Rules for compositors and readers at the University Press, Oxford

BY

HORACE HART, M.A.

PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD

THE ENGLISH SPELLINGS REVISED BY

SIR JAMES A. H. MURRAY, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Litt.

AND

HENRY BRADLEY, M.A., Ph.D.

EDITORS OF THE OXFORD DICTIONARY

TWENTY-SECOND EDITION

(THE EIGHTH FOR PUBLICATION)

LONDON

HENRY FROWDE, AMEN CORNER, E.C.

OXFORD: 116 HIGH STREET

1912

These Rules apply generally, and they are only to be departed from when the written instructions which accompany copy for a new book contain an express direction that they are not to be followed in certain specified cases.

First Edition, April 1893. Reprinted, Dec. 1894.
Reprinted with alterations—
Jan. 1895; Feb. 1895; Jan. 1896; July 1897;
Sept. 1898; April 1899; Aug. 1899; Jan. 1901;
Feb. 1901; Jan. 1902; March 1902; May 1903.
Fifteenth Edition, revised and enlarged
the first for publication March 1904.
Sixteenth Edition, April 1904.
Seventeenth Edition, April 1904.
Eighteenth Edition, revised and enlarged July 1904.
Nineteenth Edition, July 1905.
Twentieth Edition, July 1907.
Twenty-first Edition, January 1909.
Twenty-second Edition, January 1912.

It is quite clearly set out on the title-page in previous editions of these Rules and Examples, that they were intended especially for Compositors and Readers at the Clarendon Press. Consequently it seems necessary to explain why an edition or impression is now offered to so much of the General Public as is interested in the technicalities of Typography, or wishes to be guided to a choice amidst alternative spellings.

On the production of the First Edition at the Oxford Press, copies were placed at the disposal of all Readers, Compositors, and Compositor-apprentices; and other copies found their way into the possession of Authors and Editors of books then in the printers’ hands. Subsequently, friends of authors, and readers and compositors in other printing-offices, began to ask for copies, which were always supplied without charge. By and by applications for copies were received from persons who had no absolute claim to be supplied gratuitously; but as many of such requests came from Officials of the King’s Government at Home, in the Colonies, and in India, it was thought advisable, on the whole, to continue the practice of presentation.

Recently, however, it became known that copies of the booklet were on sale in London. A correspondent wrote that he had just bought a copy ‘at the Stores’; and as it seems more than complaisant to provide gratuitously what may afterwards be sold for profit, there is no alternative but to publish this little book.

As to the origin and progress of the work, it was begun in 1864, when the compiler was a member of the London Association of Correctors of the Press. With the assistance of a small band of fellow members employed in the same printing-office as himself, a first list of examples was drawn up, to furnish a working basis.

Fate so ordained that, in course of years, the writer became in succession general manager of three London printing-houses. In each of these institutions additions were made to his selected list of words, which, in this way, gradually expanded—embodying what compositors term ‘the Rule of the House’.

In 1883, as Controller of the Oxford Press, the compiler began afresh the work of adaptation; but pressure of other duties deferred its completion nearly ten years, for the first edition is dated 1893. Even at that date the book lacked the seal of final approval, being only part of a system of printing-office management.

In due course, Sir J. A. H. Murray and Dr. Henry Bradley, editors of the Oxford Dictionary, were kind enough to revise and approve all the English spellings. Bearing the stamp of their sanction, the booklet has an authority which it could not otherwise have claimed.

To later editions Professor Robinson Ellis and Mr. H. Stuart Jones contributed two appendices, containing instructions for the Division of Words in Latin and Greek; and the section on the German Language was revised by Dr. Karl Breul, Reader in Germanic in the University of Cambridge.

The present issue is characterized by many additions and some rearrangement. The compiler has encouraged the proofreaders of the University Press from time to time to keep memoranda of troublesome words in frequent—or indeed in occasional—use, not recorded in previous issues of the ‘Rules’, and to make notes of the mode of printing them which is decided on. As each edition of the book becomes exhausted such words are reconsidered, and their approved form finally incorporated into the pages of the forthcoming edition. The same remark applies to new words which appear unexpectedly, like new planets, and take their place in what Sir James Murray calls the ‘World of Words’. Such instances as air-man, sabotage, stepney-wheel, will occur to every newspaper reader.

Lastly, it ought to be added that in one or two cases, a particular way of spelling a word or punctuating a sentence has been changed. This does not generally mean that an error has been discovered in the ‘Rules’; but rather that the fashion has altered, and that it is necessary to guide the compositor accordingly.

H. H.

January 1912.

RULES FOR SETTING UP
ENGLISH WORKS[1]

Words ending in silent e generally lose the e when -able is added, as—

But this rule is open to exceptions upon which authorities are not agreed. The following spellings are in The Oxford Dictionary, and must be followed:

If -able is preceded by ce or ge, the e should be retained, to preserve the soft sound of c or g, as—

Words ending in double ee retain both letters, as—agreeable.

In words of English formation, a final consonant is usually doubled before -able, as—

The principle underlying the difference between words ending in -able and those ending in -ible is thus stated by The Oxford English Dictionary (s.v. -ble): ‘In English there is a prevalent feeling for retaining -ible wherever there was or might be a Latin -ibilis, while -able is used for words of distinctly French or English origin.’ The following are examples of words ending in -ible:

The following spellings are those adopted for The Oxford Dictionary:

MORE OR LESS IN DAILY USE, ARRANGED IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER FOR EASY REFERENCE

In words ending in -ment print the e when it occurs in the preceding syllable, as—abridgement, acknowledgement, judgement, lodgement.[20] But omit the e in development, envelopment, in accordance with the spelling of the verbal forms develop, envelop.

The hyphen need not, as a rule, be used to join an adverb to the adjective which it qualifies: as in—

a beautifully furnished house,
a well calculated scheme.

When the word might not at once be recognized as an adverb, use the hyphen: as—

a well-known statesman,
an ill-built house,
a new-found country,
the best-known proverb,
a good-sized room.

When an adverb qualifies a predicate, the hyphen should not be used: as—

this fact is well known.

Where either (1) a noun and adjective or participle, or (2) an adjective and a noun, in combination, are used as a compound adjective, the hyphen should be used:

a poverty-stricken family, a blood-red hand, a nineteenth-century invention.

A compound noun which has but one accent, and from familiar use has become one word, requires no hyphen. Examples:

The following should also be printed as one word:

Compound words of more than one accent, as—ápple-trée, chérry-píe, grável-wálk, wíll-o’-the-wisp, as well as others which follow, require hyphens:

Half an inch, half a dozen, &c., require no hyphens. Print the following also without hyphens:

Words of one syllable, ending with one consonant preceded by one vowel, double that consonant on adding -ed or -ing: e.g.

Words of more than one syllable, ending with one consonant preceded by one vowel, and accented on the last syllable, double that consonant on adding -ed or -ing: e.g.

But words of this class not accented on the last syllable, do not double the last consonant[25] on adding -ed, -ing: e.g.

In words ending in -l, the final consonant is generally doubled, whether accented on the last syllable or not: e.g.

Plurals of nouns taken into English from other languages sometimes follow the laws of inflexion of those languages. But often, in non-technical works, additional forms are used, constructed after the English manner. Print as below, in cases where the author does not object. In scientific works the scientific method must of course prevail:

Do not be guilty of the absurd mistake of printing ‘Errata’ as a heading for a single correction. When a list of errors has been dealt with, by printing cancel pages and otherwise, so that only one error remains, take care to alter the heading from ‘Errata’ to ‘Erratum’. The same remarks apply to Addenda and Addendum, Corrigenda and Corrigendum.

The plurals of nouns ending in -o, owing to the absence of any settled system, are often confusing. The Concise Oxford Dictionary says (p. vi): ‘It may perhaps be laid down that on the one hand words of which the plural is very commonly used, as potato, have almost invariably -oes, and on the other hand words still felt to be foreign or of abnormal form, as soprano, chromo, have almost invariably -os.’ The following is a short list, showing spellings preferred:

Print the following anglicized words in roman type:

The following to be printed in italic:

The modern practice is to omit accents from Latin words.

For further directions as to the use of italic in foreign words and phrases see pp. 50-1.

When it is necessary to reproduce the spellings and printed forms of old writers the following rules should be observed:

Initial u is printed v, as in vnderstande. Also in such combinations as wherevpon.

Medial v is printed u, as in haue, euer.

Initial and medial j are printed i, as in iealousie, iniurie.

In capitals the U is non-existent, and should always be printed with a V, initially and medially, as VNIVERSITY, FAVLCONRIE.

In y^e and y^t the second letter should be a superior, and without a full point.

Some newspapers print phonetic spellings, such as program, hight (to describe altitude), catalog, &c. But the practice has insufficient authority, and can be followed only by special direction.

Print a, not an, before contractions beginning with a consonant: e.g. a L.C.C. case, a MS. version.

When used in addressing persons or things the vocative ‘O’ is printed with a capital and without any point following it; e.g. ‘O mighty Caesar! dost thou lie so low’; ‘O world! thou wast the forest to this hart’; ‘O most bloody sight!’ Similarly, ‘O Lord’, ‘O God’, ‘O sir’. But when not used in the vocative, the spelling should be ‘Oh’, and separated from what follows by a punctuation mark; e.g. ‘Oh, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth’; ‘For if you should, oh! what would become of it?’

Print: (1) Neither one nor the other; neither Jew nor Greek; neither Peter nor James. (2) Either one or the other; either Jew or Greek; either Peter or James.

Never print: Neither one or the other; neither Peter or James;—but when the sentence is continued to a further comparison, nor and or must be printed (in the continuation) according to the sense.[37]

Likewise note that the verb should be in the singular, as ‘Neither Oxford nor Reading is stated to have been represented’.

The combinations ae and oe should each be printed as two letters in Latin and Greek words, e.g. Aeneid, Aeschylus, Caesar, Oedipus; and in English, as mediaeval, phoenix. But in Old-English and in French words use the ligatures æ, œ, as Ælfred, Cædmon, manœuvre.

NOTE.—Some abbreviations of Latin words such as ad loc., &c., to be set in roman, are shown on page 51.

Names of the books of the Bible as abbreviated where necessary:

Old Testament.

New Testament.

Apocrypha.

Abbreviate the names of the months:

Where the name of a county is abbreviated, as Yorks., Cambs., Berks., Oxon., use a full point; but print Hants (no full point) because it is not a modern abbreviation.

4to, 8vo, 12mo,[39] &c. (sizes of books), are symbols, and should have no full point. A parallel case is that of 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and so on, which also need no full points.

Print lb. for both sing. and pl.; not lbs. Also omit the plural -s in the following: cm., cwt., dwt., gr., grm., in., min., mm., oz.

When beginning a footnote, the abbreviations e.g., i.e., p. or pp., and so on, to be all in lower-case.

Use ETC. in a cap. line and ETC. in a small cap. line where an ampersand (&) will not range. Otherwise print &c.; and Longmans, Green & Co.; with no comma before ampersand in the name of a firm.

Print the symbolic letters I O U, without full points.

The points of the compass, N. E. S. W., when separately used, to have a full point: but print NE., NNW. These letters to be used only in geographical or similar matter: do not, even if N. is in the copy, use the contraction in ordinary composition; print ‘Woodstock is eight miles north of Carfax’.

MS. = manuscript, MSS. = manuscripts, to be spelt out when used in a general sense. But in printing bibliographical details, and in references to particular manuscripts, the contracted forms should be used; e.g. the Worcester MS., the Harleian MSS., Add. MS. 25642.

Print PS. (not P.S.) for postscript or postscriptum; MM. (messieurs), SS. not S.S. (steamship); but H.M.S. (His Majesty’s Ship); H.R.H.; I.W. (Isle of Wight); N.B., Q.E.D., and R.S.V.P., because more than one word is contracted.

Print ME. and OE. in philological works for Middle English and Old English. When an author prefers M.E., O.E., do not put a space between the letters.

Abbreviations of titles, such as M.P., D.D., M.A., or of occupations or parties, such as I.C.S., I.L.P., to have no space between the letters.

When titles of books are represented by initials, put a thin space only between each letter; e.g. J. T. S., S. B. E.

Mr., Mrs., Dr., &c. must be printed with a full point, but not Mme, Mlle.

In printing S. or St. for Saint, the compositor must be guided by the manuscript. Ordinarily St. should be used, but if S. is consistently written this must be assumed as the form in which the author wishes it printed.

Print Bt. for Baronet, and Kt. for Knight.

Apostrophes in similar abbreviations to the following should join close up to the letters—don’t, ’em, haven’t, o’er, shan’t, shouldn’t, ’tis, won’t, there’ll, I’d, I’ll, we’ll.[40]

An apostrophe should not be used with hers, ours, theirs, yours.

Apostrophes in Place-Names.[41]—1. Use an apostrophe after the ‘s’ in Queens’ College (Cambs.). But

2. Use an apostrophe before the ‘s’ in Connah’s Quay (Flints.), Hunter’s Quay (N.B.), Orme’s Head (Carn.), Queen’s Coll. (Oxon.), St. Abb’s Head (N.B.), St. John’s (Newfoundland), St. John’s Wood (London), St. Mary’s Loch (N.B.), St. Michael’s Mount (Cornwall), St. Mungo’s Well (Knaresboro’), St. Peter’s (Sydney, N.S.W.).

3. Do not use an apostrophe in—All Souls (Oxon.), Bury St. Edmunds, Husbands Bosworth (Rugby), Johns Hopkins University (U.S.A.), Millers Dale (Derby), Owens College (Manchester), St. Albans, St. Andrews, St. Bees, St. Boswells, St. Davids, St. Helens (Lancs., and district in London), St. Heliers (Jersey), St. Ives (Hunts. and Cornwall), St. Kitts (St. Christopher Island, W.I.), St. Leonards, St. Neots (Hunts., but St. Neot, Cornwall), Somers Town (London).

Words ending in -ed are to be spelt so in all cases; and with a grave accent when the syllable is separately pronounced, thus—èd. (’d is not to be used.)

This applies to poetical quotations introduced into prose matter, and to new works. It must not apply to reprints of standard authors, nor to quotations in works which reproduce old spellings, &c.

Whenever a poetic quotation, whether in the same type as the text or not, is given a line (or more) to itself, it is not to be placed within quotation marks; but when the line of poetry runs on with the prose then quotation marks are to be used.

On spacing poetry, see p. 49.

Avoid beginning words with capitals as much as possible; but use them in the following and similar cases:

Act, when referring to Act of Parliament or Acts of a play; also in Baptist, Christian, Nonconformist, Presbyterian, Puritan, Liberal, Conservative, and all denominational terms and names of parties.

His Majesty, Her Royal Highness, &c.

The King of England, the Prince of Wales.

The Duke of Wellington, Bishop of Oxford, Sir Roger Tichborne, &c.

British Army, German Navy.

Christmas Day, Lady Day, &c.

Dark Ages, Middle Ages.

House of Commons, Parliament, &c.

Government, Cabinet, Speaker.

In geography: Sun, Earth, Equator, the Continent.

In geological names: Upper Greensand, London Clay, Tertiary, Lias, &c.

In names of streets, roads, &c., as—Chandos Street, Trafalgar Square, Kingston Road, Addison’s Walk, Norreys Avenue.

Figure, Number, Plate (Fig., No., Pl.), should each begin with a capital, whether contracted or not, unless special instructions are given to the contrary.

Pronouns referring to the Deity should begin with capitals—He, Him, His, Me, Mine, My, Thee, Thine, Thou; but print—who, whom, and whose.

Also capitalize the less common adjectives derived from proper names; e.g. Homeric, Platonic.

FOR ANGLICIZED WORDS, ETC.

christianize, frenchified, herculean, italic, laconic, latinize, puritanic, quixotic, roman, satanic, tantalize, vulcanize.

Also for the more common words derived from proper names, as—boycott, doily, guernsey, hackney, hansom-cab, holland, inverness, japanning, latinity, may (blossom), morocco, russia, stepney-wheel.

When ‘In the press’ occurs in publishers’ announcements, print ‘press’ with a lower-case initial.

Put a hair space between the letters of contractions in small capitals:

a.m.[42] (ante meridiem), p.m.{42} (post meridiem), should be lower-case, except in lines of caps. or small caps.

When small caps, are used at foot of title-page, print thus: M DCCCC IV[43]

Text references to caps. in plates and woodcuts to be in small caps.

The first word in each chapter of a book is to be in small caps. and the first line usually indented one em; but this does not apply to works in which the matter is broken up into many sections, nor to cases where large initials are used. (See p. 50 as to indentation.)

The signs + (plus), - (minus), = (equal to), > (‘larger than’, in etymology signifying ‘gives’ or ‘has given’), < (‘smaller than’, in etymology signifying ‘derived from’), are now often used in printing ordinary scientific works, and not in those only which are mathematical or arithmetical.

In such instances +, -, =, >, <, should in the matter of spacing be treated as words are treated. For instance, in—

spectabilis, Bœrl. l. c. (= Haasia spectabilis)

the = belongs to ‘spectabilis’ as much as to ‘Haasia’, and the sign should not be put close to ‘Haasia’. A thin space only should be used.

In Philological works an asterisk * prefixed to a word signifies a reconstructed form, and must be so printed; a dagger † signifies an obsolete word. The latter sign, placed before a person’s name, signifies deceased.

In Medical books the formulae are set in lower-case letters, j being used for i both singly and in the final letter, e.g. gr.j (one grain), ℥viij (eight ounces), ʒiij (three drachms), ℈iij (three scruples), ♏︎iiij (four minims).

Spacing ought to be even. Paragraphs are not to be widely spaced for the sake of making breaklines. When the last line but one of a paragraph is widely spaced and the first line of the next paragraph is more than thick-spaced, extra spaces should be used between the words in the intermediate breakline. Such spaces should not exceed en quads, nor be increased if by so doing the line would be driven full out.

In general, close spacing is to be preferred; but this must be regulated proportionately to the manner in which a work is leaded.

Breaklines should consist of more than five letters, except in narrow measures. But take care that bad spacing is not thereby necessitated.

Poetical quotations, and poetry generally when in wide measure, should be spaced with en quadrats. But this must not be applied to reprints of sixteenth and seventeenth century books: in such cases a thick space only should be used.

Avoid (especially in full measures) printing at the ends of lines—a, l., ll., p. or pp., I (when a pronoun).

Capt., Dr., Esq., Mr., Rev., St., and so on, should not be separated from names; nor should initials be divided: e.g. Mr. W. E. | Gladstone; not Mr. W. | E. Gladstone.

Thin spaces before apostrophes, e.g. that’s (for ‘that is’), boy’s (for ‘boy is’), to distinguish abbreviations from the possessive case.

In Greek, Latin, and Italian, when a vowel is omitted at the end of a word (denoted by an apostrophe), put a space before the word which immediately follows.

Hair spaces to be placed between lower-case contractions, as in e.g., i.e., q.v.

Indentation of first lines of paragraphs should be one em for full measures in 8vo and smaller books. In 4to and larger books the indentation should be increased.

Sub-indentation should be proportionate; and the rule for all indentation is not to drive too far in.

Quotations in prose, as a rule, should not be broken off from the text unless the matter exceeds three lines.

Use great care in spacing out a page, and let it not be too open.

Underlines, wherever possible, to be in one line.

NOTE.—A list of foreign and anglicized words and phrases, showing which should be printed in roman and which in italic, is given on pp. 35-7.

In many works it is now common to print titles of books in italic, instead of in inverted commas. This must be determined by the directions given with the copy, but the practice must be uniform throughout the work.

Words or phrases cited from foreign languages (unless anglicized) should be in italic.

Short extracts from books, whether foreign or English, should not be in italic but in roman (between inverted commas, or otherwise, as directed on p. 63).

Names of periodicals should be in italic. Inconsistency is often caused by the prefix The being sometimes printed in italic, and sometimes roman. As a rule, print the definite article in roman, as the Standard, the Daily News. The Times is to be an exception, as that newspaper prefers to have it so. The, if it is part of the title of a book, should also be in italic letters.

Print names of ships[44] in italic. In this case, print ‘the’ in roman, as it is often uncertain whether ‘the’ is part of the title or not. For example, ‘the King George’, ‘the Revenge’; also put other prefixes in roman, as ‘H.M.S. Dreadnought’.

ad loc., cf., e.g., et seq., ib., ibid., id., i.e., loc. cit., q.v., viz.[45], not to be in italic. Print c. (= circa), ante, infra, passim, post, supra, &c.

Italic s. and d. to be generally used to express shillings and pence; and the sign £ (except in special cases) to express the pound sterling. But in catalogues and similar work the diagonal sign / or ‘shilling-mark’ is sometimes preferred to divide figures representing shillings and pence. The same sign is occasionally used in dates, as 4/2/04.

In Mathematical works, theorems are usually printed in italic.

Citation of authorities at the end of quotations should be printed thus: Homer, Odyssey, ii. 15, but print Hor. Carm. ii. 14. 2; Hom. Od. iv. 272. This applies chiefly to quotations at the heads of chapters. It does not refer to frequent citations in notes, where the author’s name is usually in lower-case letters, and the title of the book sometimes printed in roman.

As an example: Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. ii, p. 98; or the more contracted form—Stubbs, Const. Hist. ii. 98, will do equally well; but, whichever style is adopted after an examination of the manuscript, it must be uniform throughout the work.

References to the Bible in ordinary works to be printed thus—Exod. xxxii. 32; xxxvii. 2. (For full list of contractions see p. 41.)

References to Shakespeare’s plays thus—I Henry VI, III. ii. 14; and so with the references to Act, scene, and line in other dramatic writings.

Likewise in references to poems divided into books, cantos, and lines; e.g. Spenser, Faerie Queene, IV. xxvi. 35.

References to MSS. or unprinted documents should be in roman.

As to use of italic, see also above, p. 50.

I. English

Such divisions as en-, de-, or in- to be allowed only in very narrow measures, and there exceptionally.

Disyllables, as ‘into’, ‘until’, &c., are only to be divided in very narrow measures.

The following divisions to be preferred:

Avoid such divisions as—

but put starva-tion, &c.

The principle is that the part of the word left at the end of a line should suggest the part commencing the next line. Thus the word ‘happiness’ should be divided happi-ness, not hap-piness.[46]

Roman-ism, Puritan-ism; but Agnosti-cism, Catholi-cism, criti-cism, fanati-cism, tauto-logism, witti-cism, &c.

The terminations -cial, -cian, -cious, -sion, -tion should not be divided when forming one sound, as in so-cial, Gre-cian, pugna-cious, condescen-sion, forma-tion.

Atmo-sphere, micro-scope, philo-sophy, tele-phone, tele-scope, should have only this division. But always print episco-pal (not epi-scopal), &c.[47]

A divided word should not end a page, if it is possible to avoid it.

II. Some Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish Words

Italian.—Divide si-gnore (gn = ni in ‘mania’), trava-gliare (gli = lli in ‘William’), tra-scinare (sci = shi in ‘shin’), i.e. take over gn, gl, sci. In such a case as ‘all’ uomo’ Italians divide ‘al-l’ uomo’ when occasion arises.[48]

Portuguese.—Divide se-nhor (nh = ni in ‘mania’), bata-lha (lh = lli in ‘William’), i.e. take over nh, ll.

Spanish.—Divide se-ñora (ñ = ni in ‘mania’), maravi-lloso (ll = lli in ‘William’), i.e. take over ñ, ll.

III.

For the division of French words, see p. 81; German, p. 90; Latin, p. 95; and Greek, p. 97.

The compositor is recommended to study attentively a good treatise[49] on the whole subject. He will find some knowledge of it to be indispensable if his work is to be done properly; for most writers send in copy quite unprepared as regards punctuation, and leave the compositor to put in the proper marks. ‘Punctuation is an art nearly always left to the compositor, authors being almost without exception either too busy or too careless to regard it.’[50] Some authors rightly claim to have carefully prepared copy followed absolutely; but such cases are rare, and the compositor can as a rule only follow his copy exactly when setting up standard reprints. ‘The first business of the compositor’ says Mr. De Vinne, ‘is to copy and not to write. He is enjoined strictly to follow the copy and never to change the punctuation of any author who is precise and systematic; but he is also required to punctuate the writings of all authors who are not careful, and to make written expression intelligible in the proof.... It follows that compositors are inclined to neglect the study of rules that cannot be generally applied.’[51]

It being admitted, then, that the compositor is to be held responsible in most cases, he should remember that loose punctuation,[52] especially in scientific and philosophical works, is to be avoided.[53] We will again quote Mr. De Vinne: ‘Two systems of punctuation are in use. One may be called the close or stiff, and the other the open or easy system. For all ordinary descriptive writing the open or easy system, which teaches that points be used sparingly, is in most favor, but the close or stiff system cannot be discarded.’[54] The compositor who desires to inform himself as to the principles and theory of punctuation will find abundant information in the works mentioned in the footnote on p. 55; in our own booklet there is space only for a few cautions and a liberal selection of examples; authority for the examples, when they are taken from the works of other writers, being given in all cases.

The Comma.

Commas should, as a rule, be inserted between adjectives preceding and qualifying substantives, as—

An enterprising, ambitious man.

A gentle, amiable, harmless creature.

A cold, damp, badly lighted room.[55]

But where the last adjective is in closer relation to the substantive than the preceding ones, omit the comma, as—

A distinguished foreign author.

The sailor was accompanied by a great rough Newfoundland dog.{55}

Where and joins two single words or phrases the comma is usually omitted; e.g.

The honourable and learned member.

But where more than two words or phrases occur together in a sequence a comma should precede the final and; e.g.

A great, wise, and beneficent measure.

The following sentence, containing two conjunctive and’s, needs no commas:

God is wise and righteous and faithful.{55}

Such words as moreover, however, &c., are usually followed by a comma[56] when used at the opening of a sentence, or preceded and followed by a comma when used in the middle of a sentence. For instance:

In any case, however, the siphon may be filled.[57]

It is better to use the comma in such sentences as those that immediately follow:

Truth ennobles man, and learning adorns him.[58]

The Parliament is not dissolved, but only prorogued.

The French having occupied Portugal, a British squadron, under Rear-Admiral Sir Samuel Hood, sailed for Madeira.

I believed, and therefore I spoke.

The question is, Can it be performed?

My son, give me thy heart.

The Armada being thus happily defeated, the nation resounded with shouts of joy.

Be assured, then, that order, frugality, and economy, are the necessary supporters of every personal and private virtue.

Virtue is the highest proof of a superior understanding, and the only basis of greatness.{58}

When a preposition assumes the character of an adverb, a comma should follow it, to avoid awkwardness or ambiguity: ‘In the valley below, the villages looked very small.’

The Semicolon.

Instances in which the semicolon is appropriate:

Truth ennobles man; learning adorns him.

The temperate man’s pleasures are always durable, because they are regular; and all his life is calm and serene, because it is innocent.

Those faults which arise from the will are intolerable; for dull and insipid is every performance where inclination bears no part.

Economy is no disgrace; for it is better to live on a little than to outlive a great deal.

To err is human; to forgive, divine.[59]

Never speak concerning what you are ignorant of; speak little of what you know; and whether you speak or say not a word, do it with judgement.{59}

Semicolons divide the simple members of a compound sentence, and a comma and dash come after the last sentence and before the general conclusion:

To give an early preference to honour above gain, when they stand in competition; to despise every advantage which cannot be attained without dishonest arts; to brook no meanness, and stoop to no dissimulation,—are the indications of a great mind, the presages of future eminence and usefulness in life.[60]

The Colon.

This point marks an abrupt pause before a further but connected statement:

In business there is something more than barter, exchange, price, payment: there is a sacred faith of man in man.

Study to acquire a habit of thinking: no study is more important.[61]

Always remember the ancient maxim: Know thyself.

The Period or Full Stop.

Examples of its ordinary use:

Fear God. Honour the King. Pray without ceasing.

There are thoughts and images flashing across the mind in its highest moods, to which we give the name of inspiration. But whom do we honour with this title of the inspired poet?

The Note of Interrogation.

Examples of its ordinary use:

Was the prisoner alone when he was apprehended? Is he known to the police? Has he any regular occupation? Where does he dwell? What is his name?

What does the pedant mean?

Cases where the note of interrogation must not be used, the speaker simply stating a fact:

The Cyprians asked me why I wept.

I was asked if I would stop for dinner.

The Note of Exclamation.

Examples of its ordinary use:

Hail, source of Being! universal Soul!

How mischievous are the effects of war!

O excellent guardian of the sheep!—a wolf![62]

Alas for his poor family!

Alas, my noble boy! that thou shouldst die!

Ah me! she cried, and waved her lily hand.

O despiteful love! unconstant womankind!

Marks of Parenthesis.

Examples:

I have seen charity (if charity it may be called) insult with an air of pity.

Left now to himself (malice could not wish him a worse adviser), he resolves on a desperate project.[63]

The Bracket.

These marks are used chiefly to denote an interpolation or explanation. For example:

They [the Lilliputians] rose like one man.

The Dash.

Em rules or dashes—in this and the next line an example is given—are often used to show that words enclosed between them are to be read parenthetically. Thus a verbal parenthesis may be shown by punctuation in three ways: by em dashes, by ( ), or by commas.[65]

Omit the dash when a colon is used to preface a quotation or similar matter, whether at the end of a break-line or not.

The dash is used to mark an interruption or breaking off in the middle of a sentence.[66]

Marks of Omission.

To mark omitted words three points ... (not asterisks) separated by en quadrats are sufficient; and the practice should be uniform throughout the work. Where full lines are required to mark a large omission, real or imaginary, the spacing between the marks should be increased; but the compositor should in this case also use full points and not asterisks.

Punctuation Marks generally.

The following summary is an attempt to define in few words the meaning and use of punctuation marks (the capitals are only given for emphasis):

A Period marks the end of a sentence.

A Colon is at the transition point of the sentence.

A Semicolon separates different statements.

A Comma separates clauses, phrases, and particles.

A Dash marks abruptness or irregularity.

An Exclamation marks surprise.

An Interrogation asks a question for answer.

An Apostrophe marks elisions or possessive case.

Quotation marks define quoted words.

Parentheses enclose interpolations in the sentence.

Brackets enclose irregularities in the sentence.[67]

Quotation Marks, or ‘Inverted Commas’ (so-called).

Omit quotation marks in poetry, as instructed on p. 45. Also omit them in prose extracts broken off in smaller type, unless contrary instructions are given.

Insert quotation marks in titles of essays: e.g. ‘Mr. Brock read a paper on “Description in Poetry”.’ But omit quotation marks when the subject of the paper is an author: e.g. ‘Professor Bradley read a paper on Jane Austen.’

Single ‘quotes’ are to be used for the first quotation; then double for a quotation within a quotation. If there should be yet another quotation within the second quotation it is necessary to revert to single quotation marks. Sometimes, as in the impossible example in the footnote, quotation marks packed three deep must be omitted.

All signs of punctuation used with words in quotation marks must be placed according to the sense. If an extract ends with a point, then let that point be, as a rule,[68] included before the closing quotation mark; but not otherwise. When there is one quotation within another, and both end with the sentence, put the punctuation mark before the first of the closing quotations. These are important directions for the compositor to bear in mind; and he should examine the examples which are given in the pages which follow:

‘The passing crowd’ is a phrase coined in the spirit of indifference. Yet, to a man of what Plato calls ‘universal sympathies’, and even to the plain, ordinary denizens of this world, what can be more interesting than ‘the passing crowd’?[69]

If the physician sees you eat anything that is not good for your body, to keep you from it he cries, ‘It is poison!’ If the divine sees you do anything that is hurtful for your soul, he cries, ‘You are lost!’[70]

‘Why does he use the word “poison”?’

But I boldly cried out, ‘Woe unto this city!’[71]

Alas, how few of them can say, ‘I have striven to the very utmost’!{71}

Thus, notes of exclamation and interrogation are sometimes included in and sometimes follow quotation marks, as in the sentences above, according to whether their application is merely to the words quoted or to the whole sentence of which they form a part. The sentence-stop must be omitted after ? or !, even when the ? or ! precedes the closing ‘quotes’.

In regard to the use of commas and full points with ‘turned commas’, the general practice has hitherto been different. When either a comma or a full point is required at the end of a quotation, the almost universal custom at the present time is for the printer to include that comma or full point within the quotation marks at the end of an extract, whether it forms part of the original extract or not. Even in De Vinne’s examples, although he says distinctly, ‘The proper place of the closing marks of quotation should be determined by the quoted words only’, no instance can be found of the closing marks of quotation being placed to precede a comma or a full point. Some writers wish to exclude the comma or full point when it does not form part of the original extract, and to include it when it does form part of it; and this is doubtless correct.

There seems to be no reason for perpetuating a bad practice. So, unless the author wishes to have it otherwise, in all new works the compositor should place full points and commas according to the examples that follow:

We need not ‘follow a multitude to do evil’.

No one should ‘follow a multitude to do evil’, as the Scripture says.

Do not ‘follow a multitude to do evil’; on the contrary, do what is right.

When a number of isolated words or phrases are, for any reason, severally marked off by ‘turned commas’ (e.g. in order to show that they are not the expressions which the author would prefer to use, or that they are used in some technical sense), the closing quotation mark should precede the punctuation mark, thus:

‘Such odd-sounding designations of employment as “scribbling miller”, “devil feeder”, “pug boy”, “decomposing man”, occur in the census reports.’

in my voice, ‘so far as my vote is concerned’. parlous, ‘perilous’, ‘dangerous’, ‘hard to deal with’.

But when a quotation is complete in itself, either as a sentence or a paragraph, the final quotation mark is to be placed outside the point. For example:

‘If the writer of these pages shall chance to meet with any that shall only study to cavil and pick a quarrel with him, he is prepared beforehand to take no notice of it.’ (Works of Charles and M. Lamb, Oxford edition, i. 193.)

Where a quotation is interrupted by an interpolated sentence, the punctuation must follow the sense of the passage, as in the following examples:

1. ‘At the root of the disorders’, he writes in the Report, ‘lies the conflict of the two races.’ In this example the comma is placed outside the quotation mark, as it forms no part of the original punctuation.

2. ‘Language is not, and never can be,’ writes Lord Cromer, ‘as in the case of ancient Rome, an important factor in the execution of a policy of fusion.’ In this example the comma is placed inside the quotation mark, as it forms part of the original punctuation.

In the case of dialogues, the punctuation mark should precede the quotation mark, as:

‘You hear him,’ said Claverhouse, smiling, ‘there’s the rock he splits upon; he cannot forget his pedigree.’

Punctuation in Classical and Philological Notes.

In notes on English and foreign classics, as a rule[72] follow the punctuation in the following examples:

5. Falls not, lets not fall. (That is, a comma is sufficient after the lemma where a simple definition follows.)

17. swoon. The spelling of the folios is ‘swound’. (Here a full point is used, because the words that follow the lemma comprise a complete sentence.)

Note, as to capitalization, that the initial letter of the word or phrase treated (as in Falls not above) should be in agreement with the text.

The lemma should be set in italics or clarendon, according to directions.

Punctuation Marks and References to Footnotes in juxtaposition.

The relation of these to each other is dealt with on p. 70. Examples of the right practice are to be found on many pages of the present work.

Points in Title-pages, Headlines, &c.

All points are to be omitted from the ends of lines in titles, half-titles, page-headings, and main cross-headings, in Clarendon Press works, unless a special direction is given to the contrary.

IN ARABIC OR ROMAN

Do not mix old-style and new-face figures in the same book without special directions.

Nineteenth century, not 19th century.

Figures to be used when the matter consists of a sequence of stated quantities, particulars of age, &c.

Example: ‘Figures for September show the supply to have been 85,690 tons, a decrease on the month of 57 tons. For the past twelve months there is a net increase of 5 tons.’

‘The smallest tenor suitable for ten bells is D flat, of 5 feet diameter and 42 cwt.’

In descriptive matter, numbers under 100 to be in words; but print ‘90 to 100’, not ‘ninety to 100’.

Spell out in such instances as—

‘With God a thousand years are but as one day’; ‘I have said so a hundred times’.

Insert commas with four or more than four figures, as 7,642; but print dates without commas, as 1908; nor should there be commas in figures denoting pagination or numbering of verse, even though there may be more than three figures. Omit commas also in Library numbers, as—British Museum MS. 24456.

Roman numerals to be preferred in such cases as Henry VIII, &c.—which should never be divided; and should only be followed by a full point when the letters end a sentence. If, however, the author prefers the full title, use ‘Henry the Eighth’, not ‘Henry the VIIIth’.

Use a decimal point · to express decimals, as 7·06; and print 0·76, not ·76. When the time of day is intended to be shown, the full point . is to be used, as 4.30 a.m.

As to dates, in descriptive writing the author’s phraseology should be followed; e.g. ‘On the 21st of May the army drew near.’ But in ordinary matter in which the date of the month and year is given, such as the headings to letters, print May 19, 1862; not May 19th, 1862,[73] nor 19 May, 1862.

To represent pagination or an approximate date, use the least number of figures possible; for example, print:

pp. 322-30; pp. 322-4, not pp. 322-24. But print: pp. 16-18, not pp. 16-8; 116-18, not 116-8.

In dates: 1897-8, not 1897-98 (use en rules); and from 1672 to 1674, not from 1672-74.

Print: 250 B.C.; but when it is necessary to insert A.D. the letters should precede the year, as A.D. 250. In B.C. references, however, always put the full date, in a group of years, e.g. 185-122 B.C.

When preliminary pages are referred to by lower-case roman numerals, no full points should be used after the numerals. Print:

p. ii, pp. iii-x; not p. ii., pp. iii.-x.

When references are made to two successive text-pages print pp. 6, 7, if the subject is disconnected in the two pages. But if the subject is continuous from one page to the other, then print pp. 6-7. The compositor in this must be guided by his copy. Print p. 51 sq. if the reference is to p. 51 and following page; but pp. 51 sqq. when the reference is to more than a single page following.[74]

In a sequence of figures use an en rule, as in the above examples; but in such cases as Chapters III—VIII use an em rule.

Begin numbered paragraphs: 1. 2. &c.; and clauses in paragraphs: (1) (2) (3), &c. If Greek or roman lower-case letters are written, the compositor must follow copy. Roman numerals (I. II. III.) are usually reserved for chapters or important sections.

References in the text to footnotes should be made by superior figures—which are to be placed, as regards punctuation marks, according to the sense. If a single word, say, is extracted and referred to, the reference must be placed immediately after the word extracted and before the punctuation mark. But if an extract be made which includes a complete sentence or paragraph, then the reference mark must be placed outside the last punctuation mark. Asterisks, superior letters, &c., may be used in special cases. Asterisks and the other signs (* † ‡ &c.) should be used in mathematical works, to avoid confusion with the workings.

In Mathematics, the inferior in P₁′ should come immediately after the capital letter.

Use ’s for the possessive case in English names and surnames whenever possible; i.e. in all monosyllables and disyllables, and in longer words accented on the penult; as—

In longer names, not accented on the penult, ’s is also preferable, though ’ is here admissible; e.g. Theophilus’s.

In ancient classical names, use ’s with every monosyllable, e.g. Mars’s, Zeus’s. Also with disyllables not in -es; as—

Judas’s Marcus’s Venus’s

But poets in these cases sometimes use s’ only; and Jesus’ is a well-known liturgical archaism. In quotations from Scripture follow the Oxford standard.[75]

Ancient words in -es are usually written -es’ in the possessive, e.g.

Ceres’ rites Xerxes’ fleet

This form should certainly be used in words longer than two syllables, e.g.

To pronounce another ’s (= es) after these is difficult.

This applies only to ancient words. One writes—Moses’ law; and I used to alight at Moses’s for the British Museum.

As to the latter example, Moses, the tailor, was a modern man, like Thomas and Lewis; and in using his name we follow modern English usage.

J. A. H. M.

French names ending in s or x should always be followed by ’s when used possessively in English. Thus, it being taken for granted that the French pronunciation is known to the ordinary reader, and using Rabelais = Rabelè, Hanotaux = Hanotō, as examples, the only correct way of writing these names in the possessive in English is Rabelais’s (= Rabelès), Hanotaux’s (= Hanotōs).—H. H.

The English compositor called upon to set works in the French language will do well, first of all, to make a careful examination of some examples from the best French printing-offices. He will find that French printers act on rules differing in many points from the rules to which the English compositor is accustomed; and he will not be able to escape from his difficulties by the simple expedient of ‘following copy’.

For works in the French language, such as classical text-books for use in schools, the English compositor generally gets reprint copy for text and manuscript for notes. It is, as a rule, safe for him to follow the reprint copy; but there is this difficulty, that when the work forms part of a series it does not always happen that the reprint copy for one book corresponds in typographical style with reprint copy for other works in the same series. Hence he should apply himself diligently to understand the following rules; and should hunt out examples of their application, so that they may remain in his memory.[76]

1. Capital and lower-case letters.—In the names of authors of the seventeenth century, which are preceded by an article, the latter should commence with a capital letter: La Fontaine, La Bruyère.[77] Exceptions are names taken from the Italian, thus: le Tasse, le Dante, le Corrège.[78] As to names of persons, the usage of the individuals themselves should be adopted: de la Bruyère (his signature at the end of a letter), De la Fontaine (end of fable ‘Le Lièvre et la Tortue’), Lamartine, Le Verrier, Maxime Du Camp. In names of places the article should be small: le Mans, le Havre, which the Académie adopts; la Ferté, with no hyphen after the article, but connected by a hyphen with different names of places, as la Ferté-sous-Jouarre.

Volumes, books, titles, acts of plays, the years of the Republican Calendar, are put in large capitals: An IV, acte V, tome VI; also numerals belonging to proper names: Louis XII; and the numbers of the arrondissements of Paris: le XV^e arrondissement.

Scenes of plays, if there are no acts, are also put in large caps.: Les Précieuses ridicules, sc. V; also chapters, if they form the principal division: Joseph, ch. VI. If, however, scenes of plays and chapters are secondary divisions, they are put in small capitals: Le Cid, a. I, sc. II; Histoire de France, liv. VI, ch. VII. The numbers of centuries are generally put in small capitals: au XIX^e (or XIX^ème) siècle.

The first word of a title always takes a capital letter: J’ai vu jouer Les Femmes savantes; on lit dans Le Radical. If a substantive in a title immediately follows Le, La, Les, Un, Une, it is also given a capital letter, thus: Les Précieuses ridicules. If the substantive is preceded by an adjective, this also receives a capital letter: La Folle Journée; if, however, the adjective follows, it is in lower-case: L’Âge ingrat. If the title commences with any other word than le, la, les, un, une, or an adjective, the words following are all in lower-case: De la terre à la lune; Sur la piste.

In titles of fables or of dramatic works the names of the characters are put with capital initials: Le Renard et les Raisins; Le Lion et le Rat; Marceau, ou les Enfants de la République.

In catalogues or indexes having the first word or words in parentheses after the substantive commencing the line, the first word thus transposed has a capital letter: Homme (Faiblesse de l’); Honneur (L’); Niagara (Les Chutes du).

If the words in parentheses are part of the title of a work, the same rule is followed as to capitals as above given: Héloïse (La Nouvelle); Mort (La Vie ou la).

The words saint, sainte, when referring to the saints themselves, have, except when commencing a sentence, always lower-case initials: saint Louis, saint Paul, sainte Cécile. But when referring to names of places, feast-days, &c., capital letters and hyphens are used: Saint-Domingue, la Saint-Jean. (See also, as to abbreviations of Saint, Sainte, p. 82.)

I. Use capital letters as directed below:

(1) Words relating to God: le Seigneur, l’Être suprême, le Très-Haut, le Saint-Esprit.

(2) In enumerations, if each one commences a new line, a capital is put immediately after the figure:

1^o L’Europe.
2^o L’Asie, &c.

But if the enumeration is run on, lower-case letters are used: 1^o l’Europe, 2^o l’Asie, &c.

(3) Words representing abstract qualities personified: La Renommée ne vient souvent qu’après la Mort.

(4) The planets and constellations: Mars, le Bélier.

(5) Religious festivals: la Pentecôte.

(6) Historical events: la Révolution.

(7) The names of streets, squares, &c.: la rue des Mauvais-Garçons, la place de la Nation, la fontaine des Innocents.

(8) The names of public buildings, churches, &c.: l’Opéra, l’Odéon, église de la Trinité.

(9) Names relating to institutions, public bodies, religious, civil, or military orders (but only the word after the article): l’Académie française, la Légion d’honneur, le Conservatoire de musique.

(10) Surnames and nicknames, without hyphens: Louis le Grand.

(11) Honorary titles: Son Éminence, Leurs Altesses.

(12) Adjectives denoting geographical expressions: la mer Rouge, le golfe Persique.

(13) The names of the cardinal points designating an extent of territory: l’Amérique du Nord; aller dans le Midi. (See II. (2).)

(14) The word Église, when it denotes the Church as an institution: l’Église catholique; but when relating to a building église is put.

(15) The word État when it designates the nation, the country: La France est un puissant État.

II. Use lower-case initials for—

(1) The names of members of religious orders: un carme (a Carmelite), un templier (a Templar). But the orders themselves take capitals: l’ordre des Templiers, des Carmes.

(2) The names of the cardinal points: le nord, le sud. But see I. (13) above.

(3) Adjectives belonging to proper names: la langue française, l’ère napoléonienne.

(4) Objects named from persons or places: un quinquet (an argand lamp); un verre de champagne.

(5) Days of the week—lundi, mardi; names of months—juillet, août.

In plays the dramatis personae at the head of scenes are put in large capitals, and those not named in even small capitals:

SCÈNE V.
TRIBOULET, BLANCHE, HOMMES,
FEMMES DU PEUPLE.

In the dialogues the names of the speakers are put in even small capitals, and placed in the centre of the line. The stage directions and the asides are put in smaller type, and are in the text, if verse, in parentheses over the words they refer to. If there are two stage directions in one and the same line, it will be advisable to split the line, thus:

(Revenu sur ses pas.)
Oublions-les! restons.—
(Il l’assied sur un banc.)
Sieds-toi sur cette pierre.

Directions not relating to any particular words of the text are put, if short, at the end of the line:

Celui que l’on croit mort n’est pas mort.—
Le voici!

(Étonnement général.)

2. Accented Capitals.—With one exception accents are to be used with capital letters in French. The exception is the grave accent on the capital letter A in such lines as—

A la porte de la maison, &c.;
A cette époque, &c.;

and in display lines such as—

FÉCAMP A GENÈVE
MACHINES A VAPEUR.

In these the preposition A takes no accent; but we must, to be correct, print Étienne, Étretat; and DÉPÔT, ÉVÊQUE, PRÉVÔT in cap. lines.[79] Small capitals should be accented throughout, there being no fear of the grave accent breaking off.

3. The Grave and Acute Accents.—There has been an important change in recent years as to the use of the grave and acute accents in French. It has become customary to spell with a grave accent (`) according to the pronunciation, instead of with an acute accent (´), certain words such as collège (instead of collége), avènement (instead of avénement), &c. The following is a list of the most common:

4. Hyphens.—Names of places containing an article or the prepositions en, de, should have a hyphen between each component part, thus: Saint-Germain-des-Prés, Saint-Valery-en-Caux, although the Académie leaves out the last two hyphens.

Names of places, public buildings, or streets, to which one or more distinguishing words are added, take hyphens: Saint-Étienne-du-Mont, Vitry-le-François, rue du Faubourg-Montmartre, le Pont-Neuf, le Palais-Royal, l’Hôtel-de-la-Monnaie.

In numbers hyphens are used to connect quantities under 100: e.g. vingt-quatre; trois cent quatre-vingt-dix; but when et joins two cardinal numbers no hyphen is used, e.g. vingt et un; cinquante et un. But print vingt-et-unième.

5. Spacing.—No spaces to be put before the ‘points de suspension’, i.e. three points close together, cast in one piece, denoting an interruption (...). In very wide spacing a thin space may be put before a comma,[82] or before or after a parenthesis or a bracket. Colons, metal-rules, section-marks, daggers, and double-daggers take a space before or after them exactly as words. Asterisks and superior figures, not enclosed in parentheses, referring to notes, take a thin or middle space before them. Points of suspension are always followed by a space. For guillemets see pp. 86, 87.

A space is put after an apostrophe following a word of two or more syllables (as a Frenchman reckons syllables, e.g. bonne is a word of two syllables):—

Bonn’ petite...   Aimabl’ enfant!...

Spaces are put in such a case as 10 h. 15 m. 10 s. (10 hours 15 min. 10 sec.), also printed 10^h 15^m 10^s.

Chemical symbols are not spaced, thus C¹⁰H¹²(OH)CO.OH.

6. Awkward divisions: abbreviated words and large numbers expressed in figures.—One should avoid ending a line with an apostrophe, such as: Quoi qu’ | il dise?

If a number expressed in figures is too long to be got into a line, or cannot be taken to the next without prejudice to the spacing, a part of the number should be put as a word, thus: 100 mil- | lions.

7. Division of words.—Words should be divided according to syllables, as in what the French call épellation (i.e. syllabication). Therefore a consonant should never be separated from the vowel following. Thus divide: amou-reux, cama-rade; and always take over vr: li-vraison. If a consonant is doubled, the consonants may be divided: mil-lion, pil-lard, in-nocent. It is optional to divide ob-scurité or obs-curité, according to convenience. Vowels are divided only in compound words: e.g. extra-ordinaire; not Mo-abite, mo-yen.

In compound words an apostrophe may be divided from a consonant following; thus: grand’-mère, grand’-route.

Divide sei-gneur, indi-gnité (gn pronounced as ni in ‘mania’), i.e. take gn over.

The following divisions should be avoided: Ma-ximilien, soi-xante, Me-xique; é-légant. In a narrow measure a syllable of two letters may stand at the end of a line: ce-pendant, in-décis; but a syllable of two letters must not be taken over to the next line; therefore élégan-ce, adversi-té, are not permissible; but élégan-ces, mar-que, abri-cot, are tolerated.

Avoid terminating a paragraph with only the final syllable of a word in the last line.

Verbs taking the so-called euphonic t should always be divided before the latter, thus: Viendra- | t-il?

Avoid dividing abbreviated words.

Etymological division finds no favour in French, unless it is in accord with épellation, or syllabication, as in trans-porter, trans-poser. But divide transi-tion, transi-ger.

Mute syllables may be turned over to the next line, thus: ils mar-quent, les hom-mes.

8. Abbreviations.—Such words as article, chapitre, scène, titre, figure, are abbreviated only when in parentheses, as references; in the text they are put in full. If, in works divided into articles, the first article is put in full (thus: Article premier), those that follow may be in figures and abbreviated (as Art. 2).

Saint, sainte, when they occur very often, as in religious works, may be abbreviated, taking a capital letter: S. Louis, Ste Marie. But not when they form part of the name of a place, e.g. Saint-Germain-des-Prés; in which case Saint- and Sainte- take a capital and are followed by a hyphen.[83] (See also p. 75.)

The words monsieur, madame, monseigneur, messeigneurs, messieurs, mesdames, mademoiselle, mesdemoiselles, are written in full and all in lower-case when addressing a person: Oui, madame; Non, monsieur le duc. Also in the following instances: J’espère que monseigneur viendra; j’ai vu monsieur votre père. In most other cases M. (for monsieur), M^me (for madame), Mgr. or M^gr (for monseigneur), and so on, are used. The words Sa Majesté, Son Éminence, Leurs Altesses, when followed by another title, are put as initials, thus S. M. l’Empereur; but not otherwise.

The name Jésus-Christ is abbreviated only when in parentheses after a date, thus: (337 avant J.-C.). This is more frequently printed 337 A.J.C.

Other examples of abbreviations:

Put: 20 francs, 20 mètres, 20 litres, 20 milligrammes. If, however, followed by fractions, then put—20 fr. 50, or 20^fr,50; 20 m. 50, or 20^m,50; 20 l. 50, or 20^l,50; 20 kilog. 5, or 20^kilo,5.

In works crowded with figures, one can even put—0^m,5 for 5 décimètres; 0^m,15 for 15 centimètres; 0^m,008 for 8 millimètres.

The cubic metre followed by a fraction is given thus: 4^mc,005 or 4^m3,005 (= 4 mètres cubes 5 millimètres cubes); the square metre thus: 4^mq,05 or 4^m2,05 (= 4 mètres carrés 5 décimètres carrés).

The French use a decimal comma instead of a decimal point—2,3 = 2·3.

The words kilogrammes, kilomètres, and kilogrammètres, followed by fractions, are given thus: 50 kg. 3 or 50^kg,3; 5 km. 3 or 5^km,3; 2 kgm. 4 or 2^kgm,4.

Per cent. is generally put 0/0, but pour 100, p. 100, and % are also used. In business letters pour cent is always pour %, e.g. A trente jours, 3 pour % d’escompte.

9. Numerals.—When cardinal numbers are expressed in Roman lower-case letters, the final unit should be expressed by a j, not an i, thus: ij, iij, vj, viij.

Numbers are put in full if only occasionally occurring in the text. If used statistically, figures are used.

Degrees of temperature are generally given thus: 15°, 15 (in English 15° 15′).

Age or the time of day must be given in full: huit ans, six heures (eight years, six o’clock).

Dates, figures, &c., are put in full in legal documents: l’an mil neuf cent quatre (the year one thousand nine hundred and four).

One should not put ‘de 5 à 6,000 hommes’, but ‘de 5,000 à 6,000 hommes’.

Commas in figures are used as in English, thus: 20,250 fr. 25 or 20,250^fr,25. But dates, and numbers in general, are always put without a comma: l’année 1466; page 1250; Code civil, art. 2000.

Fractions with a horizontal stroke are preferred in mathematical and scientific works; but in ordinary works the diagonal stroke is used, thus: 1/2, 2/3 (½, ⅔).

In logarithm tables the fractional part of a logarithm is printed with spaces, thus: Log. 2670 = 3, 426 5113; and also: Log. 2670 = 3, 4 265 113.

10. Roman and italic.—In algebraical formulae the capital letters are always put in roman and the small letters in italic. If, however, the text is in italic, the small letters are put in roman type.

The titles of works, of plays, of journals, names of ships, of statues, and titles of tables mentioned in the text, are put in italic; thus: La pièce La Chatte blanche; J’ai vu Les Rois en exil; On lit dans Le Figaro; le journal Le Temps; le transport Bien-Hoa.

Foreign words[85] and quotations are, as in English, italicized: Agir ab irato; Cave canem! lisait-on....

Superior letters in words italicized should be in italic, thus: Histoire de Napoléon I^er.

11. Reference figures.—References to notes are generally rendered thus: (1), or thus: ¹. Sometimes an asterisk between parentheses (*) or standing alone *, or italic superior letters (^a), are used. The second example (¹) is the best from the English point of view.

The figure in the note itself is put either 1. or (1) or ¹. In many works the reference figure is put ¹, and the note-figure 1.

12. Metal-rules.—These serve in French to denote conversational matter, and take a thick space (or more, if necessary) after them. In fact, metal-rules, as in German, always have a space before or after, and are never put close to a word as in English. They are likewise never put after colons.

They are also used to give more force to a point: Il avait un cœur d’or, — mais une tête folle; et vraiment, — je puis le dire, — il était d’un caractère très agréable.

They are likewise used, as in English, for intercalations: Cette femme — étrangère sans doute — était très âgée.

13. Quotation marks.—The French use special quotation marks «   » (called guillemets). A guillemet is repeated at the head of every subsequent paragraph belonging to the quotation.

In conversational matter, guillemets are sometimes put at the commencement and end of the remarks, and the individual utterances are denoted by a metal-rule (with a space after). But it is more common to dispense with guillemets altogether, and to denote the commencement of the conversation by only a metal-rule. This is an important variation from the English method.

If the » comes after points de suspension, a middle space is put before and after it:

La cour a décrété qu’ « attendu l’urgence... » .

If, in dialogues, a passage is quoted, the « is put before the metal-rule:

« — Demain, à minuit, nous sortirons enfin! »

In tables and workings the » is used to denote an absent quantity:

If a sentence contains a citation, the point at the end of the latter is put before the », and the point belonging to the sentence after:

« Prenez garde au chien! » , lisait-on à l’entrée des maisons romaines.

If the matter quoted ends with a full stop, and a comma follows in the sentence, the full stop is suppressed:

« C’est par le sang et par le fer que les États grandissent » , a dit Bismarck.

Also, if the point at the end of the citation is a full stop, and the sentence ends with a note of interrogation or exclamation, the full stop is suppressed:

A-t-il dit: « Je reviendrai » ?

If citation and sentence end with the same point, or if the sentence ends with a full stop, only the citation is pointed:

Quel bonheur d’entendre: « Je vous aime! »
A-t-il dit: « Qui est ici? »
Il a dit: « Je viendrai. »

But if the punctuation of the citation differs from that of the sentence, both points are put:—

A-t-il dit: « Quel grand malheur! » ?

Guillemets should have before and after them the same space as between words.

In the case of a citation within a citation, the « must stand at the commencement of each line of the enclosed citation:

On lit dans Le Radical: « Une malheureuse erreur a été commise par un de nos artistes du boulevard. Ayant à dire: « Mademoiselle, je ne « veux qu’un mot de vous! » , il a fait entendre ces paroles: « Mademoiselle, je ne veux qu’un mou de « veau! »

In passages quoted down the side put an en quad after the « commencing each line.

Only one » is put at the end of two citations ending simultaneously.

English compositors called upon to set up German should have clear directions beforehand as to the founts to be used, whether English or German. If the manuscript is in well-written German script, and the compositor is acquainted with the German characters, he will find little difficulty in setting this up in German type. It is otherwise if he has to set German in its own characters from manuscript in Roman characters. This is owing principally to the numerous digraphs and the long and short s’s used. The following rules will be found of use in both cases:

1. Capitals and lower-case.—All German substantives are written with capital initial letters; and capital letters are also used for adjectives in geographical designations, e.g. 𝔡𝔞𝔰 𝔎𝔞ſ𝔭𝔦ſ[𝔠𝔥]𝔢 𝔐𝔢𝔢𝔯 (the Caspian Sea), or in adjectives derived from proper names, e.g. 𝔡𝔦𝔢 𝔊𝔯𝔦𝔪𝔪𝔰[𝔠𝔥]𝔢𝔫 𝔐𝔞̈𝔯[𝔠𝔥]𝔢𝔫 (Grimm’s Fairy Tales); but as a rule adjectives, even when relating to nationality, have lower-case initials, not excepting titles of books, &c., thus: 𝔡𝔞𝔰 𝔡𝔢𝔲𝔱ſ[𝔠𝔥]𝔢 𝔙𝔞𝔱𝔢𝔯𝔩𝔞𝔫𝔡, 𝔡𝔦𝔢 𝔣𝔯𝔞𝔫𝔷𝔬̈ſ𝔦ſ[𝔠𝔥]𝔢 ℜ𝔢𝔳𝔬𝔩𝔲𝔱𝔦𝔬𝔫 (the German Fatherland, the French Revolution).

The 𝔳𝔬𝔫 in German names of persons begins with a small letter (unless of course when it commences a sentence), e.g. ℌ𝔢𝔯𝔯 𝔳𝔬𝔫 𝔅𝔲̈𝔩𝔬𝔴.

The 𝔳𝔬𝔫 in such cases requires only a thin space after it: 𝔊𝔢ſ[𝔠𝔥]𝔯𝔦𝔢𝔟𝔢𝔫 𝔳𝔬𝔫 𝔳𝔬𝔫 ℜ𝔦[𝔠𝔥]𝔱𝔢𝔯 (written by von Richter).

2. The Reformed German Spelling of 1902.—All words of German origin ending in 𝔱𝔥, as 𝔐𝔲𝔱𝔥, ℜ𝔞𝔱𝔥, now drop the 𝔥 and become 𝔐𝔲𝔱, ℜ𝔞𝔱, &c. 𝔗𝔥𝔞𝔱 has become 𝔗𝔞𝔱, 𝔗𝔥𝔬𝔯 is now 𝔗𝔬𝔯. 𝔚𝔦𝔩𝔩𝔨𝔲̈𝔥𝔯 has become 𝔚𝔦𝔩𝔩𝔨𝔲̈𝔯. 𝔗𝔥𝔢𝔢 is now spelt 𝔗𝔢𝔢. But 𝔗𝔥𝔯𝔬𝔫, 𝔗𝔥𝔢𝔞𝔱𝔢𝔯, &c., being derived from Greek, keep 𝔱𝔥. Also 𝔭𝔥 in words of German origin is now supplemented by 𝔣, thus 𝔈𝔣𝔢𝔲 (for 𝔈𝔭𝔥𝔢𝔲); 𝔄𝔡𝔬𝔩𝔣, ℜ𝔲𝔡𝔬𝔩𝔣, 𝔚𝔢ſ𝔱𝔣𝔞𝔩𝔢𝔫 (for 𝔄𝔡𝔬𝔩𝔭𝔥, ℜ𝔲𝔡𝔬𝔩𝔭𝔥, 𝔚𝔢ſ𝔱𝔭𝔥𝔞𝔩𝔢𝔫). Likewise 𝔈𝔩𝔢𝔣𝔞𝔫𝔱, 𝔉𝔞ſ𝔞𝔫, 𝔖𝔬𝔣𝔞. But 𝔓𝔥𝔬𝔫𝔬𝔤𝔯𝔞𝔭𝔥, 𝔓𝔥𝔦𝔩𝔬ſ𝔬𝔭𝔥, 𝔖𝔶𝔪𝔭𝔥𝔬𝔫𝔦𝔢, being learned words of Greek origin. ℨ is more and more used for ℭ, thus: ℨ𝔢𝔫𝔱𝔯𝔲𝔪 for ℭ𝔢𝔫𝔱𝔯𝔲𝔪; ℨ𝔢𝔫𝔱𝔫𝔢𝔯, ℨ𝔦𝔯𝔨𝔲𝔰. 𝔄𝔢, 𝔒𝔢, 𝔘𝔢, are always rendered 𝔄̈, 𝔒̈, 𝔘̈.

Three identical letters should not come together before a vowel. Consequently print 𝔖𝔠𝔥𝔦𝔣𝔣𝔞𝔥𝔯𝔱, not 𝔖𝔠𝔥𝔦[𝔣𝔣]𝔣𝔞𝔥𝔯𝔱 (but in dividing print 𝔖𝔠𝔥𝔦𝔣𝔣=𝔣𝔞𝔥𝔯𝔱). 𝔐𝔦𝔱𝔱𝔞𝔤, 𝔡𝔢𝔫𝔫𝔬[𝔠𝔥] (from 𝔐𝔦𝔱𝔱=𝔱𝔞𝔤, 𝔡𝔢𝔫𝔫=𝔫𝔬[𝔠𝔥]), are invariable. The plural of 𝔖𝔢𝔢 is no longer 𝔖𝔢𝔢𝔢𝔫, but 𝔖𝔢𝔢𝔫; in narrow measure divide 𝔖𝔢𝔢=𝔢𝔫.

The suffix =𝔫𝔦[ſ𝔷] is now =𝔫𝔦𝔰: ℌ𝔦𝔫𝔡𝔢𝔯𝔫𝔦𝔰.

The verbal suffix =𝔦𝔯𝔢𝔫 is now uniformly written =𝔦𝔢𝔯𝔢𝔫, thus: 𝔞𝔡𝔡𝔦𝔢𝔯𝔢𝔫, 𝔰𝔲𝔟𝔱𝔯𝔞𝔥𝔦𝔢𝔯𝔢𝔫, 𝔪𝔲𝔩𝔱𝔦𝔭𝔩𝔦𝔷𝔦𝔢𝔯𝔢𝔫, 𝔡𝔦𝔳𝔦𝔡𝔦𝔢𝔯𝔢𝔫, 𝔪𝔞𝔯ſ[𝔠𝔥]𝔦𝔢𝔯𝔢𝔫.

A detailed list of the new German, Austrian, and Swiss orthographies[87] may be obtained through any bookseller. A few German writers still object to the modern spelling; in such cases, of course, copy should be followed.

3. Hyphens in German.—If two or more words follow one another, relating to a common part of speech with which they form a compound, all except the last take a hyphen, thus: ℌ𝔲𝔱- 𝔲𝔫𝔡 𝔎𝔯𝔞𝔴𝔞𝔱𝔱𝔢𝔫𝔣𝔞𝔟𝔯𝔦𝔨𝔞𝔫𝔱 (hat and tie manufacturer). Compound words in German are now printed as one word.

4. Division of words in German.—Prefixes should of course remain intact, such as 𝔞𝔫, 𝔞𝔲𝔣, 𝔢𝔫𝔱, 𝔢𝔪𝔭, 𝔢𝔯, 𝔳𝔢𝔯, 𝔳𝔬𝔯, 𝔲̈𝔟𝔢𝔯, 𝔷𝔢𝔯. Thus: 𝔞𝔫=𝔣𝔞𝔫𝔤𝔢𝔫, 𝔞𝔲𝔣=𝔣𝔞𝔥𝔯𝔢𝔫, 𝔢𝔫𝔱=𝔷𝔴𝔢𝔦𝔢𝔫, 𝔢𝔪𝔭=𝔣𝔦𝔫𝔡𝔢𝔫, 𝔢𝔯=𝔣𝔞𝔥𝔯𝔢𝔫, 𝔳𝔢𝔯=𝔞̈𝔫𝔡𝔢𝔯𝔫, 𝔳𝔬𝔯=𝔯𝔲̈[𝔠𝔨]𝔢𝔫, 𝔲̈𝔟𝔢𝔯=𝔯𝔢𝔡𝔢𝔫, 𝔷𝔢𝔯=ſ𝔱𝔬[ſ𝔷]𝔢𝔫. In narrow measure divide 𝔤𝔢=𝔟𝔢𝔫, 𝔱𝔯𝔞=𝔤𝔢𝔫, 𝔥𝔢=𝔟𝔲𝔫𝔤, 𝔩𝔢=𝔟𝔢𝔫𝔡, 𝔪𝔞̈=𝔥𝔢𝔫, ſ𝔞=𝔤𝔢𝔫, 𝔗𝔲̈=[𝔠𝔥]𝔢𝔯, 𝔩𝔬̈=ſ[𝔠𝔥]𝔢𝔫. (See under paragraph 2 of this Appendix, ‘Reformed Spelling’, for three identical letters coming together. See also under 7, 11, 14.)

5. Spaced words.—In these the following compound letters should never be spaced: [𝔠𝔥], [𝔠𝔨], [ſ𝔱], [ſ𝔷], [𝔱𝔷]. The following are spaced: 𝔣𝔣, 𝔣𝔦, 𝔣𝔩, 𝔩𝔩, ſ𝔦, ſſ. That is, two different consonants coming together (except 𝔣 and 𝔩) are not spaced; but a consonant and vowel, and double consonants, are to be spaced.

6. Prepositional and other prefixes in German.—When 𝔞𝔲𝔣 precedes a part of speech commencing with 𝔣, the two 𝔣’s should not form one letter. Print 𝔞𝔲𝔣𝔣𝔞𝔥𝔯𝔢𝔫, not 𝔞𝔲[𝔣𝔣]𝔞𝔥𝔯𝔢𝔫.

So also, when 𝔞𝔲𝔰 is prefix to a part of speech beginning with an ſ, it should not form with the latter an [ſ𝔷] or [ſſ] if German type is used. Print 𝔞𝔲𝔰ſ𝔭𝔯𝔢[𝔠𝔥]𝔢𝔫, not 𝔞𝔲[ſ𝔷]𝔭𝔯𝔢[𝔠𝔥]𝔢𝔫 or 𝔞𝔲[ſſ]𝔭𝔯𝔢[𝔠𝔥]𝔢𝔫.

If 𝔢𝔫𝔱 precedes a part of speech beginning with 𝔷, the 𝔱 and 𝔷 do not form one letter, but remain separate: 𝔢𝔫𝔱𝔷𝔴𝔢𝔦𝔢𝔫, not 𝔢𝔫[𝔱𝔷]𝔴𝔢𝔦𝔢𝔫.

7. Suffixes 𝔩𝔦[𝔠𝔥], 𝔷𝔦𝔤.—The letter 𝔩 in the former should not be joined to a preceding 𝔣, nor the letter 𝔷 in the latter to a preceding 𝔱. Print 𝔳𝔢𝔯𝔴𝔢𝔯𝔣𝔩𝔦[𝔠𝔥], not 𝔳𝔢𝔯𝔴𝔢𝔯[𝔣𝔩]𝔦[𝔠𝔥]; 𝔞[𝔠𝔥]𝔱𝔷𝔢𝔥𝔫, 𝔞[𝔠𝔥]𝔱𝔷𝔦𝔤, not 𝔞[𝔠𝔥][𝔱𝔷]𝔢𝔥𝔫, 𝔞[𝔠𝔥][𝔱𝔷]𝔦𝔤. So also, in dividing, put 𝔳𝔢𝔯𝔴𝔢𝔯𝔣=𝔩𝔦[𝔠𝔥] (or 𝔳𝔢𝔯=𝔴𝔢𝔯𝔣𝔩𝔦[𝔠𝔥]) and 𝔞[𝔠𝔥]𝔱=𝔷𝔢𝔥𝔫, 𝔞[𝔠𝔥]𝔱=𝔷𝔦𝔤.

8. German in Roman type.—In Roman type [ſ𝔷] is now rendered ß (better than ſs)[88]; [ſſ] becomes ss; and in spaced words all letters (except ß) are separated. When Roman capital letters are used, [ſ𝔷] becomes SZ. Thus MASZE (𝔐𝔞[ſ𝔷]𝔢, measures) (with long a), not MASSE (𝔐𝔞ſſ𝔢, substance) (with short a).

9. Metal-rules in German.—Spaces are always put before and after a rule in a sentence, wide spaces in a widely spaced line, thin spaces in a narrowly spaced one, exactly as with words, thus: 𝔈𝔯 ſ𝔞𝔤𝔱𝔢 — 𝔫𝔦[𝔠𝔥]𝔱 𝔬𝔥𝔫𝔢 ℨ𝔞𝔲𝔡𝔢𝔯𝔫 —, 𝔡𝔞[ſ𝔷] 𝔢𝔯 𝔤𝔢𝔥𝔢𝔫 𝔪𝔲̈ſſ𝔢.[89]

Rules are not put after colons.

10. Quotation marks in German.—The commencement of a quotation is indicated by commas followed by a thin space; the close by turned commas. A quotation within a quotation is usually rendered by a single Roman comma at commencement, and by a turned Roman comma at the end[90]; thus: 𝔈𝔯 ſ𝔞𝔤𝔱𝔢 𝔪𝔦𝔯: „𝔊𝔢𝔥𝔢 𝔫𝔦[𝔠𝔥]𝔱 𝔥𝔦𝔫, 𝔡𝔢𝔫𝔫 𝔢𝔰 𝔥𝔢𝔦[ſ𝔷]𝔱, 𝔡𝔞[ſ𝔷] 𝔢𝔰 𝔡𝔬𝔯𝔱 𝔳𝔬𝔫 ,𝔊𝔢𝔦𝔰𝔱𝔢𝔯𝔫‛ ſ𝔭𝔲𝔨𝔱.‟[91]

11. [𝔩𝔩].—This is always printed as one letter at the end of a syllable or word, as also in the body of a word if the latter is not a compound, thus: 𝔖𝔠𝔥𝔞[𝔩𝔩]𝔩𝔬[𝔠𝔥] (now, however, written 𝔖𝔠𝔥𝔞[𝔩𝔩]𝔬[𝔠𝔥], but divided 𝔖𝔠𝔥𝔞[𝔩𝔩]=𝔩𝔬[𝔠𝔥]); 𝔴𝔦[𝔩𝔩], ſ𝔬[𝔩𝔩]; 𝔴𝔬[𝔩𝔩]𝔢𝔫, ſ𝔬[𝔩𝔩]𝔢𝔫. But in compound words, in which the first 𝔩 ends a syllable and the second 𝔩 commences the next one, the two 𝔩’s must be separated, thus: 𝔳𝔦𝔢𝔩𝔩𝔢𝔦[𝔠𝔥]𝔱 (divided 𝔳𝔦𝔢𝔩=𝔩𝔢𝔦[𝔠𝔥]𝔱).

12. ſſ, 𝔰ſ.—Both in Roman type = ss. The first (ſſ) is used after short vowels, thus: 𝔢ſſ𝔢𝔫, 𝔪𝔲̈ſſ𝔢𝔫.

The second (𝔰ſ) is employed when the first s ends one syllable and the second commences the next, each syllable giving sense taken singly, i.e. in compounds, thus: 𝔈𝔦𝔰ſ[𝔠𝔥]𝔬𝔩𝔩𝔢 (ice-block), 𝔡𝔞𝔰ſ𝔢𝔩𝔟𝔢, 𝔡𝔢𝔰ſ𝔢𝔩𝔟𝔢𝔫.

13. [ſ𝔷].—After long vowels or diphthongs and if followed by 𝔢 or 𝔦 of a less strongly accented syllable[92]: ſ𝔭𝔞[ſ𝔷]𝔢𝔫, 𝔤𝔯𝔲̈[ſ𝔷]𝔢𝔫, 𝔟𝔢𝔦[ſ𝔷]𝔢𝔫, 𝔖𝔲̈[ſ𝔷]𝔦𝔤𝔨𝔢𝔦𝔱; also after short or long vowels or diphthongs if followed by 𝔱: 𝔥𝔞[ſ𝔷]𝔱, ſ𝔭𝔞[ſ𝔷]𝔱, 𝔨𝔲̈[ſ𝔷]𝔱, 𝔤𝔯𝔲̈[ſ𝔷]𝔱, 𝔦[ſ𝔷]𝔱, 𝔤𝔢𝔫𝔦𝔢[ſ𝔷]𝔱, 𝔟𝔢𝔦[ſ𝔷]𝔱; and also at the end of words or first part of compounds, whether the preceding vowel be long or short: 𝔖[𝔠𝔥]𝔩𝔬[ſ𝔷], 𝔤𝔯𝔬[ſ𝔷], 𝔢[ſ𝔷]𝔟𝔞𝔯, 𝔣𝔞[ſ𝔷]𝔩𝔦[𝔠𝔥].

14. Double letters.—[𝔠𝔥], [𝔠𝔨], [𝔣𝔣], [𝔣𝔦], [𝔣𝔩], [𝔩𝔩], [ſ𝔦], [ſſ], [ſ𝔱], [ſ𝔷], [𝔱𝔷]. No triple letters, like the English ffi, ffl, are used in German.—ffi, ssi, are usually printed 𝔣[𝔣𝔦], ſ[ſ𝔦], as 𝔭[𝔣𝔦]𝔣[𝔣𝔦]𝔤, 𝔟𝔦ſ[ſ𝔦]𝔤; ffl is printed 𝔣𝔣𝔩, as 𝔱𝔯𝔢𝔣𝔣𝔩𝔦[𝔠𝔥].

As regards [𝔣𝔩], the 𝔣 and 𝔩 must be separated if the latter belongs to a suffix, thus: ſ[𝔠𝔥]𝔩𝔞𝔣𝔩𝔬𝔰, not ſ[𝔠𝔥]𝔩𝔞[𝔣𝔩]𝔬𝔰.

15. ſ, 𝔰.—The long s is used at the beginning, the short s at the end of syllables (ſ𝔞𝔤𝔢𝔫, 𝔩𝔞ſ𝔢𝔫, 𝔩𝔞𝔰, 𝔡𝔞𝔰, ℌ𝔞̈𝔲𝔰𝔠𝔥𝔢𝔫).

16. Abbreviations in German.—The most common are: 𝔲ſ𝔴. (= 𝔲𝔫𝔡 ſ𝔬 𝔴𝔢𝔦𝔱𝔢𝔯, and so on, et cetera); 𝔷. 𝔅. (= 𝔷𝔲𝔪 𝔅𝔢𝔦ſ𝔭𝔦𝔢𝔩, for example); 𝔡. 𝔥. (= 𝔡𝔞𝔰 𝔥𝔢𝔦[ſ𝔷]𝔱, that is to say); 𝔡. 𝔦. (= 𝔡𝔞𝔰 𝔦ſ𝔱, that is); 𝔡𝔤𝔩. (= 𝔡𝔢𝔯𝔤𝔩𝔢𝔦[𝔠𝔥]𝔢𝔫, such like, similar cases); 𝔲. 𝔞. 𝔪. (= 𝔲𝔫𝔡 𝔞𝔫𝔡𝔢𝔯𝔢 𝔪𝔢𝔥𝔯, and others); ſ. (= ſ𝔦𝔢𝔥𝔢, see); ſ. 𝔬. (= ſ𝔦𝔢𝔥𝔢 𝔬𝔟𝔢𝔫, see above); ſ. 𝔲. (= ſ𝔦𝔢𝔥𝔢 𝔲𝔫𝔱𝔢𝔫, see below); 𝔲. 𝔬̈. (= 𝔲𝔫𝔡 𝔬̈𝔣𝔱𝔢𝔯, passim); ſ𝔬𝔤. (= ſ𝔬𝔤𝔢𝔫𝔞𝔫𝔫𝔱, so-called); 𝔟𝔷𝔴. (= 𝔟𝔢𝔷𝔦𝔢𝔥𝔲𝔫𝔤𝔰𝔴𝔢𝔦ſ𝔢, respectively); 𝔄𝔲[𝔣𝔩]. (= 𝔄𝔲[𝔣𝔩]𝔞𝔤𝔢, unaltered edition); 𝔄𝔲𝔰𝔤. (= 𝔄𝔲𝔰𝔤𝔞𝔟𝔢, revised edition); 𝔄𝔟𝔱. (= 𝔄𝔟𝔱𝔢𝔦𝔩𝔲𝔫𝔤, division); 𝔄𝔟ſ𝔠𝔥𝔫. (= 𝔄𝔟ſ[𝔠𝔥]𝔫𝔦𝔱𝔱, section); 𝔞. 𝔞. 𝔒. (= 𝔞𝔪 𝔞𝔫𝔤𝔢𝔣𝔲̈𝔥𝔯𝔱𝔢𝔫 𝔒𝔯𝔱𝔢, in the place cited); 𝔅𝔡. (= 𝔅𝔞𝔫𝔡, volume); ℌ𝔰. (= ℌ𝔞𝔫𝔡ſ[𝔠𝔥]𝔯𝔦𝔣𝔱, manuscript); ℌ𝔰𝔰. (= ℌ𝔞𝔫𝔡ſ[𝔠𝔥]𝔯𝔦𝔣𝔱𝔢𝔫, manuscripts)[93].

After ordinal numbers a full point is put where we put ‘1st, 2nd’, &c., thus: 1. ℌ𝔢𝔣𝔱 (or 1. ℌ., = 𝔢𝔯ſ𝔱𝔢𝔰 ℌ𝔢𝔣𝔱, first number); 2. 𝔅𝔞𝔫𝔡 (or 2. 𝔅𝔡., = 𝔷𝔴𝔢𝔦𝔱𝔢𝔯 𝔅𝔞𝔫𝔡, second volume). This full point is often mistaken by compositors and readers for a full stop.

For & in ‘&c.’ the Germans have a special character &, thus: &𝔠.; but 𝔲ſ𝔴. now generally takes its place.

17. The Apostrophe.—Print 𝔦ſ𝔱’𝔰, 𝔤𝔢𝔥𝔱’𝔰 (for 𝔦ſ𝔱 𝔢𝔰, 𝔤𝔢𝔥𝔱 𝔢𝔰); but where a preposition and the article 𝔡𝔞𝔰 are merged, omit the apostrophe; thus 𝔞𝔫𝔰 (for 𝔞𝔫 𝔡𝔞𝔰), 𝔦𝔫𝔰 (for 𝔦𝔫 𝔡𝔞𝔰), 𝔡𝔲𝔯[𝔠𝔥]𝔰 (for 𝔡𝔲𝔯[𝔠𝔥] 𝔡𝔞𝔰), 𝔣𝔲̈𝔯𝔰 (for 𝔣𝔲̈𝔯 𝔡𝔞𝔰), (not 𝔞𝔫’𝔰, 𝔦𝔫’𝔰, 𝔡𝔲𝔯[𝔠𝔥]’𝔰, 𝔣𝔲̈𝔯’𝔰).

After proper names ending in 𝔰, [ſ𝔷], 𝔷, used possessively, put an apostrophe, omitting the apostrophal s; thus 𝔙𝔬[ſ𝔷]’ 𝔏𝔲𝔦ſ𝔢, 𝔇𝔢𝔪𝔬ſ𝔱𝔥𝔢𝔫𝔢𝔰’ ℜ𝔢𝔡𝔢𝔫, ℌ𝔬𝔯𝔞𝔷’ 𝔒𝔡𝔢𝔫 (Voss’s Louise, Demosthenes’ Speeches, Horace’s Odes). But put 𝔖𝔠𝔥𝔦𝔩𝔩𝔢𝔯𝔰 𝔊𝔢𝔡𝔦[𝔠𝔥]𝔱𝔢 (Schiller’s Poems).

18. The Comma.—In German, commas must invariably be put before 𝔡𝔞[ſ𝔷] and before relative clauses (beginning with 𝔡𝔢𝔯, 𝔡𝔦𝔢, 𝔡𝔞𝔰, 𝔴𝔢𝔩[𝔠𝔥]𝔢𝔯, 𝔴𝔢𝔩[𝔠𝔥]𝔢, 𝔴𝔢𝔩[𝔠𝔥]𝔢𝔰, 𝔴𝔬𝔪𝔦𝔱, 𝔴𝔬𝔡𝔲𝔯[𝔠𝔥], 𝔴𝔬𝔯𝔞𝔫, 𝔴𝔬𝔯𝔞𝔲𝔰, &c. &c.). This is frequently forgotten by English compositors.

19. §.—This mark (in English, ‘section’) is called in German ‘Paragraph’.

The general rules are practically Priscian’s. They are well summarized in Gildersleeve’s Latin Grammar.

1. ‘In dividing a word into syllables, a consonant between two vowels belongs to the second: a-mo, li-xa.

2. ‘Any combination of consonants that can begin a word (including mn, under Greek influence) belongs to the following vowel; in other combinations the first consonant belongs to the preceding vowel: a-sper, fau-stus, li-bri, a-mnis.

3. ‘The combinations incapable of beginning a word are (a) doubled consonants: sic-cus; (b) a liquid and a consonant: al-mus, am-bo, an-guis, ar-bor.

4. ‘Compounds are treated by the best grammarians as if their parts were separate words: ab-igo, res-publica.’

To take a page of Cicero:

con-sequi so-lent ex-ponimus a-criter cri-mi-no-se diligen-ter a-gi re-rum conse-quentium miseri-cor-dia com-movebitur au-di-to-ris a-ni-mus osten-demus com-modis cu-ius cu-i quo-rum qui-bus-que (not qui-bu-sque) us-que (because the parts are separate) ca-ptabimus pote-statem sub-i-ci-e-mus pa-renti-bus neces-sariis cle-men-tia.

Again:

eius-modi, cuius-modi, huius-modi (not eiu-smodi, &c.) con-iun-ctim (I should suppose, not con-iunc-tim) am-plifica-stis e-stis vetu-stas hone-stus onu-stus sus-cipere sub-trahit ad-trahit in-struit circu-it simul-tate re-ce-den-dum di-co di-xi-sti di-xe-rat di-ctum a-ctum au-ctus ma-gnus i-gnis mali-gnus pi-gnus li-gna pec-catum demon-stra-stis (I am rather doubtful about this) ma-gis ma-xime dif-fi-cul-tas la-brum la-mna lar-gus lon-ge di-gnus sum-pserim su-mo sum-mus su-prema propter-ea, and probably pro-pter-ea (but again I am in some doubt) dis-tin-ctus dis-tin-guo ad-spectus a-spectus tem-ptavit il-lu-stris. Most of these are already adopted in editions of authority, e.g. Nobbe’s Cicero, Haase’s Seneca.

Robinson Ellis.

A syllable ends in a vowel EXCEPT—

1. If a consonant is doubled, the consonants are divided.

Συρακούσ-σας (Bacch.[94]), πολ-λῷ (Thuc.), and so Βάκ-χος, Σαπ-φώ, Ἀτ-θίς.

2. If the first of two or more consonants is a liquid or nasal,[95] it is divided from the others.

(Two consonants) ἄμ-φακες, ἐγ-χέσπαλον[96], τέρ-πον (Bacch.), πάν-τες (Thuc.), ἄλ-σος.

(Three consonants) ἁν-θρώποις, ἐρ-χθέντος (Bacch.), ἀν-δρῶν (Thuc.).

But βά-κτρον, κάτο-πτρον, ἐ-χθρός.

(Four consonants) θέλ-κτρον, Λαμ-πτραί.

3. Compounds. For modern printing the preference must be to divide the compounds παρ-όντος, ἐφ-ῃπημένος (Thuc.), but ἀπέ-βη may stand as well as ἀπ-έβη.

H. Stuart Jones.

From Johnson’s Typographia (1824), Vol. II, p. 216.

THE OPPOSITE PAGE CORRECTED

From Johnson’s Typographia (1824), Vol. II, p. 217.

Though a variety of opinions exist as to the individual by whom the art of printing was first discovered; yet all authorities concur in admitting PETER SCHOEFFER to be the person who invented cast metal types, having learned the art of cutting the letters from the Guttembergs: he is also supposed to have been the first who engraved on copperplates. The following testimony is preserved in the family, by Jo. Fred. Faustus of Ascheffenburg.

‘Peter Schoeffer of Gernsheim, perceiving his master Faust’s design, and being himself ardently desirous to improve the art, found out (by the good providence of God) the method of cutting (incidendi) the characters in a matrix that the letters might easily be singly cast, instead of being cut. He privately cut matrices for the whole alphabet, and when he showed his master the letters cast from those matrices, Faust was so pleased with the contrivance that he promised Peter to give him his only daughter Christina in marriage, a promise which he soon after performed. But there were as many difficulties at first with these letters, as there had been before with wooden ones; the metal being too soft to support the force of the impression: but this defect was soon remedied, by mixing the metal with a substance which sufficiently hardened it.’

WITH EXAMPLES OF THEIR RELATIVE SIZES

Double Pica:

The Clarendon

Great Primer:

The Clarendon Pre

English:

The Clarendon Press Ox

Pica:

The Clarendon Press, Oxfo

Small Pica:

The Clarendon Press, Oxford,

Long Primer:

The Clarendon Press, Oxford, w

Bourgeois:

The Clarendon Press, Oxford, was n

Brevier:

The Clarendon Press, Oxford, was na

Minion:

The Clarendon Press, Oxford, was named

Emerald:

The Clarendon Press, Oxford, was named

Minion-Nonpareil:

The Clarendon Press, Oxford, was named a

Nonpareil:

The Clarendon Press, Oxford, was named after

Ruby-Nonpareil:

The Clarendon Press, Oxford, was named after

Ruby:

The Clarendon Press, Oxford, was named after the

Pearl:

The Clarendon Press, Oxford, was named after the E

Small Pearl:

The Clarendon Press, Oxford, was named after the Earl of

Diamond:

The Clarendon Press, Oxford, was named after the Earl of Clarendo

Brilliant:

The Clarendon Press, Oxford, was named after the Earl of Clarendon.

Long Primer Italic:

The Clarendon Press, Oxford, was

Black-letter:

The Clarendon Press,

Egyptian:

The Clarendon Press, Oxford,

Antique, modern face:

The Clarendon Press, Oxford,

Antique, old face:

The Clarendon Press, Oxford,

Grotesque:

The Clarendon Press, Oxfo

The following is a list of type-bodies in more common use, the first column giving the name of the English type-body, and the second its designation under the American point-system.

NOTE.—The words ending in -able, -ible, -ise, -ize, and -ment, and also others, given in alphabetical order on pp. 9-37 (q.v.), are not repeated here.

• A or an, use of, 39.
• before contractions, 39.
• Abbreviations, see Contractions.
• in French, 82-4.
• in German, 93-4.
• -able, words ending in, 9.
• Accented -èd in poetry, 45.
• Accents in French, 78-9.
• A.D., 47, 69.
• Allardyce on Stops, &c., examples from, 64.
• Alternative or difficult spellings, some, 15-24.
• Ampersand (&), 43.
• And (with and without comma), 57.
• Anglicized words, set in roman, 35-6.
• Apocrypha, contractions for books of, 42.
• Aposiopesis, mark of, 62.
• Apostrophe, in French names ending in -s or -x, 72.
• in German, 94.
• in place-names, 44.
• in poetry, 45.
• in possessive case of proper names, 71.
• omitted in hers, ours, theirs, yours, 44.
• thin space before, when to use, 49.
• when to join close up, 44.
• Asterisks, as reference signs, 70.
• in philology, 48.
• not to be used for marks of hiatus, 62.
• Authors and their works, references to, 52.
• Awkward divisions, &c., 53-4, 80-1.
• B.C., 47, 69.
• Beadnell on Spelling, &c., 55-61.
• Bible and Prayer Book spellings, 9 (note).
• Bible, contractions for books of, 41-2.
• references to chapters and verses in, 52.
• Book sizes—
• 4to, 8vo, 12mo, &c., need no full points, 42.
• Book titles, italic or roman, 50, 52.
• Brackets, 61.
• Breaklines, length of, 49.
• Capital letters, when to use in English, 46.
• in French, 73-7.
• in German, 88.
• in lemmas, 67.
• when accented in French, 78.
• Chapter, first word in small caps., 48.
• first line to be indented, 48, 50.
• -ck preceding a suffix, 15.
• Colon, the, 59.
• Commas—
• ‘inverted’, 63.
• use of, with adjectives and adverbs, 57.
• with ‘and’, 57.
• with more than three figures, 68, 84-5.
• Compass, points of the, 43.
• Compound words, 25-8.
• plurals of, 15, 21.
• Consonants, double or single with a suffix, 29.
• Contractions generally, 41-5.
• of colloquial expressions, 44.
• of Latin words not in italic, 51.
• of names of counties, 42.
• of personal titles, 44.
• of philological terms, 43.
• of points of the compass, 43.
• of references in footnotes, 43.
• of references to manuscripts, 43.
• of Scripture references, 41-2.
• of sums of money, 51.
• of titles of books, 44.
• of weights and measures, 43.
• Correction of proofs, marks used in, 98.
• Counties, names of, abbreviated, 42.
• Dagger † (= obsolete or deceased), 48.
• Dash, the, 61.
• Date at foot of title-page, 47.
• Dates, how to print, 69, 84.
• Decimal points, 69.
• Deity, pronouns referring to the, 46.
• De Vinne on Correct Composition, 55-6, 63.
• Diaeresis signs, when to use, 17.
• Difficult or alternative spellings, 15-24.
• Digraphs and diphthongs, 41.
• Division of words, English, 53-4.
• French, 80-1.
• German, 90.
• Greek, 97.
• Italian, 54.
• Latin, 95-6.
• Portuguese, 54.
• Spanish, 54.
• Double letters, in German, 93.
• e before -able and -ment, 9, 24.
• -ed, -èd, in poetry, 45.
• Ellipsis, 49, 62.
• Em rules, various uses of, 61-2, 70.
• English words, how to divide, 53-4.
• En rules, when to use, 69-70.
• Erratum and Errata, when to print, 33.
• ETC., ETC., &c., when to use, 43.
• Exclamation, the note of, 60.
• Extracts, how to print, 50.
• Figures, commas with, 68-9.
• First line of chapter, 48.
• Footnotes, abbreviations in, 43, 51.
• superior figures to refer to, 67, 70.
• Foreign words and phrases, 35-7.
• in roman, 35-6.
• in italic, 36-7.
• Foreign words, formation of plurals of, 31-3.
• French language, works in the, 73-87.
• abbreviations, 80-1, 82-4.
• accented capital letters in, 78.
• accented small capitals, 78.
• accents, 78-9.
• capital and lower-case letters, 73-8.
• division of words, 81-2.
• hyphens, 79-80.
• metal-rules, 80.
• metric signs, 83.
• names ending in -s or -x, 72.
• numerals, 84-5.
• quotation marks, 86-7.
• reference figures, 85.
• roman and italic, 85.
• space before comma, 80.
• spacing generally, 80.
• Full points, examples of use, 60.
• for contractions, 43-4.
• to denote omissions, 62.
• when not to use, 42, 43, 68, 69.
• German language, works in the, 88-94.
• abbreviations, 93.
• apostrophes, 94.
• capital and lower-case letters, 88-9.
• commas, 94.
• division of words, 90.
• double letters, 93.
• full points, 94.
• hyphens, 90.
• in roman type, 91.
• [𝔩𝔩], 92.
• metal-rules, 91.
• paragraph mark (§), 94.
• prepositional and other prefixes, 90-1.
• quotation marks, 92.
• reformed spelling, 89-90.
• ſ, 𝔰, 93.
• spaced words, 90.
• ſſ, 𝔰ſ, 92.
• [ſ𝔷], 92-3.
• suffixes 𝔩𝔦[𝔠𝔥], 𝔷𝔦𝔤, 91.
• Greek words, how to divide, 97.
• Guillemets in French, 86, 87.
• Headlines, omission of points at end of, 67.
• Head Master, note on, 25.
• Hers, no apostrophe, 44.
• Hyphens, use of, in English, 25-8.
• in French, 79-80.
• in German, 90.
• -ible, words ending in, 11.
• I’d, I’ll, &c. (no space), 44.
• Indentation of first lines, 48, 50.
• Initials with dates, 47.
• Interrogation, the note of, 60.
• ‘Inverted commas’, 63.
• -ise or -ize, words ending in, 12-14.
• Italian words (some), how to divide, 54.
• Italic type—
• for mathematical theorems, 51.
• names of books and periodicals in, 50.
• names of ships in, 51.
• words and phrases in, 36-7, 50-1.
• Latin words, how to divide, 95-6.
• lb., singular and plural form, 43.
• Lefevre, T., Guide pratique du compositeur, referred to, 55.
• Lower-case letters, for anglicized words, 47.
• for contractions, 43, 47.
• in French, 73-8.
• in German, 88-9.
• MS. = manuscript, contraction of, 43.
• Marks used in the correction of proofs, 98.
• Marks of omission, 62.
• Marks of parenthesis, 61.
• Mathematics, inferior in, 70.
• theorems, in italics, 51.
• Measures, contractions of, 43.
• Medical signs, 48.
• -ment, words ending in, 24.
• Metal-rules in English, 61-2, 70.
• in French, 86.
• in German, 91.
• Metric signs in French, abbreviations of, 83.
• Money, contractions in sums of, 51.
• Months, names of, contracted, 42.
• New Testament, contractions for names of books of, 42.
• Newspapers, in italic, 51.
• Non-hyphened words, 25-8.
• Nor and or, 40.
• Note of exclamation, 60-1.
• interrogation, 60.
• Numbering of paragraphs, 70.
• Numerals, arabic, 68-70.
• in French, 84-5.
• in German, 94.
• roman, use of, 68-70.
• O and Oh, 39.
• -o, plurals of nouns ending in, 34.
• Old Testament, contractions for names of books of, 41.
• Omission marks, use full points for, 62.
• Ours, no apostrophe, 44.
• Page references, citation of, 69, 70.
• Paragraphs, indentation of, 48, 50.
• numbering of, 70.
• spacing of last line, 49.
• Parenthesis, marks of, 60-1.
• Period or full stop, the, 60-1.
• Periodicals, names of, italic, 50.
• Philological works, contractions in, 43.
• punctuation in, 67.
• use of symbols in, 48.
• Phonetic spellings, 38.
• Place-names, use of apostrophes in, 44-5.
• Plates, &c., references to, 47.
• Plurals, formation of, in words of foreign origin, 31-2.
• of nouns ending in -o, 34.
• Poetry, ’d, -ed, and -èd in, 45.
• quotations from, 45.
• spacing of, 49.
• Points (punctuation marks), 62.
• decimal, 69.
• full, when to omit, 42, 43, 68, 69.
• in title-pages, &c., 67.
• Points of the compass, 43.
• Portuguese words (some), how to divide, 54.
• Possessive case of proper names, 71-2.
• Prefixes in German, prepositional and other, 90-1.
• Pronouns, Deistic, capitalization of, 46.
• omission of apostrophe in, 54.
• Proofs, marks used in correcting, 98.
• Proper names, adjectives derived from, 46.
• common words derived from, 47.
• possessive case of, 71-2.
• PS. = postscript (one full point), 43.
• Punctuation generally, 55-67.
• colon, 59-60.
• comma, 57-8.
• dash, 61-2.
• note of exclamation, 60-1.
• note of interrogation, 60.
• parenthesis, 61.
• period or full stop, 60-1.
• semicolon, 58-9.
• Punctuation marks generally, 62-3.
• in classical and philological notes, 67.
• in relation to footnotes, 67.
• quotation marks, 63.
• when to precede, and when to follow, the closing quotation mark, 63-7.
• Quotation marks, 63-7.
• in essays, 63.
• in French, 86-7.
• in German, 92.
• ‘inverted commas’ (so-called), 63.
• Quotations from foreign books, &c., 50.
• poetical, 45, 63.
• prose, 63.
• when to break off, 50.
• Reference figures in French, 84-5.
• References generally, 52.
• to authors and their works, 52.
• to the Bible, 41-2, 52.
• to footnotes, 70.
• to manuscripts, 43, 52.
• to periodicals, 50.
• to plates, woodcuts, &c., 47.
• in relation to punctuation marks, 67.
• to Shakespeare’s plays, &c., 52.
• to ships, 51.
• Roman and italics in French, 85.
• Roman numerals, use of, 68-70.
• Roman type, German works in, 91.
• anglicized words in, 35-6.
• ſ, 𝔰, 93.
• ’s, thin space before apostrophe, when to use, 49.
• Scripture references, 41-2, 52.
• Semicolon, the, 58-9.
• Shakespeare, spelling of the name, 23.
• Shakespeare’s plays, references to, 52.
• ‘Shilling-mark’, 51.
• Ships, names of, italic, 51.
• Signs for reference marks, use of, 70.
• special, 48.
• Small capitals, when to use, 47.
• Southward’s Practical Printing, quoted, 55.
• Space before comma allowed, in printing French, 80.
• Spaced words in German, 90.
• Spacing generally, 49-50.
• in French, 80.
• in Greek, Latin, and Italian, 49.
• of last line in paragraph, 49.
• of poetry, 49.
• Spanish words (some), how to divide, 54.
• Special signs or symbols, 48.
• Spellings, alternative or difficult, 15-24.
• Bible and Prayer Book, 9 (note).
• of old writers, 38.
• phonetic, 38.
• reformed German, 89-90.
• sq., sqq., 70.
• ſſ, 𝔰ſ, 92.
• Streets, how to print names of, 46.
• Suffixes, 29-30.
• 𝔩𝔦[𝔠𝔥], 𝔷𝔦𝔤, 91.
• Superior figures and letters, 70.
• [ſ𝔷], 92-3.
• Theirs, no apostrophe, 44.
• Title-pages, date at foot of, 47.
• points in, 67.
• Titles, personal, contraction of, 44.
• Types, English names of, 100-2.
• American point-system, 102.
• Underlines, 50.
• Vowel-ligatures, 41.
• Weights and measures, contractions of, 43.
• Woodcuts, plates, &c., references to, 47.
• Words—
• common, derived from proper names, 46.
• ending in -able, 9.
• ending in -ible, 11.
• ending in -ise or -ize, 12-14.
• ending in -ment, 24.
• ending in -o, plurals of, 34.
• ending with -ed or -èd in poetry, 45.
• foreign, in italic, 35-6.
• foreign, in roman, 36-7.
• Yours, no apostrophe, 44.