New Latin Grammar

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1. The Indo-European Family of Languages.—Latin belongs to one group of a large family of languages, known as Indo-European.^[1] This Indo-European family of languages embraces the following groups:

a. The Sanskrit, spoken in ancient India. Of this there were several stages, the oldest of which is the Vedic, or language of the Vedic Hymns. These Hymns are the oldest literary productions known to us among all the branches of the Indo-European family. A conservative estimate places them as far back as 1500 B.C. Some scholars have even set them more than a thousand years earlier than this, i.e. anterior to 2500 B.C.

The Sanskrit, in modified form, has always continued to be spoken in India, and is represented to-day by a large number of dialects descended from the ancient Sanskrit, and spoken by millions of people.

b. The Iranian, spoken in ancient Persia, and closely related to the Sanskrit. There were two main branches of the Iranian group, viz. the Old Persian and the Avestan. The Old Persian was the official language of the court, and appears in a number of so-called cuneiform^[2] inscriptions, the earliest of which date from the time of Darius I (sixth century B.C.). The other branch of the Iranian, the Avestan,^[3] is the language of the Avesta or sacred books of the Parsees, the followers of Zoroaster, founder of the religion of the fire-worshippers. Portions of these sacred books may have been composed as early as 1000 B.C.

Modern Persian is a living representative of the old Iranian speech. It has naturally been much modified by time, particularly through the introduction of many words from the Arabic.

c. The Armenian, spoken in Armenia, the district near the Black Sea and Caucasus Mountains. This is closely related to the Iranian, and was formerly classified under that group. It is now recognized as entitled to independent rank. The earliest literary productions of the Armenian language date from the fourth and fifth centuries of the Christian era. To this period belong the translation of the Scriptures and the old Armenian Chronicle. The Armenian is still a living language, though spoken in widely separated districts, owing to the scattered locations in which the Armenians are found to-day.

d. The Tokharian. This language, only recently discovered and identified as Indo-European, was spoken in the districts east of the Caspian Sea (modern Turkestan). While in some respects closely related to the three Asiatic branches of the Indo-European family already considered, in others it shows close relationship to the European members of the family. The literature of the Tokharian, so far as it has been brought to light, consists mainly of translations from the Sanskrit sacred writings, and dates from the seventh century of our era.

e. The Greek. The Greeks had apparently long been settled in Greece and Asia Minor as far back as 1500 B.C. Probably they arrived in these districts much earlier. The earliest literary productions are the Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer, which very likely go back to the ninth century B.C. From the sixth century B.C. on, Greek literature is continuous. Modern Greek, when we consider its distance in time from antiquity, is remarkably similar to the classical Greek of the fourth and fifth centuries B.C.

f. The Italic Group. The Italic Group embraces the Umbrian, spoken in the northern part of the Italian peninsula (in ancient Umbria); the Latin, spoken in the central part (in Latium); the Oscan, spoken in the southern part (in Samnium, Campania, Lucania, etc.). Besides these, there were a number of minor dialects, such as the Marsian, Volscian, etc. Of all these (barring the Latin), there are no remains except a few scanty inscriptions. Latin literature begins shortly after 250 B.C. in the works of Livius Andronicus, Naevius, and Plautus, although a few brief inscriptions are found belonging to a much earlier period.

g. The Celtic. In the earliest historical times of which we have any record, the Celts occupied extensive portions of northern Italy, as well as certain areas in central Europe; but after the second century B.C., they are found only in Gaul and the British Isles. Among the chief languages belonging to the Celtic group are the Gallic, spoken in ancient Gaul; the Breton, still spoken in the modern French province of Brittany; the Irish, which is still extensively spoken in Ireland among the common people, the Welsh; and the Gaelic of the Scotch Highlanders.

h. The Teutonic. The Teutonic group is very extensive. Its earliest representative is the Gothic, preserved for us in the translation of the scriptures by the Gothic Bishop Ulfilas (about 375 A.D.). Other languages belonging to this group are the Old Norse, once spoken in Scandinavia, and from which are descended the modern Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish; German; Dutch; Anglo-Saxon, from which is descended the modern English.

i. The Balto-Slavic. The languages of this group belong to eastern Europe. The Baltic division of the group embraces the Lithuanian and Lettic, spoken to-day by the people living on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. The earliest literary productions of these languages date from the sixteenth century. The Slavic division comprises a large number of languages, the most important of which are the Russian, the Bulgarian, the Serbian, the Bohemian, the Polish. All of these were late in developing a literature, the earliest to do so being the Old Bulgarian, in which we find a translation of the Bible dating from the ninth century.

j. The Albanian, spoken in Albania and parts of Greece, Italy, and Sicily. This is most nearly related to the Balto-Slavic group, and is characterized by the very large proportion of words borrowed from Latin, Turkish, Greek, and Slavic. Its literature does not begin till the seventeenth century.

2. Home of the Indo-European Family.—Despite the many outward differences of the various languages of the foregoing groups, a careful examination of their structure and vocabulary demonstrates their intimate relationship and proves overwhelmingly their descent from a common parent. We must believe, therefore, that at one time there existed a homogeneous clan or tribe of people speaking a language from which all the above enumerated languages are descended. The precise location of the home of this ancient tribe cannot be determined. For a long time it was assumed that it was in central Asia north of the Himalaya Mountains, but this view has long been rejected as untenable. It arose from the exaggerated importance attached for a long while to Sanskrit. The great antiquity of the earliest literary remains of the Sanskrit (the Vedic Hymns) suggested that the inhabitants of India were geographically close to the original seat of the Indo-European Family. Hence the home was sought in the elevated plateau to the north. To-day it is thought that central or southeastern Europe is much more likely to have been the cradle of the Indo-European parent-speech, though anything like a logical demonstration of so difficult a problem can hardly be expected.

As to the size and extent of the original tribe whence the Indo-European languages have sprung, we can only speculate. It probably was not large, and very likely formed a compact racial and linguistic unit for centuries, possibly for thousands of years.

The time at which Indo-European unity ceased and the various individual languages began their separate existence, is likewise shrouded in obscurity. When we consider that the separate existence of the Sanskrit may antedate 2500 B.C., it may well be believed that people speaking the Indo-European parent-speech belonged to a period as far back as 5000 B.C., or possibly earlier.

3. Stages in the Development of the Latin Language.—The earliest remains of the Latin language are found in certain very archaic inscriptions. The oldest of these belong to the sixth and seventh centuries B.C. Roman literature does not begin till several centuries later, viz. shortly after the middle of the third century B.C. We may recognize the following clearly marked periods of the language and literature:

a. The Preliterary Period, from the earliest times down to 240 B.C., when Livius Andronicus brought out his first play. For this period our knowledge of Latin depends almost exclusively upon the scanty inscriptions that have survived from this remote time. Few of these are of any length.

b. The Archaic Period, from Livius Andronicus (240 B.C.) to Cicero (81 B.C.). Even in this age the language had already become highly developed as a medium of expression. In the hands of certain gifted writers it had even become a vehicle of power and beauty. In its simplicity, however, it naturally marks a contrast with the more finished diction of later days. To this period belong:

c. The Golden Age, from Cicero (81 B.C.) to the death of Augustus (14 A.D.). In this period the language, especially in the hands of Cicero, reaches a high degree of stylistic perfection. Its vocabulary, however, has not yet attained its greatest fullness and range. Traces of the diction of the Archaic Period are often noticed, especially in the poets, who naturally sought their effects by reverting to the speech of olden times. Literature reached its culmination in this epoch, especially in the great poets of the Augustan Age. The following writers belong here:

d. The Silver Latinity, from the death of Augustus (14 A.D.) to the death of Marcus Aurelius (180 A.D.), This period is marked by a certain reaction against the excessive precision of the previous age. It had become the practice to pay too much attention to standardized forms of expression, and to leave too little play to the individual writer. In the healthy reaction against this formalism, greater freedom of expression now manifests itself. We note also the introduction of idioms from the colloquial language, along with many poetical words and usages. The following authors deserve mention:

e. The Archaizing Period. This period is characterized by a conscious imitation of the Archaic Period of the second and first centuries B.C.; it overlaps the preceding period, and is of importance from a linguistic rather than from a literary point of view. Of writers who manifest the archaizing tendency most conspicuously may be mentioned Fronto, from whose hand we have a collection of letters addressed to the Emperors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius; also Aulus Gellius, author of the "Attic Nights." Both of these writers flourished in the second half of the second century A.D.

f. The Period of the Decline, from 180 to the close of literary activity in the sixth century A.D. This period is characterized by rapid and radical alterations in the language. The features of the conversational idiom of the lower strata of society invade the literature, while in the remote provinces, such as Gaul, Spain, Africa, the language suffers from the incorporation of local peculiarities. Representative writers of this period are:

4. Subsequent History of the Latin Language.—After the sixth century A.D. Latin divides into two entirely different streams. One of these is the literary language maintained in courts, in the Church, and among scholars. This was no longer the language of people in general, and as time went on, became more and more artificial. The other stream is the colloquial idiom of the common people, which developed ultimately in the provinces into the modern so-called Romance idioms. These are the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Provençal (spoken in Provence, i.e. southeastern France), the Rhaeto-Romance (spoken in the Canton of the Grisons in Switzerland), and the Roumanian, spoken in modern Roumania and adjacent districts. All these Romance languages bear the same relation to the Latin as the different groups of the Indo-European family of languages bear to the parent speech.

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THE ALPHABET.

1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, except that the Latin has no w.

1. K occurs only in Kalendae and a few other words; y and z were introduced from the Greek about 50 B.C., and occur only in foreign words—chiefly Greek.

2. With the Romans, who regularly employed only capitals, I served both as vowel and consonant; so also V. For us, however, it is more convenient to distinguish the vowel and consonant sounds, and to write i and u for the former, j and v for the latter. Yet some scholars prefer to employ i and u in the function of consonants as well as vowels.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS.

2. 1. The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The other letters are Consonants. The Diphthongs are ae, oe, ei, au, eu, ui.

2. Consonants are further subdivided into Mutes, Liquids, Nasals, and Spirants.

3. The Mutes are p, t, c, k, q; b, d, g; ph, th, ch. Of these,—

a) p, t, c, k, q are voiceless,^[4] i.e. sounded without voice or vibration of the vocal cords.

b) b, d, g are voiced,^[5] i.e. sounded with vibration of the vocal cords.

c) ph, th, ch are aspirates. These are confined almost exclusively to words derived from the Greek, and were equivalent to p + h, t + h, c + h, i.e. to the corresponding voiceless mutes with a following breath, as in Eng. loop-hole, hot-house, block-house.

4. The Mutes admit of classification also as

Labials,	p, b, ph.
Dentals (or Linguals),	t, d, th.
Gutturals (or Palatals),	c, k, q, g, ch.

5. The Liquids are l, r. These sounds were voiced.

6. The Nasals are m, n. These were voiced. Besides its ordinary sound, n, when followed by a guttural mute also had another sound,—that of ng in sing,—the so-called n adulterīnum; as,—

anceps, double, pronounced angceps.

7. The Spirants (sometimes called Fricatives) are f, s, h. These were voiceless.

8. The Semivowels are j and v. These were voiced.

9. Double Consonants are x and z. Of these, x was equivalent to cs, while the equivalence of z is uncertain. See § 3, 3.

10. The following table will indicate the relations of the consonant sounds:—

	VOICELESS.	VOICED.	ASPIRATES.
	p,	b,	ph,	(Labials).
Mutes,	t,	d,	th,	(Dentals).
	c, k, q,	g,	ch,	(Gutturals).
Liquids,		l, r,
Nasals,		m, n,
	f,			(Labial).
Spirants,	s,			(Dental).
	h,			(Guttural).
Semivowels,		j, v.

a. The Double Consonants, x and z, being compound sounds, do not admit of classification in the above table.

SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.

3. The following pronunciation (often called Roman) is substantially that employed by the Romans at the height of their civilization; i.e., roughly, from 50 B.C. to 50 A.D.

1. Vowels.

ā as in father;	ă as in the first syllable ahá;
ē as in they;	ĕ as in met;
ī as in machine;	ĭ as in pin;
ō as in note;	ŏ as in obey, melody;
ū as in rude;	ŭ as in put;
y like French u, German ü.

2. Diphthongs.

ae like ai in aisle; oe like oi in oil; ei as in rein; au like ow in how;

eu with its two elements, ĕ and ŭ, pronounced in rapid succession; ui occurs almost exclusively in cui and huic. These words may be pronounced as though written kwee and wheek.

3. Consonants.

b, d, f, h, k, l, m, n, p, qu are pronounced as in English, except that bs, bt are pronounced ps, pt.

c is always pronounced as k.

t is always a plain t, never with the sound of sh as in Eng. oration.

g always as in get; when ngu precedes a vowel, gu has the sound of gw, as in anguis, languidus.

j has the sound of y as in yet.

r was probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue.

s always voiceless as in sin; in suādeō, suāvis, suēscō, and in compounds and derivatives of these words, su has the sound of sw.

v like w.

x always like ks; never like Eng. gz or z.

z uncertain in sound; possibly like Eng. zd, possibly like z. The latter sound is recommended.

The aspirates ph, ch, th were pronounced very nearly like our stressed Eng. p, c, t—so nearly so, that, for practical purposes, the latter sounds suffice.

Doubled letters, like ll, mm, tt, etc., should be so pronounced that both members of the combination are distinctly articulated.

SYLLABLES.

4. There are as many syllables in a Latin word as there are separate vowels and diphthongs.

In the division of words into syllables,—

1. A single consonant is joined to the following vowel; as, vo-lat, ge-rit, pe-rit, a-dest.

2. Doubled consonants, like tt, ss, etc., are always separated; as, vit-ta, mis-sus.

3. Other combinations of two or more consonants are regularly separated, and the first consonant of the combination is joined with the preceding vowel; as, ma-gis-trī, dig-nus, mōn-strum, sis-te-re.

4. An exception to Rule 3 occurs when the two consonants consist of a mute followed by l or r (pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr, etc.). In such cases both consonants are regularly joined to the following vowel; as, a-grī, vo-lu-cris, pa-tris, mā-tris. Yet if the l or r introduces the second part of a compound, the two consonants are separated; as, ab-rumpō, ad-lātus.

5. The double consonant x is joined to the preceding vowel; as, ax-is, tēx-ī.

QUANTITY.

5. A. Quantity of Vowels.

A vowel is long or short according to the length of time required for its pronunciation. No absolute rule can be given for determining the quantity of Latin vowels. This knowledge must be gained, in large measure, by experience; but the following principles are of aid:—

1. A vowel is long,^[6]—

a) before nf or ns; as, īnfāns, īnferior, cōnsūmō, cēnseō, īnsum.

b) when the result of contraction; as, nīlum for nihilum.

2. A vowel is short,—

a) before nt, nd; as, amant, amandus. A few exceptions occur in compounds whose first member has a long vowel; as, nōndum (nōn dum).

b) before another vowel, or h; as, meus, trahō. Some exceptions occur, chiefly in proper names derived from the Greek; as, Aenēās.

B. Quantity of Syllables.

Syllables are distinguished as long or short according to the length of time required for their pronunciation.

1. A syllable is long,^[7]—

a) if it contains a long vowel; as, māter, rēgnum, dīus.

b) if it contains a diphthong; as, causae, foedus.

c) if it contains a short vowel followed by x, z, or any two consonants (except a mute with l or r); as, axis, gaza, restō.

2. A syllable is short, if it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or by a single consonant; as, mea, amat.

3. Sometimes a syllable varies in quantity, viz. when its vowel is short and is followed by a mute with l or r, i.e. by pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr, etc.; as, ăgrī, volŭcris.^[8] Such syllables are called common. In prose they were regularly short, but in verse they might be treated as long at the option of the poet.

NOTE.—These distinctions of long and short are not arbitrary and artificial, but are purely natural. Thus, a syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants, as ng, is long, because such a syllable requires more time for its pronunciation; while a syllable containing a short vowel followed by one consonant is short, because it takes less time to pronounce it. In case of the common syllables, the mute and the liquid blend so easily as to produce a combination which takes no more time than a single consonant. Yet by separating the two elements (as ag-rī) the poets were able to use such syllables as long.

ACCENT.

6. 1. Words of two syllables are accented upon the first; as, tégit, mō´rem.

2. Words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult (next to the last) if that is a long syllable, otherwise upon the antepenult (second from the last); as, amā´vī, amántis, míserum.

3. When the enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, -ce, -met, -dum are appended to words, if the syllable preceding the enclitic is long (either originally or as a result of adding the enclitic) it is accented; as, miserō´que, hominísque. But if the syllable still remains short after the enclitic has been added, it is not accented unless the word originally took the accent on the antepenult. Thus, pórtaque; but míseráque.

4. Sometimes the final -e of -ne and -ce disappears, but without affecting the accent; as, tantō´n, istī´c, illū´c.

5. In utră´que, each, and plēră´que, most, -que is not properly an enclitic; yet these words accent the penult, owing to the influence of their other cases,—utérque, utrúmque, plērúmque.

VOWEL CHANGES.^[9]

7.. 1. In Compounds,

a) ĕ before a single consonant becomes ĭ; as,—

colligō

for con-legō.

b) ă before a single consonant becomes ĭ: as,—

adigō

for ad-agō.

c) ă before two consonants becomes ē; as,—

expers

for ex-pars.

d) ae becomes ī; as,—

conquīrō

for con-quaerō.

e) au becomes ū, sometimes ō; as,—

conclūdō	for con-claudō;
explōdō	for ex-plaudō.

2. Contraction. Concurrent vowels were frequently contracted into one long vowel. The first of the two vowels regularly prevailed; as,—

trēs	for tre-es;	cōpia	for co-opia;
mālō	for ma(v)elō;	cōgō	for co-agō;
amāstī	for amā(v)istī;	cōmō	for co-emō;
dēbeō	for dē(h)abeō;	jūnior	for ju(v)enior.
nīl	for nihil;

3. Parasitic Vowels. In the environment of liquids and nasals a parasitic vowel sometimes develops; as,—

So perīculum, saeculum.

4. Syncope. Sometimes a vowel drops out by syncope; as,—

8. 1. Rhotacism. An original s between vowels became r; as,—

2. dt, tt, ts each give s or ss; as,—

3. Final consonants were often omitted; as,—

4. Assimilation of Consonants. Consonants are often assimilated to a following sound. Thus: accurrō (adc-); aggerō (adg-); asserō (ads-); allātus (adl-); apportō (adp-); attulī (adt-); arrīdeō (adr-); afferō (adf-); occurrō (obc-); suppōnō (subp-); offerō (obf-); corruō (comr-); collātus (coml-); etc.

5. Partial Assimilation. Sometimes the assimilation is only partial. Thus:—

a) b before s or t becomes p; as,—

scrīpsī (scrīb-sī), scrīptum (scrīb-tum).

b) g before s or t becomes c; as,—

āctus (āg-tus).

c) m before a dental or guttural becomes n; as,—

eundem (eum-dem); prīnceps (prīm-ceps).

PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.

9. Many words have variable orthography.

1. Sometimes the different forms belong to different periods of the language. Thus, quom, voltus, volnus, volt, etc., were the prevailing forms almost down to the Augustan age; after that, cum, vultus, vulnus, vult, etc. So optumus, maxumus, lubet, lubīdō, etc. down to about the same era; later, optimus, maximus, libet, libīdō, etc.

2. In some words the orthography varies at one and the same period of the language. Examples are exspectō, expectō; exsistō, existō; epistula, epistola; adulēscēns, adolēscēns; paulus, paullus; cottīdiē, cotīdiē; and, particularly, prepositional compounds, which often made a concession to the etymology in the spelling; as,—

ad-gerō or aggerō;	ad-serō or asserō;
ad-liciō or alliciō;	in-lātus or illātus;
ad-rogāns or arrogāns;	sub-moveō or summoveō;
and many others.

3. Compounds of jaciō were usually written ēiciō, dēiciō, adiciō, obiciō, etc., but were probably pronounced as though written adjiciō, objiciō, etc.

4. Adjectives and nouns in -quus, -quum; -vus, -vum; -uus, -uum preserved the earlier forms in -quos, -quom; -vos, -vom; -uos, -uom, down through the Ciceronian age; as, antīquos, antīquom; saevos; perpetuos; equos; servos. Similarly verbs in the 3d plural present indicative exhibit the terminations -quont, -quontur; -vont, -vontur; -uont, -uontur, for the same period; as, relinquont, loquontur; vīvont, metuont.

The older spelling, while generally followed in editions of Plautus and Terence, has not yet been adopted in our prose texts.

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10. The Parts of Speech in Latin are the same as in English, viz. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections; but the Latin has no article.

11. Of these eight parts of speech the first four are capable of Inflection, i.e. of undergoing change of form to express modifications of meaning. In case of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns, this process is called Declension; in case of verbs, Conjugation.

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12. A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or quality; as, Caesar, Caesar; Rōma, Rome; penna, feather; virtūs, courage.

1. Nouns are either Proper or Common. Proper nouns are permanent names of persons or places; as, Caesar, Rōma. Other nouns are Common: as, penna, virtūs.

2. Nouns are also distinguished as Concrete or Abstract.

a) Concrete nouns are those which designate individual objects; as, mōns, mountain; pēs, foot; diēs, day; mēns, mind.

Under concrete nouns are included, also, collective nouns; as, legiō, legion; comitātus, retinue.

b) Abstract nouns designate qualities; as, cōnstantia, steadfastness; paupertās, poverty.

GENDER OF NOUNS.

13. There are three Genders,—Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. Gender in Latin is either natural or grammatical.

Natural Gender.

14. The gender of nouns is natural when it is based upon sex. Natural gender is confined entirely to names of persons; and these are—

1. Masculine, if they denote males; as,—

2. Feminine, if they denote females; as,—

Grammatical Gender.

15. Grammatical gender is determined not by sex, but by the general signification of the word, or the ending of its Nominative Singular. By grammatical gender, nouns denoting things or qualities are often Masculine or Feminine, simply by virtue of their signification or the ending of the Nominative Singular. The following are the general principles for determining grammatical gender:—

A. Gender determined by Signification.

1. Names of Rivers, Winds, and Months are Masculine; as,—

2. Names of Trees, and such names of Towns and Islands as end in -us, are Feminine; as,—

Other names of towns and islands follow the gender of their endings (see B, below); as,—

3. Indeclinable nouns, also infinitives and phrases, are Neuter; as,—

NOTE.—Exceptions to the above principles sometimes occur; as, Allia (the river), f.

B. Gender determined by Ending of Nominative Singular.

The gender of other nouns is determined by the ending of the Nominative Singular.^[11]

NOTE 1.—Common Gender. Certain nouns are sometimes Masculine, sometimes Feminine. Thus, sacerdōs may mean either priest or priestess, and is Masculine or Feminine accordingly. So also cīvis, citizen; parēns, parent; etc. The gender of such nouns is said to be common.

NOTE 2.—Names of animals usually have grammatical gender, according to the ending of the Nominative Singular, but the one form may designate either the male or female; as, ānser, m., goose or gander. So vulpēs, f., fox; aquīla, f., eagle.

NUMBER.

16. The Latin has two Numbers,—the Singular and Plural. The Singular denotes one object, the Plural, more than one.

CASES.

17. There are six Cases in Latin:—

Nominative,	Case of Subject;
Genitive,	Objective with of, or Possessive;
Dative,	Objective with to or for;
Accusative,	Case of Direct Object;
Vocative,	Case of Address;
Ablative,	Objective with by, from, in, with.

1. LOCATIVE. Vestiges of another case, the Locative (denoting place where), occur in names of towns and in a few other words.

2. OBLIQUE CASES. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative are called Oblique Cases.

3. STEM AND CASE-ENDINGS. The different cases are formed by appending certain case-endings to a fundamental part called the Stem.^[12] Thus, portam (Accusative Singular) is formed by adding the case-ending -m to the stem porta-. But in most cases the final vowel of the stem has coalesced so closely with the actual case-ending that the latter has become more or less obscured. The apparent case-ending thus resulting is called a termination.

THE FIVE DECLENSIONS.

18. There are five Declensions in Latin, distinguished from each other by the final letter of the Stem, and also by the Termination of the Genitive Singular, as follows:—

DECLENSION.	FINAL LETTER OF STEM.	GEN. TERMINATION.
First	ā	-ae
Second	ŏ	-ī
Third	ĭ / Some consonant	-īs
Fourth	ŭ	-ūs
Fifth	ē	-ēī / -ĕī

19. 1. The Vocative is regularly like the Nominative, except in the singular of nouns in -us of the Second Declension.

2. The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike.

3. In Neuters the Accusative and Nominative are always alike, and in the Plural end in -ă.

4. In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions, the Accusative Plural is regularly like the Nominative.

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FIRST DECLENSION.

20. Pure Latin nouns of the First Declension regularly end, in the Nominative Singular, in -ă, weakened from -ā, and are of the Feminine Gender. They are declined as follows:—

Porta, gate; stem, portā-. SINGULAR.
CASES.		MEANINGS.	TERMINATIONS.
Nom.	porta	a gate (as subject)	-ă
Gen.	portae	of a gate	-ae
Dat.	portae	to or for a gate	-ae
Acc.	portam	a gate (as object)	-am
Voc.	porta	O gate!	-ă
Abl.	portā	with, by, from, in a gate	-ā
PLURAL.
Nom.	portae	gates (as subject)	-ae
Gen.	portārum	of gates	-ārum
Dat.	portīs	to or for gates	-īs
Acc.	portās	gates (as object)	-ās
Voc.	portae	O gates!	-ae
Abl.	portīs	with, by, from, in gates	-īs

1. The Latin has no article, and porta may mean either a gate or the gate; and in the Plural, gates or the gates.

21. 1. EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. Nouns denoting males are Masculine; as, nauta, sailor; agricola, farmer; also, Hadria, Adriatic Sea.

2. Rare Case-Endings,—

a) An old form of the Genitive Singular in -ās is preserved in the combination pater familiās, father of a family; also in māter familiās, fīlius familiās, fīlia familiās. But the regular form of the Genitive in -ae is also admissible in these expressions; as, pater familiae.

b) In poetry a Genitive in -āī also occurs; as, aulāī.

c) The Locative Singular ends in -ae; as, Rōmae, at Rome.

d) A Genitive Plural in -um instead of -ārum sometimes occurs; as, Dardanidum instead of Dardanidārum. This termination -um is not a contraction of -ārum, but represents an entirely different case-ending.

e) Instead of the regular ending -īs, we usually find -ābus in the Dative and Ablative Plural of dea, goddess, and fīlia, daughter, especially when it is important to distinguish these nouns from the corresponding forms of deus, god, and fīlius, son. A few other words sometimes have the same peculiarity; as, lībertābus (from līberta, freedwoman), equābus (mares), to avoid confusion with lībertīs (from lībertus, freedman) and equīs (from equus, horse).

22. These end in -ē (Feminine); -ās and -ēs (Masculine). In the Plural they are declined like regular Latin nouns of the First Declension. In the Singular they are declined as follows:—

	Archiās, Archias.	Epitomē, epitome.	Comētēs, comet.
Nom.	Archiās	epitomē	comētēs
Gen.	Archiae	epitomēs	comētae
Dat.	Archiae	epitomae	comētae
Acc.	Archiam (or -ān)	epitomēn	comētēn
Voc.	Archiā	epitomē	comētē (or -ă)
Abl.	Archiā	epitomē	comētē (or -ā)

1. But most Greek nouns in -ē become regular Latin nouns in -a, and are declined like porta; as, grammatica, grammar; mūsica, music; rhētorica, rhetoric.

2. Some other peculiarities occur, especially in poetry.

---

SECOND DECLENSION.

23. Pure Latin nouns of the Second Declension end in -us, -er, -ir, Masculine; -um, Neuter. Originally -us in the Nominative of the Masculine was -os; and -um of the Neuters -om. So also in the Accusative.

Nouns in -us and -um are declined as follows:—

	Hortus, garden; stem, hortŏ-.		Bellum, war; stem, bellŏ-.
SINGULAR.
		TERMINATION.		TERMINATION.
Nom.	hortus	-us	bellum	-um
Gen.	hortī	-ī	bellī	-ī
Dat.	hortō	-ō	bellō	-ō
Acc.	hortum	-um	bellum	-um
Voc.	horte	-e	bellum	-um
Abl.	hortō	-ō	bellō	-ō
PLURAL.
Nom.	hortī	-ī	bella	-a
Gen.	hortōrum	-ōrum	bellōrum	-ōrum
Dat.	hortīs	-īs	bellīs	-īs
Acc.	hortōs	-ōs	bella	-a
Voc.	hortī	-ī	bella	-a
Abl.	hortīs	-īs	bellīs	-īs

Nouns in -er and -ir are declined as follows:—

	Puer, boy; stem, puerŏ-	Ager, field; stem, agrŏ-	Vir, man; stem, virŏ-
SINGULAR.				TERMINATION.
Nom.	puer	ager	vir	Wanting
Gen.	puerī	agrī	virī	-ī
Dat.	puerō	agrō	virō	-ō
Acc.	puerum	agrum	virum	-um
Voc.	puer	ager	vir	Wanting
Abl.	puerō	agrō	virō	-ō
PLURAL.
Nom.	puerī	agrī	virī	-ī
Gen.	puerōrum	agrōrum	virōrum	-ōrum
Dat.	puerīs	agrīs	virīs	-īs
Acc.	puerōs	agrōs	virōs	-ōs
Voc.	puerī	agrī	virī	-ī
Abl.	puerīs	agrīs	virīs	-īs

1. Note that in words of the type of puer and vir the final vowel of the stem has disappeared in the Nominative and Vocative Singular.

In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of ager, the stem is further modified by the development of e before r.

2. The following nouns in -er are declined like puer: adulter, adulterer; gener, son-in-law; Līber, Bacchus; socer, father-in-law; vesper, evening; and compounds in -fer and -ger, as signifer, armiger.

24. Nouns ending in the Nominative Singular in -vus, -vum, -quus, exhibited two types of inflection in the classical Latin,—an earlier and a later,—as follows:—

Earlier Inflection (including Caesar and Cicero).
	Servos, m., slave.	Aevom, n., age.	Equos, m., horse.
SINGULAR.
Nom.	servos	aevom	equos
Gen.	servī	aevī	equī
Dat.	servō	aevō	equō
Acc.	servom	aevom	equom
Voc.	serve	aevom	eque
Abl.	servō	aevō	equō
Later inflection (after Cicero). SINGULAR.
Nom.	servus	aevum	equus
Gen.	servī	aevī	equī
Dat.	servō	aevō	equō
Act.	servum	aevum	equum
Voc.	serve	aevum	eque
Abl.	servō	aevō	equō

1. The Plural of these nouns is regular, and always uniform.

25. 1. Proper names in -ius regularly form the Genitive Singular in -ī (instead of -iī), and the Vocative Singular in -ī (for -ie); as Vergílī, of Virgil, or O Virgil (instead of Vergiliī, Vergilie). In such words the accent stands upon the penult, even though that be short. Nouns in -ajus, -ejus form the Gen. in -aī, -eī, as Pompejus, Pompeī.

2. Nouns in -ius and -ium, until after the beginning of the reign of Augustus (31 B.C.), regularly formed the Genitive Singular in -i (instead of -iī); as,—

Nom.	ingenium	fīlius
Gen.	ingénī	fīlī

These Genitives accent the penult, even when it is short.

3. Fīlius forms the Vocative Singular in -ī (for -ie); viz. fīlī, O son!

4. Deus, god, lacks the Vocative Singular. The Plural is inflected as follows:—

Nom.	dī	(deī)
Gen.	deōrum	(deum)
Dat.	dīs	(deīs)
Acc.	deōs
Voc.	dī	(deī)
Abl.	dīs	(deīs)

5. The Locative Singular ends in -ī; as, Corinthī, at Corinth.

6. The Genitive Plural has -um, instead of -ōrum,—

a) in words denoting money and measure; as, talentum, of talents; modium, of pecks; sēstertium, of sesterces.

b) in duumvir, triumvir, decemvir; as, duumvirum.

c) sometimes in other words; as, līberum, of the children; socium, of the allies.

26. 1. The following nouns in -us are Feminine by exception:—

a) Names of towns, islands, trees—according to the general rule laid down in § 15, 2; also some names of countries; as Aegyptus, Egypt.

b) Five special words,—

alvus, belly;

carbasus, flax;

colus, distaff;

humus, ground;

vannus, winnowing-fan.

c) A few Greek Feminines; as,—

atomus, atom;

diphthongus, diphthong.

2. The following nouns in -us are Neuter:—

27. These end in -os, -ōs, Masculine or Feminine; and -on, Neuter. They are mainly proper names, and are declined as follows:—

	Barbitos, m. and f., lyre.	Androgeōs, m., Androgeos.	Īlion, n., Troy.
Nom.	barbitos	Androgeōs	Īlion
Gen.	barbitī	Androgeō, -ī	Īliī
Dat.	barbitō	Androgeō	Īliō
Acc.	barbiton	Androgeō, -ōn	Īlion
Voc.	barbite	Androgeōs	Īlion
Abl.	barbitō	Androgeō	Īliō

1. Nouns in -os sometimes form the Accusative Singular in -um instead of -on; as, Dēlum, Delos.

2. The Plural of Greek nouns, when it occurs, is usually regular.

3. For other rare forms of Greek nouns the lexicon may be consulted.

---

THIRD DECLENSION.

28. Nouns of the Third Declension end in -a, -e, -ī, -ō, -y, -c, -l, -n, -r, -s, -t, -x. The Third Declension includes several distinct classes of Stems,—

I.	Pure Consonant-Stems.
II.	ĭ-Stems.
III.	Consonant-Stems which have partially adapted themselves to the inflection of ĭ-Stems.
IV.	A very few stems ending in a long vowel or a diphthong.
V.	Irregular Nouns.

29. 1. In these the stem appears in its unaltered form in all the oblique cases, so that the actual case-endings may be clearly recognized.

2. Consonant-Stems fall into several natural subdivisions, according as the stem ends in a Mute, Liquid, Nasal, or Spirant.

A. Mute-Stems.

30. Mute-Stems may end,—

1. In a Labial (p); as, prīncep-s.

2. In a Guttural (g or c); as, rēmex (rēmeg-s); dux (duc-s).

3. In a Dental (d or t); as, lapis (lapid-s); mīles (mīlet-s).

1. STEMS IN A LABIAL MUTE (p).

31. Prīnceps, m., chief.

	SINGULAR.	TERMINATION.
Nom.	prīnceps	-s
Gen.	prīncipis	-is
Dat.	prīncipī	-ī
Acc.	prīncipem	-em
Voc.	prīnceps	-s
Abl.	prīncipe	-e
	PLURAL.
Nom.	prīncipēs	-ēs
Gen.	prīncipum	-um
Dat.	prīncipibus	-ibus
Acc.	prīncipēs	-ēs
Voc.	prīncipēs	-ēs
Abl.	prīncipibus	-ibus

2. STEMS IN A GUTTURAL MUTE (g, c).

32. In these the termination -s of the Nominative Singular unites with the guttural, thus producing -x.

	Rēmex, m., rower.		Dux, c., leader.
	SINGULAR.	PLURAL.	SINGULAR.	PLURAL.
Nom.	rēmex	rēmigēs	dux	ducēs
Gen.	rēmigis	rēmigum	ducis	ducum
Dat.	rēmigī	rēmigibus	ducī	ducibus
Acc.	rēmigem	rēmigēs	ducem	ducēs
Voc.	rēmex	rēmigēs	dux	ducēs
Abl.	rēmige	rēmigibus	duce	ducibus

3. STEMS IN A DENTAL MUTE (d, t).

33. In these the final d or t of the stem disappears in the Nominative Singular before the ending -s.

	Lapis, m., stone.		Mīles, m., soldier.
	SINGULAR.	PLURAL.	SINGULAR.	PLURAL.
Nom.	lapis	lapidēs	mīles	mīlitēs
Gen.	lapidis	lapidum	mīlitis	mīlitum
Dat.	lapidī	lapidibus	mīlitī	mīlitibus
Acc.	lapidem	lapidēs	mīlitem	mīlitēs
Voc.	lapis	lapidēs	mīles	mīlitēs
Abl.	lapide	lapidibus	mīlite	mīlitibus

B. Liquid Stems.

34. These end in -l or -r.

	Vigil, m., watchman.	Victor, m., conqueror.	Aequor, n., sea.
SINGULAR.
Nom.	vigil	victor	aequor
Gen.	vigilis	victōris	aequoris
Dat.	vigilī	victōrī	aequorī
Acc.	vigilem	victōrem	aequor
Voc.	vigil	victor	aequor
Abl.	vigile	victōre	aequore
PLURAL.
Nom.	vigilēs	victōrēs	aequora
Gen.	vigilum	victōrum	aequorum
Dat.	vigilibus	victōribus	aequoribus
Acc.	vigilēs	victōrēs	aequora
Voc.	vigilēs	victōrēs	aequora
Abl.	vigilibus	victōribus	aequoribus

1. Masculine and Feminine stems ending in a liquid form the Nominative and Vocative Singular without termination.

2. The termination is also lacking in the Nominative, Accusative and Vocative Singular of all neuters of the Third Declension.

C. Nasal Stems.

35. These end in -n,^[13] which often disappears in the Nom. Sing.

	Leō, m., lion.		Nōmen, n., name
	SINGULAR.	PLURAL.	SINGULAR.	PLURAL.
Nom.	leō	leōnēs	nōmen	nōmina
Gen.	leōnis	leōnum	nōminis	nōminum
Dat.	leōnī	leōnibus	nōminī	nōminibus
Acc.	leōnem	leōnēs	nōmen	nōmina
Voc.	leō	leōnēs	nōmen	nōmina
Abl.	leōne	leōnibus	nōmine	nōminibus

D. s-Stems.

36.

	Mōs, m. custom.	Genus, n., race.	Honor, m., honor.
SINGULAR.
Nom.	mōs	genus	honor
Gen.	mōris	generis	honōris
Dat.	mōrī	generī	honōrī
Acc.	mōrem	genus	honōrem
Voc.	mōs	genus	honor
Abl.	mōre	genere	honōre
PLURAL.
Nom.	mōrēs	genera	honōrēs
Gen.	mōrum	generum	honōrum
Dat.	mōribus	generibus	honōribus
Acc.	mōrēs	genera	honōrēs
Voc.	mōrēs	genera	honōrēs
Abl.	mōribus	generibus	honōribus

1. Note that the final s of the stem becomes r (between vowels) in the oblique cases. In many words (honor, color, and the like) the r of the oblique cases has, by analogy, crept into the Nominative, displacing the earlier s, though the forms honōs, colōs, etc., also occur, particularly in early Latin and in poetry.

A. Masculine and Feminine ĭ-Stems.

37. These regularly end in -is in the Nominative Singular, and always have -ium in the Genitive Plural. Originally the Accusative Singular ended in -im, the Ablative Singular in -ī, and the Accusative Plural in -īs; but these endings have been largely displaced by -em, -e, and -ēs, the endings of Consonant-Stems.

38.

	Tussis, f., cough; stem, tussi-.	Īgnis, m., fire; stem, īgni-.	Hostis, c., enemy; stem, hosti-.
SINGULAR.				TERMINATION.
Nom.	tussis	īgnis	hostis	-is
Gen.	tussis	īgnis	hostis	-is
Dat.	tussī	īgnī	hostī	-ī
Acc.	tussim	īgnem	hostem	-im, -em
Voc.	tussis	īgnis	hostis	-is
Abl.	tussī	īgnī or e	hoste	-ī, -e
PLURAL.
Nom.	tussēs	īgnēs	hostēs	-ēs
Gen.	tussium	īgnium	hostium	-ium
Dat.	tussibus	īgnibus	hostibus	-ibus
Acc.	tussīs or -ēs	īgnīs or -ēs	hostīs or -ēs	-īs, -ēs
Voc.	tussēs	īgnēs	hostēs	-ēs
Abl.	tussibus	īgnibus	hostibus	-ibus

1. To the same class belong—

apis, bee.	crātis, hurdle.	†*secūris, axe.
auris, ear.	*febris, fever.	sēmentis, sowing.
avis, bird.	orbis, circle.	†*sitis, thirst.
axis, axle.	ovis, sheep.	torris, brand.
*būris, plough-beam.	pelvis, basin.	†*turris, tower.
clāvis, key.	puppis, stern.	trudis, pole.
collis, hill.	restis, rope.	vectis, lever.
	and many others.

Words marked with a star regularly have Acc. -im; those marked with a † regularly have Abl. -ī. Of the others, many at times show -im and -ī. Town and river names in -is regularly have -im, -ī.

2. Not all nouns in -is are ĭ-Stems. Some are genuine consonant-stems, and have the regular consonant terminations throughout, notably, canis, dog; juvenis, youth.^[14]

3. Some genuine ĭ-Stems have become disguised in the Nominative Singular; as, pars, part, for par(ti)s; anas, duck, for ana(ti)s; so also mors, death; dōs, dowry; nox, night; sors, lot; mēns, mind; ars, art; gēns, tribe; and some others.

B. Neuter ĭ-Stems.

39. These end in the Nominative Singular in -e, -al, and -ar. They always have -ī in the Ablative Singular, -ia in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural, and -ium in the Genitive Plural, thus holding more steadfastly to the i-character than do Masculine and Feminine ĭ-Stems.

	Sedile, seat; stem, sedīli-.	Animal, animal; stem, animāli-.	Calcar, spur; stem, calcāri-.
SINGULAR.				TERMINATION.
Nom.	sedīle	animal	calcar	-e or wanting
Gen.	sedīlis	animālis	calcāris	-is
Dat.	sedīlī	animālī	calcārī	-ī
Acc.	sedīle	animal	calcar	-e or wanting
Voc.	sedīle	animal	calcar	-e or wanting
Abl.	sedīlī	animālī	calcārī	-ī
PLURAL.
Nom.	sedīlia	animālia	calcāria	-ia
Gen.	sedīlium	animālium	calcārium	-ium
Dat.	sedīlibus	animālibus	calcāribus	-ibus
Acc.	sedīlia	animālia	calcāria	-ia
Voc.	sedīlia	animālia	calcāria	-ia
Abl.	sedīlibus	animālibus	calcāribus	-ibus

1. In most words of this class the final -i of the stem is lost in the Nominative Singular; in others it appears as -e.

2. Proper names in -e form the Ablative Singular in -e; as, Sōracte, Mt. Soracte; so also sometimes mare, sea.

40. Many Consonant-Stems have so far adapted themselves to the inflection of ĭ-stems as to take -ium in the Genitive Plural, and -īs in the Accusative Plural. Their true character as Consonant-Stems, however, is shown by the fact that they never take -im in the Accusative Singular, or -ī in the Ablative Singular. The following words are examples of this class:—

	Caedēs, f., slaughter; stem, caed-.	Arx, f., citadel; stem, arc-.	Linter, f., skiff; stem, lintr-.
SINGULAR.
Nom.	caedēs	arx	linter
Gen.	caedis	arcis	lintris
Dat.	caedī	arcī	lintrī
Acc.	caedem	arcem	lintrem
Voc.	caedēs	arx	linter
Abl.	caede	arce	lintre
PLURAL.
Nom.	caedēs	arcēs	lintrēs
Gen.	caedium	arcium	lintrium
Dat.	caedibus	arcibus	lintribus
Acc.	caedēs, -īs	arcēs, -īs	lintrēs, -īs
Voc.	caedēs	arcēs	lintrēs
Abl.	caedibus	arcibus	lintribus

1. The following classes of nouns belong here:—

a) Nouns in -ēs, with Genitive in -is; as, nūbēs, aedēs, clādēs, etc.

b) Many monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by one or more consonants; as, urbs, mōns, stirps, lanx.

c) Most nouns in -ns and -rs as, cliēns, cohors.

d) Ūter, venter; fūr, līs, mās, mūs, nix; and the Plurals faucēs, penātēs, Optimātēs, Samnitēs, Quirītēs.

e) Sometimes nouns in -tās with Genitive -tātis; as, cīvitās, aetās. Cīvitās usually has cīvitātium.

41.

	Vis, f., force; stem, vī-.	Sūs, c., swine; stem, sū-.	Bōs, c., ox, cow; stem, bou-.	Juppiter, m., Jupiter; stem, Jou-.
SINGULAR.
Nom.	vīs	sūs	bōs	Juppiter
Gen.	——	suis	bovis	Jovis
Dat.	——	suī	bovī	Jovī
Acc.	vim	suem	bovem	Jovem
Voc.	vīs	sūs	bōs	Juppiter
Abl.	vī	sue	bove	Jove
PLURAL.
Nom.	vīrēs	suēs	bovēs
Gen.	vīrium	suum	bovum, boum
Dat.	vīribus	suibus, subus	bōbus, būbus
Acc.	vīrēs	suēs	bovēs
Voc.	vīrēs	suēs	bovēs
Abl.	vīribus	suibus, subus	bōbus, būbus

1. Notice that the oblique cases of sūs have ŭ in the root syllable.

2. Grūs is declined like sūs, except that the Dative and Ablative Plural are always gruibus.

3. Juppiter is for Jou-pater, and therefore contains the same stem as in Jov-is, Jov-ī, etc.

Nāvis was originally a diphthong stem ending in au-, but it has passed over to the ĭ-stems (§ 37). Its ablative often ends in -ī.

42.

	Senex, m., old man.	Carō, f., flesh.	Os, n., bone.
SINGULAR.
Nom.	senex	carō	os
Gen.	senis	carnis	ossis
Dat.	senī	carnī	ossī
Acc.	senem	carnem	os
Voc.	senex	carō	os
Abl.	sene	carne	osse
PLURAL.
Nom.	senēs	carnēs	ossa
Gen.	senum	carnium	ossium
Dat.	senibus	carnibus	ossibus
Acc.	senēs	carnēs	ossa
Voc.	senēs	carnēs	ossa
Abl.	senibus	carnibus	ossibus

1. Iter, itineris, n., way, is inflected regularly throughout from the stem itiner-.

2. Supellex, supellectilis, f., furniture, is confined to the Singular. The oblique cases are formed from the stem supellectil-. The ablative has both -ī and -e.

3. Jecur, n., liver, forms its oblique cases from two stems,—jecor- and jecinor-. Thus, Gen. jecoris or jecinoris.

4. Femur, n., thigh, usually forms its oblique cases from the stem femor-, but sometimes from the stem femin-. Thus, Gen. femoris or feminis.

43. 1. Nouns in -ō, -or, -ōs, -er, -ĕs are Masculine.

2. Nouns in -ās, -ēs, -is, -ys, -x, -s (preceded by a consonant); -dō, -gō (Genitive -inis); -iō (abstract and collective), -ūs (Genitive -ātis or -ūdis) are Feminine.

3. Nouns ending in -a, -e, -i, -y, -o, -l, -n, -t, -ar, -ur, -ŭs are Neuter.

44. Exceptions to the Rule for Masculines.

1. Nouns in -ō.

a. Feminine: carō, flesh.

2. Nouns in -or.

a. Feminine: arbor, tree.

b. Neuter: aequor, sea; cor, heart; marmor, marble.

3. Nouns in -ōs.

a. Feminine: dōs, dowry.

b. Neuter: ōs (ōris), mouth.

4. Nouns in -er.

a. Feminine: linter, skiff.

b. Neuter: cadāver, corpse; iter, way; tūber, tumor; ūber, udder. Also botanical names in -er; as, acer, maple.

5. Nouns in -ĕs.

a. Feminine: seges, crop.

45. Exceptions to the Rule for Feminines.

1. Nouns in -ās.

a. Masculine: vās, bondsman.

b. Neuter: vās, vessel.

2. Nouns in -ēs.

a. Masculine: ariēs, ram; pariēs, wall; pēs, foot.

3. Nouns in -is.

a. Masculine: all nouns in -nis and -guis; as, amnis, river; īgnis, fire; pānis, bread; sanguis, blood; unguis, nail.

Also—

axis, axle. collis, hill. fascis, bundle. lapis, stone. mēnsis, month.

piscis, fish. postis, post. pulvis, dust. orbis, circle. sentis, brier.

4. Nouns in -x.

a. Masculine: apex, peak; cōdex, tree-trunk; grex, flock; imbrex, tile; pollex, thumb; vertex, summit; calix, cup.

5. Nouns in -s preceded by a consonant.

a. Masculine: dēns, tooth; fōns, fountain; mōns, mountain; pōns, bridge.

6. Nouns in -dō.

a. Masculine: cardō, hinge; ōrdō, order.

46. Exceptions to the Rule for Neuters.

1. Nouns in -l.

a. Masculine: sōl, sun; sāl, salt.

2. Nouns in -n.

a. Masculine: pecten, comb.

3. Nouns in -ur.

a. Masculine: vultur, vulture.

4. Nouns in -ŭs.

a. Masculine: lepus, hare.

47. The following are the chief peculiarities of these:—

1. The ending -ă in the Accusative Singular; as, aetheră, aether; Salamīnă, Salamis.

2. The ending -ĕs in the Nominative Plural; as, Phrygĕs, Phrygians.

3. The ending -ăs in the Accusative Plural; as, Phrygăs, Phrygians.

4. Proper names in -ās (Genitive -antis) have -ā in the Vocative Singular; as, Atlās (Atlantis), Vocative Atlā, Atlas.

5. Neuters in -ma (Genitive -matis) have -īs instead of -ibus in the Dative and Ablative Plural; as, poēmatīs, poems.

6. Orpheus, and other proper names ending in -eus, form the Vocative Singular in -eu (Orpheu, etc.). But in prose the other cases usually follow the second declension; as, Orpheī, Orpheō, etc.

7. Proper names in -ēs, like Periclēs, form the Genitive Singular sometimes in -is, sometimes in -ī, as, Periclis or Periclī.

8. Feminine proper names in -ō have -ūs in the Genitive, but -ō in the other oblique cases; as,—

Nom.	Didō	Acc.	Didō
Gen.	Didūs	Voc.	Didō
Dat.	Didō	Abl.	Didō

9. The regular Latin endings often occur in Greek nouns.

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FOURTH DECLENSION.

48. Nouns of the Fourth Declension end in -us Masculine, and -ū Neuter. They are declined as follows:—

	Frūctus, m., fruit.		Cornū, n., horn.
	SINGULAR.	PLURAL.	SINGULAR.	PLURAL.
Nom.	frūctus	frūctūs	cornū	cornua
Gen.	frūctūs	frūctuum	cornūs	cornuum
Dat.	frūctuī	frūctibus	cornū	cornibus
Acc.	frūctum	frūctūs	cornū	cornua
Voc.	frūctus	frūctūs	cornū	cornua
Abl.	frūctū	frūctibus	cornū	cornibus

49. 1. Nouns in -us, particularly in early Latin, often form the Genitive Singular in -ī, following the analogy of nouns in -us of the Second Declension; as, senātī, ōrnātī. This is usually the case in Plautus and Terence.

2. Nouns in -us sometimes have -ū in the Dative Singular, instead of -uī; as, frūctū (for frūctuī).

3. The ending -ubus, instead of -ibus, occurs in the Dative and Ablative Plural of artūs (Plural), limbs; tribus, tribe; and in dis-syllables in -cus; as, artubus, tribubus, arcubus, lacubus. But with the exception of tribus, all these words admit the forms in -ibus as well as those in -ubus.

4. Domus, house, is declined according to the Fourth Declension, but has also the following forms of the Second:—

5. The only Neuters of this declension in common use are: cornū, horn; genū, knee; and verū, spit.

50. The following nouns in -us are Feminine: acus, needle; domus, house; manus, hand; porticus, colonnade; tribus, tribe; Īdūs (Plural), Ides; also names of trees (§ 15, 2).

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FIFTH DECLENSION.

51. Nouns of the Fifth Declension end in -ēs, and are declined as follows:—

	Diēs, m., day.		Rēs, f., thing.
	SINGULAR.	PLURAL.	SINGULAR.	PLURAL.
Nom.	diēs	diēs	rēs	rēs
Gen.	diēī	diērum	rĕī	rērum
Dat.	diēī	diēbus	rĕī	rēbus
Acc.	diem	diēs	rem	rēs
Voc.	diēs	diēs	rēs	rēs
Abl.	diē	diēbus	rē	rēbus

52. 1. The ending of the Genitive and Dative Singular is -ĕī, instead of -ēī, when a consonant precedes; as, spĕī, rĕī, fidĕī.

2. A Genitive ending -ī (for -ĕī) is found in plēbī (from plēbēs = plēbs) in the expressions tribūnus plēbī, tribune of the people, and plēbī scītum, decree of the people; sometimes also in other words.

3. A Genitive and Dative form in -ē sometimes occurs; as, aciē.

4. With the exception of diēs and rēs, most nouns of the Fifth Declension are not declined in the Plural. But aciēs, seriēs, speciēs, spēs, and a few others are used in the Nominative and Accusative Plural.

53. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are regularly Feminine, except diēs, day, and merīdiēs, mid-day. But diēs is sometimes Feminine in the Singular, particularly when it means an appointed day.

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DEFECTIVE NOUNS.

54. Here belong—

1. Nouns used in the Singular only.

2. Nouns used in the Plural only.

3. Nouns used only in certain cases.

4. Indeclinable Nouns.

55. Many nouns, from the nature of their signification, are regularly used in the Singular only. Thus:—

1. Proper names; as, Cicerō, Cicero; Italia, Italy.

2. Nouns denoting material; as, aes, copper; lac, milk.

3. Abstract nouns; as, ignōrantia, ignorance; bonitās, goodness.

4. But the above classes of words are sometimes used in the Plural. Thus:—

a) Proper names,—to denote different members of a family, or specimens of a type; as, Cicerōnēs, the Ciceros; Catōnēs, men like Cato.

b) Names of materials,—to denote objects made of the material, or different kinds of the substance; as, aera, bronzes (i.e. bronze figures); ligna, woods.

c) Abstract nouns,—to denote instances of the quality; as, ignōrantiae, cases of ignorance.

56. Here belong—

1. Many geographical names; as, Thēbae, Thebes; Leuctra, Leuctra; Pompejī, Pompeii.

2. Many names of festivals; as, Megalēsia, the Megalesian festival.

3. Many special words, of which the following are the most important:—

angustiae, narrow pass. arma, weapons. dēliciae, delight. dīvitiae, riches. Īdūs, Ides. indūtiae, truce. īnsidiae, ambush. majōrēs, ancestors.

mānēs, spirits of the dead. moenia, city walls. minae, threats. nūptiae, marriage. posterī, descendants. reliquiae, remainder. tenebrae, darkness. verbera, blows.

Also in classical prose regularly—

cervīcēs, neck. fidēs, lyre.

nārēs, nose. vīscerā, viscera.

57. 1. Used in only One Case. Many nouns of the Fourth Declension are found only in the Ablative Singular as, jussū, by the order; injussū, without the order; nātū, by birth.

2. Used in Two Cases.

a. Fors (chance), Nom. Sing.; forte, Abl. Sing.

b. Spontis (free-will), Gen. Sing.; sponte, Abl. Sing.

3. Used in Three Cases. Nēmō, no one (Nom.), has also the Dat. nēminī and the Acc. nēminem. The Gen. and Abl. are supplied by the corresponding cases of nūllus; viz. nūllīus and nūllō.

4. Impetus has the Nom., Acc., and Abl. Sing., and the Nom. and Acc. Plu.; viz. impetus, impetum, impetū, impetūs.

5.

a. Precī, precem, prece, lacks the Nom. and Gen. Sing.

b. Vicis, vicem, vice, lacks the Nom. and Dat. Sing.

6. Opis, dapis, and frūgis,—all lack the Nom. Sing.

7. Many monosyllables of the Third Declension lack the Gen. Plu.: as, cor, lūx, sōl, aes, ōs (ōris), rūs, sāl, tūs.

58. Here belong—

fās, n., right. īnstar, n., likeness. māne, n., morning.

nefās, n., impiety. nihil, n., nothing. secus, n., sex.

1. With the exception of māne (which may serve also as Ablative, in the morning), the nouns in this list are simply Neuters confined in use to the Nominative and Accusative Singular.

59. These are nouns whose forms are partly of one declension, and partly of another. Thus:—

1. Several nouns have the entire Singular of one declension, while the Plural is of another; as,—

vās, vāsis (vessel);	Plu., vāsa, vāsorōum, vāsīs, etc.
jūgerum, jūgerī (acre);	Plu., jūgera, jūgerum, jūgeribus, etc.

2. Several nouns, while belonging in the main to one declension, have certain special forms belonging to another. Thus:—

a) Many nouns of the First Declension ending in -ia take also a Nom. and Acc. of the Fifth; as, māteriēs, māteriem, material, as well as māteria, māteriam.

b) Famēs, hunger, regularly of the Third Declension, has the Abl. famē of the Fifth.

c) Requiēs, requiētis, rest, regularly of the Third Declension, takes an Acc. of the Fifth, requiem, in addition to requiētem.

d) Besides plēbs, plēbis, common people, of the Third Declension, we find plēbēs, plēbĕī (also plēbī, see § 52, 2), of the Fifth.

60. Heterogeneous nouns vary in Gender. Thus:—

1. Several nouns of the Second Declension have two forms,—one Masc. in -us, and one Neuter in -um; as, clipeus, clipeum, shield; carrus, carrum, cart.

2. Other nouns have one gender in the Singular, another in the Plural; as,—

SINGULAR.	PLURAL.
balneum, n., bath;	balneae, f., bath-house.
epulum, n., feast;	epulae, f., feast.
frēnum, n., bridle;	frēnī, m.(rarely frēna, n.), bridle.
jocus, m., jest;	joca, n. (also jocī, m.), jests.
locus, m., place;	loca, n., places; locī, m., passages or topics in an author.
rāstrum, n., rake;	rāstrī, m.; rāstra, n., rakes.

a. Heterogeneous nouns may at the same time be heteroclites, as in case of the first two examples above.

61. The following nouns have one meaning in the Singular, and another in the Plural:—

SINGULAR.	PLURAL.
aedēs, temple;	aedēs, house.
auxilium, help;	auxilia, auxiliary troops.
carcer, prison;	carcerēs, stalls for racing-chariot.
castrum, fort;	castra, camp.
cōpia, abundance;	cōpiae, troops, resources.
fīnis, end;	fīnēs, borders, territory.
fortūna, fortune;	fortūnae, possessions, wealth.
grātia, favor, gratitude;	grātiae, thanks.
impedīmentum, hindrance;	impedīmenta, baggage.
littera, letter (of the alphabet);	litterae, epistle; literature.
mōs, habit, custom;	mōrēs, character.
opera, help, service;	operae, laborers.
(ops) opis, help;	opēs, resources.
pars, part;	partēs, party; rôle.
sāl, salt;	sălēs, wit.

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62. Adjectives denote quality. They are declined like nouns, and fall into two classes,—

1. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.

2. Adjectives of the Third Declension.

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ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS.

63. In these the Masculine is declined like hortus, puer, or ager, the Feminine like porta, and the Neuter like bellum. Thus, Masculine like hortus:—

Bonus, good. SINGULAR.
	MASCULINE.	FEMININE.	NEUTER.
Nom.	bonus	bona	bonum
Gen.	bonī	bonae	bonī
Dat.	bonō	bonae	bonō
Acc.	bonum	bonam	bonum
Voc.	bone	bona	bonum
Abl.	bonō	bonā	bonō
PLURAL.
Nom.	bonī	bonae	bona
Gen.	bonōrum	bonārum	bonōrum
Dat.	bonīs	bonīs	bonīs
Acc.	bonōs	bonās	bona
Voc.	bonī	bonae	bona
Abl.	bonīs	bonīs	bonīs

1. The Gen. Sing. Masc. and Neut. of Adjectives in -ius ends in -iī (not in -ī as in case of Nouns; see § 25, 1; 2). So also the Voc. Sing. of such Adjectives ends in -ie, not in ī. Thus eximius forms Gen. eximiī; Voc. eximie.

2. Distributives (see § 78, 1, c) regularly form the Gen. Plu. Masc. and Neut. in -um instead of -ōrum (compare § 25, 6); as, dēnum centēnum; but always singulōrum.

64. Masculine like puer:—

Tener, tender. SINGULAR.
	MASCULINE.	FEMININE	NEUTER.
Nom.	tener	tenera	tenerum
Gen.	tenerī	tenerae	tenerī
Dat.	tenerō	tenerae	tenerō
Acc.	tenerum	teneram	tenerum
Voc.	tener	tenera	tenerum
Abl.	tenerō	tenerā	tenerō
PLURAL.
Nom.	tenerī	tenerae	tenera
Gen.	tenerōrum	tenerārum	tenerōrum
Dat.	tenerīs	tenerīs	tenerīs
Acc.	tenerōs	tenerās	tenera
Voc.	tenerī	tenerae	tenera
Abl.	tenerīs	tenerīs	tenerīs

65. Masculine like ager:—

Sacer, sacred. SINGULAR.
	MASCULINE.	FEMININE.	NEUTER.
Nom.	sacer	sacra	sacrum
Gen.	sacrī	sacrae	sacrī
Dat.	sacrō	sacrae	sacrō
Acc.	sacrum	sacram	sacrum
Voc.	sacer	sacra	sacrum
Abl.	sacrō	sacrā	sacrō
PLURAL.
Nom.	sacrī	sacrae	sacra
Gen.	sacrōrum	sacrārum	sacrōrum
Dat.	sacrīs	sacrīs	sacrīs
Acc.	sacrōs	sacrās	sacra
Voc.	sacrī	sacrae	sacra
Abl.	sacrīs	sacrīs	sacrīs

1. Most adjectives in -er are declined like sacer. The following however, are declined like tener: asper, rough; lacer, torn; līber, free; miser, wretched; prōsper, prosperous; compounds in -fer and -ger; sometimes dexter, right.

2. Satur, full, is declined: satur, satura, saturum.

66. Here belong—

alius, another;		alter, the other;
ūllus, any;		nūllus, none;
uter, which? (of two);		neuter, neither;
sōlus, alone;		tōtus, whole;
	ūnus, one, alone.

They are declined as follows:—

SINGULAR.
	MASCULINE.	FEMININE.	NEUTER.	MASCULINE.	FEMININE.	NEUTER.
Nom.	alius	alia	aliud	alter	altera	alterum
Gen.	alterĭus	alterĭus	alterĭus[15]	alterĭus	alterĭus	alterĭus
Dat.	aliī	aliī	aliī	alterī	alterī[16]	alterī
Acc.	alium	aliam	aliud	alterum	alteram	alterum
Voc.	——	——	——	——	——	——
Abl.	aliō	aliā	aliō	alterō	alterā	alterō
Nom.	uter	utra	utrum	tōtus	tōta	tōtum
Gen.	utrīus	utrīus	utrīus	tōtīus	tōtīus	tōtīus
Dat.	utrī	utrī	utrī	tōtī	tōtī	tōtī
Acc.	utrum	utram	utrum	tōtum	tōtam	tōtum
Voc.	——	——	——	——	——	——
Abl.	utrō	utrā	utrō	tōtō	tōtā	tōtō

1. All these words lack the Vocative. The Plural is regular.

2. Neuter is declined like uter.

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ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.

67. These fall into three classes,—

1. Adjectives of three terminations in the Nominative Singular,—one for each gender.

2. Adjectives of two terminations.

3. Adjectives of one termination.

a. With the exception of Comparatives, and a few other words mentioned below in § 70, 1, all Adjectives of the Third Declension follow the inflection of ĭ-stems; i.e. they have the Ablative Singular in -ī, the Genitive Plural in -ium, the Accusative Plural in -īs (as well as -ēs) in the Masculine and Feminine, and the Nominative and Accusative Plural in -ia in Neuters.

68. These are declined as follows:—

Ācer, sharp. SINGULAR.
	MASCULINE.	FEMININE.	NEUTER.
Nom.	ācer	ācris	ācre
Gen.	ācris	ācris	ācris
Dat.	ācrī	ācrī	ācrī
Acc.	ācrem	ācrem	ācre
Voc.	ācer	ācris	ācre
Abl.	ācrī	ācrī	ācrī
PLURAL.
Nom.	ācrēs	ācrēs	ācria
Gen.	ācrium	ācrium	ācrium
Dat,	ācribus	ācribus	ācribus
Acc.	ācrēs, -īs	ācrēs, -īs	ācria
Voc.	ācrēs	ācrēs	ācria
Abl.	ācribus	ācribus	ācribus

1. Like ācer are declined alacer, lively; campester, level; celeber, famous; equester, equestrian; palūster, marshy; pedester, pedestrian; puter, rotten; salūber, wholesome; silvester, woody; terrester, terrestrial; volucer, winged; also names of months in -ber, as September.

2. Celer, celeris, celere, swift, retains the e before r, but lacks the Genitive Plural.

3. In the Nominative Singular of Adjectives of this class the Feminine form is sometimes used for the Masculine. This is regularly true of salūbris, silvestris, and terrestris. In case of the other words in the list, the use of the Feminine for the Masculine is confined chiefly to early and late Latin, and to poetry.

69. These are declined as follows:—

	Fortis, strong.		Fortior, stronger.
SINGULAR.
	M. AND F.	NEUT.	M. AND F.	NEUT.
Nom.	fortis	forte	fortior	fortius
Gen.	fortis	fortis	fortiōris	fortiōris
Dat.	fortī	fortī	fortiōrī	fortiōrī
Acc.	fortem	forte	fortiōrem	fortius
Voc.	fortis	forte	fortior	fortius
Abl.	fortī	fortī	fortiōre	fortiōre
PLURAL.
Nom.	fortēs	fortia	fortiōrēs	fortiōra
Gen.	fortium	fortium	fortiōrum	fortiōrum
Dat.	fortibus	fortibus	fortiōribus	fortiōribus
Acc.	fortēs, -īs	fortia	fortiōrēs, -īs	fortiōra
Voc.	fortēs	fortia	fortiōrēs	fortiōra
Abl.	fortibus	fortibus	fortiōribus	fortiōribus

1. Fortior is the Comparative of fortis. All Comparatives are regularly declined in the same way. The Acc. Plu. in -īs is rare.

70.

	Fēlīx, happy..		Prūdēns, prudent.
SINGULAR.
	M. AND F.	NEUT.	M. AND F.	NEUT.
Nom.	fēlīx	fēlīx	prūdēns	prūdēns
Gen.	fēlīcīs	fēlīcis	prūdentis	prūdentis
Dat.	fēlīcī	fēlīcī	prūdentī	prūdentī
Acc.	fēlīcem	fēlīx	prūdentem	prūdēns
Voc.	fēlīx	fēlīx	prūdēns	prūdēns
Abl.	fēlīcī	fēlīcī	prūdentī	prūdentī
PLURAL.
Nom.	fēlīcēs	fēlīcia	prūdentēs	prūdentia
Gen.	fēlīcium	fēlīcium	prūdentium	prūdentium
Dat.	fēlīcibus	fēlīcibus	prūdentibus	prūdentibus
Acc.	fēlīcēs, -īs	fēlīcia	prūdentēs, -īs	prūdentia
Voc.	fēlīcēs	fēlīcia	prūdentēs	prūdentia
Abl.	fēlīcibus	fēlīcibus	prūdentibus	prūdentibus
	Vetus, old.		Plūs, more.
SINGULAR.
	M. AND F.	NEUT.	M. AND F.	NEUT.
Nom.	vetus	vetus	——	plūs
Gen.	veteris	veteris	——	plūris
Dat.	veterī	veterī	——	——
Acc.	veterem	vetus	——	plūs
Voc.	vetus	vetus	——	——
Abl.	vetere	vetere	——	plūre
PLURAL.
Nom.	veterēs	vetera	plūrēs	plūra
Gen.	veterum	veterum	plūrium	plūrium
Dat.	veteribus	veteribus	plūribus	plūribus
Acc.	veterēs	vetera	plūrēs, -īs	plūra
Voc.	veterēs	vetera	——	——
Abl.	veteribus	veteribus	plūribus	plūribus

1. It will be observed that vetus is declined as a pure Consonant-Stem; i.e. Ablative Singular in -e, Genitive Plural in -um, Nominative Plural Neuter in -a, and Accusative Plural Masculine and Feminine in -ēs only. In the same way are declined compos, controlling; dīves, rich; particeps, sharing; pauper, poor; prīnceps, chief; sōspes, safe; superstes, surviving. Yet dīves always has Neut. Plu. dītia.

2. Inops, needy, and memor, mindful, have Ablative Singular inopī, memorī, but Genitive Plural inopum, memorum.

3. Participles in -āns and -ēns follow the declension of ī-stems. But they do not have -ī the Ablative, except when employed as adjectives; when used as participles or as substantives, they have -e; as,—

4. Plūs, in the Singular, is always a noun.

5. In the Ablative Singular, adjectives, when used as substantives,—

a) usually retain the adjective declension; as,—

aequālis, contemporary, Abl. aequālī.

cōnsulāris, ex-consul, Abl. cōnsulārī

So names of Months; as, Aprīlī, April; Decembrī, December.

b) But adjectives used as proper names have -e in the Ablative Singular; as, Celere, Celer; Juvenāle, Juvenal.

c) Patrials in -ās, -ātis and -īs, -ītis, when designating places regularly have -ī; as, in Arpīnātī, on the estate at Arpinum, yet -e, when used of persons; as, ab Arpīnāte, by an Arpinatian.

6. A very few indeclinable adjectives occur, the chief of which are frūgī, frugal; nēquam, worthless.

7. In poetry, adjectives and participles in -ns sometimes form the Gen. Plu. in -um instead of -ium; as, venientum, of those coming.

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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

71. 1. There are three degrees of Comparison,—the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.

2. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (Neut. -ius), and the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um), to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel; as,—

altus, high,	altior, higher,	altissimus, highest, very high.
fortis, brave,	fortior,	fortissimus.
fēlīx, fortunate,	fēlīcior,	fēlīcissimus.

So also Participles, when used as Adjectives; as,—

doctus, learned,	doctior,	doctissimus.
egēns, needy,	egentior,	egentissimus.

3. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by appending -rimus to the Nominative of the Positive. The Comparative is regular. Thus:—

asper, rough,	asperior,	asperrimus.
pulcher, beautiful,	pulchrior,	pulcherrimus.
ācer, sharp,	ācrior,	ācerrimus.
celer, swift,	celerior,	celerrimus.

a. Notice mātūrus, mātūrior, mātūrissimus or mātūrrimus.

4. Five Adjectives in -ilis form the Superlative by adding -limus to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel. The Comparative is regular. Thus:—

facilis, easy,	facilior,	facillimus.
difficilis, diffcult,	difficilior,	difficillimus.
similis, like,	similior,	simillimus.
dissimilis, unlike,	dissimilior,	dissimillimus.
humilis, low,	humilior,	humillimus.

5. Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, and -volus form the Comparative and Superlative as though from forms in -dīcēns, -ficēns, -volēns. Thus:—

maledicus, slanderous,	maledīcentior,	maledīcentissimus.
magnificus, magnificent,	magnificentior,	magnificentissimus.
benevolus, kindly,	benevolentior,	benevolentissimus.

a. Positives in -dīcēns and -volēns occur in early Latin; as maledīcēns, benevolēns.

6. Dīves has the Comparative dīvitior or dītior; Superlative dīvitissimus or dītissimus.

72. Several Adjectives vary the Stem in Comparison; viz.—

bonus, good,	melior,	optimus.
malus, bad,	pejor,	pessimus.
parvus, small,	minor,	minimus.
magnus, large,	major,	maximus.
multus, much,	plūs,	plūrimus,
frūgī, thrifty,	frūgālior,	frūgālissimus,
nēquam, worthless,	nēquior,	nēquissimus.

73. 1. Positive lacking entirely,—

(Cf. prae, in front of.)	prior, former,	prīmus, first
(Cf. citrā, this side of.)	citerior, on this side,	citimus, near.
(Cf. ultrā, beyond.)	ulterior, farther,	ultimus, farthest.
(Cf. intrā, within.)	interior, inner,	intimus, inmost
(Cf. prope, near.)	propior, nearer,	proximus, nearest.
(Cf. dē, down.)	dēterior, inferior,	dēterrimus, worst.
(Cf. archaic potis, possible.)	potior, preferable,	potissimus, chiefest

2. Positive occurring only in special cases,—

posterō diē, annō, etc. the following day, etc., posterī, descendants,	posterior, later,	postrēmus, latest, last. postumus, late-born, posthumous.
exteri, foreigners, nātiōnēs exterae, foreign nations,	exterior, outer	extrēmus, extimus, outermost.
inferī, gods of the lower world, Mare Inferum, Mediterranean Sea,	īnferior, lower,	īnfimus, īmus, lowest.
superī, gods above, Mare Superum, Adriatic Sea,	superior, higher,	suprēmus, last. summus, highest.

3. Comparative lacking.

vetus, old,	——[17]	veterrimus.
fīdus, faithful,	——	fīdissimus.
novus, new,	——[18]	novissimus,[19] last.
sacer, sacred,	——	sacerrimus.
falsus, false,	——	falsissimus.

Also in some other words less frequently used.

4. Superlative lacking.

alacer, lively,	alacrior,	——
ingēns, great,	ingentior,	——
salūtāris, wholesome,	salūtārior,	——
juvenis, young,	jūnior,	——[20]
senex, old,	senior.	——[21]

a. The Superlative is lacking also in many adjectives in -ālis, -īlis, -ĭlis, -bilis, and in a few others.

74. Many adjectives do not admit terminational comparison, but form the Comparative and Superlative degrees by prefixing magis (more) and maximē (most). Here belong—

1. Many adjectives ending in -ālis, -āris, -idus, -īlis, -icus, imus, īnus, -ōrus.

2. Adjectives in -us, preceded by a vowel; as, idōneus, adapted; arduus, steep; necessārius, necessary.

a. Adjectives in -quus, of course, do not come under this rule. The first u in such cases is not a vowel, but a consonant.

75. Here belong—

1. Many adjectives, which, from the nature of their signification, do not admit of comparison; as, hodiernus, of to-day; annuus, annual; mortālis, mortal.

2. Some special words; as, mīrus, gnārus, merus; and a few others.

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FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.

76. Adverbs are for the most part derived from adjectives, and depend upon them for their comparison.

1. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive by changing -ī of the Genitive Singular to -ē; those derived from adjectives of the Third Declension, by changing -is of the Genitive Singular to -iter; as,—

cārus,	cārē, dearly;
pulcher,	pulchrē, beautifully;
ācer,	ācriter, fiercely;
levis,	leviter, lightly.

a. But Adjectives in -ns, and a few others, add -er (instead of -iter), to form the Adverb; as,—

sapiēns,	sapienter, wisely;
sollers,	sollerter, skillfully.

Note audāx, audācter, boldly.

2. The Comparative of all Adverbs regularly consists of the Accusative Singular Neuter of the Comparative of the Adjective; while the Superlative of the Adverb is formed by changing the -ī of the Genitive Singular of the Superlative of the Adjective to -ē. Thus—

(cārus)	cārē, dearly,	cārius,	cārissimē.
(pulcher)	pulchrē, beautifully,	pulchrius,	pulcherrimē.
(ācer)	ācriter, fiercely,	ācrius,	ācerrimē.
(levis)	leviter, lightly,	levius,	levissimē.
(sapiēns)	sapienter, wisely,	sapientius,	sapientissimē.
(audāx)	audācter, boldly,	audācius,	audācissimē.

77. 1.

benĕ, well,	melius,	optimē.
malĕ, ill,	pejus,	pessimē.
magnopere, greatly,	magis,	maximē.
multum, much,	plūs,	plūrimum.
nōn multum, little, parum,	minus,	minimē.
diū, long,	diūtius,	diūtissimē.
nēquiter, worthlessly,	nēquius,	nēquissimē.
saepe, often,	saepius,	saepissimē.
mātūrē, betimes,	mātūrius,	mātūrrimē. mātūrissimē.
prope, near,	propius,	proximē.
nūper, recently,	——	nūperrimē.
——	potius, rather,	potissimum, especially.
——	prius, previously, before,	prīmum, first.
secus, otherwise,	sētius, less.

2. A number of adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form an Adverb in -ō, instead of -ē; as,—

crēbrō, frequently;		falsō, falsely;
continuō, immediately;		subitō, suddenly;
	rārō, rarely, and a few others.

a. cito, quickly, has -ŏ.

3. A few adjectives employ the Accusative Singular Neuter as the Positive of the Adverb; as,—

multum, much;

paulum, little;

facile, easily.

4. A few adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive in -iter; as,—

fīrmus, fīrmiter, firmly;	hūmānus, hūmāniter, humanly;
largus, largiter, copiously;	alius, aliter, otherwise.

a. violentus has violenter.

5. Various other adverbial suffixes occur, the most important of which are -tus and -tim; as, antīquitus, anciently; paulātim, gradually.

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NUMERALS.

78. Numerals may be divided into—

I. Numeral Adjectives, comprising—

a. Cardinals; as, ūnus, one; duo, two; etc.

b. Ordinals; as, prīmus, first; secundus, second; etc.

c. Distributives; as, singulī, one by one; bīnī, two by two; etc.

II. Numeral Adverbs; as, semel, once; bis, twice; etc.

79. TABLE OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.

	CARDINALS.	ORDINALS.	DISTRIBUTIVES.	ADVERBS.
1.	ūnus, ūna, ūnum	prīmus, first	singulī, one by one	semel, once
2.	duo, duae, duo	secundus, second	bīnī, two by two	bis
3.	trēs, tria	tertius, third	ternī (trīnī)	ter
4.	quattuor	quārtus, fourth	quaternī	quater
5.	quīnque	quīntus, fifth	quīnī	quīnquiēs
6.	sex	sextus	sēnī	sexiēs
7.	septem	septimus	septēnī	septiēs
8.	octō	octāvus	octōnī	octiēs
9.	novem	nōnus	novēnī	noviēs
10.	decem	decimus	dēnī	deciēs
11.	ūndecim	ūndecimus	ūndēnī	ūndeciēs
12.	duodecim	duodecimus	duodēnī	duodeciēs
13.	tredecim	tertius decimus	ternī denī	terdeciēs
14.	quattuordecim	quārtus decimus	quaternī denī	quaterdeciēs
15.	quīndecim	quīntus decimus	quīnī dēnī	quīnquiēs deciēs
16.	sēdecim, sexdecim	sextus decimus	sēnī dēnī	sexiēs deciēs
17.	septendecim	septimus decimus	septēnī dēnī	septiēs deciēs
18.	duodēvīgintī	duodēvīcēsimus	duodēvīcēnī	octiēs deciēs
19.	ūndēvīgintī	ūndēvīcēsimus	ūndēvīcēnī	noviēs deciēs
20.	vīgintī	vīcēsimus	vīcēnī	vīciēs
21.	vīgintī ūnus, ūnus et vīgintī	vīcēsimus prīmus, ūnus et vīcēsimus	vīcēnī singulī, singulī et vīcēni	vīciēs semel
22.	vīgintī duo, duo et vīgintī	vīcēsimus secundus, alter et vīcēsimus	vīcēnī bīnī, bīnī et vīcēnī	vīciēs bis
30.	trīgintā	trīcēsimus	trīcēnī	triciēs
40.	quadrāgintā	quadrāgēsimus	quadrāgēnī	quadrāgiēs
50.	quīnquāgintā	quīnquāgēsimus	quinquāgēnī	quīnquāgiēs
60.	sexāgintā	sexāgēsimus	sexāgēnī	sexāgiēs
70.	septuāgintā	septuāgēsimus	septuāgēnī	septuāgiēs
80.	octōgintā	octōgēsimus	octōgēnī	octōgiēs
90.	nōnāgintā	nōnāgēsimus	nōnāgēnī	nōnāgiēs
100.	centum	centēsimus	centēnī	centiēs
101.	centum ūnus, centum et ūnus	centēsimus prīmus, centēsimus et prīmus	centēnī singulī, centēnī et singulī	centiēs semel
200.	ducentī, -ae, -a	ducentēsimus	ducēnī	ducentiēs
300.	trecentī	trecentēsimus	trecēnī	trecentiēs
400.	quadringentī	quadringentēsimus	quadringēnī	quadringentiēs
500.	quīngentī	quīngentēsimus	quīngēnī	quīngentiēs
600.	sescentī	sescentēsimus	sescēnī	sescentiēs
700.	septingentī	septingentēsimus	septingēnī	septingentiēs
800.	octingentī	octingentēsimus	octingēnī	octingentiēs
900.	nōngentī	nōngentēsimus	nōngēnī	nōngentiēs
1,000.	mīlle	mīllēsimus	singula mīlia	mīliēs
2,000.	duo mīlia	bis mīllēsimus	bīna mīlia	bis mīliēs
100,000.	centum mīlia	centiēs mīllēsimus	centēna mīlia	centiēs mīliēs
1,000,000.	deciēs centēna mīlia	deciēs centiēs mīllēsimus	deciēs centēna mīlia	deciēs centiēs mīliēs

NOTE.— -ēnsimus and -iēns are often written in the numerals instead of -ēsimus and -iēs.

80. 1. The declension of ūnus has already been given under § 66.

2. Duo is declined as follows:—

Nom.	duo	duae	duo
Gen.	duōrum	duārum	duōrum
Dat.	duōbus	duābus	duōbus
Acc.	duōs, duo	duās	duo
Abl.	duōbus	duābus	duōbus

a. So ambō, both, except that its final o is long.

3. Trēs is declined,—

Nom.	trēs	tria
Gen.	trium	trium
Dat.	tribus	tribus
Acc.	trēs (trīs)	tria
Abl.	tribus	tribus

4. The hundreds (except centum) are declined like the Plural of bonus.

5. Mīlle is regularly an adjective in the Singular, and indeclinable. In the Plural it is a substantive (followed by the Genitive of the objects enumerated; § 201, 1), and is declined,—

Nom.	mīlia	Acc.	mīlia
Gen.	mīlium	Voc.	mīlia
Dat.	mīlibus	Abl.	mīlibus

Thus mīlle hominēs, a thousand men; but duo mīlia hominum, two thousand men, literally two thousands of men.

a. Occasionally the Singular admits the Genitive construction; as, mīlle hominum.

6. Other Cardinals are indeclinable. Ordinals and Distributives are declined like Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.

81. 1. The compounds from 21 to 99 may be expressed either with the larger or the smaller numeral first. In the latter case, et is used. Thus:—

trīgintā sex or sex et trīgintā, thirty-six.

2. The numerals under 90, ending in 8 and 9, are often expressed by subtraction; as,—

duodēvīgintī, eighteen (but also octōdecim);

ūndēquadrāgintā, thirty-nine (but also trīgintā novem or novem et trīgintā).

3. Compounds over 100 regularly have the largest number first; the others follow without et; as,—

centum vīgintī septem, one hundred and twenty-seven.

annō octingentēsimō octōgēsimō secundō, in the year 882.

Yet et may be inserted where the smaller number is either a digit or one of the tens; as,—

centum et septem, one hundred and seven;

centum et quadrāgintā, one hundred and forty.

4. The Distributives are used—

a) To denote so much each, so many apiece; as,—

bīna talenta eīs dedit, he gave them two talents each.

b) When those nouns that are ordinarily Plural in form, but Singular in meaning, are employed in a Plural sense; as,—

bīnae litterae, two epistles.

But in such cases, ūnī (not singulī) is regularly employed for one, and trīnī (not ternī) for three; as,—

ūnae litterae, one epistle; trīnae litterae, three epistles.

c) In multiplication; as,—

bis bīna sunt quattuor, twice two are four.

d) Often in poetry, instead of the cardinals; as,—

bīna hastīlia, two spears.

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82. A Pronoun is a word that indicates something without naming it.

83. There are the following classes of pronouns:—

I.	Personal.	V.	Intensive.
II.	Reflexive.	VI.	Relative.
III.	Possessive.	VII.	Interrogative.
IV.	Demonstrative.	VIII.	Indefinite.

I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

84. These correspond to the English I, you, he, she, it, etc., and are declined as follows:—

	First Person.	Second Person.	Third Person.
		SINGULAR.
Nom.	ego, I	tū, thou	is, he; ea, she; id, it
Gen.	meī	tuī	(For declension see § 87.)
Dat.	mihi[22]	tibi[22]
Acc.	mē	tē
Voc.	——	tū
Abl.	mē	tē
		PLURAL.
Nom.	nōs, we	vōs, you
Gen.	nostrum, nostrī	vestrum, vestrī
Dat.	nōbīs	vōbīs
Acc.	nōs	vōs
Voc.	——	vōs
Abl.	nōbīs	vōbīs

1. A Dative Singular mī occurs in poetry.

2. Emphatic forms in -met are occasionally found; as, egomet, I myself; tibimet, to you yourself; tū has tūte and tūtemet (written also tūtimet).

3. In early Latin, mēd and tēd occur as Accusative and Ablative forms.

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II. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

85. These refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand; like myself, yourself, in 'I see myself,' etc. They are declined as follows:—

	First Person.	Second Person.	Third Person.
	Supplied by oblique cases of ego.	Supplied by oblique cases of tū.
Gen.	meī, of myself	tuī, of thyself	suī
Dat.	mihi, to myself	tibi, to thyself	sibi[22]
Acc.	mē, myself	tē, thyself	sē or sēsē
Voc.	——	——	——
Abl.	mē, with myself, etc.	tē, with thyself, etc.	sē or sēsē

1. The Reflexive of the Third Person serves for all genders and for both numbers. Thus sui may mean, of himself, herself, itself, or of themselves; and so with the other forms.

2. All of the Reflexive Pronouns have at times a reciprocal force; as,—

inter sē pugnant, they fight with each other.

3. In early Latin, sēd occurs as Accusative and Ablative.

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III. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

86. These are strictly adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are inflected as such. They are—

First Person. meus, -a, -um, my; noster, nostra, nostrum, our;		Second Person. tuus, -a, -um, thy; vester, vestra, vestrum, your;
	Third Person. suus, -a, -um, his, her, its, their.

1. Suus is exclusively Reflexive; as,—

pater līberōs suōs amat, the father loves his children.

Otherwise, his, her, its are regularly expressed by the Genitive Singular of is, viz. ejus; and their by the Genitive Plural, eōrum, eārum.

2. The Vocative Singular Masculine of meus is mī.

3. The enclitic -pte may be joined to the Ablative Singular of the Possessive Pronouns for the purpose of emphasis. This is particularly common in case of suō, suā; as, suōpte, suāpte.

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IV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

87. These point out an object as here or there, or as previously mentioned. They are—

Hīc, iste, and ille are accordingly the Demonstratives of the First, Second, and Third Persons respectively.

Hīc, this.
	SINGULAR			PLURAL.
	MASCULINE.	FEMININE.	NEUTER.	MASCULINE.	FEMININE.	NEUTER.
Nom.	hīc	haec	hōc	hī	hae	haec
Gen.	hūjus[23]	hūjus	hūjus	hōrum	hārum	hōrum
Dat.	huic	huic	huic	hīs	hīs	hīs
Acc.	hunc	hanc	hōc	hōs	hās	haec
Abl.	hōc	hāc	hōc	hīs	hīs	hīs
Iste, that, that of yours.
	SINGULAR.			PLURAL.
	MASCULINE.	FEMININE.	NEUTER.	MASCULINE.	FEMININE.	NEUTER.
Nom.	iste	ista	istud[24]	istī	istae	ista[24]
Gen.	istīus	istīus	istīus	istōrum	istārum	istōrum
Dat.	istī	istī	istī	istīs	istīs	istīs
Acc.	istum	istam	istud	istōs	istās	ista[24]
Abl.	istō	istā	istō	istīs	istīs	istīs

Ille (archaic olle), that, that one, he, is declined like iste.^[25]

Is, he, this, that.
	SINGULAR			PLURAL.
	MASCULINE.	FEMININE.	NEUTER.	MASCULINE.	FEMININE.	NEUTER.
Nom.	is	ea	id	eī, iī, (ī)	eae	ea
Gen.	ejus	ejus	ejus	eōrum	eārum	eōrum
Dat.	eī	eī	eī	eīs, iīs	eīs, iīs	eīs, iīs
Acc.	eum	eam	id	eōs	eās	ea
Abl.	eō	eā	eō	eīs, iīs	eīs, iīs	eīs, iīs
Īdem, the same.
	SINGULAR.			PLURAL.
	MASCULINE.	FEMININE.	NEUTER.	MASCULINE.	FEMININE.	NEUTER.
Nom.	īdem	eadem	idem	eīdem, iīdem	eaedem	eadem
Gen.	ejusdem	ejusdem	ejusdem	eōrundem	eārundem	eōrundem
Dat.	eīdem	eīdem	eīdem	eīsdem	eīsdem	eīsdem
Acc.	eundem	eandem	idem	eōsdem	eāsdem	eadem
Abl.	eōdem	eādem	eōdem	eīsdem	eīsdem	eīsdem

The Nom. Plu. Masc. also has īdem, and the Dat. Abl. Plu. īsdem or iīsdem

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V. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN.

88. The Intensive Pronoun in Latin is ipse. It corresponds to the English myself, etc., in 'I myself, he himself.'

	SINGULAR			PLURAL.
	MASCULINE.	FEMININE.	NEUTER.	MASCULINE.	FEMININE.	NEUTER.
Nom.	ipse	ipsa	ipsum	ipsī	ipsae	ipsa
Gen.	ipsīus	ipsīus	ipsīus	ipsōrum	ipsārum	ipsōrum
Dat.	ipsī	ipsī	ipsī	ipsīs	ipsīs	ipsīs
Acc.	ipsum	ipsam	ipsum	ipsōs	ipsās	ipsa
Abl.	ipsō	ipsā	ipsō	ipsīs	ipsīs	ipsīs

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VI. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.

89. The Relative Pronoun is quī, who. It is declined:—

	SINGULAR			PLURAL.
	MASCULINE.	FEMININE.	NEUTER.	MASCULINE.	FEMININE.	NEUTER.
Nom.	quī	quae	quod	quī	quae	quae
Gen.	cūjus	cūjus	cūjus	quōrum	quārum	quōrum
Dat.	cui	cui	cui	quibus[26]	quibus	quibus
Acc.	quem	quam	quod	quōs	quās	quae
Abl.	quō[27]	quā[27]	quō	quibus[26]	quibus	quibus

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VII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

90. The Interrogative Pronouns are quis, who? (substantive) and quī, what? what kind of? (adjective).

1. Quis, who?

	SINGULAR.		PLURAL.
	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUTER
Nom.	quis	quid	The rare Plural
Gen.	cūjus	cūjus	follows the declension
Dat.	cui	cui	of the Relative Pronoun.
Acc.	quem	quid
Abl.	quō	quō

2. Quī, what? what kind of? is declined precisely like the Relative Pronoun; viz. quī, quae, quod, etc.

a. An old Ablative quī occurs, in the sense of how? why?

b. Quī is sometimes used for quis in Indirect Questions.

c. Quis, when limiting words denoting persons, is sometimes an adjective. But in such cases quis homō = what man? whereas quī homō = what sort of man?

d. Quis and quī may be strengthened by adding -nam. Thus:—

Substantive:	quisnam, who, pray? quidnam, what, pray?
Adjective:	quīnam, quaenam, quodnam, of what kind, pray?

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VIII. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

91. These have the general force of some one, any one.

SUBSTANTIVES.		ADJECTIVES.
M. AND F.		NEUT.	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
quis,		quid,	quī,	quae, qua,	quod,
any one, anything.		any.
aliquis,		aliquid,	aliquī,	aliqua,	aliquod,
some one, something.		any.
quisquam,		quidquam,	quisquam,		quidquam,
any one, anything.		any (rare)
quispiam,		quidpiam,	quispiam,	quaepiam,	quodpiam,
any one, anything.		any.
quisque,		quidque,	quisque,	quaeque,	quodque,
each.		each.
quīvīs,	quaevīs,	quidvīs,	quīvis,	quaevīs,	quodvis,
quīlibet,	quaelibet,	quidlibet	quilibet,	quaelibet,	quodlibet,
any one (anything) you wish		any you wish
quīdam,	quaedam,	quiddam,	quīdam,	quaedam,	quoddam,
a certain person, or thing.		a certain

1. In the Indefinite Pronouns, only the pronominal part is declined. Thus: Genitive Singular alicūjus, cūjuslibet, etc.

2. Note that aliquī has aliqua in the Nominative Singular Feminine, also in the Nominative and Accusative Plural Neuter. Quī has both qua and quae in these same cases.

3. Quīdam forms Accusative Singular quendam, quandam; Genitive Plural quōrundam, quārundam; the m being assimilated to n before d.

4. Aliquis may be used adjectively, and (occasionally) aliquī substantively.

5. In combination with nē, sī, nisi, num, either quis or quī may stand as a Substantive. Thus: sī quis or sī quī.

6. Ecquis, any one, though strictly an Indefinite, generally has interrogative force. It has both substantive and adjective forms,—substantive, ecquis, ecquid; adjective, ecquī, ecquae and ecqua, ecquod.

7. Quisquam is not used in the Plural.

8. There are two Indefinite Relatives,—quīcumque and quisquis, whoever. Quīcumque declines only the first part; quisquis declines both but has only quisquis, quidquid, quōquō, in common use.

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PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.

92. The following adjectives, also, frequently have pronominal force:—

1.

alius, another;	alter, the other;
uter, which of two? (interr.); whichever of two (rel.);	neuter, neither;
ūnus, one;	nūllus, no one (in oblique cases)

2. The compounds,—

In these, uter alone is declined. The rest of the word remains unchanged, except in case of alteruter, which may decline both parts; as,—

Nom.	alteruter	altera utra	alterum utrum
Gen.	alterius utrīus, etc.

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93. A Verb is a word which asserts something; as, est, he is; amat, he loves. The Inflection of Verbs is called Conjugation.

94. Verbs have Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person:—

1. Two Voices,—Active and Passive.

2. Three Moods,—Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative.

3. Six Tenses,—

Present,	Perfect,
Imperfect,	Pluperfect,
Future,	Future Perfect.

But the Subjunctive lacks the Future and Future Perfect; while the Imperative employs only the Present and Future.

4. Two Numbers,—Singular and Plural.

5. Three Persons,—First, Second, and Third.

95. These make up the so-called Finite Verb. Besides this, we have the following Noun and Adjective Forms:—

1. Noun Forms,—Infinitive, Gerund, and Supine.

2. Adjective Forms,—Participles (including the Gerundive).

96. The Personal Endings of the Verb are,—

	Active.	Passive.
Sing. 1.	-ō; -m; -ī (Perf. Ind.);	-r.
2.	-s; -stī (Perf Ind.); -tō or wanting (Impv.);	-rīs, -re; -re, -tor (Impv.).
3.	-t; -tō (Impv.);	-tur; -tor (Impv.).
Plu. 1.	-mus;	-mur.
2.	-tis; -stis (Perf. Ind.); -te, -tōte (Impv.);	-minī.
3.	-nt; -ērunt (Perf Ind.); -ntō (Impv.);	-ntur; -ntor (Impv.).

VERB STEMS.

97. Conjugation consists in appending certain endings to the Stem. We distinguish three different stems in a fully inflected verb,—

Apparently from the same stem, though really of different origin, are the Supine, the Future Active Participle, the Future Infinitive Active and Passive.

THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS.

98. There are in Latin four regular Conjugations, distinguished from each other by the vowel of the termination of the Present Infinitive Active, as follows:—

CONJUGATION.	INFINITIVE TERMINATION.	DISTINGUISHING VOWEL.
I.	-āre	ā
II.	-ēre	ē
III.	-ĕre	ĕ
IV.	-īre	ī

99. PRINCIPAL PARTS. The Present Indicative, Present Infinitive, Perfect Indicative, and the Perfect Participle^[28] constitute the Principal Parts of a Latin verb,—so called because they contain the different stems, from which the full conjugation of the verb may be derived.

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CONJUGATION OF SUM.

100. The irregular verb sum is so important for the conjugation of all other verbs that its inflection is given at the outset.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND.	PRES. INF.	PERF. IND.	FUT. PARTIC.[29]
sum	esse	fuī	futūrus

INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR.		PLURAL.
sum, I am,		sumus, we are,
es, thou art,		estis, you are,
est, he is;		sunt, they are.
IMPERFECT.
eram, I was,		erāmus, we were,
erās, thou wast,		erātis, you were,
erat, he was;		erant, they were.
FUTURE.
erō, I shall be,		erimus, we shall be,
eris, thou wilt be,		eritis, you will be,
erit, he will be;		erunt, they will be.
PERFECT.
fuī, I have been, I was,		fuimus, we have been, we were,
fuistī, thou hast been, thou wast,		fuistis, you have been, you were,
fuit, he has been, he was;		fuērunt, fuēre, they have been, they were.
PLUPERFECT.
fueram, I had been,		fuerāmus, we had been,
fuerās, thou hadst been,		fuerātis, you had been,
fuerat, he had been;		fuerant, they had been.
FUTURE PERFECT.
fuerō, I shall have been,		fuerimus, we shall have been,
fueris, thou wilt have been,		fueritis, you will have been,
fuerit, he will have been;		fuerint, they will have been.
SUBJUNCTIVE.[30]
PRESENT.
SINGULAR.		PLURAL.
sim, may I be,		sīmus, let us be,
sīs, mayst thou be,		sītis, be ye, may you be,
sit, let him be, may he be;		sint, let them be.
IMPERFECT.
essem,[31] I should be,		essēmus, we should be,
essēs,[31] thou wouldst be,		essētis, you would be,
esset,[31] he would be;		essent,[31] they would be.
PERFECT.
fuerim, I may have been,		fuerīmus, we may have been,
fuerīs, thou mayst have been,		fuerītis, you may have been,
fuerit, he may have been;		fuerint, they may have been.
PLUPERFECT.
fuissem, I should have been,		fuissēmus, we should have been.
fuissēs, thou wouldst have been,		fuissētis, you would have been,
fuisset, he would have been;		fuissent, they would have been.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.	es, be thou;	este, be ye,
Fut.	estō, thou shalt be,	estōte, ye shall be,
	estō, he shall be;	suntō, they shall be.
INFINITIVE.		PARTICIPLE.
Pres.	esse, to be.
Perf.	fuisse, to have been.
Fut.	futūrus esse,[32] to be about to be.	Fut. futūrus,[33] about to be.

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FIRST (OR Ā-) CONJUGATION.

101. Active Voice.—Amō, I love.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND.	PRES. INF.	PERF. IND.	PERF. PASS. PARTIC.
amō	amāre	amāvī	amātus

INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR.		PLURAL.
amō, I love,		amāmus, we love,
amās, you love,		amātis, you love,
amat, he loves;		amant, they love.
IMPERFECT.
amābam, I was loving,[34]		amābāmus, we were loving,
amābās, you were loving,		amābātis, you were loving,
amābat, he was loving;		amābant, they were loving
FUTURE.
amābō, I shall love,		amābimus, we shall love,
amābis, you will love,		amābitis, you will love,
amābit, he will love;		amābunt, they will love.
PERFECT.
amāvī, I have loved, I loved,		amāvimus, we have loved, we loved,
amāvistī, you have loved, you loved		amāvistis, you have loved, you loved,
amāvit, he has loved, he loved;		amāvērunt, -ēre, they have loved, they loved.
PLUPERFECT.
amāveram, I had loved,		amāverāmus, we had loved,
amāverās, you had loved,		amāverātis, you had loved,
amāverat, he had loved;		amāverant, they had loved.
FUTURE PERFECT.
amāverō, I shall have loved,		amāverimus, we shall have loved,
amāveris, you will have loved,		amāveritis, you will have loved,
amāverit, he will have loved;		amāverint, they will have loved.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
amem, may I love,		amēmus, let us love,
amēs, may you love,		amētis, may you love,
amet, let him love;		ament, let them love.
IMPERFECT.
amārem, I should love,		amārēmus, we should love,
amārēs, you would love,		amārētis, you would love,
amāret, he would love;		amārent, they would love.
PERFECT.
amāverim, I may have loved,		amāverīmus, we may have loved,
amāverīs, you may have loved,		amāverītis, you may have loved,
amāverit, he may have loved;		amāverint, they may have loved.
PLUPERFECT.
amāvissem, I should have loved,		amāvīssēmus, we should have loved,
amāvissēs, you would have loved,		amāvissētis, you would have loved,
amāvisset, he would have loved;		amāvissent, they would have loved.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.	amā, love thou;	amāte, love ye.
Fut.	amātō, thou shalt love,	amātōte, ye shall love,
	amātō, he shall love;	amantō, they shall love.
INFINITIVE.		PARTICIPLE.
Pres.	amāre, to love.	Pres.	amāns,[35] loving.
Perf.	amāvisse, to have loved.		(Gen. amantis.)
Fut.	amātūrus esse, to be about to love	Fut.	amātūrus, about to love.
GERUND.		SUPINE.
Gen.	amandī, of loving,
Dat.	amandō, for loving,
Acc.	amandum, loving,	Acc.	amātum, to love,
Abl.	amandō, by loving.	Abl.	amātū, to love, be loved.

102. Passive Voice.—Amor, I am loved.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND.	PRES. INF.	PERF. IND.
amōr	amārī	amātus sum

INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE. I am loved.
SINGULAR.		PLURAL.
	amor		amāmur
	amāris		amāminī
	amātur		amantur
IMPERFECT I was loved.
	amābar		amābāmur
	amābāris, or -re		amābāmini
	amābātur		amābantur
FUTURE. I shall be loved.
	amābor		amābimur
	amāberis, or -re		amābiminī
	amābitur		amābuntur
PERFECT I have been loved, or I was loved.
	amātus (-a, -um) sum[36]		amātī (-ae, -a) sumus
	amātus es		amātī estis
	amātus est		amātī sunt
PLUPERFECT. I had been loved.
	amātus eram[36]		amātī erāmus
	amātus erās		amātī erātis
	amātus erat		amātī erant
FUTURE PERFECT. I shall have been loved.
	amātus erō[36]		amātī erimus
	amātus eris		amātī eritis
	amātus erit		amātī erunt
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT. May I be loved, let him be loved.
	amer		amēmur
	amēris, or -re		amēmini
	amētur		amentur
IMPERFECT. I should be loved, he would be loved.
	amārer		amārēmur
	amārēris, or -re		amārēminī
	amārētur		amārentur
PERFECT. I may have been loved.
	amātus sim[37]		amātī sīmus
	amātus sīs		amāti sītis
	amātus sit		amāti sint
PLUPERFECT. I should have been loved, he would have been loved.
	amātus essem[37]		amātī essēmus
	amātus essēs		amātī essētis
	amātus esset		amāti essent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.	amāre,[38] be thou loved;	amāminī, be ye loved.
Fut.	amātor, thou shalt be loved,
	amātor, he shall be loved;	amantor, they shall be loved.
INFINITIVE.		PARTICIPLE.
Pres.	amārī, to be loved.
Perf.	amātus esse, to have been loved.	Perfect.	amātus, loved, having been loved.
Fut.	amātum īrī, to be about to be loved.	Gerundive.	amandus, to be loved, deserving to be loved.

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SECOND (OR Ē-) CONJUGATION.

103. Active voice.—Moneō, I advise.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND.	PRES. INF.	PERF. IND.	PERF. PASS. PARTIC.
moneō	monēre	monuī	monitus

INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE. I advise.
SINGULAR.		PLURAL.
	moneō		monēmus
	monēs		monētis
	monet		monent
IMPERFECT. I was advising, or I advised.
	monēbam		monēbāmus
	monēbās		monēbātis
	monēbat		monēbant
FUTURE. I shall advise.
	monēbō		monēbimus
	monēbis		monēbitis
	monēbit		monēbunt
PERFECT. I have advised, or I advised.
	monuī		monuimus
	monuistī		monuistis
	monuit		monuērunt, or -ēre
PLUPERFECT. I had advised.
	monueram		monuerāmus
	monuerās		monuerātis
	monuerat		monuerant
FUTURE PERFECT. I shall have advised.
	monuerō		monuerimus
	monueris		monueritis
	monuerit		monuerint
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT. May I advise, let him advise.
	moneam		moneāmus
	moneās		moneātis
	moneat		moneant
IMPERFECT. I should advise, he would advise.
	monērem		monērēmus
	monērēs		monērētis
	monēret		monērent
PERFECT. I may have advised.
	monuerim		monuerīmus
	monuerīs		monuerītis
	monuerit		monuerint
PLUPERFECT. I should have advised, he would have advised.
	monuissem		monuissēmus
	monuissēs		monuissētis
	monuisset		monuissent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.	monē, advise thou;	monēte, advise ye.
Fut.	monētō, thou shall advise,	monētōte, ye shall advise,
	monētō, he shall advise;	monentō, they shall advise.
INFINITIVE.		PARTICIPLE.
Pres.	monēre, to advise.	Pres.	monēns, advising.
Perf.	monuisse, to have advised.		(Gen. monentis.)
Fut.	monitūrus esse, to be about to advise.	Fut.	monitūrus, about to advise.
GERUND.		SUPINE.
Gen.	monendī, of advising,
Dat.	monendō, for advising,
Acc.	monendum, advising,	Acc.	monitum, to advise,
Abl.	monendō, by advising.	Abl.	monitū, to advise, be advised.

104. Passive voice.—Moneor, I am advised.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND.	PRES. INF.	PERF. IND.
moneor	monērī	monitus sum

INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE. I am advised.
SINGULAR.		PLURAL.
	moneor		monēmur
	monēris		monēminī
	monētur		monentur
IMPERFECT. I was advised.
	monēbar		monēbāmur
	monēbāris, or -re		monēbāminī
	monēbātur		monēbantur
FUTURE. I shall be advised.
	monēbor		monēbimur
	monēberis, or -re		monēbiminī
	monēbitur		monēbuntur
PERFECT. I have been advised, I was advised.
	monitus sum		monitī sumus
	monitus es		monitī estis
	monitus est		monitī sunt
PLUPERFECT. I had been advised.
	monitus eram		monitī erāmus
	monitus erās		monitī erātis
	monitus erat		monitī erant
FUTURE PERFECT. I shall have been advised.
	monitus erō		monitī erimus
	monitus eris		monitī eritis
	monitus erit		monitī erunt
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT. May I be advised, let him be advised.
	monear		moneāmur
	moneāris, or -re		moneāminī
	moneātur		moneantur
IMPERFECT. I should be advised, he would be advised.
	monērer		monērēmur
	monērēris, or -re		monērēminī
	monērētur		monērentur
PERFECT. I may have been advised.
	monitus sim		monitī sīmus
	monitus sīs		monitī sītis
	monitus sit		monitī sint
PLUPERFECT. I should have been advised, he would have been advised.
	monitus essem		monitī essēmus
	monitus essēs		monitī essētis
	monitus esset		monitī essent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.	monēre, be thou advised;	monēminī, be ye advised.
Fut.	monētor, thou shalt be advised,
	monētor, he shall be advised.	monentor, they shall be advised.
INFINITIVE.		PARTICIPLE.
Pres.	monērī, to be advised.	Perfect.	monitus, advised, having been advised.
Perf.	monitus esse, to have been advised
Fut.	monitum īrī, to be about to be advised.	Gerundive.	monendus, to be advised, deserving to be advised.

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THIRD (OR CONSONANT-) CONJUGATION.

105. Active Voice.—Regō, I rule.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND.	PRES. INF.	PERF. IND.	PERF. PASS. PARTIC.
regō	regere	rēxī	rēctus

INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE. I rule
SINGULAR.		PLURAL.
	regō		regimus
	regis		regitis
	regit		regunt
IMPERFECT. I was ruling, or I ruled.
	regēbam		regēbāmus
	regēbās		regēbātis
	regēbat		regēbant
FUTURE. I shall rule.
	regam		regēmus
	regēs		regētis
	reget		regent
PERFECT. I have ruled, or I ruled
	rēxī		rēximus
	rēxistī		rēxistis
	rēxit		rēxērunt, or -ēre
PLUPERFECT. I had ruled.
	rēxeram		rēxerāmus
	rēxerās		rēxerātis
	rēxerat		rēxerant
FUTURE PERFECT. I shall have ruled.
	rēxerō		rēxerimus
	rēxeris		rēxeritis
	rēxerit		rēxerint
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT. May I rule, let him rule.
	regam		regāmus
	regās		regātis
	regat		regant
IMPERFECT. I should rule, he would rule.
	regerem		regerēmus
	regerēs		regerētis
	regeret		regerent
PERFECT. I may have ruled.
	rēxerim		rēxerīmus
	rēxerīs		rēxerītis
	rēxerit		rēxerint
PLUPERFECT. I should have ruled, he would have ruled.
	rēxissem		rēxissēmus
	rēxissēs		rēxissētis
	rēxisset		rēxissent
IMPERATIVE.
rege, rule thou;		regite, rule ye.
regitō, thou shall rule,		regitōte, ye shall rule,
regitō, he shall rule;		reguntō, they shall rule.
INFINITIVE.		PARTICIPLE.
regere, to rule.		Pres.	regēns, ruling.
rēxisse, to have ruled.			(Gen. regentis.)
rēctūrus esse, to be about to rule		Fut.	rēctūrus, about to rule.
GERUND.		SUPINE.
regendī, of ruling,
regendō, for ruling,
regendum, ruling,		Acc.	rēctum, to rule,
regendō, by ruling.		Abl.	rēctū, to rule, be ruled.

106. Passive Voice.—Regor, I am ruled.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND.	PRES. INF.	PERF. IND.
regor	regī	rēctus sum

INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE. I am ruled.
SINGULAR.		PLURAL.
	regor		regimur
	regeris		regiminī
	regitur		reguntur
IMPERFECT. I was ruled.
	regēbar		regēbāmur
	regēbāris, or -re		regēbāminī
	regēbātur		regēbantur
FUTURE. I shall be ruled.
	regar		regēmur
	regēris, or -re		regēminī
	regētur		regentur
PERFECT. I have been ruled, or I was ruled.
	rēctus sum		rēctī sumus
	rēctus es		rēctī estis
	rēctus est		rēctī sunt
PLUPERFECT. I had been ruled.
	rēctus eram		rēctī erāmus
	rēctus erās		rēctī erātis
	rēctus erat		rēctī erant
FUTURE PERFECT. I shall have been ruled
	rēctus erō		rēctī erimus
	rēctus eris		rēctī eritis
	rēctus erit		rēctī erunt
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT. May I be ruled, let him be ruled.
	regar		regāmur
	regāris, or -re		regāminī
	regātur		regantur
IMPERFECT. I should be ruled, he would be ruled.
	regerer		regerēmur
	regerēris, or -re		regerēminī
	regerētur		regerentur
PERFECT. I may have been ruled.
	rēctus sim		rēctī sīmus
	rēctus sīs		rēctī sītis
	rēctus sit		rēctī sint
PLUPERFECT. I should have been ruled, he would have been ruled.
	rēctus essem		rēctī essēmus
	rēctus essēs		rectī essētis
	rēctus esset		rectī essent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.	regere, be thou ruled;	regiminī, be ye ruled.
Fut.	regitor, thou shalt be ruled,
	regitor, he shall be ruled;	reguntor, they shall be ruled.
INFINITIVE.		PARTICIPLE.
Pres.	regī, to be ruled.	Perfect.	rēctus, ruled, having been ruled.
Perf.	rēctus esse, to have been ruled.	Gerundive.	regendus, to be ruled, deserving to be ruled.
Fut.	rēctum īrī, to be about to be ruled.

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FOURTH (OR Ī-) CONJUGATION.

107. Active voice.—Audiō, I hear.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND.	PRES. INF.	PERF. IND.	PERF. PASS. PARTIC.
audiō	audīre	audīvī	audītus

INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE. I hear.
SINGULAR.		PLURAL.
	audiō	audīmus
	audīs	audītis
	audit	audiunt
IMPERFECT. I was hearing, or I heard.
	audiēbam	audiēbāmus
	audiēbās	audiēbātis
	audiēbat	audiēbant
FUTURE. I shall hear.
	audiam		audiēmus
	audiēs		audiētis
	audiet		audient
PERFECT. I have heard, or I heard.
	audīvī		audīvimus
	audīvistī		audīvistis
	audīvit		audīvērunt, or -ēre
PLUPERFECT. I had heard.
	audīveram		audīverāmus
	audīverās		audīverātis
	audīverat		audīverant
FUTURE PERFECT. I shall have heard.
	audīverō		audīverimus
	audīveris		audīveritis
	audīverit		audīverint
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT. May I hear, let him hear.
	audiam		audiāmus
	audiās		audiātis
	audiat		audiant
IMPERFECT. I should hear, he would hear.
	audīrem		audīrēmus
	audīrēs		audīrētis
	audīret		audīrent
PERFECT. I may have heard.
	audīverim		audīverīmus
	audīverīs		audīverītis
	audīverit		audīverint
PLUPERFECT. I should have heard, he would have heard.
	audīvissem		audīvissēmus
	audīvissēs		audīvissētis
	audīvisset		audīvissent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.	audī, hear thou;	audīte, hear ye.
Fut.	audītō, thou shalt hear,	audītōte, ye shall hear,
	audītō, he shall hear;	audiuntō, they shall hear.
INFINITIVE.		PARTICIPLE.
Pres.	audīre, to hear.	Pres.	audiēns, hearing.
Perf.	audīvisse, to have heard.		(Gen. audientis.)
Fut.	audītūrus esse, to be about to hear.	Fut.	audītūrus, about to hear.
GERUND.		SUPINE
Gen.	audiendī, of hearing,
Dat.	audiendō, for hearing,
Acc.	audiendum, hearing,	Acc.	audītum, to hear,
Abl.	audiendō, by hearing.	Abl.	audītū, to hear, be heard.

108. Passive Voice.—Audior, I am heard.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND.	PRES. INF.	PERF. IND.
audior	audīrī	audītus sum

INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE. I am heard.
SINGULAR.		PLURAL.
	audior		audīmur
	audīris		audīminī
	audītur		audiuntur
IMPERFECT. I was heard.
	audiēbar		audiēbāmur
	audiēbāris, or -re		audiēbāminī
	audiēbātur		audiēbantur
FUTURE. I shall be heard.
	audiar		audiēmur
	audiēris, or -re		audiēminī
	audiētur		audientur
PERFECT. I have been heard, or I was heard.
	audītus sum		audītī sumus
	audītus es		audītī estis
	audītus est		audītī sunt
PLUPERFECT. I had been heard.
	audītus eram		audītī erāmus
	audītus erās		audītī erātis
	audītus erat		audītī erant
FUTURE PERFECT. I shall have been heard.
	audītus erō		audītī erimus
	audītus eris		audītī eritis
	audītus erit		audītī erunt
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT. May I be heard, let him be heard.
	audiar		audiāmur
	audiāris, or -re		audiāminī
	audiātur		audiantur
IMPERFECT. I should be heard, he would be heard.
	audīrer		audīrēmur
	audīrēris, or -re		audirēminī
	audīrētur		audīrentur
PERFECT. I may have been heard.
	audītus sim		audītī sīmus
	audītus sīs		audītī sītis
	audītus sit		audītī sint
PLUPERFECT. I should have been heard, he would have been heard.
	audītus essem		audītī essēmus
	audītus essēs		audītī essētis
	audītus esset		audītī essent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.	audīre, be thou heard;	audīminī, be ye heard.
Fut.	audītor, thou shalt be heard,
	audītor, he shall be heard;	audiuntor, they shall be heard.
INFINITIVE.		PARTICIPLE.
Pres.	audīrī, to be heard.	Perfect.	audītus, heard, having been heard
Perf.	audītus esse, to have been heard.	Gerundive.	audiendus, to be heard, deserving to be heard
Fut.	audītum īrī, to be about to be heard.

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VERBS IN -IŌ OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION.

109. 1. Verbs in -iō of the Third Conjugation take the endings of the Fourth Conjugation wherever the latter endings have two successive vowels. This occurs only in the Present System.

2. Here belong—

a) capiō, to take; cupiō, to desire; faciō, to make; fodiō, to dig; fugiō, to flee; jaciō, to throw; pariō, to bear; quatiō, to shake; rapiō, to seize; sapiō, to taste.

b) Compounds of laciō and speciō (both ante-classical); as, alliciō, entice; cōnspiciō, behold.

c) The deponents gradior, to go; morior, to die, patior, to suffer.

110. Active voice.—Capiō, I take.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND.	PRES. INF.	PERF. IND.	PERF. PASS. PARTIC.
capiō,	capere,	cēpī,	captus.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR.		PLURAL.
capiō, capis, capit;		capimus, capitis, capiunt.
IMPERFECT.
capiēbam, -iēbās, -iēbat;		capiēbāmus, -iēbātis, -iēbant.
FUTURE.
capiam, -iēs, -iet;		capiēmus, -iētis, -ient.
PERFECT.
cēpī, -istī, -it;		cēpimus, -istis, -ērunt or -ēre.
PLUPERFECT.
cēperam, -erās, -erat;		cēperāmus, -erātis, -erant.
FUTURE PERFECT.
cēperō, -eris, -erit;		cēperimus, -eritis, -erint.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
capiam, -iās, -iat;		capiāmus, -iātis, -iant.
IMPERFECT.
caperem, -erēs, -eret;		caperēmus, -erētis, -erent.
PERFECT.
cēperim, -eris, -erit;		cēperīmus, -erītis, -erint.
PLUPERFECT.
cēpissem, -issēs, -isset;		cēpissēmus, -issētis, -issent.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.	cape;		capite.
Fut.	capitō,		capitōte,
	capitō;		capiuntō.
INFINITIVE.		PARTICIPLE.
Pres.	capere	Pres.	capiēns.
Perf.	cēpisse.
Fut.	captūrus esse.	Fut.	captūrus.
GERUND.		SUPINE.
Gen.	capiendī,
Dat.	capiendō,
Acc.	capiendum,	Acc.	captum,
Abl.	capiendō.	Abl.	captū.

111. Passive Voice.—Capior, I am taken.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND.	PRES. INF.	PERF. IND.
capior,	capī,	captus sum.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR.		PLURAL.
capior, caperis, capitur;		capimur, capiminī, capiuntur.
IMPERFECT.
capiēbar, -iēbāris, -iēbātur;		capiēbāmur, -iēbāminī, -iēbantur.
FUTURE.
capiar, -iēris, -iētur;		capiēmur, -iēminī, -ientur.
PERFECT.
captus sum, es, est;		captī sumus, estis, sunt.
PLUPERFECT.
captus eram, erās, erat;		captī erāmus, erātis, erant.
FUTURE PERFECT.
captus erō, eris, erit;		captī erimus, eritis, erunt.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
capiar, -iāris, -iātur;		capiāmur, -iāminī, -iantur.
IMPERFECT.
caperer, -erēris, -erētur;		caperēmur, -erēminī, -erentur.
PERFECT.
captus sim, sīs, sit;		captī sīmus, sītis, sint.
PLUPERFECT.
captus essem, essēs, esset;		captī essēmus, essētis, essent.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.	capere;		capiminī.
Fut.	capitor,
	capitor;		capiuntor.
INFINITIVE.		PARTICIPLE.
Pres.	capī.
Perf.	captus esse.	Perfect.	captus.
Fut.	captum īrī.	Gerundive.	capiendus.

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DEPONENT VERBS.

112. Deponent Verbs have in the main Passive forms with Active or Neuter meaning. But—

a. They have the following Active forms: Future Infinitive, Present and Future Participles, Gerund, and Supine.

b. They have the following Passive meanings: always in the Gerundive, and sometimes in the Perfect Passive Participle; as—

sequendus, to be followed; adeptus, attained.

113. Paradigms of Deponent Verbs are—

I. Conj.	mīror, mīrārī, mīrātus sum, admire.
II. Conj.	vereor, vererī, veritus sum, fear.
III. Conj.	sequor, sequī, secūtus sum, follow.
IV. Conj.	largior, largīrī, largītus sum, give.
III. (in -ior)	patior, patī, passus sum, suffer.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
	I.	II.	III.	IV.	III (in -ior)
Pres.	mīror	vereor	sequor	largior	patior
	mīrāris	verēris	sequeris	largiris	pateris
	mīrātur	verētur	sequitur	largītur	patitur
	mīramur	verēmur	sequimur	largīmur	patimur
	mīrāminī	verēminī	sequiminī	largīminī	patiminī
	mīrantur	verentur	sequuntur	largiuntur	patiuntur
Impf.	mīrābar	verēbar	sequēbar	largiēbar	patiēbar
Fut.	mīrābor	verēbor	sequar	largiar	patiar
Perf.	mirātus sum	veritus sum	secūtus sum	largītus sum	passus sum
Plup.	mīrātus eram	veritus eram	secūtus eram	largītus eram	passus eram
F.P.	mīrātus erō	veritus erō	secūtus erō	largītus erō	passus erō
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres.	mīrer	verear	sequar	largiar	patiar
Impf.	mīrārer	verērer	sequerer	largīrer	paterer
Perf.	mīrātus sim	veritus sim	secūtus sim	largītus sim	passus sim
Plup.	mīrātus essem	veritus essem	sectūtus essem	largītus essem	passus essem
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.	mīrāre, etc.	verēre, etc.	sequere, etc.	largīre, etc.	patere, etc.
Fut.	mīrātor, etc.	verētor, etc.	sequitor, etc.	largītor, etc.	patitor, etc.
INFINITIVE.
Pres.	mīrāri	verērī	sequī	largīrī	patī
Perf.	mīrātus esse	veritus esse	secūtus esse	largītus esse	passus esse
Fut.	mīrātūrus esse	veritūrus esse	secūtūrus esse	largītūrus esse	passūrus esse
PARTICIPLES.
Pres.	mīrāns	verēns	sequēns	largiēns	patiēns
Fut.	mīrātūrus	veritūrus	secūtūrus	largitūrus	passūrus
Perf.	mīrātus	veritus	secūtus	largitus	passus
Ger.	mīrandus	verendus	sequendus	largiendus	patiendus
GERUND.
	mīrandī	verendī	sequendī	largiendī	patiendī
	mirandō, etc.	verendō, etc.	sequendō, etc.	largiendō, etc.	patiendō, etc.
SUPINE.
	mīrātum, -tū	veritum, -tū	secūtum, -tū	largītum, -tū	passum, -sū

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SEMI-DEPONENTS.

114. 1. Semi-Deponents are verbs which have the Present System in the Active Voice, but the Perfect System in the Passive without change of meaning. Here belong—

audeō,	audēre,	ausus sum, to dare.
gaudeō,	gaudēre,	gāvīsus sum, to rejoice.
soleō,	solēre,	solitus sum, to be wont.
fīdō,	fīdere,	fīsus sum, to trust.

2. The following verbs have a Perfect Passive Participle with Active meaning:—

adolēscō, grow up;	adultus, having grown up,
cēnāre, dine;	cēnātus, having dined.
placēre, please;	placitus, having pleased, agreeable.
prandēre, lunch;	prānsus, having lunched.
pōtāre, drink;	pōtus, having drunk.
jūrāre, swear;	jūrātus, having sworn.

a. Jūrātus is used in a passive sense also.

3. Revertor and dēvertor both regularly form their Perfect in the Active Voice; viz.—

revertor,	revertī (Inf.),	revertī (Perf.), to return.
dēvertor,	dēvertī (Inf.),	dēvertī (Perf.), to turn aside.

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PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION.

115. There are two Periphrastic Conjugations,—the Active and the Passive. The Active is formed by combining the Future Active Participle with the auxiliary sum, the Passive by combining the Gerundive with the same auxiliary.

Active Periphrastic Conjugation. INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres.	amātūrus (-a, -um) sum, I am about to love.
Inf.	amātūrus eram, I was about to love.
Fut.	amātūrus erō, I shall be about to love.
Perf.	amātūrus fuī, I have been (was) about to love.
Plup.	amātūrus fueram, I had been about to love.
Fut. P.	amātūrus fuerō, I shall have been about to love.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres.	amātūrus sim, may I be about to love.
Imp.	amātūrus essem, I should be about to love.
Perf.	amātūrus fuerim, I may have been about to love.
Plup.	amātūrus fuissem, I should have been about to love.
INFINITIVE.
Pres.	amātūrus esse, to be about to love.
Perf.	amātūrus fuisse, to have been about to love.
Passive Periphrastic Conjugation. INDICATIVE.
Pres.	amandus (-a, -um) sum, I am to be loved, must be loved.
Imp.	amandus eram, I was to be loved.
Fut.	amandus erō, I shall deserve to be loved.
Perf.	amandus fuī, I was to be loved.
Plup.	amandus fueram, I had deserved to be loved.
Fut. P.	amandus fuerō, I shall have deserved to be loved.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres.	amandus sim, may I deserve to be loved.
Imp.	amandus essem, I should deserve to be loved.
Perf.	amandus fuerim, I may have deserved to be loved.
Plup.	amendus fuissem, I should have deserved to be loved.
INFINITIVE.
Pres.	amandus esse, to deserve to be loved.
Perf.	amantus fuisse, to have deserved to be loved.

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PECULIARITIES OF CONJUGATION.

116. 1. Perfects in -āvī, -ēvī, and -īvī, with the forms derived from them, often drop the ve or vi before endings beginning with r or s. So also nōvī (from nōscō) and the compounds of mōvī (from moveō). Thus:—

amāvistī	amāstī	dēlēvistī	dēlēstī
amāvisse	amāsse	dēlēvisse	dēlēsse
amāvērunt	amārunt	dēlēvērunt	dēlērunt
amāverim	amārim	dēlēverim	dēlērim
amāveram	amāram	dēlēveram	dēlēram
amāverō	amārō	dēlēverō	dēlērō
nōvistī	nōstī	nōverim	nōrim
nōvisse	nōsse	nōveram	nōram
audīvistī	audīstī	audīvisse	audīsse

2. In the Gerund and Gerundive of the Third and Fourth Conjugations, the endings -undus, -undī, often occur instead of -endus and -endī, as faciundus, faciundī.

3. Dīcō, dūcō, faciō, form the Imperatives, dīc, dūc, fac. But compounds of faciō form the Imperative in -fice, as cōnfice. Compounds of dīcō, dūcō, accent the ultima; as, ēdū´c, ēdī´c.

4. Archaic and Poetic forms:—

a. The ending -ier in the Present Infinitive Passive; as, amārier, monērier, dīcier, for amārī, monērī, dīcī.

b. The ending -ībam for -iēbam in Imperfects of the Fourth Conjugation, and -ībō for -iam in Futures; as, scībam, scībō, for sciēbam, sciam.

c. Instead of the fuller forms, in such words as dīxistī, scrīpsistis, surrēxisse, we sometimes find dīxtī, scrīpstis, surrēxe, etc.

d. The endings -im, -īs, etc. (for -am, -ās, etc.) occur in a few Subjunctive forms; as, edim (eat), duint, perduint.

5. In the Future Active and Perfect Passive Infinitive, the auxiliary esse is often omitted; as, āctūrum for ācturum esse; ējectus for ējectus esse.

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FORMATION OF THE VERB STEMS.

117. Many verbs employ the simple Verb Stem for the Present Stem;^[39] as, dīcere, amāre, monēre, audīre. Others modify the Verb Stem to form the Present, as follows:—

1. By appending the vowels, ā, ē, ī; as,—

	Present Stem	Verb Stem
juvāre,	juvā-	juv-.
augēre,	augē-	aug-.
vincīre,	vincī-	vinc-.

2. By adding i, as capiō, Present Stem capi- (Verb Stem cap-).

3. By the insertion of n (m before labial-mutes) before the final consonant of the Verb Stem; as, fundō (Stem fud-), rumpō (Stem rup-).

4. By appending -n to the Verb Stem; as,—

cern-ō

pell-ō (for pel-nō).

5. By appending t to the Verb Stem; as,—

flect-ō.

6. By appending sc to the Verb Stem; as,—

crēsc-ō.

scīsc-ō.

7. By Reduplication, that is, by prefixing the initial consonant of the Verb Stem with i; as,—

gi-gn-ō (root gen-),

si-st-ō (root sta-).

118. The Perfect Stem is formed from the Verb Stem—

1. By adding v (in case of Vowel Stems); as,—

amāv-ī,

dēlēv-ī,

audīv-ī.

2. By adding u (in case of some Consonant Stems); as,—

strepu-ī,

genu-ī,

alu-ī.

3. By adding s (in case of most Consonant Stems); as,—

carp-ō,	Perfect	carps-ī.
scrīb-ō,	"	scrīps-ī (for scrīb-sī).
rīd-eō,	"	rīs-ī (for rīd-sī).
sent-iō,	"	sēns-ī (for sent-sī).
dīc-ō,	"	dīx-ī (i.e. dīc-sī).

a. Note that before the ending -sī a Dental Mute (t, d) is lost; a Guttural Mute (c, g) unites with s to form x; while the Labial b is changed to p.

4. Without addition. Of this formation there are three types:—

a) The Verb Stem is reduplicated by prefixing the initial consonant with the following vowel or e; as,—

currō,	Perfect	cu-currī.
poscō,	"	po-poscī.
pellō,	"	pe-pulī.

NOTE 1.—Compounds, with the exception of dō, stō, sistō, discō, poscō, omit the reduplication. Thus: com-pulī, but re-poposcī.

NOTE 2.—Verbs beginning with sp or st retain both consonants in the reduplication, but drop s from the stem; as, spondeō, spo-pondī; stō, stetī.

b) The short vowel of the Verb Stem is lengthened; as, legō, lēgī; agō, ēgī. Note that ă by this process becomes ē.

c) The vowel of the Verb Stem is unchanged; as, vertō, vertī; minuō, minuī.

119. The Perfect Passive Participle, from which the Participial Stem is derived by dropping -us, is formed:—

1. By adding -tus (sometimes to the Present Stem, sometimes to the Verb Stem); as,—

amā-re,	Participle	amā-tus.
dēlē-re,	"	dēlē-tus,
audī-re,	"	audī-tus,
leg-ere,	"	lēc-tus,
scrīb-ere,	"	scrīp-tus,
sentī-re,	"	sēn-sus (for sent-tus).
caed-ere,	"	cae-sus (for caed-tus).

a. Note that g, before t, becomes c (see § 8, 5); b becomes p; while dt or tt becomes ss, which is then often simplified to s (§ 8, 2).

2. After the analogy of Participles like sēnsus and caesus, where -sus arises by phonetic change, -sus for -tus is added to other Verb Stems; as,—

lāb-ī,	Participle	lāp-sus.
fīg-ere,	"	fī-xus.

a. The same consonant changes occur in appending this ending -sus to the stem as in the case of the Perfect ending -si (see § 118, 3, a).

3. A few Verbs form the Participle in -ĭtus; as,—

domā-re,	dom-ĭtus.
monē-re,	mon-ĭtus.

4. The Future Active Participle is usually identical in its stem with the Perfect Passive Participle; as, amā-tus, amātūrus; moni-tus, monitūrus. But—

juvā-re,	Perf. Partic.	jūtus,	has Fut. Act. Partic.	juvātūrus.[40]
lavā-re,	"	lautus,	"	lavātūrus.
par-ere,	"	partus,	"	paritūrus.
ru-ere,	"	rutus,	"	ruitūrus.
secă-re,	"	sectus,	"	secātūrus.
fru-ĭ,	"	frūctus,	"	fruitūrus.
mor-ī,	"	mortuus,	"	moritūrus.
orī-rī,	"	ortus,	"	oritūrus.

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LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS, WITH PRINCIPAL PARTS.

120. I. PERFECT IN -VĪ.

amō

amāre

amāvī

amātus

love

All regular verbs of the First Conjugation follow this model.

pōtō

pōtāre

pōtāvī

pōtus (§ 114, 2)

drink

II. PERFECT IN -UĪ.

crepō	crepāre	crepuī	crepitūrus	rattle
cubō	cubāre	cubuī	cubitūrus	lie down
domō	domāre	domuī	domitus	tame
fricō	fricāre	fricuī	frictus and fricātus	rub
micō	micāre	micuī	——	glitter
dīmicō	dīmicāre	dīmicāvī	dīmicātum (est)[41]	fight
ex-plicō	explicāre	explicāvī (-uī)	explicātus (-itus)	unfold
im-plicō	implicāre	implicāvī (-uī)	implicātus (-itus)	entwine
secō	secāre	secuī	sectus	cut
sonō	sonāre	sonuī	sonātūrus	sound
tonō	tonāre	tonuī	——	thunder
vetō	vetāre	vetuī	vetitus	forbid

III. PERFECT IN -Ī WITH LENGTHENING OF THE STEM VOWEL.

juvō	juvāre	jūvī	jūtus	help
lavō	lavāre	lāvī	lautus	wash

IV. PERFECT REDUPLICATED.

stō

stāre

stetī

stātūrus

V. DEPONENTS.

These are all regular, and follow mīror, mīrārī, mīrātus sum.

121. I. PERFECT IN -VĪ.

dēleō	dēlēre	dēlēvī	dēlētus	destroy
fleō	flēre	flēvī	flētus	weep, lament
com-pleō[42]	complēre	complēvī	complētus	fill up
aboleō	abolēre	abolēvī	abolitus	destroy
cieō[43]	ciēre	cīvī	citus	set in motion

II. PERFECT IN -UĪ.

a. Type -eō, -ēre, -uī, -itus.

arceō	arcēre	arcuī		keep off
coerceō	coercēre	coercuī	coercitus	hold in check
exerceō	exercēre	exercuī	exercitus	practise
caleō	calēre	caluī	calitūrus	be warm
careō	carēre	caruī	caritūrus	be without
doleō	dolēre	doluī	dolitūrus	grieve
habeō	habēre	habuī	habitus	have
dēbeō	dēbēre	dēbuī	dēbitus	owe
praebeō	praebēre	praebuī	praebitus	offer
jaceō	jacēre	jacuī	jacitūrus	lie
mereō	merēre	meruī	meritus	earn, deserve
moneō	monēre	monuī	monitus	advise
noceō	nocēre	nocuī	nocitum (est)	injure
pāreō	pārēre	pāruī	pāritūrus	obey
placeō	placēre	placuī	placitūrus	please
taceō	tacēre	tacuī	tacitūrus	be silent
terreō	terrēre	terruī	territus	frighten
valeō	valēre	valuī	valitūrus	be strong
NOTE 1.—The following lack the Participial Stem:—
egeō	egēre	eguī	——	want
ēmineō	ēminēre	ēminuī	——	stand forth
flōreō	flōrēre	flōruī	——	bloom
horreō	horrēre	horruī	——	bristle
lateō	latēre	latuī	——	lurk
niteō	nitēre	nituī	——	gleam
oleō	olēre	oluī	——	smell
palleō	pallēre	palluī	——	be pale
pateō	patēre	patuī	——	lie open
rubeō	rubēre	rubuī	——	be red
sileō	silēre	siluī	——	be silent
splendeō	splendēre	splenduī	——	gleam
studeō	studēre	studuī	——	study
stupeō	stupēre	stupuī	——	be amazed
timeō	timēre	timuī	——	fear
torpeō	torpēre	torpuī	——	be dull
vigeō	vigēre	viguī	——	flourish
vireō	virēre	viruī	——	be green
and others.
NOTE 2.—The following are used only in the Present System:—
aveō	avēre	——	——	wish
frīgeō	frīgēre	——	——	be cold
immineō	imminēre	——	——	overhang
maereō	maerēre	——	——	mourn
polleō	pollēre	——	——	be strong
and others.

b. Type -eō, -ēre, -uī, -tus (-sus).

cēnseō	cēnsēre	cēnsuī	cēnsus	estimate
doceō	docēre	docuī	doctus	teach
misceō	miscēre	miscuī	mixtus	mix
teneō	tenēre	tenuī	——	hold
So contineō and sustineō; but—
retineō	retinēre	retinuī	retentus	retain
obtineō	obtinēre	obtinuī	obtentus	maintain
torreō	torrēre	torruī	tostus	bake

III. PERFECT IN -SĪ.

augeō	augēre	auxī	auctus	increase
torqueō	torquēre	torsī	tortus	twist
indulgeō	indulgēre	indulsī	——	indulge
lūceō	lūcēre	lūxī	——	be light
lūgeō	lūgēre	lūxī	——	mourn
jubeō	jubēre	jussī	jussus	order
per-mulceō	permulcēre	permulsī	permulsus	soothe
rīdeō	rīdēre	rīsī	rīsum (est)	laugh
suādeō	suādēre	suāsī	suāsum (est)	advise
abs-tergeō	abstergēre	abstersī	abstersus	wipe off
ārdeō	ārdēre	ārsī	ārsūrus	burn
haereō	haerēre	haesī	haesūrus	stick
maneō	manēre	mānsī	mānsūrus	stay
algeō	algēre	alsī	——	be cold
fulgeō	fulgēre	fulsī	——	gleam
urgeō	urgēre	ursī	——	press

IV. PERFECT IN -Ī WITH REDUPLICATION.

mordeō	mordēre	momordī	morsus	bite
spondeō	spondēre	spopondī	spōnsus	promise
tondeō	tondēre	totondī	tōnsus	shear
pendeō	pendēre	pependī	——	hang

V. PERFECT IN -Ī WITH LENGTHENING OF STEM VOWEL.

caveō	cavēre	cāvī	cautūrus	take care
faveō	favēre	fāvī	fautūrus	favor
foveō	fovēre	fōvī	fōtus	cherish
moveō	movēre	mōvī	mōtus	move
paveō	pavēre	pāvī	——	fear
sedeō	sedēre	sēdī	sessūrus	sit
videō	vidēre	vīdī	vīsus	see
voveō	vovēre	vōvī	vōtus	vow

VI. PERFECT IN -Ī WITHOUT EITHER REDUPLICATION OR LENGTHENING OF STEM VOWEL.

ferveō	fervēre	(fervī, ferbuī)	——	boil
prandeō	prandēre	prandī	prānsus (§ 114, 2)	lunch
strīdeō	strīdēre	strīdī	——	creak

VII. DEPONENTS.

liceor	licērī	licitus sum	bid
polliceor	pollicērī	pollicitus sum	promise
mereor	merērī	meritus sum	earn
misereor	miserērī	miseritus sum	pity
vereor	verērī	veritus sum	fear
fateor	fatērī	fassus sum	confess
cōnfiteor	cōnfitērī	cōnfessus sum	confess
reor	rērī	ratus sum	think
medeor	medērī	——	heal
tueor	tuērī	——	protect

122. I. VERBS WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN A CONSONANT.

1. Perfect in -sī.

a. Type -ō, -ĕre, -sī, -tus.

carpō	carpere	carpsī	carptus	pluck
sculpō	sculpere	sculpsī	sculptus	chisel
rēpō	rēpere	rēpsī	——	creep
serpō	serpere	serpsī	——	crawl
scribō	scribere	scrīpsī	scrīptus	write
nūbō	nūbere	nūpsī	nūpta (woman only)	marry
regō	regere	rēxī	rēctus	govern
tegō	tegere	tēxī	tēctus	cover
af-flīgō	afflīgere	afflīxī	afflīctus	shatter
dīcō	dīcere	dīxī	dictus	say
dūcō	dūcere	dūxī	ductus	lead
coquō	coquere	coxī	coctus	cook
trahō	trahere	trāxī	trāctus	draw
vehō	vehere	vexī	vectus	carry
cingō	cingere	cīnxī	cīnctus	gird
tingō	tingere	tīnxī	tīnctus	dip
jungō	jungere	jūnxī	jūnctus	join
fingō	fingere	fīnxī	fīctus	would
pingō	pingere	pīnxī	pīctus	paint
stringō	stringere	strīnxī	strictus	bind
-stinguō[44]	-stinguere	-stīnxī	-stīnctus	blot out
unguō	unguere	ūnxī	ūnctus	anoint
vīvō	vīvere	vīxī	vīctum (est)	live
gerō	gerere	gessī	gestus	carry
urō	ūrere	ussī	ūstus	burn
temnō	temnere	con-tempsī	con-temptus	despise

b. Type -ō, -ĕre, -sī, -sus.

fīgō	fīgere	fīxī	fīxus	fasten
mergō	mergere	mersī	mersus	sink
spargō	spargere	sparsī	sparsus	scatter
flectō	flectere	flexī	flexus	bend
nectō	nectere	nexuī (nexī)	nexus	twine
mittō	mittere	mīsī	missus	send
rādō	rādere	rāsī	rāsus	shave
rōdō	rōdere	rōsī	rōsus	gnaw
vādō	vādere	-vāsī[45]	-vāsum (est)[45]	march, walk
lūdō	lūdere	lūsī	lūsum (est)	play
trūdō	trūdere	trūsī	trūsus	push
laedō	laedere	laesī	laesus	injure, hurt
claudō	claudere	clausī	clausus	close
plaudō	plaudere	plausī	plausum (est)	clap
explōdō	explōdere	explōsī	explōsus	hoot off
cēdō	cēdere	cessī	cessum (est)	withdraw
dīvidō	dīvidere	dīvīsī	dīvīsus	divide
premō	premere	pressī	pressus	press

2. Perfect in -ī with Reduplication.

ab-dō	abdere	abdidī	abditus	conceal
red-dō	red-dere	reddidī	redditus	return
So addō, condō, dēdō, perdō, prōdō, trādō, etc.
cōn-sistō	cōnsistere	cōnstitī	——	take one's stand
resistō	resistere	restitī	——	resist
circumsistō	circumsistere	circumstetī	——	surround
cadō	cadere	cecidī	cāsūrus	fall
caedō	caedere	cecīdī	caesus	kill
pendō	pendere	pependī	pēnsus	weigh, pay
tendō	tendere	tetendī	tentus	stretch
tundō	tundere	tutudī	tūsus, tūnsus	beat
fallō	fallere	fefellī	(falsus, as Adj.)	deceive
pellō	pellere	pepulī	pulsus	drive out
currō	currere	cucurrī	cursum (est)	run
parcō	parcere	pepercī	parsūrus	spare
canō	canere	cecinī	——	sing
tangō	tangere	tetigī	tāctus	touch
pungō	pungere	pupugī	pūnctus	prick
NOTE.—In the following verbs the perfects were originally reduplicated, but have lost the reduplicating syllable:—
per-cellō	percellere	perculī	perculsus	strike down
findō	findere	fidī	fissus	split
scindō	scindere	scidī	scissus	tear apart
tollō	tollere	sus-tulī	sublātus	remove

3. Perfect in -ī with Lengthening of Stem Vowel.

agō	agere	ēgī	āctus	drive, do
peragō	peragere	perēgī	perāctus	finish
subigō	subigere	subēgī	subāctus	subdue
cōgō	cōgere	coēgī	coāctus	force, gather
frangō	frangere	frēgī	frāctus	break
perfringō	perfringere	perfrēgī	perfrāctus	break down
legō	legere	lēgī	lēctus	gather, read
perlegō	perlegere	perlēgī	perlēctus	read through
colligō	colligere	collēgī	collēctus	collect
dēligō	dēligere	dēlēgī	dēlēctus	choose
dīligō	dīligere	dīlēxī	dīlēctus	love
intellegō	intellegere	intellēxī	intellēctus	understand
neglegō	neglegere	neglēxī	neglēctus	neglect
emō	emere	ēmī	ēmptus	buy
coëmō	coëmere	coēmī	coēmptus	buy up
redimō	redimere	redēmī	redēmptus	buy back
dirimō	dirimere	dirēmī	dirēmptus	destroy
dēmō	dēmere	dēmpsī	dēmptus	take away
sūmō	sūmere	sūmpsī	sūmptus	take
prōmō	prōmere	prōmpsī	(prōmptus, as Adj.)	take out
vincō	vincere	vīcī	victus	conquer
re-linquō	relinquere	relīquī	relīctus	leave
rumpō	rumpere	rūpī	ruptus	break
edō	ēsse (§ 128)	ēdī	ēsus	eat
fundō	fundere	fūdī	fūsus	four

4. Perfect in -ī without either Reduplication or Lengthening of Stem Vowel.

excūdō	excūdere	excūdī	excūsus	hammer
cōnsīdō	cōnsīdere	cōnsēdī	——	take one's seat
possīdō	possīdere	possēdī	possessus	take possession
accendō	accendere	accendī	accēnsus	kindle
a-scendō	ascendere	ascendī	ascēnsum (est)	climb
dē-fendō	dēfendere	dēfendī	dēfēnsus	defend
pre-hendō	prehendere	prehendī	prehēnsus	seize
īcō	īcere	īcī	ictus	strike
vellō	vellere	vellī	vulsus	pluck
vertō	vertere	vertī	versus	turn
pandō	pandere	pandī	passus	spread
solvō	solvere	solvī	solūtus	loose
vīsō	vīsere	vīsī	vīsus	visit
volvō	volvere	volvī	volūtus	roll
verrō	verrere	verrī	versus	sweep

5. Perfect in -uī.

in-cumbō	incumbere	incubuī	incubitūrus	lean on
gignō	gignere	genuī	genitus	bring forth
molō	molere	moluī	molitus	grind
vomō	vomere	vomuī	vomitus	vomit
fremō	fremere	fremuī	——	snort
gemō	gemere	gemuī	——	sigh
metō	metere	messuī	messus	reap
tremō	tremere	tremuī	——	tremble
strepō	strepere	strepuī	——	rattle
alō	alete	aluī	altus (alitus)	nourish
colō	colere	coluī	cultus	cultivate
incolō	incolere	incoluī	——	inhabit
excolō	excolere	excoluī	excultus	perfect
cōnsulō	cōnsulere	cōnsuluī	cōnsultus	consult
cōnserō	cōnserere	cōnseruī	cōnsertus	join
dēserō	dēserere	dēseruī	dēsertus	desert
disserō	disserere	disseruī	——	discourse
texō	texere	texuī	textus	weave

6. Perfect in -vī.

sinō	sinere	sīvī	situs	allow
desinō	dēsinere	dēsiī	dēsitus	cease
ponō	pōnere	posuī	positus	place
ob-linō	oblinere	oblēvī	oblitus	smear
serō	serere	sēvī	satus	sow
cōnserō	cōnserere	cōnsēvī	cōnsitus	plant
cernō	cernere	——	——	separate
discernō	discernere	discrēvī	discrētus	distinguish
dēcernō	dēcernere	dēcrēvī	dēcrētus	decide
spernō	spernere	sprēvī	sprētus	scorn
sternō	sternere	strāvī	strātus	spread
prō-sternō	prōsternere	prōstrāvī	prōstrātus	overthrow
petō	petere	petīvī (petiī)	petītus	seek
appetō	appetere	appetīvī	appetītus	long for
terō	terere	trīvī	trītus	rub
quaerō	quaerere	quaesīvī	quaesītus	seek
acquīrō	acquīrere	acquīsīvī	acquīsītus	acquire
arcessō	arcessere	arcessīvī	arcessītus	summon
capessō	capessere	capessīvī	capessītus	seize
lacessō	lacessere	lacessīvī	lacessītus	provoke

7. Used only in Present System.

angō	angere	——	——	choke
lambō	lambere	——	——	lick
claudō	claudere	——	——	be lame
furō	furere	——	——	rave
vergō	vergere	——	——	bend
and a few others.

II. VERBS WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN -U.

induō	induere	induī	indūtus	put on
imbuō	imbuere	imbuī	imbūtus	moisten
luō	luere	luī	——	wash
polluō	polluere	polluī	pollūtus	defile
minuō	minuere	minuī	minūtus	lessen
statuō	statuere	statuī	statūtus	set up
cōnstituō	cōnstituere	cōnstituī	cōnstitūtus	determine
suō	suere	suī	sūtus	sew
tribuō	tribuere	tribuī	tribūtus	allot
ruō	ruere	ruī	ruitūrus	fall
dīruō	dīruere	dīruī	dīrutus	destroy
obruō	obruere	obruī	obrutus	overwhelm
acuō	acuere	acuī	——	sharpen
arguō	arguere	arguī	——	accuse
congruō	congruere	congruī	——	agree
metuō	metuere	metuī	——	fear
ab-nuō	abnuere	abnuī	——	decline
re-spuō	respuere	respuī	——	reject
struō	struere	strūxī	strūctus	build
fluō	fluere	flūxi	(flūxus, as Adj.)	flow

III. VERBS WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN -I.

capiō	cupere	cupīvī	cupītus	wish
sapiō	sapere	sapīvī	——	taste
rapiō	rapere	rapuī	raptus	snatch
dīripiō	dīripere	dīripuī	dīreptus	plunder
cōnspiciō	cōnspicere	cōnspexī	cōnspectus	gaze at
aspiciō	aspicere	aspexī	aspectus	behold
illiciō	illicere	illexī	illectus	allure
pelliciō	pellicere	pellexī	pellectus	allure
ēliciō	ēlicere	ēlicuī	ēlicitus	elicit
quatiō	quatere	——	quassus	shake
concutiō	concutere	concussī	concussus	shake
pariō	parere	peperī	partus	bring forth
capiō	capere	cēpī	captus	take
accipiō	accipere	accēpī	acceptus	accept
incipiō	incipere	incēpī	inceptus	begin
faciō	facere	fēcī	factus	make
afficiō	afficere	affēcī	affectus	affect
Passive, afficior, afficī, affectus sum.
So other prepositional compounds, perficiō, perficior; interficiō, interficior; etc. But—
assuēfaciō	assuēfacere	assuēfēcī	assuēfactus	accustom
Passive, assuēfiō, assuēfieri, assuēfactus sum.
So also patefaciō, patefīō; calefaciō, calefīō; and all non-prepositional compounds.
jaciō	jacere	jēcī	jactus	hurl
abiciō	abicere	abjēcī	abjectus	throw away
fodiō	fodere	fōdī	fossus	dig
fugiō	fugere	fūgī	fugitūrus	flee
effugiō	effugere	effūgī	——	escape

IV. VERBS IN -SCŌ.

1. Verbs in -scō from Simple Roots.

poscō	poscere	poposcī	——	demand
discō	discere	didicī	——	learn
pāscō	pāscere	pāvī	pāstus	feed
pāscor	pāscī	pāstus sum		graze
crēscō	crēscere	crēvī	crētus	grow
cōnsuēscō	cōnsuēscere	cōnsuēvī	cōnsuētus	accustom one's self
quiēscō	quiēscere	quiēvī	quiētūrus	be still
adolēscō	adolēscere	adolēvi	adultus	grow up
obsolēscō	obsolēscerē	obsolēvī	——	grow old
nōscō	nōscere	nōvī	——	become acquainted with
ignōscō	ignōscere	ignōvī	ignōtūrus	pardon
agnōscō	agnōscere	agnōvī	agnitus	recognize
cognōscō	cognōscere	cognōvī	cognitus	get acquainted with

2. Verbs in -scō formed from other Verbs.

These usually have Inchoative or Inceptive meaning (see § 155, 1). When they have the Perfect, it is the same as that of the Verbs from which they are derived.

flōrēscō	flōrēscere	flōruī	begin to bloom	(flōreō)
scīscō	scīscere	scīvī	enact	(scīo)
ārēscō	ārēscere	āruī	become dry	(āreō)
calēscō	calēscere	caluī	become hot	(caleō)
cōnsenēscō	cōnsenēscere	cōnsenuī	grow old	(seneō)
extimēscō	extimēscere	extimuī	fear greatly	(timeō)
ingemīscō	ingemīscere	ingemuī	sigh	(gemō)
adhaerēscō	adhaerēscere	adhaesī	stick	(haereō)

3. Verbs in -scō derived from Adjectives, usually with Inchoative meaning.

obdūrēscō	obdūrēscere	obdūruī	grow hard	(dūrus)
ēvanēscō	ēvanēscere	ēvinuī	disappear	(vānus)
percrēbrēsco	percrēbrēscere	percrēbruī	grow fresh	(crēber)
mātūrescō	mātūrēscere	mātūruī	grow ripe	(mātūrus)
obmūtēscō	obmūtēscere	obmūtuī	grow dumb	(mūtus)

V. DEPONENTS.

fungor	fungi	fūnctus sum	perform
queror	querī	questus sum	complain
loquor	loquī	locūtus sum	speak
sequor	sequī	secūtus sum	follow
fruor	fruī	fruitūrus	enjoy
perfruor	perfruī	perfrūctus sum	thoroughly enjoy
lābor	lābi	lāpsus sum	glide
amplector	amplectī	amplexus sum	embrace
nītor	nītī	nīsus sum, nīxus sum	strive
gradior	gradī	gressus sum	walk
patior	patī	passus sum	suffer
perpetior	perpetī	perpessus sum	endure
ūtor	ūtī	ūsus sum	use
morior	morī	mortuus sum	die
adipīscor	adipīscī	adeptus sum	acquire
comminīscor	comminīscī	commentus sum	invent
reminīscor	reminīscī	——	remember
nancīscor	nancīscī	nanctus (nactus) sum	acquire
nāscor	nāscī	nātus sum	be born
oblīvīscor	oblīvīscī	oblītus sum	forget
pacīscor	pacīscī	pactus sum	covenant
proficīscor	proficīscī	profectus sum	set out
ulcīscor	ulcīscī	ultus sum	avenge
īrāscor	īrāscī	(īrātus, as Adj.)	be angry
vescor	vescī	——	eat

123. I. PERFECT ENDS IN -VĪ.

audiō	audīre	audīvī	audītus	hear
So all regular Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation.
sepeliō	sepelīre	sepelīvī	sepultus	bury

II. PERFECT ENDS IN -UĪ.

aperiō	aperīre	aperuī	apertus	open
operiō	operīre	operuī	opertus	cover
saliō	salīre	saluī	——	leap

III. PERFECT ENDS IN -SĪ.

saepiō	saepīre	saepsī	saeptus	hedge in
sanciō	sancīre	sānxī	sānctus	ratify
vinciō	vincīre	vinxī	vinctus	bind
amiciō	amicīre	——	amictus	envelop
fulciō	fulcīre	fulsī	fultus	prop up
referciō	refercīre	refersī	refertus	fill
sarciō	sarcīre	sarsī	sartus	patch
hauriō	haurīre	hausī	haustus	draw
sentiō	sentīre	sēnsī	sēnsus	feel

IV. PERFECT IN -Ī WITH LENGTHENING OF STEM VOWEL.

veniō	venīre	vēnī	ventum (est)	come
adveniō	advenīre	advēnī	adventum (est)	arrive
inveniō	invenīre	invēnī	inventus	find

V. PERFECT WITH LOSS OF REDUPLICATION.

reperiō	reperīre	repperī	repertus	find
comperiō	comperīre	comperī	compertus	learn

VI. USED ONLY IN THE PRESENT.

feriō	ferīre	——	——	strike
ēsuriō	ēsurīre	——	——	be hungry

VII. DEPONENTS.

largior	largīrī	largītus sum	bestow
So many others.
experior	experīrī	expertus sum	try
opperior	opperīrī	oppertus sum	await
ōrdior	ōrdīrī	ōrsus sum	begin
orior	orīrī	ortus sum	arise
Orior usually follows the Third Conjugation in its inflection; as oreris, orĭtur, orĭmur; orerer (Imp. Subj.); orere (Imper.).
mētior	mētīrī	mēnsus sum	measure
assentior	assentīrī	assēnsus sum	assent

---

IRREGULAR VERBS.

124. A number of Verbs are called Irregular. The most important are sum, dō, edō, ferō, volō, nōlō, mālō, eō, fīō. The peculiarity of these Verbs is that they append the personal endings in many forms directly to the stem, instead of employing a connecting vowel, as fer-s (2d Sing. of fer-ō), instead of fer-i-s. They are but the relics of what was once in Latin a large class of Verbs.

125. The Inflection of sum has already been given. Its various compounds are inflected in the same way. They are—

absum	abesse	āfuī	am absent
Pres. Partic. absēns (absentis), absent.
adsum	adesse	adfuī	am present
dēsum	deesse	dēfuī	am lacking
insum	inesse	īnfuī	am in
intersum	interesse	interfuī	am among
praesum	praeesse	praefuī	am in charge of
Pres. Partic. praesēns (praesentis), present
obsum	obesse	obfuī	hinder
prōsum	prōdesse	prōfuī	am of advantage
subsum	subesse	subfuī	am underneath
supersum	superesse	superfuī	am left

NOTE.—Prōsum is compounded of prōd (earlier form of prō) and sum; the d disappears before consonants, as prōsumus; but prōdestis.

126. Possum. In its Present System possum is a compound of pot- (for pote, able) and sum; potuī is from an obsolete potēre.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
possum,	posse,	potuī,	to be able.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR.		PLURAL.
Pres.	possum, potes, potest;		possumus, potestis, possunt.
Imp.	poteram;		poterāmus.
Fut.	poterō;		poterimus.
Perf.	potuī;		potuimus.
Plup.	potueram;		potuerāmus.
Fut. P.	potuerō;		potuerimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
SINGULAR.		PLURAL.
Pres.	possim, possīs, possit;		possīmus, possītis, possint.
Imp.	possem;		possēmus.
Perf.	potuerim;		potuerīmus.
Plup.	potuissem;		potuissēmus.
INFINITIVE.		PARTICIPLE.
Pres.	posse.	Pres.	potēns (as an adjective).
Perf.	potuisse.

127. Dō, I give.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
dō,	dăre,	dedī,	dătus.

Active Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR.		PLURAL.
Pres.	dō, dās, dat;		dămus, dătis, dant.
Imp.	dăbam, etc.;		dăbāmus.
Fut.	dăbō, etc.;		dăbimus.
Perf.	dedī;		dedimus.
Plup.	dederam;		dederāmus.
Fut. P.	dederō;		dederimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres.	dem;		dēmus.
Imp.	dărem;		dărēmus.
Perf.	dederim;		dederīmus.
Plup.	dedissem;		dedissēmus.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.	dā;		dăte.
Fut.	dătō;		dătōte.
	dătō.		dantō.
INFINITIVE.		PARTICIPLE.
Pres.	dăre.		dāns.
Perf.	dedisse.
Fut.	dătūrus esse.		dătūrus.
GERUND.		SUPINE.
	dandī, etc.		dătum, dătū.

1. The passive is inflected regularly with the short vowel. Thus: dărī, dătur, dărētur, etc.

2. The archaic and poetic Present Subjunctive forms duim, duint, perduit, perduint, etc., are not from the root da-, but from du-, a collateral root of similar meaning.

128. Edō, I eat.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
edō,	ēsse,	ēdī,	ēsus.

Active Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres.	edō,	edimus,
	ēs,	ēstis,
	ēst;	edunt.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Imp.	ēssem,	ēssēmus,
	ēssēs,	ēssētis,
	ēsset;	ēssent.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.	ēs;	ēste.
Fut.	ēstō;	ēstōte.
	ēstō;	eduntō.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. ēsse.
Passive Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres. 3d Sing. ēstur.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Imp. 3d Sing. ēssētur.

1. Observe the long vowel of the forms in ēs-, which alone distinguishes them from the corresponding forms of esse, to be.

2. Note comedō, comēsse, comēdī, comēsus or comēstus, consume.

3. The Present Subjunctive has edim, -īs, -it, etc., less often edam, -ās, etc.

129. Ferō, I bear.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
ferō,	ferre,	tulī,	lātus.

Active Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR.		PLURAL.
Pres.	ferō, fers, fert;		ferimus, fertis, ferunt.[46]
Imp.	ferēbam;		ferēbāmus.
Fut.	feram;		ferēmus.
Perf.	tulī;		tulimus.
Plup.	tuleram;		tulerāmus.
Fut. P.	tulerō;		tulerimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres.	feram;		ferāmus.
Imp.	ferrem;		ferrēmus.
Perf.	tulerim;		tulerīmus.
Plup.	tulissem;		tulissēmus.
IMPERATIVE
Pres.	fer;		ferte.
Fut.	fertō;		fertōte.
	fertō;		feruntō.
INFINITIVE.		PARTICIPLE.
Pres.	ferre.	Pres.	ferēns.
Perf.	tulisse.
Fut.	lātūrus esse.	Fut.	lātūrus.
GERUND.		SUPINE.
Gen.	ferendī.
Dat.	ferendō.
Acc.	ferendum.	Acc.	lātum.
Abl.	ferendō.	Abl.	lātū.

Passive Voice.
feror,	ferrī,	lātus sum,	to be borne.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR.		PLURAL.
Pres.	feror, ferris, fertur;		ferimur, feriminī, feruntur.
Imp.	ferēbar;		ferēbāmur.
Fut.	ferar;		ferēmur.
Perf.	lātus sum;		lātī sumus.
Plup.	lātus eram;		lātī erāmus.
Fut. P.	lātus erō;		lātī erimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres.	ferar;		ferāmur.
Imp.	ferrer;		ferrēmur.
Perf.	lātus sim;		lātī sīmus.
Plup.	lātus essem;		lātī essēmus.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.	ferre;		ferimimī.
Fut.	fertor;		——
	fertor;		feruntor.
INFINITIVE.		PARTICIPLE.
Pres.	ferrī.
Perf.	lātus esse.	Perf.	lātus.
Fut.	lātum īrī.	Fut.	ferendus.

So also the Compounds—

afferō	afferre	attulī	allātus	bring toward
auferō	auferre	abstulī	ablātus	take away
cōnferō	cōnferre	contulī	collātus	compare
differō	differre	distulī	dīlātus	put off
efferō	efferre	extulī	ēlātus	carry out
īnferō	īnferre	intulī	illātus	bring against
offerō	offerre	obtulī	oblātus	present
referō	referre	rettulī	relātus	bring back

NOTE.—The forms sustulī and sublātus belong to tollō.

130. volō, nōlō, mālō.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
volō,	velle,	voluī,	to wish.
nōlō,	nōlle,	nōluī,	to be unwilling.
mālō,	mālle,	māluī,	to prefer.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres.	volō,	nōlō,	mālō,
	vīs,	nōn vīs,	māvīs,
	vult;	nōn vult;	māvult;
	volumus,	nōlumus,	mālumus,
	vultis,	nōn vultis,	māvultis,
	volunt.	nōlunt.	mālunt.
Imp.	volēbam.	nōlēbam.	mālēbam.
Fut.	volam.	nōlam.	mālam.
Perf.	voluī.	nōluī.	māluī.
Plup.	volueram.	nōlueram.	mālueram.
Fut. P.	voluerō.	nōluerō.	māluerō.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres.	velim, -īs, -it, etc.	nōlim.	mālīm.
Inf.	vellem, -ēs, -et, etc.	nōllem.	māllem.
Perf.	voluerim.	nōluerim.	māluerim.
Pluf.	voluissem.	nōluissem.	māluissem.
IMPERATIVE.

	Pres.	nōlī;	nōlīte.
	Fut.	nōlītō;	nōlītōte.
	nōlītō;	nōluntō.

INFINITIVE.
Pres.	velle.	nōlle.	mālle.
Perf.	voluisse.	nōluisse.	māluisse
PARTICIPLE.
Pres.	volēns	nōlēns.	——

131. Fīō.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
fīō,	fīerī,	factus sum,	to become, be made.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR,		PLURAL.
Pres.	fīō, fīs, fit;		fīmus, fītis, fīunt.
Inf.	fīēbam;		fīēbāmus.
Fut.	fīam;		fīēmus.
Perf.	factus sum;		factī sumus.
Pluf.	factus eram;		factī erāmus.
Fut. P.	factus erō;		factī erimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres.	fīam;		fīāmus.
Imp.	fierem;		fierēmus.
Perf.	factus sim;		factī sīmus.
Plup.	factus essem;		factī essēmus.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.	fī;		fīte.
INFINITIVE.		PARTICIPLE.
Pres.	fierī.
Perf.	factus esse.	Perf.	factus.
Fut.	factum īrī.	Ger.	faciendus.

NOTE.—A few isolated forms of compounds of fīō occur; as, dēfit lacks; īnfit, begins.

132. Eō.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
eō,	īre,	īvī,	itum (est),	to go.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR.		PLURAL.
Pres.	eō, īs, it;		īmus, ītis, eunt.
Imp.	ībam;		ībāmus.
Fut.	ībō;		ībimus.
Perf.	īvī (iī);		īvimus (iimus).
Plup.	īveram (ieram);		īverāmus (ierāmus)
Fut. P.	īverō (ierō);		īverimus (ierimus).
SUBJUNCTIVE.
SINGULAR.		PLURAL.
Pres.	eam;		eāmus.
Inf.	īrem;		īrēmus.
Perf.	īverim (ierim);		īverīmus (ierīmus).
Pluf.	īvissem (iissem, īssem);		īvissēmus (iissēmus, īssēmus).
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.	ī;		īte.
Fut.	ītō;		ītōte,
	ītō;		euntō.
INFINITIVE.		PARTICIPLE.
Pres.	īre.	Pres.	iēns.
Perf.	īvisse (īsse).		(Gen. euntis.)
Fut.	itūrus esse.	Fut.	itūrus.   Gerundive, eundum.
GERUND.		SUPINE.
	eundī, etc.		itum, itū.

1. Transitive compounds of eō admit the full Passive inflection; as adeor, adīris, adītur, etc.

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DEFECTIVE VERBS.

Defective Verbs lack certain forms. The following are the most important:—

133. USED MAINLY IN THE PERFECT SYSTEM.

	Coepī, I have begun.	Meminī, I remember.	Ōdī, I hate.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Perf.	coepī.	meminī.	ōdī.
Plup.	coeperam.	memineram.	ōderam.
Fut. P.	coeperō.	meminerō.	ōderō.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Perf.	coeperim.	meminerim.	ōderim.
Pluf.	coepissem.	meminissem.	ōdissem.
IMPERATIVE.
Sing. mementō; Plur. mementōte.
INFINITIVE.
Perf.	coepisse.	meminisse.	ōdisse.
Fut.	coeptūrus esse.		ōsūrus esse.
PARTICIPLE.
Perf.	coeptus, begun.		ōsus.
Fut.	coeptūrus.		ōsūrus.

1. When coepī governs a Passive Infinitive it usually takes the form coeptus est; as, amārī coeptus est, he began to be loved.

2. Note that meminī and ōdī, though Perfect in form, are Present in sense. Similarly the Pluperfect and Future Perfect have the force of the Imperfect and Future; as, memineram, I remembered; ōderō, I shall hate.

134. Inquam, I say (inserted between words of a direct quotation)

INDICATIVE MOOD.
	SINGULAR.	PLURAL.
Pres.	inquam,	——
	inquis,	——
	inquit;	inquiunt.
Fut.	——	——
	inquiēs,	——
	inquiet.	——
Perf. 3d Sing. inquit.

135. Ajō, I say.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
	SINGULAR.	PLURAL
Pres.	ajō,	——
	aīs,	——
	ait;	ajunt.
Imp.	ajēbam,	ajēbāmus,
	ajēbās,	ajēbātis,
	ajēbat;	ajēbant.
Perf 3d Sing. aït.
SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres 3d Sing. ajat.

NOTE.—For aīsne, do you mean? aīn is common.

136. Fārī, to speak.

This is inflected regularly in the perfect tenses. In the Present System it has—

INDICATIVE MOOD.
	SINGULAR.	PLURAL.
Pres.	——	——
	——	——
	fātur.	——
Fut.	fābor,	——
	——	——
	fābitur.	——
Impv.	fāre.
Inf.	fārī.
Pres. Partic.	fantis, fantī, etc.
Gerund, G.,	fandī; D. and Abl., fandō.
Gerundive,	fandus.

NOTE.—Forms of fārī are rare. More frequent are its compounds; as,— affātur, he addresses; praefāmur, we say in advance.

137. OTHER DEFECTIVE FORMS.

1. Queō, quīre, quīvī, to be able, and nequeō, nequīre, nequīvī, to be unable, are inflected like eō, but occur chiefly in the Present Tense, and there only in special forms.

2. Quaesō, I entreat; quaesumus, we entreat.

3. Cedo (2d sing. Impv.), cette (2d plu.); give me, tell me.

4. Salvē, salvēte, hail. Also Infinitive, salvēre.

5. Havē (avē), havēte, hail. Also Infinitive, havēre.

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IMPERSONAL VERBS.

138. Impersonal Verbs correspond to the English, it snows, it seems, etc. They have no personal subject, but may take an Infinitive, a Clause, or a Neuter Pronoun; as, mē pudet hōc fēcisse, lit. it shames me to have done this; hōc decet, this is fitting. Here belong—

I. Verbs denoting operations of the weather; as,—

fulget	fulsit	it lightens
tonat	tonuit	it thunders
grandinat	——	it hails
ningit	ninxit	it snows
pluit	pluit	it rains

II. Special Verbs.

paenitet	paenitēre	paenituit	it repents
piget	pigēre	piguit	it grieves
pudet	pudēre	puduit	it causes shame
taedet	taedēre	taeduit	it disgusts
miseret	miserēre	miseruit	it causes pity
libet	libēre	libuit	it pleases
licet	licēre	licuit	it is lawful
oportet	oportēre	oportuit	it is fitting
decet	decēre	decuit	it is becoming
dēdecet	dēdecēre	dēdecuit	it is unbecoming
rēfert	rēferre	rētulit	it concerns

III. Verbs Impersonal only in Special Senses.

cōnstat	cōnstāre	cōnstitit	it is evident
praestat	praestāre	praestitit	it is better
juvat	juvāre	jūvit	it delights
appāret	appārēre	appāruit	it appears
placet	placēre	placuit (placitum est)	it pleases
accēdit	accēdere	accessit	it is added
accidit	accidere	accidit	it happens
contingit	contingere	contigit	it happens
ēvenit	ēvenīre	ēvēnit	it turns out
interest	interesse	interfuit	it concerns

IV. The Passive of Intransitive Verbs; as,—

ītur	lit. it is gone	i.e. some one goes
curritur	lit. it is run	i.e. some one runs
ventum est	lit. it has been come	i.e. some one has come
veniendum est	lit. it must be come	i.e. somebody must come
pugnārī potest	lit. it can be fought	i.e. somebody can fight

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