarly adapted to the growth of timber, and for pasturage of cattle. The climate is healthy, although the cold is severe during the winter months. This State has an extensive sea-coast, indented with many good harbors, and commerce is actively pursued by those who reside near the ocean. The exports are timber and fish. Portland is the largest city, and has heretofore been the capital; but Augusta has recently been selected for the metropolis of the State.

The climate of this State is similar to that of Maine. The land is mountainous and fertile. Agriculture is the chief occupation of the inhabitants. There is but little facility for commerce, as the State has only sixteen miles of sea-coast. The harbor at Portsmouth is one of the best on the continent, and contains one of the United States’ naval stations. The capital of this State is Concord, which is a place of considerable trade, having a communication with Boston harbor by means of Middlesex canal.

Derives its name from the range of the Green Mountains which runs through the State. These mountains give rise to many rivers which contribute to the fertility of the soil. The State being entirely inland, the attention of the inhabitants is directed to agriculture and manufactures. Mines of iron, copper, and lead, and quarries of marble, are found in this State. Montpelier, the capital, is a flourishing town.

Is the oldest State in New England, and is distinguished as having been the first mover in the struggle for American Independence. It is the first, except New York, in commerce, wealth, and manufactures. It is the second commercial State in the Union. The state of society is enlightened, and the advantages of education are universally enjoyed.

The land is uneven and hilly, and in the western part, mountainous. The soil is fertile, except in the southeastern part, where it is sandy.

Boston is the capital, and being the largest city in New England, may properly be considered the metropolis of this whole section of country. It is built upon a peninsula at the head of Massachusetts bay, and has a most excellent harbor, capable of accommodating more than five hundred vessels, while the entrance is so narrow that only two ships can sail in, abreast. The wharfs are constructed with a degree of expense and neatness far exceeding those of any other city in the United States. The harbor is defended by forts, and contains one of the United States’ naval stations. Boston has communication with the surrounding country by means of seven bridges, all built of wood, with the exception of the Western Avenue, which is built of stone and earth. This city is noted for its literature, and for its many handsome public and private buildings, among which may be named the State House, Quincy Market, Tremont House, Masonic Temple, &c. The cut above gives a view of the City Hall, which contains the Rooms of the Mayor, Aldermen, and Council, Post Office, and City Treasurer and Clerk’s Offices. This building was formerly the State House. In this venerated edifice the first legislative acts on the American revolution were debated and acted upon. This continued to be the capitol until the year 1800, when the present State House was built. This city is also celebrated as containing Faneuil Hall, ‘the cradle of liberty,’ where the first popular assemblies were held, to discuss the question of Independence.

Salem, the next town in size, is considered the wealthiest town in the United States.

Charlestown, is noted in the annals of the Revolution, as being the place where the battle of Bunker Hill was fought.

Possesses a mild climate and fertile soil which is under a high state of cultivation. Manufactures of cotton, woollen, linen, iron, wood, and tin, are carried on with great activity and ingenuity in this State. General habits of sobriety and industry are the characteristics of the inhabitants, who are generally well educated, much attention being paid to schools. Connecticut and Massachusetts have furnished more emigrants to the western states than any other section of the Republic.

The General Assembly of statesmen, meets alternately at New Haven and Hartford, on which account both may be considered capitals. Yale College at New Haven, is one of the most flourishing seminaries in the Union.

Is the smallest State in the Republic; its soil is moderately fertile, and the climate salubrious and healthy. It has a greater amount of manufactures in proportion to its population than any other State. Its commerce is considerable. This State takes its name from an island in Narraganset bay. On this island is situated Newport, which has one of the best harbors in the United States.

Rhode Island was founded by Roger Williams, a celebrated advocate for religious liberty. This State has no written constitution, being still governed under the charter of the English king, Charles II, in virtue of which, the people annually elect a Governor, Senate, and House of Representatives. These constitute the General Assembly, which meets four times a year. Providence being the largest city may be considered the capital, although the Assembly meets alternately at Providence, South Kingston, East Greenwich, and Bristol. Brown University is in Providence.

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The Middle States are so called from their relative situation. The distinguishing characteristic of this section of country is the extensive system of internal improvement by means of canals and railroads, by which the prosperity of those States is much promoted. Railroads are laid down on the most level routes between the places to be connected. They are formed by rails of iron laid on a foundation of stone or wood. The wheels of the carriages are made to run upon these rails, which being smooth offer little resistance, and make it easy for a small force to move an immense weight. All the hills which occur in the route of these roads are levelled and the valleys filled up. Railroads pass over rivers by means of bridges, or, as they are more generally called in these States, viaducts. The Baltimore and Ohio railroad passes over a river, about seven miles from the city, by means of one of these, called the Patterson viaduct, a view of which is given in the cut.

The climate of the Middle States embraces almost all the varieties that are found on the face of the earth; and, with the exception of the northern part of the State of New York, the soil is more fertile than that of New England. Wheat is produced in great abundance, and forms the chief object of agriculture.

Ranks first in the United States for commerce, wealth, and population, and is one of the most extensive in point of territory. The land is uneven, and in some parts mountainous. The soil is moderately fertile, and well adapted to agriculture and grazing.

A prominent feature of this State is the great number of lakes in its interior, which, being connected together by rivers, facilitate the transportation of produce from place to place. These natural advantages, together with large rivers and grand canals, have raised New York to the elevated rank she now holds, and made the city of New York the first emporium of commerce in the Union.

The Falls of Niagara, between Lakes Erie and Ontario, are partly in this State. This is the largest cataract in the world, and is a place of great interest to the thousands of its visiters. The fall here is one hundred and fifty feet.

Long Island is a part of this State. It is one hundred and sixty miles long, and from two to fifteen broad, and is well cultivated. The principal town on this island is Brooklyn, where there is one of the United States naval stations.

Albany is the capital of New York. It is a flourishing city on the Hudson river, situated at the point where it is joined by the Western and Champlain canals, which circumstances contribute to make it a place of considerable trade. Its inhabitants are principally descendants from the Dutch, who first settled the state.

The city New York is situated on Manhattan island, at the mouth of the Hudson river; and from its commodious bay and other natural advantages for commerce, seems destined to rival all the commercial cities in the world. This city contains many elegant buildings, and beautiful parks. Its population embraces some of almost every nation on the earth, who congregate here in pursuit of wealth. New York city extends over three miles along its harbor, thus affording ample accommodation to almost innumerable vessels.

Ballston and Saratoga springs, are the most celebrated mineral springs in the United States, and are much visited, during the summer months, on account of the medicinal qualities of the waters.

The soil of New Jersey is not generally so fertile as that of the states which have been named, being sandy along the sea-coast, and hilly in the interior. Although this state has an extensive sea-coast yet, as there are few very commodious harbors, to vie with that of New York on the one side and of Philadelphia on the other, it has but little commerce:—These cities import almost all the foreign articles and dispose of most of the manufactures and produce of this state.

The farmers raise many cattle, and much fruit, particularly apples, from which immense quantities of cider are annually made:—for this article this state is particularly celebrated.

Iron ore is abundant—copper, lead, coal, and freestone are found in considerable quantities. Manufactures of iron, cotton, and leather, are carried on to a considerable amount.

Trenton is the capital of the state. It is situated on the Delaware river, and is on the great route of travel between New York and Philadelphia. It is celebrated as the scene of one of the most brilliant battles fought by the Americans during the revolution. Princeton is also noted for a battle.

Newark contains more inhabitants than any other town in the state, its population being about 11,000.

William Penn, a benevolent English gentleman, brought out with him, in the year 1681, a great number of Quakers, and first settled this state, under a grant from King Charles II. After his name the State is called, Pennsylvania. This State exhibits a great variety of soil and climate. The soil is suited to the growth of grain, and husbandry is said to be better understood in Pennsylvania than in any other State. Hemp and peaches are cultivated. Wine is made in small quantities, and commerce flourishes to a great extent.

This State abounds in coal, which forms an article of commerce with most of the cities of the United States. It is obtained in immense quantities in the neighborhood of Pittsburg, and from the Schuylkill and Lehigh mines.

Pennsylvania has engaged more extensively in internal improvements than any other State.

Harrisburg, the capital, is pleasantly situated on the Susquehanna River, and contains an elegant State House.

Philadelphia is the most regularly laid out and well built city in the Union. The streets generally intersect each other at right angles, and the principal ones are 100 feet wide. The inhabitants are extensively engaged in manufactures. The commerce of this place is large, and according to the amount of its exports is the third commercial city in the Republic.

In this city are many literary, scientific, and benevolent institutions, and numerous elegant public buildings, among which are the Bank of the United States, the Almshouse, Mint of the United States, and many elegant churches. The population of the city is 80,458; and of the suburbs, 87,353; total, 167,811.

With the exception of Rhode Island, this state is the smallest in the Union; it is also the least populous state. Its soil is moderately fertile, and produces a great variety of grasses, and an abundance of wheat. Flour is the principal article of manufacture and export. A considerable quantity of lumber is also exported.

The Chesapeake and Delaware canal intersects this state, and forms an easy and expeditious communication between Philadelphia and Baltimore.

Dover is the capital. It contains a handsome state house.

This is the most irregularly shaped of all the American states. Here the system of husbandry peculiar to the Southern States generally commences, it being the first in our progress southward where tobacco is produced. Wheat, hemp, and flax, are considerably cultivated.

The first settlers of this State were natives of Sweden, and many of their posterity may still be found who are like their forefathers, healthy, cheerful, industrious, and hospitable.

This State ranks high in a commercial view. Its commercial city is Baltimore, where there is an excellent harbor, capable of containing a great number of vessels. Its inhabitants are celebrated for hospitality, a spirit of enterprise, and polished manners. It contains many elegant public structures, viz. the Washington and Battle Monuments, the Exchange, the Museum, and Hospital. Much attention is paid to education. Population 80,625.

Annapolis is the capital. It is situated 28 miles southeast from Baltimore, and is a flourishing place, containing a handsome state house in its centre, towards which the streets run.

The principal manufacture of this State is flour, which is made in such quantities as to form the chief article of export. Tobacco, lumber, iron, glass, and whiskey, are also exported.

Between Maryland and Virginia, lies the Federal District of Columbia, comprising a square of ten miles. This district which was given by these States to the United States, lies on both sides of the river Potomack, 120 miles from its mouth, and is under the immediate jurisdiction of the National Congress, which assembles annually at Washington, for the purpose of legislation. Washington is situated near the centre of the district, and is laid out in such manner, that the principal buildings, as the Capitol, President’s house, &c. command a full view of the city, and at the same time can be seen from every part of it. Georgetown and Alexandria are also within the district.

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The Western States have all sprung into existence within the period of the last fifteen years, and their growth has been unparalleled, both in the increase of population and wealth.

Probably no district of country on earth, possesses so great a proportion of soil capable of yielding the necessaries and luxuries of life, in so great abundance. The seasons are regularly divided into spring, summer, autumn, and winter, and the climate is generally healthful. Furs, minerals, cotton, indigo, tobacco, hemp, wheat, and every description of grain and fruit common in the New England States, flourish here.

Prairies are common in this section of the country, on which immense herds of buffaloes are often seen grazing.

The remote situation of these states from the ocean, has retarded their growth as a commercial country; but the introduction of steam-boats, canals, and railways, is fast overcoming the difficulty, and some of the western towns are already very large, and are rapidly increasing.

Takes its name, and derives its greatest facilities for commerce, from the noble Ohio river. This State was admitted to the Union in the year 1802, since which time its growth has been rapid; in 1820 its population was 581,434; and increased in ten years to 937,679.

Although there are no mountains in this State, yet it is diversified with hills, valleys, and plains, and watered by many fine rivers, navigable for boats. The soil and climate are excellent, and the state presents great facilities for agriculture. The land in its natural state is thickly covered with forests, and the trees attain an immense size.

The population is composed of emigrants from the other states, the greater proportion of which are from New England. The inhabitants are noted for their industrious habits, and enterprising spirit.

Cincinnati (a view of which is given above,) is the largest town in the State, and with propriety may be considered the commercial capital of the Western States. It is rapidly increasing in refinement, business, and population. The number of inhabitants, as given in the returns to congress in the year 1830, is stated at 24,831; but another census taken a few months later in the same year states that it is 26,515. Being advantageously situated on the Ohio river, it seems destined to become a great city, and may in progress of time rival the older cities of the Middle and the Eastern States.

Columbus, the capital, is a flourishing place.

Much attention is paid in this State to education. There are many colleges and academies, and schools are general throughout the State. Internal improvements are gaining the attention of the people.

Mounds of earth are found in many places, the origin of which cannot be ascertained. These mounds appear to be forts, and are supposed to have been built by people who lived in this country before the present race of Indians.

This state is nearly similar to Ohio in its climate, soil, productions, and inhabitants. The northern part of the State is level, the southern part broken and hilly, and there is much timber land.

The largest town in the State is Vincennes. At this place most of the trade of the State centres.

The soil of this State is exceedingly rich, and is divided into forest and prairie lands; and when under cultivation produces in the greatest abundance, the necessaries and luxuries of life. Grapes are common to the country, and are abundant. Great quantities of wine might be easily manufactured. Foreign vines have been cultivated with success. Maize, wheat, oats, barley, buckwheat, potatoes, rye, tobacco, cotton, hemp, and flax, peaches, plums, and garden vegetables, and indeed almost all the productions of the Eastern and Middle States, can be cultivated to advantage here.

The United States salt works on the Saline river produce annually 200,000 bushels of salt. Coal, iron ore, copper, and lead are found here.

Takes its name from the river which runs through the State. It contains less woodland than Illinois, but its soil and climate are similar. Numerous mines of lead are now worked, which yield immense quantities. Iron ore is found in great abundance, and it is probable that enough of these two minerals may be obtained from this State to supply the whole United States.

Jefferson city, the capital, is at present a small place, but is increasing. St. Louis is the largest town, and is the depot for the trade of the northwestern territories.

Is one of the most healthful and beautiful States in the Union. The greater proportion of its land is arable and productive. The failure of water of most of the rivers of this State during the summer months is a great obstacle to its prosperity. The Ohio and Mississippi rivers, however, form an easy communication with the sea. The productions are wheat, tobacco, maize, rye, and to a small extent, cotton. The inhabitants consist of the descendants of emigrants from the other States, and many from Europe. They are brave, frank, and hospitable.

Lexington is the largest town in the State, and has a population of 6,104. Frankfort, the capital, is situated on the Kentucky river, about 60 miles from its mouth, and is a flourishing place.

The description of Kentucky may be also applied to this State, except that it is intersected by two noble rivers, the Tennessee and Cumberland, which are rarely frozen, and afford a great extent of boat navigation. Vegetation commences about six weeks earlier in this State than in New Hampshire, and continues about six weeks longer.

Nashville, the capital, is the largest town in the State. In this place is Cumberland College.

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That part of the Southern States near the Atlantic ocean and the gulf of Mexico is low and sandy. The greater portion of this section of the country is barren, except the parts near the rivers, which are exceedingly fertile. After proceeding towards the interior about 75 or 100 miles, the country becomes mountainous and productive.

Tobacco, cotton, rice and sugar are the staple productions. The owners of the lands where these articles are cultivated are called planters, and the labor of the plantations is performed by slaves.

The climate of this part of the United States is various. In Virginia and Maryland the heat of summer is not extreme, and a small quantity of snow only, falls during the winter. In the most southwardly States snow is exceedingly rare in winter, and the heat is intense in the summer months.

The commerce and manufactures of these States are very limited, and to agriculture, almost the whole attention of the inhabitants is directed. Their tobacco, cotton, and all their exports are sent out in ships owned in the Northern States. The reason for this probably is, that the cultivation of the staple productions is more profitable than commerce.

The inhabitants of the Southern States, residing on large plantations, are so much separated from one another, that it is impossible to carry into effect a system of education so extensive as that of the Northern States, and of course the people generally, are not so well informed. The higher classes are, however, well educated.

Is the oldest State in the Union, having been first settled in the year 1607, and is celebrated as being the birth-place of General George Washington, the brightest model of a great and good man and patriot, of which the world can boast.

The cut on this page presents a view of his residence, situated on the Potomack river, nine miles below Alexandria, where he spent his time, when not actively engaged in the service of his country.

This State includes a surface larger than that of England. The soil of the Eastern coast is sandy and the climate unhealthy; while the interior parts are fertile and healthy, and inhabited by a race of men, very vigorous and exceedingly tall. The Virginians are hospitable, and are noted for cherishing their talented statesmen.

In amount of commerce Virginia, though first in size, ranks only as the eighth State. Wheat, corn, and tobacco are the most important articles of export.

Richmond, the capital, is situated at the falls on St. James river. It is a handsome city.

Norfolk, on Elizabeth river, is the chief commercial town of the State.

Closely resembles Virginia in climate, soil and character of its inhabitants. The Carolinians in the lower country, are mostly planters, and in the upper country, farmers. The coast of North Carolina abounds in sand banks and islands, which render navigation dangerous, and its commerce is conducted at the seaports of the neighboring States.

The towns of this State are small, Newbern, with a population of 4000, being the largest.

Exhibits the characteristics peculiar to the Southern States, in a greater degree than any other. The planters of this State are the most wealthy of their class, and require a greater number of slaves to cultivate their fertile and extensive plantations. In this State only does the number of slaves exceed the white population. According to the last census, more than one half of the inhabitants are slaves.

Cotton is the great staple of this state. It is of three kinds. Sea Island cotton, which grows on the islands and in the low country;—Upland cotton, which is cultivated in the mountainous interior country;—and the Nankin cotton, which retains its peculiar color as long as it can be worn. Of these the Sea Island is the most esteemed. Rice is extensively cultivated on the shores of the rivers and bays. Limes, oranges, lemons, figs, &c. are produced.

The commerce of South Carolina exceeds that of all the other Southern States except Louisiana, the leading articles of export being cotton and rice, to which may be added pitch, tar, timber, turpentine, indigo and tobacco.

These States nearly resemble each other, and have the same productions with the other Southern States; and in addition, the sugar cane is extensively cultivated. Louisiana is the most commercial of the Southern States, having at New Orleans an excellent harbor, and many other natural advantages.

New Orleans is the commercial capital of that richest country in the world, through which the Mississippi and its tributaries flow. This city is unhealthy during the warm season, but enjoys a most excellent situation for commerce and trade. The introduction of steam boats has contributed greatly to the growth of New Orleans, by affording an expeditious mode of communicating with its back country. Its inhabitants are a mixed race of French, Americans, Spaniards, and Germans.

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The Territory of Florida has a great similarity to the Southern States generally. It is well stocked with timber, and furnishes a great quantity for ship building. Its climate and soil are well adapted to the growth of sugar cane, coffee, cotton and rice.

Arkansas Territory is in the eastern part flat and swampy—in the western uneven—and in the middle pleasant and healthful.

The North West Territory has been but little explored; it is chiefly in possession of the Indians. Green Bay and Prairie du Chien are the chief settlements. Lead mines are found here.

Michigan Territory. The climate is severe, and the winter lasts from the middle of November to March. The face of the country is level, and the productions are wheat, maize, oats, barley and potatoes. The Southern part only is, at present, settled. Detroit the capital has a large fur trade.

Missouri Territory is an immense tract of land, stretching from the States and Territories bordering on the western side of the Mississippi river to the Rocky Mountains; almost the whole of it is in possession of the Indians, the United States having only two military posts, one at Council Bluffs, and one on St. Peter’s River. This tract is valuable to Americans on account of the numerous wild animals found, from which furs are obtained.

Oregon Territory extends from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. This great region is also chiefly in possession of the Indians, although there is an American settlement on the Columbia river, called Astoria. Exertions are now making to induce people to emigrate from the States to this part of our country, which is said to be a healthy and fertile region, and to offer superior advantages for commerce and manufactures.

[Click anywhere on chart for high resolution image.]

NOTE. Besides the above-mentioned Canals, there are others in progress, or on the point of commencement, in the United States, amounting, probably, to 1500 miles.

RAIL-ROADS.

Miles.
Baltimore and Ohio,	340
Charleston and Hamburg, S. C.	135
Columbia and Philadelphia, Pa.	81½
Portsmouth and Roanoke, Va. & N. C.	80
Baltimore & Susquehannah, Md.	76
Cattskill and Canajoharie, N. Y.	70
Lexington and Ohio river, Ky.	66
Camden and Amboy, N. J.	61
Petersburg and Roanoke, Va.	60
Harrisburg & Chambersburg, Pa.	48
Boston and Worcester, Mass.	43½
Boston and Providence, Mass.	43
Alleghany Portage, Pa.	37
Baltimore and Washington,	33
Ithaca and Oswego, N. Y.	29
Philadelphia and Trenton, Pa. & N. J.	26¾
Detroit and Pontiac, Mich. Ter.	25
Boston and Lowell, Mass.	25
Little Schuylkill, Pa.	23
Saratoga and Schenectady, N. Y.	20
Philadelphia & Norristown, Pa.	19
Newcastle and Frenchtown, Del. & Md.	16½
Albany and Schenectady, N. Y.	16
Lakens Valley, Pa.	16
Lackawaxen, Pa.	16
Patterson and Hudson, N. J.	16
Manchester, Va.	13
Schuylkill, Pa.	13
Altamaha and Brunswick, Geo.	12
Schuylkill Valley, Pa.	10
do.   do. Laterals,	13
West Branch, Pa.	15
do.   do. Laterals,	5
Mount Carbon, Pa.	9
do.   do. Laterals,	4
Mauch Chunk, Pa.	9
do.   do. Laterals,	4½
Pinegrove,	5
Louisiana,	4
Lake Ponchartrain, La.	4½
Mile Creek, Pa.	4
do.   do. Laterals,	3
Quincy, Mass.	4
Providence and Stonington, R. I. & Ct.	47
Boston and Salem, Mass.	14

NOTE. Many others are in progress in
various Sections of the United States.

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The following Chart, combining much general information, is intended more for reference than for study; yet the instructer will propose such questions as may be thought useful; especially in relation to the state in which the learner may reside.

STATES.	Total Population	Number of Slaves.	Seats of Government, with Population.		[3] Electors of President and Vice Pres. of the United States, chosen in state by
Maine,	399,462	none	Augusta,	3,980	Districts
New Hampshire,	269,533	none	Concord,	3,727	Gen. Ticket
Vermont,	280,679	none	Montpelier,	1,193	Do.
Massachusetts,	610,014	none	Boston,	61,392	Do.
Connecticut,	297,711	23	New Haven,	10,180	Do.
			Hartford,	7,076
Rhode Island,	97,210	14	Providence,	16,832	Do.
			Newport,	8,010
			S. Kingston,	3,663
			E. Greenwich,	1,591
			Bristol,	3,054
New York,	1,913,508	46	Albany,	24,238	Do.
New Jersey,	320,779	2,446	Trenton,	3,925	Do.
Pennsylvania,	1,347,672	386	Harrisburg,	4,311	Do.
Delaware,	76,739	3,305	Dover,*	1,200	Legislature
Maryland,	446,913	102,878	Annapolis,	2,623	Districts.
Ohio,	937,679	none	Columbus,	2,437	Gen. Ticket
Indiana,	341,582	none	Indianopolis,*	1,200	Do.
Illinois,	157,575	746	Vandalia,*	600	Do.
Missouri,	140,074	24,990	Jefferson,*	500	Do.
Kentucky,	688,844	165,350	Frankfort,	1,680	Do.
Tennessee,	684,822	142,382	Nashville,	5,566	Legislature
Virginia,	1,211,272	469,724	Richmond,	16,060	Gen. Ticket
North Carolina,	738,470	246,462	Raleigh,	1,700	Do.
South Carolina,	581,458	315,665	Columbia,	3,310	Legislature
Georgia,	516,567	217,470	Milledgeville,	1,599	Gen. Ticket
Alabama,	308,997	117,294	Tuscaloosa,	1,600	Do.
Mississippi,	136,806	65,659	Jackson,*	1,000	Do.
Louisiana,	215,575	109,631	New Orleans,	46,310	Legislature
Dis. of Columbia,	39,858	6,050	Washington,	18,827
Florida Territ’y,[4]	34,723	15,510	Tallahassee,*	1,000
Michigan  do.	31,260	27	Detroit,	2,222
Arkansas  do.	30,383	4,578	Little Rock,*	600
Total,	12,856,165	2,010,436

The population is given according to the census of 1830, except those towns marked *, which were not particularized in the returns. The population of these is therefore taken from other late authorities.

STATES.	Governors.			[5] Senators.		[6] Representatives.
	Chosen by the	Years.	Salary.	No.	Years.	No.	Years.
Maine,	People	1	1,500	20	1	153	1
New Hampshire,	do.	1	1,200	12	1	229	1
Vermont,	do.	1	750			230	1
Massachusetts,	do.	1	3,666 ⅔	40	1	481	1
Connecticut,	do.	1	1,100	21	1	208	1
Rhode Island,	do.	1	400	10	1	72	½
New York,	do.	2	4,000	32	4	128	1
New Jersey,	Legis.	1	2,000	14	1	50	1
Pennsylvania,	People	3	4,000	33	4	100	1
Delaware,	do.	3	1,333 ⅓	9	3	21	1
Maryland,	Legis.	1	3,500	15	5	80	1
Ohio,	People	2	1,200	36	2	72	1
Indiana,	do.	3	1,000	23	3	63	1
Illinois,	do.	4	1,000		4		2
Missouri,	do.	4	1,500	18	4	49	2
Kentucky,	do.	4	2,000	38	4	100	1
Tennessee,	do.	2	2,000	20	2	60	2
Virginia,	Legis.	3	3,333 ⅓	32	4	134	1
North Carolina,	do.	1	2,000	64	1	134	1
South Carolina,	do.	2	3,900	45	4	124	2
Georgia,	People	2	3,000	78	1	142	1
Alabama,	do.	2	2,000	22	3	72	1
Mississippi,	do.	2	2,500	11	3	36	1
Louisiana,	do.	4	7,500	17	4	50	2

STATES.	Time of holding Elections of State Officers.	Time of Meeting of the State Legislatures.
Maine,	2d Monday in Sept.	1st Wednesday in January.
New Hampshire,	2d Tues. in March.	1st Wednesday in June.
Vermont,	1st Tues. in Sept.	2d Thursday in October.
Massachusetts,	2d Mond. in Nov.	1st Wednesday in January.
Connecticut,	1st Mond. in April.	1st Wed. May, alternately
		at Hart. and New Haven.
Rhode Island,	Governor and	1st Wed. May; and in June.
	Senators in April.
	Representatives in	Last Wed. Oct. and in Jan.
	April and Aug.
New York,	October or Nov.	1st Tuesday in January.
New Jersey,	2d Tues. in Oct.	4th Tuesday in October.
Pennsylvania,	2d Tues. in Oct.	1st Tuesday in December.
Delaware,	1st Tues. in Oct.	1st Tues. in Oct.
Maryland,	1st Monday in Oct.	Last Monday in December.
Ohio,	2d Tuesday in Oct.	1st Monday in December.
Indiana,	1st Mond. in Aug.	1st Monday in December.
Illinois,	1st Mond. in Aug.	1st Mon. Dec. every 2d yr.
Missouri,	1st Mond. in Aug.	1st Mon. Nov. every 2d yr.
Kentucky,	1st Mond. in Aug.	1st Monday in November.
Tennessee,	1st Thurs. in Aug.	3d Mon. Sept. every 2d yr.
Virginia,	In month of April.	1st Monday in December.
North Carolina,	Generally in Aug.	2d Monday in November.
South Carolina,	2d Mond. in Oct.	4th Monday in November.
Georgia,	1st Mond. in Oct.	1st Monday in November.
Alabama,	1st Mond. in Aug.	4th Monday in October.
Mississippi,	1st Mond. in Aug.	1st Monday in November.
Louisiana,	1st Mond. in July.	1st Monday in January.

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[Click anywhere on map for high resolution image.]

1. What productions are found in greater perfection in America, than in the other parts of the earth? 2. What are the principal divisions of South America? 3. In what part is Amazonia? 4. By what name is the northeastern part of the Republic of Colombia known? 5. By what name is the western part distinguished?

6. How is Colombia situated? 7. Peru? 8. Bolivia? 9. Guiana? 10. Brazil? 11. The United Provinces? 12. Chili? 13. Patagonia? 14 to 21. How are these countries severally bounded?

22. What range of mountains extends the whole length of South America from north to south? 23. Near which coast is this range? 24. What are the names of the highest peaks? 25. In which country is Chimborazo? 26. What mountains are there in the world higher than Chimborazo? 27. Which way from Chimborazo is Cotopaxi? 28. Is Cotopaxi a volcano? 29. In what direction is Pichinca from Chimborazo?

30. How is Lake Titicaca situated? 31. Which way from it is Lake Nicaragua in North America? 32. Where is Lake Parima? 33. Lake Maracaibo?

34. How is the Bay of Panama situated? 35. Bay St. Joseph? 36. Bay All Saints? 37. How is Gulf St. George situated? 38. Gulf of Guayaquil? 39. Gulf of Darien?

40. What large river discharges its waters into the Atlantic, under the equator? 41. Where does it rise? 42. What is its course? 43. What rivers flow into it from the south? 44. What from the north? 45. In what country is the river De la Plata? 46. Which is the largest river in the world, and what is remarkable concerning it?

47. What is the latitude of the mouth of the river St. Francisco? 48. What is its course? 49. What river runs between Colombia and Guiana? 50. Between Bolivia and Brazil?

51. Which of the Grand Divisions of the earth is most celebrated for the magnitude of its lakes and rivers?

52. Where are the Straits of Magellan? 53. What land do they separate from Patagonia? 54. With the waters of what oceans do they communicate?

55. What is the northern cape of South America? 56. The eastern cape? 57. The southern cape? 58. The western cape? 59. Where is Cape Pillar? 60. Cape Orange? 61. Cape St. Antonio? 62. What capes are near the mouth of Parayba river?

63. What Peninsula is situated on the eastern coast of Patagonia? 64. What on the western coast?

65. Where is the island Trinidad? 66. What is its latitude and longitude? 67. What islands in the Pacific ocean are near the Equator? 68. What is their longitude? 69. What islands lie east from the Caribbean sea?

70. What is the situation of the Island Chiloe? 71. Juan Fernandez, or Robinson Crusoe’s island? 72. What islands are east from Terra del Fuego? 73. What is the latitude and longitude of the islands Felix and Ambrose? 74. Where is Sandwich Land?

75. In what country is Cayenne? 76. Carracas? 77. Popayan? 78. La Paz? 79. Valparaiso? 80. Lima? 81. Assumption? 82. At the mouth of what river is Buenos Ayres? 83. What is the latitude of Quito? 84. What volcanic mountains are in its vicinity? 85. What town in Bolivia is on the coast? 86. In what portion of Brazil is Paraibo? 87. Rio Janeiro? 88. What river flows into the Atlantic ocean, half way between Caite and Seara?

89. In what zone are the United Provinces, Chili, and Patagonia? 90. In what zone does the larger portion of South America lie? 91. Potosi is celebrated for its silver mines; where is it? 92. Which is more northwardly, Paraguay or Banda Oriental? 93. Peru or Chili? 94. Colombia or Bolivia? 95. What would be the course of a ship in sailing from the Galapago islands to the mouth of the Amazon river?

South America is an exceedingly rich and fertile country, producing in abundance gold and silver, and the necessaries and luxuries of life.

The most prominent feature of this country is the range of mountains which extends through the western part from north to south. The region to the west from this range is an immense plateau, elevated twelve thousand feet above the level of the sea; owing to this elevation, this tract enjoys a cool and healthy climate. To the east from these mountains is an extensive marshy and sandy plain, intersected by immense rivers.

The Andes mountains are most interesting on account of the inexhaustible treasures which they contain. One mountain alone has more than three hundred openings from which silver is obtained.

Colombia is a republic, with a government similar to that of the United States. The face of the country is greatly diversified with mountains, valleys, and immense plains. The climate of the plains and coast is unhealthy; that of the more elevated parts, salubrious. Cotton, grain, coffee, tobacco, gold, silver, and tropical fruits are produced.

Guiana is a level and fertile country, with an unhealthful climate. The productions are sugar, cocoa, coffee, indigo, &c.

Peru possesses a mild and healthy climate and fertile soil, except along the sea coast, where it is level, barren, and unhealthy. The east part consists of immense plains, called pampas, covered with grass. These pampas resemble the prairies of the United States. The productions are gold, silver, sugar, grain, and Jesuit or Peruvian bark, celebrated for its medicinal qualities.

Bolivia became an independent country in the year 1825, with a republican government, and was named after Simon Bolivar, the first President. It was once a part of Peru, and, in its climate, soil, and productions, resembles that country.

Chili, being bounded on the east by the lofty and snow capped Andes on one side, and the ocean on the other, never feels excessive heat, though situated nearly in the torrid zone. The climate therefore is cool and healthy, and the soil is fertile. The seasons in this country are different from those of the United States. Spring begins in September, summer in December, autumn in March, and winter in June. The productions are gold, silver, copper, tin, corn, wine, maize, sugar, sweet potatoes, and a variety of fruits.

In the southern part of Chili there still exists a tribe of Indians, which the Spaniards have not yet been able to conquer. These are called the Araucanian Indians. They are a warlike and brave people, residing in scattered villages. They possess excellent horses, which are trained to martial use.

Patagonia is a cold and inhospitable country, of which little is known. It is inhabited by a race of Indians who are of a gigantic size. The first discoverers, called them Pata-gones which means clumsy-hoofed. From this circumstance the country derived its name.

The United Provinces abound in pampas, some of which are one hundred miles in extent, which are inhabited by wild Indians, and afford pasturage to herds of wild cattle. The climate is salubrious, and most of the fruits and vegetables of the torrid and temperate zones are produced.

Brazil is the largest of the countries of South America, and is level and fertile, producing tobacco, sugar, indigo, coffee, and pepper. Diamonds are found here. In the interior, vast herds of wild cattle abound. They are hunted for their hides, which form the chief export article of the country.

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1. For what is Europe celebrated? 2. What are its principal divisions? 3. How is Denmark[7] bounded? 4 to 19. How is each of the other divisions bounded? 20. In what part of Europe is Russia? 21. Spain? 22. Norway?[8]

23. Where are the Ural mountains? 24. What mountains are in Italy? 25. In Switzerland? 26. In Austria? 27. Where are the Pyrenees? 23. How are the Hæmus mountains situated? 29. The Dofrafeld mountains? 30. What Volcano is on the island Sicily? 31. Where is Mount Hecla, another volcano?

32. Where is lake Constance? 33. What lakes in Russia lie between the Gulf of Finland and the White sea? 34. Where is lake Ilmen? 35. Lake Wener?

36. Between what countries is the Gulf of Bothnia? 37. What bay is north from Spain? 38. What gulf lies between Italy and Austria? 39. How is the Gulf of Taranto situated? 40. Gulf of Riga?

41. What seas between Europe and Asia? 42. What sea south from Europe? 43. How is the Baltic situated? 44. The White sea?

45. The Ural river rises in the Ural mountains, and forms, in part, the eastern boundary of Russia; into what sea does it flow? 46. What rivers rise in Spain, and flow through Portugal? 47. What other rivers rise in Spain? 48. What rivers intersect the Netherlands? 49. What river of France flows south into the Mediterranean?

50. In what country is the Volga river? 51. Into what does it flow? 52. What city is at its mouth? 53. What rivers in Prussia? 54. What rivers flow into the White sea? 55. Into the Bay of Biscay?

56. What connects the Mediterranean sea with the Atlantic ocean? 57. The Sea of Marmora with the Archipelago? 58. With the Black sea? 59. Where are the Straits of Caffa? 60. Where is Skager Rack?

61. Where is North Cape? 62. Cape La Hogue? 63. Cape Matapan? 64. What capes of Spain are on the coast of the Mediterranean? 65. Which is more northwardly, Cape Ortegal or Finisterre? 66. What cape is the southwest part of Portugal? 67. What is the latitude of the Rock of Lisbon?

68. What islands in the Mediterranean between Italy and Spain? 69. What island lies south from the Archipelago sea? 70. What island lies northeast from Greece? 71. Where is the island Cyprus? 72. Where are Ushant and Bellisle islands?

73. Which way from Ireland is Iceland? 74. What islands on the coast of Norway? 75. Which way from Spain are the British Isles? 76. What islands lie in the Baltic sea? 77. Where are the Shetland and Feroe islands?

78. What peninsula extends from the southern part of Russia into the Black sea? 79. Where is the peninsula, called The Morea? 80. What countries in the south of Europe constitute peninsulas? 81. What countries in the north constitute peninsulas?

82. How is St. Petersburg situated? 83. What is its latitude? 84. New York is situated about 41 degrees latitude, north; what city of Spain is in about the same latitude? 85. How can a person go by water from St. Petersburg to Venice?

86. In what part of Europe is Lapland? 87. Finland? 88. Hungary? 89. How is Paris situated? 90. Madrid? 91. Rome? 92. Constantinople? 93. Copenhagen? 94. Bergen? 95. Konigsburg? 96. Amsterdam? 97. Hamburg? 98. Stockholm? 99. Vienna? 100. Lisbon? 101. Geneva?

102. What direct communication is there between the Bay of Biscay and the Mediterranean sea? 103. Where is the Maelstrom, a formidable whirlpool? 104. West from what countries of Europe is England? 105. What countries of Europe are south from England?

106. In what zone does Europe principally lie? 107. What countries north from the 50th parallel of latitude? 108. What south? 109. Which of the countries of Europe has no sea coast? 110. Which of the countries of Europe is divided into two parts by Germany?[9]

Europe is peculiarly favored in its natural advantages for commerce, there being many bays and inland seas extending in such manner into the interior that there is scarcely a town more than four hundred miles from some navigable bay or sea. It has also many navigable rivers. These advantages have contributed to the growth of the inland cities, which are far in advance of those of our own country in size, population, and elegance.

The climate is excessively cold in the northern parts, especially in Lapland and the northern parts of Norway, Sweden, and Russia. In this cold region the rein-deer is the principal support of the inhabitants. Its flesh affords them food; its skin, clothes; and its sinews, twine and thread. It is used also as horses and oxen are in this country, for draught and travelling. It is capable of travelling two hundred miles in a day.

The southern parts of Norway and Sweden have a broken and sandy soil; the harvests are precarious, and the rearing of cattle is practised with considerable success. These countries are celebrated for their forests, which produce vast quantities of pine and fir lumber for exportation. Tar, pitch, hemp, tobacco, and flax are produced.

Russia is the largest empire in the world. It is a level country. The climate and soil are necessarily various. The northern parts are cold and barren, and the southern, peculiarly fertile. Hemp, flax, grain, iron, tar, and furs, are exported in large quantities.

Poland was formerly a powerful independent nation; but in the year 1772 it was unjustly divided between Russia, Austria, and Prussia. Russian Poland has lately made a brave but unsuccessful attempt to regain its independence, and is now again under the tyrannical power of Russia.

The central part of Europe, comprising Denmark, Prussia, Germany, The Netherlands, Switzerland, and Austria is a fertile and healthy country, producing a great variety of the necessaries and luxuries of life. A large part is adapted to grazing. Grain, wine, flax, madder, amber, gold, silver, and copper, are produced. Poland has a noted salt mine, which is represented on page 3.

Italy and Turkey, being situated in the southern part of Europe, possess a warm and healthy climate and fertile soil, producing vines, grain, olives, wheat, figs, and oil. The former is one of the most delightful countries in the world, and was once the seat of the arts and sciences. The latter, comprising Greece, was in ancient times, the parent of learning and the arts, but is now in a state of servitude to tyrannical rulers.

France is a fertile and beautiful country. Its productions are grain, wines, olives, and various fruits. The country is noted for its manufactures of silk and wool, which form the chief exports of the nation. Paris, the capital, is esteemed one of the most luxurious and refined cities in the world, and takes the lead in fashion. France is honored as being the birth-place of Lafayette, the companion and friend of Washington.

Spain and Portugal are so favored by nature, that by industry and good government, they would soon be the most productive countries in the world; but through the indolence of the inhabitants, and the government of despotic rulers, they are degraded, weak, and ignorant. Wheat, rice, silk, hemp, olives, oranges, lemons, figs, &c. are produced.

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1. The British Isles constitute a Kingdom; how is it governed?

2. Name the countries of the British Isles. 3. How is England bounded? 4. Are there any lofty mountains in England?

5. What sea lies west from the northern part of England? 6. What sea lies east from England? 7. What is a Channel? 8. At the mouth of what river is Bristol channel? 9. Where is the Wash? 10. Where is the British channel? 11. Straits of Dover?

12. What river forms part of the northern boundary of England? 13. In what part are the rivers Tyne and Tees? 14. Into what do they flow? 15. What rivers flow into the Humber? 16. Where is Severn river?

17. What rivers flow into the Irish sea? 18. What into the Wash? 19. What into the British channel?

20. Where is St. Edmands’ point? 21. Start point? 22. What point at the mouth of the Bristol channel? 23. What point at the southern extremity of England? 24. What is the southern extremity called?

25. How is the Isle of Wight situated? 26. Near what point is Lundy Island? 27. What is the latitude and longitude of Walney island? 28. How is it situated?

29. On what river is London, the capital of the kingdom? 30. On what river is Liverpool? 31. Oxford, (noted for its university)? 32. Leeds, (celebrated for woollen goods)? 33. Manchester, (famous for cotton goods)? 34. Sheffield, (noted for cutlery)? 35. Where is Kidderminster, (famous for carpets)? 36. How is Gloucester, (celebrated for pins) situated? 37. Where is Birmingham, (noted for hardware)?

38. Which way is London from Liverpool? 39. Liverpool from Manchester? 40. Kidderminster from Birmingham? 41. Which way from Leeds to Sheffield? 42. What town is opposite to Calais in France?

43. Between what parallels of latitude is England? 44. From what is longitude calculated on this map? 45. What is the longitude of Dover? 46. Liverpool?

47. Which way from England is Scotland? 48. How is Scotland bounded?

49. Where is Ben Nevis mountain? 50. Lake Shin?

51. Where is North channel? 52. What waters does it connect? 53. What countries does it separate?

54. What is a Frith? 55. Where is the Frith of Clyde? 56. What friths in the northern part of Scotland? 57. What in the eastern?

58. What rivers in the southern part? 59. What rivers between Murray Frith and Frith of Tay?

60. Where is Cape Wrath? 61. St. Abbe’s Head? 62. Kinnaird’s Head?

63. What islands lie west from Scotland? 64. What are the names of some of the largest? 65. Which is the most northwardly? 66. Where is Anan island? 67. What islands lie north from Scotland? 68. Which way are the Orkney from the Shetland Islands? [In answering this question the latitude and longitude marked on the scale of those islands must be compared with that of the whole map, or the map of Europe must be referred to.]

69. What water communication is there between the Frith of Forth and Clyde river?

70. How is Edinburgh, the capital, situated? 71. Glasgow? 72. Dundee? 73. Perth? 74. Aberdeen?

75. How is Wales bounded? 76. What mountains in the northwestern part? 77. Where is Cardigan bay?

78. Milford Haven? 79. St. David’s Head? 80. Anglesea island? 81. What island is west from Anglesea?

82. How is Cardigan situated? 83. Bangor? 84. Carmarthen? 85. Montgomery?

86. What ocean bounds Ireland on the north, west, and south? 87. What sea lies east? 88. How is Ireland separated from Wales? 89. From Scotland?

90. In what part of Ireland is Lough (or lake) Neagh? 91. What Lough lies in the interior? 92. What Loughs in the western part? 93. Where is Lough Foyle?

94. What bays are on the western coast? 95. What on the eastern? 96. Where is Bear Haven?

97. What islands lie north from Ireland? 98. Where is the Isle of Man? 99. What islands in Galway bay?

100. What are the principal rivers of Ireland? 101. On what river is Limerick? 102. Drogheda? 103. Kinmore?

104. In what part is Cork? 105. Dublin? 106. Galway?

107. Which way from London is Edinburgh? 108. Which way is Cork? 109. From Cork to Liverpool? 110. Dublin to Manchester? 111. Kidderminster to Limerick? 112. In what zone are the British Islands?

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BRITAIN.

The British Kingdom, besides England and Scotland, Ireland and adjacent isles, possesses many large colonies in all parts of the world, which offer great advantages to commerce.

The government is a limited monarchy. The Executive Power is confided to the King, and Legislation to the two houses of Parliament, viz. The House of Lords, composed of clergymen and nobles whose titles are hereditary, and The House of Commons, who are chosen by the people.

England is one of the most beautifully diversified countries in the world, and possesses a fertile soil, which is cultivated in the most perfect manner. The climate is moist, and subject to frequent and sudden changes; but the extremes of heat and cold are not so great as in New England. Tin, copper, lead, and iron, are found. Her coal mines are so productive that they supply fuel for the whole country, and immense quantities for exportation.

The English are brave, intelligent, industrious, enterprising, and are proud of their country. Commerce and manufactures are carried on with vigor, the first extending to every part of the world, and the latter rivalling those of all other countries.

Canals abound and railroads are becoming general. Steam power is much used in these roads, by which means a great weight can be drawn, and the speed greatly increased. The cut above shows a coach, drawn on this road by a locomotive steam engine.

London, the capital of the kingdom, is the most opulent and commercial city in the world, containing about 1,300,000 inhabitants. There are in this many splendid buildings, among which are Westminster Abbey, the Tower, and St. Paul’s Cathedral.

Scotland is greatly diversified. The northern part is mountainous and bleak, and is called the Highlands. The southern part is called the Lowlands, and resembles England.

The Scotch are a hardy, brave, and industrious people. They are great lovers of learning, and give much for the extension of education.

Edinburgh, the capital, is divided into old and new towns. The former consists of ancient buildings, placed on the top of an eminence which overlooks the new town, which is well laid out, in a modern style. The city is celebrated for its university.

Ireland in soil and climate resembles England. The country is moderately uneven, and is fertile. Potatoes are abundant, and form a great part of the food of the inhabitants.

The Irish are brave, hospitable, and active, but enjoy very few advantages for education.

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1. For what is Asia remarkable? 2. Which of the countries of Asia is largest? 3. In what part is Arabia? 4. China?

5. What countries lie between Turkey and Hindostan? 6. How is Siberia bounded? 7. Arabia? 8. Turkey? 9. Persia? 10. Independent Tartary? 11. Hindostan? 12. Afghanistan? 13. Beloochistan? 14. China? 15. Birman Empire?[10] 16. Siam? 17. Anam?[11] 18. The Caucasian country, or Circassia and Georgia? 19. Malaya?

20. What ranges of mountains are on the boundaries of Siberia? 21. Where are the Caucasus mountains? 22. Where are the Gaut mountains? 23. In what part of Asia are the highest mountains in the world, and what are they called?

24. Where is Lake Baikal? 25. How is Lake Zaisan situated? 26. What sea lies between the Black Sea and the Sea of Aral?

27. Where is the Red Sea? 28. Sea of Arabia? 29. What bay lies west from the Birman Empire? 30. How is the Yellow Sea situated? 31. What sea between Corea and the island Niphon? 32. Where is the Sea of Ochotsk?

33. How is the Bay of Bengal situated? 34. Which way are the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Ormus from Persia? 35. Where is the Gulf Tonquin? 36. Gulf of Siam?

37. Two rivers flow into the Persian Gulf; what are their names? 38. Where is the Indus river? 39. Where does it rise? 40. Into what does it flow? 41. What rivers rise in the Himmaleh mountains, and flow into the northern extremity of the Bay of Bengal? 42. What rivers flow into the sea of Aral? 43. What are the principal rivers of China? 44. Of Siberia? 45. Of the Birman Empire?

46. What waters do the Straits of Babelmandel connect? 47. What islands do the Straits of Sunda separate? 48. Straits of Malacca? 49. What straits separate Asia from North America?

50. Where is Cape Comorin? 51. Where is Cape Lopatka? 52. What is its latitude? 53. What cape at the northeastern extremity of Asia?

54. What island lies at the mouth of the Straits of Babelmandel? 55. Where is Ceylon island? 56. What is its longitude? 57. What islands lie in the Bay of Bengal? 58. What is the latitude and longitude of Hainan island?

59. What island is crossed by the tropic of Cancer? 60. What are crossed by the equator? 61. What are the principal of the Philippine Isles? 62. The Japan Isles? 63. The Moluccas or Spice islands? 64. Where is Nova Zembla?[12] 65. Where are the Ladrone and Caroline islands? 66. The Maldives? 67. The Japan islands and Empire?

68. Where is Mecca? 69. Ispahan? 70. Calcutta? 71. Ava? 72. Bencoolen? 73. Manilla? 74. Jerusalem? 75. Madras? 76. Tobolsk? 77. Pekin? 78. Canton? 79. Rangoon? 80. Smyrna?

81. Which way from Canton is Mecca? 82. From Tobolsk to Pekin? 83. From Rangoon to Calcutta? 84. What is the soil of Asia? 85. China is an empire; how is it governed? 86. Does any part of Asia lie in the frigid zone? 87. What is the climate of the frigid zone?

Asia was the first inhabited quarter of the world, and is the largest of the divisions of the Eastern continent. It is distinguished as the country where man was created; where Christ was born, and achieved the plan of man’s redemption; and where the Jews received from Jehovah, the Holy Bible. The northern part of this ancient country is exceedingly cold and almost entirely covered with snow, while the southern is a warm region, and with the exception of Arabia, possesses a fertile soil, watered by numerous rivers. The region between these two extremes, comprehending Independent and Chinese Tartary, is an immense desert, except that part called Thibet, where the soil is moderately fertile, and the climate healthful.

Arabia is almost wholly a desert country, with a hot atmosphere, and is unfit for the residence of man, except along the coasts of the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, where the soil is fertile, and yields wheat, corn, barley, tobacco, dates, and oranges. This country is famous for producing the best horses in the world.

That portion of Turkey which is in Asia, is beautifully diversified with fertile plains, mountains, and valleys. The climate is excellent. Grapes, mulberries, wheat, barley, and tobacco, flourish here. The population is composed of descendants of various nations; but the Turks are the most numerous in the cities, and possess the principal wealth of the country.

In Persia, the most remarkable feature is the want of forests and rivers. There are many desert places, although some spots are exceedingly fertile. During the summer months the climate is hot, and the country is subject to a hot wind called the Samiel, which is so poisonous that animals and travellers are killed by it, unless they perceive its approach, and fall to the ground until it has passed.

Hindostan, or India within the Ganges, is nearly as large as the United States, and must therefore embrace many varieties of soil and climate. The productions are rice, cotton, oranges, lemons, figs, pomegranates, sugar cane, opium, indigo, and tobacco. Horses, sheep, elephants, and the royal tiger, and almost all kinds of ferocious animals, are found here, except the lion. A great part of this country is under the dominion of the British East India Company.

Calcutta is the largest city, and is supposed to contain 650,000 inhabitants, a great many of whom are Europeans. It carries on an extensive commerce with all parts of the world.

The Birman Empire, Malaya, Siam, Tannasserim, and Anam, have commonly been comprehended under the general name of India beyond the Ganges; and the country is little known, except on the coast. In this country, owing to the influence of heat and moisture, the soil is exceedingly fertile. The productions are nearly the same as those of Hindostan.

China is celebrated for its immense population, for the ingenuity of its numerous manufacturers, for its many canals, for the great antiquity of its laws, and for its reserve and jealousy of the people of other nations. The chief productions are cotton, rice, and tea; and all the necessaries of life are cultivated. Tea and China ware are the principal exports.

Canton is the chief city, and is the port where American and English vessels are admitted to trade.

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1. Is our knowledge of Africa as extensive as of other countries? 2. What countries lie in the northern part? 3. What countries on the coast of the Red Sea? 4. What countries in the southern part? 5. What in the interior? 6. What deserts in the northwestern part? 7. In the eastern? 8. Where is Liberia? 9. How is Egypt bounded?

10. What mountains are in the western part of Africa? 11. What mountains in the interior? 12. Where is Mount Atlas? 13. Table mountain?

14. What Lake lies in the interior of Africa? 15. Where is Lake Moravi?

16. What Sea lies north from Africa? 17. Where is the Red Sea? 18. The Gulf of Guinea? 19. Lagoa or Lorenzo bay? 20. Table bay? 21. Gulf of Sidra?

22. Where is Mozambique channel? 23. Straits of Gibraltar? 24. Straits of Babelmandel?

25. What is the northern cape of Africa? 26. What two capes at the southern extremity? 27. Where is Cape Guardafui? 28. What capes are on the coast of Zahara? 29. What are the northern and southern capes of Madagascar?

30. By what means are springs and rivers supplied with water? 31. Where does the Nile rise? 32. What is its course? 33. Into what does it flow? 34. Near the mouth of what river is Cape Verd? 35. In what part of Africa is Orange river? 36. The Gambia river? 37. Where is the Niger river? [The Niger river flows east, but its mouth has not been discovered.]

38. What islands lie east from Morocco? 39. Where is Madagascar? 40. What islands west from Madagascar? 41. Where is St. Helena? 42. For what is St. Helena remarkable? 43. Which way from St. Helena is Ascension?

44. What cities are situated at the mouth of the Nile? 45. Which way from Cairo is Monrovia? 46. Where is Cape Town? 47. Through what towns do the caravans pass in their route between Tombuctoo and Morocco?

48. What proportion of Africa lies in the torrid zone? 49. By what is the torrid zone distinguished?

Little is known of the geography of Africa, and this is owing to the almost total want of navigable rivers, by which, in other countries, easy access is obtained to the interior. The desert character of the country is another obstacle.

Several enterprising travellers have penetrated Africa, to ascertain the sources of its rivers, and the state of the country; among whom, Bruce, Park, Denham and Clapperton stand conspicuous.

In no country do desert and fertile lands come in so close a neighborhood as in Africa. The northern part along the Mediterranean has a fertile soil, but immediately south is the great desert which is entirely devoid of vegetation. In other parts of Africa fertile spots may be found, on the margin of streams, or scattered in the midst of the almost uninhabitable Desert.

The most numerous class of inhabitants are the negroes, who inhabit almost the whole central and western parts of the country, except the Desert of Zahara. The moors inhabit the northern parts, and resemble in form and physiognomy, the natives of Europe. The Hottentots inhabit the southern extremity of the country. The wandering Arabs live on the Desert of Zahara, which they are enabled to traverse by the aid of the camel. This animal requires little food, and will live many days without a fresh supply of water.

Egypt was anciently a powerful nation, evidences of which exist in the ruins of buildings, catacombs and pyramids, which are numerous in the land. At present it is inhabited partly by barbarous tribes, and seems to have lost its ancient grandeur.

The climate of Egypt is exceedingly hot, and the air unrefreshed by rain. The soil is fertile when sufficiently moistened, and produces wheat, barley, corn, flax, sugar-cane, olives, dates, and oranges in abundance.

The only river is the Nile, and the possession of this river is an incalculable blessing to the country, as it serves the double purposes of internal communication, and watering the country. This river annually overflows its banks, in consequence of rain in the Abyssinian mountains, where it rises. It begins to rise about the middle of June, and spreads a muddy deluge to a great extent, on both sides of its channel. The waters subside to their natural bed in October, leaving a rich and wet manure on the surface of the ground. That part of the year called the winter months, is here the most productive, the ground being covered with vegetation, and is so fertile during the season that it yields three crops.

Sierra Leone, so named by the Portuguese because the mountains are infested with Lions, is an English settlement, which was commenced with a view to extend the benefits of civilisation and Christianity to the natives, and to afford a refuge for Africans rescued from slave ships. Freetown is the capital of the colony.

Liberia is the name given to a colony established by the American Colonization Society, on the western coast of Africa, three hundred miles southeast from Sierra Leone. Great numbers of the free people of color have removed from the United States to this settlement. Commerce and agriculture flourish, and efforts are made to extend the benefits of education and the christian religion through the colony, and to the natives. Monrovia is the chief town.

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A fertile soil, a hot and unhealthy climate in summer, and a pleasant and healthful winter, is common to all the West India Islands. Being situated in the torrid zone, they produce most of the tropical fruits, spices, &c. viz. indigo, coffee, cinnamon, cocoa, cloves, pine-apples, pomegranates, oranges, lemons, limes, figs, &c.

Cuba, 700 miles long, is the largest, and belongs to Spain; its capital, Havanna, is a place of much commerce. St. Domingo, or Hayti, is next in size. In this island the black population have established an independent government, and their chief magistrate is called the President of Hayti. Jamaica is a prominent island, highly cultivated, belonging to Great Britain; its chief town is Kingston.

Guadaloupe and Barbadoes are the principal of the Caribbee Islands. Hurricanes are common in these fertile islands.

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IN WHICH THE SCIENCE IS CONSIDERED
PRINCIPALLY IN ITS RELATION TO THE EARTH.

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Astronomy is the science which treats of the System of the Universe.

The system of which the Earth is a part, is called the Solar System; and is composed of the Sun, the Planets, Satellites, and Comets.

The Sun is the source of light and heat to the whole system, and is the centre of motion, round which all the other bodies revolve from west to east.

The Planets are opaque or dark bodies, which revolve round the Sun at different distances. There are eleven planets, viz. Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Herschell, Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta.

Satellites are opaque bodies moving round the planets, in company with the planets round the Sun. They are generally called moons. There are eighteen Satellites, viz. the Earth has one, Jupiter four, Saturn seven, and Herschell six.

Comets are bright bodies moving round the Sun. Coming from a far distant part of the universe, they approach very near the Sun, and then return with equal swiftness. Their nature is but little known.

The paths of the planets and comets round the Sun, and of the satellites round their planets, are called their ORBITS.

Those stars which always appear in the same situation in relation to each other are called Fixed Stars. About 1000 can be seen at once by the naked eye, and by the help of the telescope many millions may be seen. Their sizes are little known, but probably some of them are many million times larger than the earth. They are not considered a part of our Solar System, but are supposed to be Suns of other systems, round which other planets revolve.

A planet turns on its axis (like a wheel upon an axletree,) and each turn is the cause of day and night. It is day to that half of the planet which is toward the Sun, and night to the other half. Each revolution of a planet round the Sun makes its year; but because the orbits are not equal, the years of all the planets are not the same. Thus Herschell’s year is more than eighty-three of our years.

The axis of the earth is not perpendicular while the earth is revolving round the sun, but slanting, as is seen in the cut above. Whilst the earth is passing between the points marked March 20, and Sept. 23, the north pole inclines toward the sun, and then the northern hemisphere enjoys more of his rays than the southern. Consequently it is the warm season in the northern, and the cold season in the southern hemisphere; and from 23d Sept. to 20th March, as the south pole is toward the sun, it is the warm season in the southern, and the cold season in the northern hemisphere.

The Earth is nearly a round body, and revolves on its axis, once every twenty-four hours, from west to east, which causes the Sun and stars to appear to rise in the east, and set in the west.

The earth’s surface contains about two hundred millions of square miles, and its orbit is ninety-six millions of miles from the Sun. The time occupied by the earth in its revolution round the Sun, is about 365 days, which space of time constitutes its year.

Planets and satellites do not shine with their own light, but merely reflect the light of the Sun; of course only one half can be bright at a time, which must be that half which is toward the Sun.

When the moon is on the side of the earth opposite to the Sun, the whole bright side of the moon is toward the earth, and it is then full moon; but when the Sun and moon are on the same side of the earth, the dark side of the moon is toward the earth, and it is new moon.

The earth’s satellite or moon, revolves round the earth in about twenty-nine and a half days, and this causes the phases or changes of the moon. It turns on its axis in the same space of time.

The inner circle represents the moon in her different positions as enlightened by the Sun.

The outer circle represents the moon’s appearance in her different positions as seen from the earth.

An Eclipse means a temporary obscuration of the Sun or moon, or a part of either, from our sight. When the Sun or moon is wholly hid from our sight, the eclipse is called total, and when only a part is obscured, it is called partial.

An eclipse of the Sun is caused by the passage of the moon between the Sun and the earth, and can never take place except at the time of new moon.

To understand this more fully, observe the cut below, and suppose a person standing on the earth at a place where the shadow of the moon falls upon the earth; he cannot see the Sun, because the moon is between him and the Sun.

The moon being an opaque body, does not shine, when by any cause the rays of the Sun are prevented from reaching her surface. Thus when the moon arrives in her orbit at a point where the rays of the Sun are intercepted by the earth, she is in the shadow of the earth, and is not enlightened by the Sun. Therefore;

An eclipse of the moon is caused by the moon’s passing through the shadow of the earth. This can never happen except at the time of full moon.

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Commencing at Page 9.

1. What does the surface of the earth most naturally appear to be? 2. What is the difference between an island and a continent? 3. What proofs are there that the ocean is not bottomless? 4. What is the chief characteristic of the waters of the ocean? 5. Why is the height of places calculated from the level of the sea? 6. What is the extent of each of the divisions of the ocean? 7. What is the prominent feature of the surface of the land? 8. What is a Defile?—9. A Plateau? 10. Whence is the name Volcano derived? 11. What is the longest range of mountains in the world? 12. At what height does the region of perpetual snow commence—13. Why do geographers disagree concerning the length of rivers? 14. For what is the river Amazon remarkable? 15. From whence are the waters of springs and rivers? 16. How many classes of lakes are there? 17. Describe the differences in the classes. 18. What gives rise to the opinion that there are extensive sheets of water underground? 19. How are mines formed? 20. What is remarkable of the climate of America in comparison with that of the eastern continent— 21. For what is Europe distinguished? 22. Asia? 23. Africa? 24. To whom do the West India Islands principally belong? 25. What are Political divisions? 26. Name their distinguishing traits. 27. What religions are professed by the inhabitants of the earth? 28. What are characteristic features of the different races of men? 29. What do you understand by Savages?—30. Barbarians?—31. Civilized nations?—32. Enlightened? 33. What are the distinguishing features of North America? 34. By whom was it inhabited before its discovery by Columbus? 35. For what are the British and Russian Possessions valuable? 36. Describe Mexico? 37. What are the productions of Guatimala? 38. From what causes are the United States divided into groups or sections? 39. For what are the New England States distinguished? 40. Why have Maine and New Hampshire better advantages for commerce than Vermont? 41. What is said of the oldest New England State? 42. What buildings in Boston are venerated as being intimately connected with the history of the American Revolution? 43. What is said of the commercial advantages of Boston? 44. What is said of Connecticut? 45. What is peculiar in the government of Rhode Island? 46. What is the characteristic of the Middle States? 47. What is the staple production? 48. What is said of the rank of New York State? 49. Which is the most commercial city in the United States?

50. What is said of New Jersey? 51. Whence is the name Pennsylvania, derived? 52. What is said of the agriculture of this State? 53. What article is obtained for fuel? 54. What are the productions of Delaware? 55. What is said of the husbandry and productions of Maryland? 56. What is the chief commercial city, and what are its exports? 57. What is said of the District of Columbia? 58. What is said of the Western States?—59. Of the soil, climate and agriculture of Ohio? 60. Of what is the population composed and what is its character? 61. What is the commercial capital of the Western States? 62. What is said of Indiana?—63. Illinois?—64. Missouri?—65. Kentucky?—66. Tennessee? 67. What are the staple productions of the Southern States? 68. For what is Virginia distinguished? 69. What is said of North Carolina?—70. South Carolina and its inhabitants? 71. How many varieties are there of the staple of South Carolina? 72. What is said of New Orleans? 73. For what are the mountains of South America valuable? 74. Which of the countries are republics? 75. What is said of the Araucanian Indians? 76. For what are the pampas of South America valuable? 77. In which part are diamonds found? 78. What is said of the climate and productions of the northern countries of Europe?—79. Of the central part?—80. Of the southern part? 81. For what is France noted and honored? 82. What is the face of the country and climate of England?—83. Of Scotland? 84. Of Ireland?—85. to 87. What is said of the inhabitants of each? 88. What is said of London?—89. Of Edinburgh? 90. What is the general character of the soil and climate of Asia? 91. What is said of Arabia?—92. Of Turkey?—93. Of Persia?—94. Of Hindostan?—95. Of India beyond the Ganges?—96. Of China? 97. What is said of the soil of Africa?—98. Of the inhabitants?—99. Of Egypt?—100. Of the Nile?—101. Of Sierra Leone, and Liberia? 102. What are the soil and climate of the West India Islands?—103. The productions? 104. Which has established an independent government? 105. What groups of islands are called East India Islands? 106. What are some of the peculiarities of these islands? 107. What is said of New Holland? 108. Of Van Dieman’s Land? 109. Of New Britain and Ireland? 110. What is the character of the people of the Ladrone and Navigator’s islands? 111. Of the Friendly, the Society, and the Pelew islands? 112. What is said of the climate and productions of the Polynesian islands?

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