MONOCOTYLEDONOUS SPECIES — ARECACEAE, Reichenb. (Palm Family) — BROMELIACEAE, J. St. Hil. (Pineapple Family) — DRACAENACEAE, Link. (Yucca Family) — JUNIPERACEAE, Horan (Juniper Family) — POACACEAE, R. Br. (Grass Family) — TYPHACEAE, J. St. Hil. (Cat-tail Family) — ZEA MAYS, L. (Indian Corn)
The fibers from monocotyledonous plants,
as identified, are listed here. Approximately
five hundred objects were sampled,
so the frequencies for the several species
should be given that denominator.
The palmetto (Sabal palmetto, Walt.)
seems to have been an article of commerce
as it was used by the Winnebago and the
Iroquois, north of its northern limit of distribution.
It was also used by the Cherokee.
The Winnebago used the fiber in the
production of stiff cords for their bags. In
three bags in the American Museum the
stiff cords are made from this material
(50-7531). For burden straps the Iroquois
used this fiber to produce stiff strong cords
which were covered with cotton or other
soft fiber (AMNH 50.1-1954). The Cherokee
used it in the manufacture of basketry
(AMNH 50.1-2141).
This Florida moss (Tillandsia usneoides,
L.) was found in specimens from the
Southern States only. The Koasati and the
people who built certain mounds in Florida
used it frequently. A specimen in the
United States National Museum from the
Parish Mound, Number 2, in Florida, consisted
of a bunch of loose material. The
Koasati material is in the Museum of the
American Indian, Heye Foundation, and
is represented by fibers from a blanket and
threads on a spindle (1-8551).
Yucca (Yucca arkansana, Trelease) was
encountered in one specimen from the
Arkansas Bluff culture in a bundle of loose
fiber (MAIHF 11-7429).
Yucca (Yucca filamentosa, L.) was
found once in a heavy cord made by the
cave and shelter people of Ohio (OSHAM
332-42)
Nolina georgiana, Michx., was found in
two specimens, a moccasin (OSHAM 332)
and a bristle-like fiber from the Spiro
Mound (2718-K, Trowbridge Collection).
It is possible that this plant may have been
used very frequently in objects from caves
and rock-shelters. It was not always convenient,
however, to examine complete
objects so that some occurrences of its
use may have been overlooked, especially
since these people commonly mixed several
fibers. In the specimen in question, for
example (OSHAM 332), Nolina georgiana
and Eryngium yuccaefolium were identified.
Similar combinations of fibers from widely
different plants have also been noted; frequently,
as in the example cited, a local
plant was mixed with one found at a great
distance.
Red cedar (Juniperus virginiana, L.)
was encountered in only one specimen, a
bag made by the Potawatomi Indians
(AMNH 50.1-7096).
The grass family was the most commonly
and widely used of any of the monocotyledonous
families.
Big blue stem grass (Andropogon furcatus,
Muhl.) was one of the major fibrous
plants used by the cave and rock-shelter
peoples of Ohio in the construction of
coarsely woven articles, such as rope and
moccasins. It was commonly used without
preliminary treatment, but was simply
twisted or braided into strands. The
specimens examined were from the Ohio
State Historical and Archaeological Museum.
A typical example of the use of this
fiber is in a woven moccasin (OSHAM
898-1).
Sweet grass (Hierochloe odorata, L.), to
be distinguished from sweet vernal grass,
was encountered only once in a bag made
by the Michigan Ottawa Indians (MAIHF
19-7125).
Canebrake (Arundinaria tecta, Muhl.)
was a common source of fiber for moccasins
and rope. It seems to have been utilized
by most of the prehistoric cave and rock-shelter
peoples within its range (OSHAM
332-27).
8]
The cat-tail (Typha latifolia, L.) was
observed in a mat found in the caves of
Tennessee (USNM 132252).
Indian corn occurred only once. This
single occurrence has no real significance
as to the frequency of its use, for all specimens
in which it was obvious that corn was
the material used were not sampled. The
sample noted here was found in a knife
made by the Micmac Indians (McGU
H76). The material was a cornstalk which
had been subjected to considerable pressure
to force out the juice and pith to bring
the hardy flinty layers into juxtaposition.
It was then used as a wedge to fasten the
knife handle. It was extremely hard and
durable.
The above are the monocotyledons
encountered in this survey, in all some twenty-four
objects using this material. It should
be noted that these materials are readily
adaptable to use since they need very little
preparation and are frequently used entire.
Sometimes the fiber is removed from the
surrounding materials by simply letting
them ret. Yucca and Tillandsia are ordinarily
used entire. The grasses were used
as they were gathered, simply twisted or
braided. Tillandsia is the only plant of
this group which was used for the manufacture
of fabrics as in the blanket above
noted (p. 7). The specimen of cornstalk
was an exception and its preparation was
evidently for a specific purpose.
Palmetto fiber is especially adaptable.
At the base of the leaves, where they join
the main stem is a large mass of more or
less loose or loosely interwoven fibrous
material which needs only straightening to
be ready for use.
DIOCOTYLEDONOUS SPECIES — ANONACEAE, D. C. (Custard-Apple Family) — APOCYNACEAE, Lindl. (Dog-bane Family) — ASCLEPIADACEAE, Lindl. (Milkweed Family) — BETULACEAE, Agardh. (Birch Family) — CANNABINACEAE, Lindl. (Hop Family) — DAPHNACEAE (Mezereon Family) — JUGLANDACEAE, Lindl. (Walnut Family) — LINACEAE, Dumort. (Flax Family) — MALVACEAE, Neck. (Mallow Family) — SALICACEAE, Lindl. (Willow Family) — TILIACEAE, Juss. (Basswood Family) — ULMACEAE, Mirbel. (Elm Family) — UMBELLIFERAE — URTICACEAE, Reichenb. (Nettle Family)
The pawpaw (Asimina triloba, L.) seems
to have been universally used by all the
tribes who lived where it flourished. Its
use was apparently limited only by its distribution,
for it was encountered sixteen
times in the prehistoric material examined
from Kentucky, Arkansas, and Ohio, as
well as in historic objects made by the
Menomini and Wisconsin Potawatomi. In
the University of Wisconsin Museum is a
bunch of prepared fiber (16422) from the
caves of Kentucky. This fiber was commonly
used by the cave and rock-shelter
peoples of Arkansas for cords, mats, rope,
and in all coarsely woven materials. A
woven mat from Bushwick Cave is a fair
example (MAIHF 11-6243). The Ohio
cave and rock-shelter dwellers used the
pawpaw for coarse bags and fabrics, for
example, in a split bark bag (OSHAM 332-22).
In the Milwaukee Public Museum are
two bags in which this fiber was identified,
one, from the Menomini (4570) in which
only the weft is of pawpaw, and another
(23287) from the Wisconsin Potawatomi,
entirely composed of it.
The genera Apocynum is represented by
both the species indigenous to the territory
surveyed, but as Indian hemp is one of
them, it was rather surprising how infrequently
they were encountered. Only ten
examples of its use were found.
This plant (Apocynum androsaemifolium,
L.) which is called dog-bane is so similar in
appearance and properties that it might
well have been and was used indiscriminately
with Indian hemp (Apocynum cannabinum,
L.). The species was found
three times in material examined. Its use
by the Nanticoke in the manufacture of
fish nets is demonstrated by a net (50.2-600)
in the American Museum. A burden
strap (50-7221) made from this fiber by
the Iroquois is also in the Museum collections.
Apocynum cannabinum L., the so-called
Indian hemp, was found seven times and
of these is represented four times in the
archaeological cave and rock-shelter materials
examined. The Museum of the
American Indian, Heye Foundation, has
a bundle of prepared fibers (11-7384) found
at Allards Bluff, Arkansas. A dark colored
piece of fabric, attributed to the Hopewell
culture of Ohio, made in part from
this material (957) is in the collections of
the Ohio State Historical and Archaeological
Museum. Another piece of cloth
(1200) in the same museum is an Adena
culture example of the use of this fiber.
The Museum of the American Indian, Heye
Foundation, has a Sauk and Fox bag
(2-4694) made from this fiber. In the
American Museum a fish net (50.2-601)
made by the Nanticoke and an Iroquois
burden strap (50-7401) complete the catalogue
of objects in which this fiber occurs.
In many of the older specimens examined,
the fiber was crudely prepared before
twisting, but in the more recent Indian
material it is well broken down and fine,
so as to make small counts and even
threads or cords.
The milkweed family is represented by
four species of Asclepias, namely, tuberosa,
pulchra, incarnata, and syriaca. These
fibers were used in the manufacture of fine
threads and cords. In both archaeological
and recent Indian material the fibers were
well prepared before use. In the archaeological
objects it is possible that the fibers
were collected in the spring, after retting by
the weather; in any event, they all show
that they have been freed to a large extent
of their cementitious materials and epidermis.
The highland milkweed (Asclepias tuberosa,
L.) was encountered twelve times
from all parts of its geographical range.
The cave dwellers of Arkansas used it, as
is exemplified by a bundle of knotted
fibers in the Museum of the American
Indian, Heye Foundation (11-6179). In
the Peabody Museum of Harvard University
10]
is some textile material which accompanied
a knife found in an Ohio mound
(28328). The protohistoric Indians of
Massachusetts used the fiber to manufacture
textiles as may be seen in a piece of
plain cloth (A4127) and in a specimen of
twined cloth (A5478) in the same museum.
The Iroquois Indians employed it to make
fine threads for stringing wampum belts
as is shown by one (M1905) in the Archaeological
Museum of McGill University.
As stated above, all this material was
broken down to make comparatively fine,
smooth threads and cords.
The species, Asclepias pulchra, Ehrh.,
or swamp milkweed, is closely related to
A. incarnata, L. It was found in ten
specimens examined, but from only two
states, Ohio and Kentucky. In the University
of Kentucky Museum is a rope (Bh-15/V4),
made of this fiber. In the Ohio
State Historical and Archaeological Museum
are specimens of fabrics made from
it which are attributed to the Hopewell
culture. One of these, a piece of cloth
wrapped around a copper plate (283), also
contains Urtica gracilis.
The milkweed (Asclepias incarnata, L.)
was noted four times in Ohio archaeological
objects. In the Ohio State Historical and
Archaeological Museum is a two-strand
rope (899-20), one strand of which is made
from this fiber. This is a typical cave and
rock-shelter sample. Wrapped around a
Hopewell culture copper plate in the same
museum is a piece of fabric containing five
different fibers, among them Asclepias incarnata
(957).
The species Asclepias syriaca, L., seems
to be the most widely distributed geographically
of any used by the Indians
surveyed in this paper. It was found seventeen
times in material from all sections and
many tribes.
In this Museum were observed the following
objects in which this fiber was used
in whole or in combination with other
fiber: a Sauk and Fox bag (50-4886); a
Delaware drum string (50.1-1609); a Delaware
burden strap (50-7244); a Matchapunga
fish net (50.1-9911); and a cord
used, for wrapping on a spear (50.1-7475),
Micmac. In the Museum of the American
Indian, Heye Foundation, is a Kickapoo
ball of string (2-5294) made of this fiber.
In an Iroquois wampum belt (M1913) in
the Archaeological Museum of McGill
University, the beads are strung on cords
made from this fiber. An Iroquois burden
strap (AE 360) in the Rochester Museum of
Arts and Sciences is composed of this
fiber. Fiber of this species was also used
by the prehistoric cave and rock-shelter
people of Ohio as is shown by a fish net
(OSHAM 332-23) in the Ohio State Historical
and Archaeological Museum.
The paper birch (Betula papyrifera,
Marsh.) was encountered in one specimen
(AMNH 50.2-1792). The bark was untreated,
simply twisted into a cord. In a
specimen of Iroquois horsehair embroidery
(McGU H49) the bark had received no
preliminary treatment, but was used in the
raw state.
This introduced plant, hemp (Cannabis
sativa, L.), was found in four specimens,
evidently made in post-Columbian times
as the plant is not indigenous to the Western
Hemisphere, but was introduced by the
colonists at a very early date. It was
found in a bag (MPM 28116) made by the
Wisconsin Potawatomi Indians. A bowstring
on an Algonkin bow (AMNH 50.2-4221A)
is made from this fiber as are also
portions of an Oneida burden strap (AMNH
50.1-1800).
This moose or leatherwood fiber (Dirca
palustris, L.) was encountered eleven times
in as widely separated states as Arkansas
and Wisconsin. It was used both in the
raw state, as strips twisted into cord, and
as treated fiber in finer cords and threads.
A prehistoric mat made by the inhabitants
of Bushwick Cave, Arkansas, is composed
of this material (MAIHF 19-4635). Cloth
of the Adena culture made, in part, from
this bast fiber (1200) is in the Ohio State
Historical and Archaeological Museum.
In the Milwaukee Public Museum is a
Wisconsin Potawatomi bag (23447) in
11]
which the weft is nicely prepared fiber from
this plant. In the collections of this
Museum is a Winnebago bag (50-784D)
woven with two kinds of cord; light colored
cord of Dirca palustris and dark colored
cord of Tilia americana.
The bast from the black walnut (Juglans
nigra, L.) was encountered twice in burden
straps from the Iroquois (Museum of the
American Indian, Heye Foundation).
These fibers had apparently been previously
treated, both chemically and mechanically.
They were probably boiled in
ashes, pounded, and then straightened so
as to make them usable in twisting cord
and thread. One such specimen in the
above Museum carries the catalogue number
16-5208.
Common flax (Linum usitatissimum, L.)
is another example of introduced fibers
used by the Indians in post-Columbian
times. The fiber was probably secured in
trade. It was found in five specimens
made by the Winnebago, Potawatomi,
Michigan, Ottawa, and Delaware Indians.
In the Milwaukee Public Museum is a bag
(14619), made by the Winnebago and
composed entirely of flax cords. In a
Delaware burden strap (50-7191) in this
Museum the fine cords are linen, but the
coarse cords are milkweed, Asclepias syriaca.
In the Archaeological Museum of McGill
University is a wampum belt (M5932),
the beads of which are strung on a commercial
linen thread.
As was to be expected, cotton (Gossypium
herbaceum, L.) became the most commonly
and universally used of any of the
fibers after it was introduced east of the
Mississippi River. No specimen was
encountered in the prehistoric material,
but after its introduction and sale by
traders it was the most commonly used
fiber. It does not seem advisable to discuss
these uses in detail, suffice it to say
that it served all purposes for which string
and thread are utilized.
Black willow (Salix nigra, Marsh.). This
species of black willow was used by the
Menomini, Winnebago, Michigan Ottawa,
and Ojibway Indians in the manufacture
of bags, pouches, fish nets, and cord. A
Menomini bag (MAIHF 8-1136) and a
similar Winnebago bag (AMNH 50.1-903)
contain black willow fiber. A Micmac
fish spear (AMNH 50-4754) is wrapped
with black willow twine. In the preparation
of black willow fiber the bark was
obviously stripped from the tree. Then
the inner white bast tissue was removed
and boiled in wood ashes; finally, this
bast was pounded and rubbed to remove all
the cementitious materials and loosen the
fibers so they could be arranged more or
less parallel to each other for twisting or
spinning. In none of the specimens examined
were crude strips of the inner bark
used without preliminary treatment.
The bast layer from the basswood (Tilia
americana, L.) seems to have been the fiber
most commonly and universally used by
the Eastern Indians, for it was encountered
fifty-two times, in all areas from which
specimens were obtained, with the exception
of the extreme south. It was utilized
for nearly all purposes, from the manufacture
of bags to textiles. In the Milwaukee
Public Museum is a Menomini
bag (4586) made from the Tilia bast, carefully
and thoroughly prepared to remove
the gums and render the fibers parallel
and capable of being spun into good yarn.
A Potawatomi bag in this Museum (50.1-7091)
is made from the same material.
In the Museum of the American Indian,
Heye Foundation, is a bag made by the
Sauk and Fox (2-4966). In the Peabody
Museum of Harvard University is a twilled
woven garment (A5479B) made by the
protohistoric Indians of Massachusetts.
An Iroquois burden strap (AE 2963) in the
Rochester Museum of Arts and Sciences is
woven of threads from prepared fibers from
this tree. In the Ohio State Historical and
Archaeological Museum is a prehistoric
fabric (957) containing Tilia and three
12]
other species of fiber. Hopewell mound
and rock-shelter specimens in the same
museum show the use of Tilia.
The above gives a general picture of basswood
fiber usage. It was found in an untreated
state, merely cut into strips, as
well as thoroughly treated and spun into
comparatively fine threads.
The slippery elm (Ulmus fulva, Michx.)
was found three times. Once, in a burden
strap made by the Iroquois Indians
(AMNH 50-6680) in which the fibers had
received some preliminary treatment to
soften them and remove much of the natural
gum. Two other specimens, both
rather coarsely woven fabrics from mounds
of the Hopewell culture (OSHAM 283 and
125) were in the Ohio State Historical and
Archaeological Museum.
The American elm (Ulmus americana,
L.) was encountered only once in an Iroquois
burden strap (MAIHF 19-4550).
The fiber had received some preliminary
treatment and differed decidedly from
Ulmus fulva in the shape of the cells, in
cross-section, and the residual amount of
amorphous material.
The eryngium (Eryngium yuccaefolium,
Michx.) was commonly used by the prehistoric
tribes of the area in which it occurs.
It was found fifty-five times in material
from the caves and rock-shelters of Arkansas,
Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio.
Its parallel veined long leaves lend themselves
to all uses as readily as the yuccas
of the south and west. It is easily shredded
or it can be used entire with equal facility.
The stem contains a very strong bast fiber
which was also utilized. It does not seem
to have been utilized by the historic Indians,
as it was not encountered outside of
the above cultures. Whatever, if any,
treatment it received before usage was very
slight and consisted apparently of shredding,
with no chemical treatment, as no
fine threads or cords were found. A sandal
from the Kentucky cave culture is made
from this plant by utilizing the leaf, as in
the Southwest. A cord from a reed mat
found in the Tennessee caves (USNM
132252) is made from this material. The
cord was used for tying reeds (Typha latifolia,
L.) together. The Museum of the
American Indian, Heye Foundation, contains
many specimens taken from the caves
and rock-shelters of Arkansas. Among
these is a bag (11-7315) from Allards
Bluff, made of this material.
This plant was frequently encountered
in collections from the Hopewell and the
rock-shelter cultures of Ohio, in the State
Museum at Columbus; as, braided work
(957), and cloth from a burial (854). These
objects are believed to be typical, but the
same plant was used in all classes of cordage
and textiles found in collections representing
these cultures.
The nettle family is represented by three
genera, Boehmeria, Urtica, and Laportea.
Specimens of these three were encountered
forty-eight times, so it seems to have been
one of the most important families as a
source of fibrous materials. The tissues
were, almost without exception, treated
before use.
The stingless nettle (Boehmeria cylindrica,
L.) was used by practically all the
Indian tribes covered by this survey. It
was invariably more or less treated, with
the possible exception of some twisted
strands from the Bushwick Cave of Arkansas
(MAIHF 19-4632). This cord appears
to have been made by simply peeling
the bark from the plant and twisting it.
The Delaware used the same fiber in a
wampum string (AMNH 50.1-1579), also
in a burden strap (AMNH 50.1-1592).
A Cherokee string used in a feather charm
occurs in the collection of the Museum of
the American Indian, Heye Foundation.
The handle of a Micmac curved knife
(McGU H76) is fastened to the blade by
wrapping with cord of this fiber. In the
same museum there are two Iroquois
wampum belts in which the strings for the
beads are made from Boehmeria fiber.
In the American Museum are two specimens
of cord, one on a Micmac fish spear
(50.1-7475) and the other the string to an
Ojibway bow (50-6874A).
13]
It is evident that raw Boehmeria fiber,
properly treated, produces especially fine,
soft, and strong material. It is easily distinguished
from the fibers of the other
members of the family by its smaller size,
the shape of the cells, and their distribution
when seen in cross-section. Both the
Urtica and Laportea fibers are coarser and
the ratio of length to width of the fiber is
much greater. The lumen in all three is
longer one way than the other, but is much
more open in Boehmeria cylindrica than
the other species.
The slender nettle (Urtica gracilis, Ait.)
seems to have been a favorite source for all
peoples from prehistoric to modern Indians.
Its use extended from New England to
Wisconsin. It was usually processed before
use, except among some of the prehistoric
peoples where it was merely twisted into
cord. A bag from the caves of Tennessee
(USNM 132255) is made from this fiber
which has had some preliminary treatment.
A modern Sauk and Fox bag (MAIHF
2-7911) shows complete preliminary processing.
Some string in the Peabody Museum
of Harvard University (A4109), is
made from this plant; this is protohistoric
material. The Hopewell culture of Ohio
is represented by twelve specimens using
this fiber, all of which show some preliminary
treatment. A sample of cloth from a
copper plate is representative (OSHAM
283). The cave and rock-shelter cultures
of Ohio are represented, but here the fiber
seems to have received little, if any, preliminary
treatment prior to use (OSHAM
332-42).
The woods nettle (Laportea canadensis,
L.) was most widely used of all of the Urticaceae,
both before and after treatment.
It was used by the Sauk and Fox for bags,
after it had received thorough treatment.
In the Milwaukee Public Museum is a bag
(30260) made of this material, thoroughly
treated before being twisted into fine cord.
A string used for tying a spear point to a
shaft is in the Ojibway collection of the
American Museum (50-4748). The Iroquois
used it to make burden straps
(MAIHF 19-8895). Braided cloth from
prehistoric Kentucky is represented by a
specimen (56795) in the Peabody Museum
of Harvard University. The cave
culture of Tennessee is represented in the
United States National Museum by a shirt
(132254) made from this fiber. The Hopewell
culture of Ohio is well represented by
fabrics in the Ohio State Historical and
Archaeological Museum (957, is an example).
The cave and rock-shelter culture
of the same state employed this fiber
to make twined cords as is exemplified by
a cord (OSHAM 332-34). The cave and
rock-shelter cultures of Arkansas used it
for the manufacture of twisted cords as
may be seen in a specimen (19-4630) in
the Museum of the American Indian, Heye
Foundation.
