Latin for Beginners

To make the course preparatory to Cæsar at the same time systematic, thorough, clear, and interesting is the purpose of this series of lessons.

The first pages are devoted to a brief discussion of the Latin language, its history, and its educational value. The body of the book, consisting of seventy-nine lessons, is divided into three parts.

Part I is devoted to pronunciation, quantity, accent, and kindred introductory essentials.

Part II carries the work through the first sixty lessons, and is devoted to the study of forms and vocabulary, together with some elementary constructions, a knowledge of which is necessary for the translation of the exercises and reading matter. The first few lessons have been made unusually simple, to meet the wants of pupils not well grounded in English grammar.

Part III contains nineteen lessons, and is concerned primarily with the study of syntax and of subjunctive and irregular verb forms. The last three of these lessons constitute a review of all the constructions presented in the book. There is abundant easy reading matter; and, in order to secure proper concentration of effort upon syntax and translation, no new vocabularies are introduced, but the vocabularies in Part II are reviewed.

It is hoped that the following features will commend themselves to teachers:

The forms are presented in their natural sequence, and are given, for the most part, in the body of the book as well as in a grammatical appendix. The work on the verb is intensive in character, work in other directions being reduced to a minimum while this is going on. The forms of the subjunctive are studied in correlation with the subjunctive constructions.

The vocabulary has been selected with the greatest care, using Lodge’s “Dictionary of Secondary Latin” and Browne’s “Latin Word List” as a basis. There are about six hundred words, exclusive of proper names, in the special vocabularies, and these are among the simplest and commonest words in the language. More than ninety-five per cent of those chosen are Cæsarian, and of these more than ninety per cent are used in Cæsar five or more times. The few words not Cæsarian are of such frequent occurrence in Cicero, Vergil, and other authors as to justify their appearance here. But teachers desiring to confine word study to Cæsar can easily do so, as the Cæsarian words are printed in the vocabularies in distinctive type. Concrete nouns have been preferred to abstract, root words to compounds and derivatives, even when the latter were of more frequent occurrence in Cæsar. To assist the memory, related English words are added in each special vocabulary. To insure more careful preparation, the special vocabularies have been removed from their respective lessons and placed by themselves. The general vocabulary contains about twelve hundred words, and of these above eighty-five per cent are found in Cæsar.

The syntax has been limited to those essentials which recent investigations, such as those of Dr. Lee Byrne and his collaborators, have shown to belong properly to the work of the first year. The constructions are presented, as far as possible, from the standpoint of English, the English usage being given first and the Latin compared or contrasted with it. Special attention has been given to the constructions of participles, the gerund and gerundive, and the infinitive in indirect statements. Constructions having a logical connection are not separated but are treated together.

Exercises for translation occur throughout, those for translation into Latin being, as a rule, only half as long as those for translation into English. In Part III a few of the commoner idioms in Cæsar are introduced and the sentences are drawn mainly from that author. From first to last a consistent effort is made to instill a proper regard for Latin word order, the first principles of which are laid down early in the course.

Selections for reading are unusually abundant and are introduced from the earliest possible moment. These increase in number and length as the book progresses, and, for the most part, are made an integral part of the lessons instead of being massed at the end of the book. This arrangement insures a more constant and thorough drill in forms and vocabulary, promotes reading power, and affords a breathing spell between succeeding subjects. The material is drawn from historical and mythological sources, and the vocabulary employed includes but few words not already learned. The book closes with a continued story which recounts the chief incidents in the life of a Roman boy. The last chapters record his experiences in Cæsar’s army, and contain much information that will facilitate the interpretation of the Commentaries. The early emphasis placed on word order and sentence structure, the simplicity of the syntax, and the familiarity of the vocabulary, make the reading selections especially useful for work in sight translation.

Reviews are called for at frequent intervals, and to facilitate this branch of the work an Appendix of Reviews has been prepared, covering both the vocabulary and the grammar.

The illustrations are numerous, and will, it is hoped, do much to stimulate interest in the ancient world and to create true and lasting impressions of Roman life and times.

A consistent effort has been made to use simple language and clear explanation throughout.

As an aid to teachers using this book a “Teacher’s Manual” has been prepared, which contains, in addition to general suggestions, notes on each lesson.

The author wishes to express his gratitude to the numerous teachers who tested the advance pages in their classes, and, as a result of their experience, have given much valuable aid by criticism and suggestion. Particular acknowledgments are due to Miss A. Susan Jones of the Central High School, Grand Rapids, Michigan; to Miss Clara Allison of the High School at Hastings, Michigan; and to Miss Helen B. Muir and Mr. Orland O. Norris, teachers of Latin in this institution.

BENJAMIN L. D’OOGE

Michigan State Normal College

What is Latin? If you will look at the map of Italy on the opposite page, you will find near the middle of the peninsula and facing the west coast a district called Latium,1 and Rome its capital. The Latin language, meaning the language of Latium, was spoken by the ancient Romans and other inhabitants of Latium, and Latin was the name applied to it after the armies of Rome had carried the knowledge of her language far beyond its original boundaries. As the English of to-day is not quite the same as that spoken two or three hundred years ago, so Latin was not always the same at all times, but changed more or less in the course of centuries. The sort of Latin you are going to learn was in use about two thousand years ago. And that period has been selected because the language was then at its best and the greatest works of Roman literature were being produced. This period, because of its supreme excellence, is called the Golden Age of Roman letters.

The Spread of Latin. For some centuries after Rome was founded, the Romans were a feeble and insignificant people, their territory was limited to Latium, and their existence constantly threatened by warlike neighbors. But after the third century before Christ, Rome’s power grew rapidly. She conquered all Italy, then reached out for the lands across the sea and beyond the Alps, and finally ruled over the whole ancient world. The empire thus established lasted for more than four hundred years. The importance of Latin increased with the growth of Roman power, and what had been a dialect spoken by a single tribe became the universal language. Gradually the language changed somewhat, developing differently in different countries. In Italy it has become Italian, in Spain Spanish, and in France French. All these nations, therefore, are speaking a modernized form of Latin.

The Romans and the Greeks. In their career of conquest the Romans came into conflict with the Greeks. The Greeks were inferior to the Romans in military power, but far superior to them in culture. They excelled in art, literature, music, science, and philosophy. Of all these pursuits the Romans were ignorant until contact with Greece revealed to them the value of education and filled them with the thirst for knowledge. And so it came about that while Rome conquered Greece by force of arms, Greece conquered Rome by force of her intellectual superiority and became her schoolmaster. It was soon the established custom for young Romans to go to Athens and to other centers of Greek learning to finish their training, and the knowledge of the Greek language among the educated classes became universal. At the same time many cultured Greeks—poets, artists, orators, and philosophers—flocked to Rome, opened schools, and taught their arts. Indeed, the preëminence of Greek culture became so great that Rome almost lost her ambition to be original, and her writers vied with each other in their efforts to reproduce in Latin what was choicest in Greek literature. As a consequence of all this, the civilization and national life of Rome became largely Grecian, and to Greece she owed her literature and her art.

Rome and the Modern World. After conquering the world, Rome impressed her language, laws, customs of living, and modes of thinking upon the subject nations, and they became Roman; and the world has remained largely Roman ever since. Latin continued to live, and the knowledge of Latin was the only light of learning that burned steadily through the dark ages that followed the downfall of the Roman Empire. Latin was the common language of scholars and remained so even down to the days of Shakespeare. Even yet it is more nearly than any other tongue the universal language of the learned. The life of to-day is much nearer the life of ancient Rome than the lapse of centuries would lead one to suppose. You and I are Romans still in many ways, and if Cæsar and Cicero should appear among us, we should not find them, except for dress and language, much unlike men of to-day.

Latin and English. Do you know that more than half of the words in the English dictionary are Latin, and that you are speaking more or less Latin every day? How has this come about? In the year 1066 William the Conqueror invaded England with an army of Normans. The Normans spoke French—which, you remember, is descended from Latin—and spread their language to a considerable extent over England, and so Norman-French played an important part in the formation of English and forms a large proportion of our vocabulary. Furthermore, great numbers of almost pure Latin words have been brought into English through the writings of scholars, and every new scientific discovery is marked by the addition of new terms of Latin derivation. Hence, while the simpler and commoner words of our mother tongue are Anglo-Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon forms the staple of our colloquial language, yet in the realms of literature, and especially in poetry, words of Latin derivation are very abundant. Also in the learned professions, as in law, medicine, and engineering, a knowledge of Latin is necessary for the successful interpretation of technical and scientific terms.

Why study Latin? The foregoing paragraphs make it clear why Latin forms so important a part of modern education. We have seen that our civilization rests upon that of Greece and Rome, and that we must look to the past if we would understand the present. It is obvious, too, that the knowledge of Latin not only leads to a more exact and effective use of our own language, but that it is of vital importance and of great practical value to any one preparing for a literary or professional career. To this it may be added that the study of Latin throws a flood of light upon the structure of language in general and lays an excellent foundation for all grammatical study. Finally, it has been abundantly proved that there is no more effective means of strengthening the mind than by the earnest pursuit of this branch of learning.

Review Questions. Whence does Latin get its name? Where is Latium? Where is Rome? Was Latin always the same? What sort of Latin are we to study? Describe the growth of Rome’s power and the spread of Latin. What can you say of the origin of Italian, French, and Spanish? How did the ancient Greeks and Romans compare? How did Greece influence Rome? How did Rome influence the world? In what sense are we Romans still? What did Latin have to do with the formation of English? What proportion of English words are of Latin origin, and what kind of words are they? Why should we study Latin?

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THE ALPHABET

1. The Latin alphabet contains the same letters as the English except that it has no w and no j.

2. The vowels, as in English, are a, e, i, o, u, y. The other letters are consonants.

3. I is used both as a vowel and as a consonant. Before a vowel in the same syllable it has the value of a consonant and is called I consonant.

Thus in Iū-li-us the first i is a consonant, the second a vowel.

SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS1

4. Latin was not pronounced like English. The Romans at the beginning of the Christian era pronounced their language substantially as described below.

5. The vowels have the following sounds:

Vowels2	Latin Examples
ā as in father ă like the first a in aha´, never as in hat	hāc, stās ă´-măt, că-nās
ē as in they ĕ as in met	tē´-lă, mē´-tă tĕ´-nĕt, mĕr´-cēs
ī as in machine ĭ as in bit	sĕr´-tī, prā´-tī sĭ´-tĭs, bĭ´-bī
ō as in holy ŏ as in wholly, never as in hot	Rō´-mă, ō´-rĭs mŏ´-dŏ, bŏ´-nōs
ū as in rude, or as oo in boot ŭ as in full, or as oo in foot	ū´-mŏr, tū´-bĕr ŭt, tū´-tŭs

Note. It is to be observed that there is a decided difference in sound, except in the case of a, between the long and the short vowels. It is not merely a matter of quantity but also of quality.

6. In diphthongs (two-vowel sounds) both vowels are heard in a single syllable.

Diphthongs	Latin Examples
ae as ai in aisle au as ou in out	tae´-dae gau´-dĕt
ei as ei in eight eu as ĕ´o͝o (a short e followed by a short u in one syllable)	dein´-dĕ seu
oe like oi in toil ui like o͝o´ĭ (a short u followed by a short i in one syllable. Cf. English we)	foe´-dŭs cui, huic

Note. Give all the vowels and diphthongs their proper sounds and do not slur over them in unaccented syllables, as is done in English.

7. Consonants are pronounced as in English, except that

Consonants	Latin Examples
c is always like c in cat, never as in cent g is always like g in get, never as in gem i consonant is always like y in yes n before c, qu, or g is like ng in sing (compare the sound of n in anchor)	că´-dō, cĭ´-bŭs, cē´-nă gĕ´-mō, gĭg´-nō iăm, iŏ´-cŭs ăn´-cŏ-ră (ang´-ko-ra)
qu, gu, and sometimes su before a vowel have the sound of qw, gw, and sw. Here u has the value of consonant v and is not counted a vowel	ĭn´-quĭt, quī, lĭn´-guă, săn´-guĭs, suā´-dĕ-ō
s is like s in sea, never as in ease t is always like t in native, never as in nation	rŏ´-să, ĭs ră´-tĭ-ō, nā´-tĭ-ō
v is like w in wine, never as in vine x has the value of two consonants (cs or gs) and is like x in extract, not as in exact	vī´-nŭm, vĭr ĕx´-trā, ĕx-āc´-tŭs
bs is like ps and bt like pt ch, ph, and th are like c, p, t	ŭrbs, ŏb-tĭ´-nĕ-ō pŭl´-chĕr, Phoe´-bē, thĕ-ā´-trŭm

a. In combinations of consonants give each its distinct sound. Doubled consonants should be pronounced with a slight pause between the two sounds. Thus pronounce tt as in rat-trap, not as in rattle; pp as in hop-pole, not as in upper. Examples, mĭt´-tō, Ăp´pĭ-ŭs, bĕl´-lŭm.

SYLLABLES

8. A Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. Thus aes-tā´-tĕ has three syllables, au-dĭ-ĕn´-dŭs has four.

a. Two vowels with a consonant between them never make one syllable, as is so often the case in English. Compare English inside with Latin īn-sī´-dĕ.

9. Words are divided into syllables as follows:

1. A single consonant between two vowels goes with the second. Thus ă-mā´-bĭ-lĭs, mĕ-mŏ´-rĭ-ă, ĭn-tĕ´-rĕ-ā, ă´-bĕst, pĕ-rē´-gĭt.3

2. Combinations of two or more consonants:

a. A consonant followed by l or r goes with the l or r. Thus pū´-blĭ-cŭs, ă´-grī.

Exception. Prepositional compounds of this nature, as also ll and rr, follow rule b. Thus ăb´-lŭ-ō, ăb-rŭm´-pō, ĭl´-lĕ, fĕr´-rŭm.

b. In all other combinations of consonants the first consonant goes with the preceding vowel.4 Thus măg´-nŭs, ĕ-gĕs´-tās, vĭc-tō´-rĭ-ă, hŏs´-pĕs, ăn´-nŭs, sŭ-bāc´-tŭs.

3. The last syllable of a word is called the ul´-ti-ma; the one next to the last, the pe-nult´; the one before the penult, the an´-te-pe-nult´.

10. EXERCISE

Divide the words in the following passage into syllables and pronounce them, placing the accent as indicated:

Vā́dĕ ăd fŏrmī́căm, Ō pĭ́gĕr, ĕt cōnsī́dĕrā vĭ́ās ĕ́iŭs ĕt dĭ́scĕ săpĭĕ́ntĭăm: quae cŭm nōn hắbĕăt dŭ́cĕm nĕc praecĕptṓrĕm nĕc prī́ncĭpĕm, pắrăt ĭn aestā́tĕ cĭ́bŭm sĭ́bĭ ĕt cŏ́ngrĕgăt ĭn mĕ́ssĕ quŏd cŏ́mĕdăt.

[Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise: which, having no guide, overseer, or ruler, provideth her meat in the summer and gathereth her food in the harvest.]

QUANTITY

11. The quantity of a vowel or a syllable is the time it takes to pronounce it. Correct pronunciation and accent depend upon the proper observance of quantity.

12. Quantity of Vowels. Vowels are either long (¯) or short (˘). In this book the long vowels are marked. Unmarked vowels are to be considered short.

1. A vowel is short before another vowel or h; as pŏ-ē´-ta, tră´-hō.

2. A vowel is short before nt and nd, before final m or t, and, except in words of one syllable, before final l or r. Thus a´-mănt, a-măn´-dus, a-mā´-băm, a-mā´-băt, a´-ni-măl, a´-mŏr.

3. A vowel is long before nf, ns, nx, and nct. Thus īn´-fe-rō, re´-gēns, sān´-xī, sānc´-tus.

4. Diphthongs are always long, and are not marked.

13. Quantity of Syllables. Syllables are either long or short, and their quantity must be carefully distinguished from that of vowels.

1. A syllable is short,

a. If it ends in a short vowel; as ă´-mō, pĭ´-grĭ.

Note. In final syllables the short vowel may be followed by a final consonant. Thus the word mĕ-mŏ´-rĭ-ăm contains four short syllables. In the first three a short vowel ends the syllable, in the last the short vowel is followed by a final consonant.

2. A syllable is long,

a. If it contains a long vowel or a diphthong, as cū´-rō, poe´-nae, aes-tā´-te.

b. If it ends in a consonant which is followed by another consonant, as cor´-pus, mag´-nus.

Note. The vowel in a long syllable may be either long or short, and should be pronounced accordingly. Thus in ter´-ra, in´-ter, the first syllable is long, but the vowel in each case is short and should be given the short sound. In words like saxum the first syllable is long because x has the value of two consonants (cs or gs).

3. In determining quantity h is not counted a consonant.

Note. Give about twice as much time to the long syllables as to the short ones. It takes about as long to pronounce a short vowel plus a consonant as it does to pronounce a long vowel or a diphthong, and so these quantities are considered equally long. For example, it takes about as long to say cŭr´-rō as it does cū´-rō, and so each of these first syllables is long. Compare mŏl´-lis and mō´-lis, ā-mĭs´-sī and ā-mi´-sī.

ACCENT

14. Words of two syllables are accented on the first, as mēn´-sa, Cae´-sar.

15. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the penult if the penult is long. If the penult is short, accent the antepenult. Thus mo-nē´-mus, re´-gi-tur, a-gri´-co-la, a-man´-dus.

Note. Observe that the position of the accent is determined by the length of the syllable and not by the length of the vowel in the syllable. (Cf. § 13. 2, Note.)

16. Certain little words called enclit´ics5 which have no separate existence, are added to and pronounced with a preceding word. The most common are -que, and; -ve, or; and -ne, the question sign. The syllable before an enclitic takes the accent, regardless of its quantity. Thus populus´que, dea´que, rēgna´ve, audit´ne.

HOW TO READ LATIN

17. To read Latin well is not so difficult, if you begin right. Correct habits of reading should be formed now. Notice the quantities carefully, especially the quantity of the penult, to insure your getting the accent on the right syllable. (Cf. § 15.) Give every vowel its proper sound and every syllable its proper length. Then bear in mind that we should read Latin as we read English, in phrases rather than in separate words. Group together words that are closely connected in thought. No good reader halts at the end of each word.

18. Read the stanzas of the following poem by Longfellow, one at a time, first the English and then the Latin version. The syllables inclosed in parentheses are to be slurred or omitted to secure smoothness of meter.

EXCELSIOR [HIGHER]! 6

The shades of night were falling fast, As through an Alpine village passed A youth, who bore, ’mid snow and ice, A banner with the strange device, Excelsior!	Cadēbant noctis umbrae, dum Ibat per vīcum Alpicum Gelū nivequ(e) adolēscēns, Vēxillum cum signō ferēns, Excelsior!
His brow was sad; his eye beneath, Flashed like a falchion from its sheath, And like a silver clarion rung The accents of that unknown tongue, Excelsior!	Frōns trīstis, micat oculus Velut ē vāgīnā gladius; Sonantque similēs tubae Accentūs lingu(ae) incognitae, Excelsior!
In happy homes he saw the light Of household fires gleam warm and bright; Above, the spectral glaciers shone, And from his lips escaped a groan, Excelsior!	In domibus videt clārās Focōrum lūcēs calidās; Relucet glaciēs ācris, Et rumpit gemitūs labrīs, Excelsior!
“Try not the Pass!” the old man said; “Dark lowers the tempest overhead, The roaring torrent is deep and wide!” And loud that clarion voice replied, Excelsior!	Dīcit senex, “Nē trānseās! Suprā nigrēscit tempestās; Lātus et altus est torrēns.” Clāra vēnit vōx respondēns, Excelsior!
At break of day, as heavenward The pious monks of Saint Bernard Uttered the oft-repeated prayer, A voice cried through the startled air, Excelsior!	Iam lūcēscēbat, et frātrēs Sānctī Bernardī vigilēs Ōrābant precēs solitās, Cum vōx clāmāvit per aurās, Excelsior!
A traveler, by the faithful hound, Half-buried in the snow was found, Still grasping in his hand of ice That banner with the strange device, Excelsior!	Sēmi-sepultus viātor Can(e) ā fīdō reperītur, Comprēndēns pugnō gelidō Illud vēxillum cum signō, Excelsior!
There in the twilight cold and gray, Lifeless, but beautiful, he lay, And from the sky, serene and far, A voice fell, like a falling star, Excelsior!	Iacet corpus exanimum Sed lūce frīgidā pulchrum; Et caelō procul exiēns Cadit vōx, ut Stella cadēns, Excelsior!

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LESSON I

FIRST PRINCIPLES

19. Subject and Predicate. 1. Latin, like English, expresses thoughts by means of sentences. A sentence is a combination of words that expresses a thought, and in its simplest form is the statement of a single fact. Thus,

Galba is a farmer Galba est agricola

The sailor fights Nauta pugnat

In each of these sentences there are two parts:

Subject

Galba Galba The sailor Nauta

Predicate

is a farmer est agricola fights pugnat

2. The subject is that person, place, or thing about which something is said, and is therefore a noun or some word which can serve the same purpose.

a. Pronouns, as their name implies (pro, “instead of,” and noun), often take the place of nouns, usually to save repeating the same noun, as, Galba is a farmer; he is a sturdy fellow.

3. The predicate is that which is said about the subject, and consists of a verb with or without modifiers.

a. A verb is a word which asserts something (usually an act) concerning a person, place, or thing.

20. The Object. In the two sentences, The boy hit the ball and The ball hit the boy, the same words are used, but the meaning is different, and depends upon the order of the words. The doer of the act, that about which something is said, is, as we have seen above, the subject. That to which something is done is the direct object of the verb. The boy hit the ball is therefore analyzed as follows:

Subject	Predicate
The boy	hit the ball (verb) (direct object)

a. A verb whose action passes over to the object directly, as in the sentence above, is called a transitive verb. A verb which does not admit of a direct object is called intransitive, as, I walk, he comes.

21. The Copula. The verb to be in its different forms—are, is, was, etc.—does not tell us anything about the subject; neither does it govern an object. It simply connects the subject with the word or words in the predicate that possess a distinct meaning. Hence it is called the copula, that is, the joiner or link.

22. In the following sentences pronounce the Latin and name the nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, predicates, copulas:

1.	America est patria mea America is fatherland my
2.	Agricola fīliam amat (The) farmer (his) daughter loves
3.	Fīlia est Iūlia (His) daughter is Julia
4.	Iūlia et agricola sunt in īnsulā Julia and (the) farmer are on (the) island
5.	Iūlia aquam portat Julia water carries
6.	Rosam in comīs habet (A) rose in (her) hair (she) has
7.	Iūlia est puella pulchra Julia is (a) girl pretty
8.	Domina fīliam pulchram habet (The) lady (a) daughter beautiful has

a. The sentences above show that Latin does not express some words which are necessary in English. First of all, Latin has no article the or a; thus agricola may mean the farmer, a farmer, or simply farmer. Then, too, the personal pronouns, I, you, he, she, etc., and the possessive pronouns, my, your, his, her, etc., are not expressed if the meaning of the sentence is clear without them.

LESSON II

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)

23. Inflection. Words may change their forms to indicate some change in sense or use, as, is, are; was, were; who, whose, whom; farmer, farmer’s; woman, women. This is called inflection. The inflection of a noun, adjective, or pronoun is called its declension, that of a verb its conjugation.

24. Number. Latin, like English, has two numbers, singular and plural. In English we usually form the plural by adding -s or -es to the singular. So Latin changes the singular to the plural by changing the ending of the word. Compare

Naut-a pugnat The sailor fights

Naut-ae pugnant The sailors fight

25. Rule. Nouns that end in -a in the singular end in -ae in the plural.

26. Learn the following nouns so that you can give the English for the Latin or the Latin for the English. Write the plural of each.

agri´cola, farmer (agriculture)1 aqua, water (aquarium) causa, cause, reason do´mina, lady of the house, mistress (dominate) filia, daughter (filial) fortū´na, fortune

fuga, flight (fugitive) iniū´ria, wrong, injury lūna, moon (lunar) nauta, sailor (nautical) puel´la, girl silva, forest (silvan) terra, land (terrace)

27. Compare again the sentences

Nauta pugna-t The sailor fights

Nautae pugna-nt The sailors fight

In the first sentence the verb pugna-t is in the third person singular, in the second sentence pugna-nt is in the third person plural.

28. Rule. Agreement of Verb. A finite verb must always be in the same person and number as its subject.

29. Rule. In the conjugation of the Latin verb the third person singular active ends in -t, the third person plural in -nt. The endings which show the person and number of the verb are called personal endings.

30. Learn the following verbs and write the plural of each. The personal pronouns he, she, it, etc., which are necessary in the inflection of the English verb, are not needed in the Latin, because the personal endings take their place. Of course, if the verb’s subject is expressed we do not translate the personal ending by a pronoun; thus nauta pugnat is translated the sailor fights, not the sailor he fights.

ama-t	he (she, it)	loves, is loving, does love (amity, amiable)
labō´ra-t	“   “   “	labors, is laboring, does labor
nūntia-t2	“   “   “	announces, is announcing, does announce
porta-t	“   “   “	carries, is carrying, does carry (porter)
pugna-t	“   “   “	fights, is fighting, does fight (pugnacious)

31. EXERCISES

I. 1. The daughter loves, the daughters love. 2. The sailor is carrying, the sailors carry. 3. The farmer does labor, the farmers labor. 4. The girl is announcing, the girls do announce. 5. The ladies are carrying, the lady carries.

II. 1. Nauta pugnat, nautae pugnant. 2. Puella amat, puellae amant. 3. Agricola portat, agricolae portant. 4. Fīlia labōrat, fīliae labōrant. 5. Nauta nūntiat, nautae nūntiant. 6. Dominae amant, domina amat.

DOMINA

LESSON III

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)

32. Declension of Nouns. We learned above (§§ 19, 20) the difference between the subject and object, and that in English they may be distinguished by the order of the words. Sometimes, however, the order is such that we are left in doubt. For example, the sentence The lady her daughter loves might mean either that the lady loves her daughter, or that the daughter loves the lady.

1. If the sentence were in Latin, no doubt could arise, because the subject and the object are distinguished, not by the order of the words, but by the endings of the words themselves. Compare the following sentences:

Domina fīliam amat Fīliam domina amat Amat fīliam domina Domina amat fīliam	The lady loves her daughter
Fīlia dominam amat Dominam fīlia amat Amat dominam fīlia Fīlia amat dominam	The daughter loves the lady

a. Observe that in each case the subject of the sentence ends in -a and the object in -am. The form of the noun shows how it is used in the sentence, and the order of the words has no effect on the essential meaning.

2. As stated above (§ 23), this change of ending is called declension, and each different ending produces what is called a case. When we decline a noun, we give all its different cases, or changes of endings. In English we have three cases,—nominative, possessive, and objective; but, in nouns, the nominative and objective have the same form, and only the possessive case shows a change of ending, by adding ’s or the apostrophe. The interrogative pronoun, however, has the fuller declension, who? whose? whom?

33. The following table shows a comparison between English and Latin declension forms, and should be thoroughly memorized:

English Cases			Latin Cases
Declension of who?		Name of case and use	Declension of domina and translation	Name of case and use
S i n g u l a r	Who?	Nominative— case of the subject	do´min-a the lady	Nominative— case of the subject
	Whose?	Possessive— case of the possessor	domin-ae the lady’s	Genitive— case of the possessor
	Whom?	Objective— case of the object	domin-am the lady	Accusative— case of the direct object
P l u r a l	Who?	Nominative— case of the subject	domin-ae the ladies	Nominative— case of the subject
	Whose?	Possessive— case of the possessor	domin-ā´rum the ladies’ of the ladies	Genitive— case of the possessor
	Whom?	Objective— case of the object	domin-ās the ladies	Accusative— case of the direct object

When the nominative singular of a noun ends in -a, observe that

a. The nominative plural ends in -ae.

b. The genitive singular ends in -ae and the genitive plural in -ārum.

c. The accusative singular ends in -am and the accusative plural in -ās.

d. The genitive singular and the nominative plural have the same ending.

34. EXERCISE

Pronounce the following words and give their general meaning. Then give the number and case, and the use of each form. Where the same form stands for more than one case, give all the possible cases and uses.

1. Silva, silvās, silvam. 2. Fugam, fugae, fuga. 3. Terrārum, terrae, terrās. 4. Aquās, causam, lūnās. 5. Fīliae, fortūnae, lūnae. 6. Iniūriās, agricolārum, aquārum. 7. Iniūriārum, agricolae, puellās. 8. Nautam, agricolās, nautās. 9. Agricolam, puellam, silvārum.

LESSON IV

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)

35. We learned from the table (§ 33) that the Latin nominative, genitive, and accusative correspond, in general, to the nominative, possessive, and objective in English, and that they are used in the same way. This will be made even clearer by the following sentence:

Fīlia agricolae nautam amat,
the farmer’s daughter (or the daughter of the farmer) loves the sailor

What is the subject? the direct object? What case is used for the subject? for the direct object? What word denotes the possessor? In what case is it?

36. Rule. Nominative Subject. The subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative and answers the question Who? or What?

37. Rule. Accusative Object. The direct object of a transitive verb is in the Accusative and answers the question Whom? or What?

38. Rule. Genitive of the Possessor. The word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the Genitive and answers the question Whose?

DIANA SAGITTAS PORTAT ET FERAS NECAT

39. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

I. 1. Diāna est dea. 2. Lātōna est dea. 3. Diāna et Lātōna sunt deae. 4. Diāna est dea lūnae. 5. Diāna est fīlia Lātōnae. 6. Lātōna Diānam amat. 7. Diāna est dea silvārum. 8. Diāna silvam amat. 9. Diāna sagittās portat. 10. Diāna ferās silvae necat. 11. Ferae terrārum pugnant.

For the order of words imitate the Latin above.

II. 1. The daughter of Latona does love the forests. 2. Latona’s daughter carries arrows. 3. The farmers’ daughters do labor. 4. The farmer’s daughter loves the waters of the forest. 5. The sailor is announcing the girls’ flight. 6. The girls announce the sailors’ wrongs. 7. The farmer’s daughter labors. 8. Diana’s arrows are killing the wild beasts of the land.

40. CONVERSATION

Translate the questions and answer them in Latin. The answers may be found in the exercises preceding.

1. Quis est Diāna?
2. Cuius fīlia est Diāna?
3. Quis Diānam amat?
4. Quis silvam amat?
5. Quis sagittās portat?
6. Cuius fīliae labōrant?

LESSON V

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)

41. The Dative Case. In addition to the relationships between words expressed by the nominative, genitive (possessive), and accusative (objective) cases, there are other relationships, to express which in English we use such words as from, with, by, to, for, in, at.1

Latin, too, makes frequent use of such prepositions; but often it expresses these relations without them by means of case forms which English does not possess. One of the cases found in the Latin declension and lacking in English is called the dative.

42. When the nominative singular ends in -a, the dative singular ends in -ae and the dative plural in -īs.

Note. Observe that the genitive singular, the dative singular, and the nominative plural all have the same ending, -ae; but the uses of the three cases are entirely different. The general meaning of the sentence usually makes clear which case is intended.

a. Form the dative singular and plural of the following nouns: fuga, causa, fortūna, terra, aqua, puella, agricola, nauta, domina.

43. The Dative Relation. The dative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions to, towards, for.

These prepositions are often used in English in expressions of motion, such as She went to town, He ran towards the horse, Columbus sailed for America. In such cases the dative is not used in Latin, as motion through space is foreign to the dative relation. But the dative is used to denote that to or towards which a benefit, injury, purpose, feeling, or quality is directed, or that for which something serves or exists.

a. What dative relations do you discover in the following?

The teacher gave a prize to John because he replied so promptly to all her questions—a good example for the rest of us. It is a pleasure to us to hear him recite. Latin is easy for him, but it is very hard for me. Some are fitted for one thing and others for another.

44. The Indirect Object. Examine the sentence

Nauta fugam nūntiat, the sailor announces the flight

Here the verb, nūntiat, governs the direct object, fugam, in the accusative case. If, however, we wish to mention the persons to whom the sailor announces the flight, as, The sailor announces the flight to the farmers, the verb will have two objects:

1. Its direct object, flight (fugam) 2. Its indirect object, farmers

According to the preceding section, to the farmers is a relation covered by the dative case, and we are prepared for the following rule:

45. Rule. Dative Indirect Object. The indirect object of a verb is in the Dative.

a. The indirect object usually stands before the direct object.

46. We may now complete the translation of the sentence The sailor announces the flight to the farmers, and we have

Nauta agricolīs fugam nūntiat

47. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

Point out the direct and indirect objects and the genitive of the possessor.

I. 1. Quis nautīs pecūniam dat? 2. Fīliae agricolae nautīs pecūniam dant. 3. Quis fortūnam pugnae nūntiat? 4. Galba agricolīs fortunam pugnae nūntiat. 5. Cui domina fābulam nārrat? 6. Fīliae agricolae domina fābulam nārrat. 7. Quis Diānae corōnam dat? 8. Puella Diānae corōnam dat quia Diānam amat. 9. Dea lūnae sagittās portat et ferās silvārum necat. 10. Cuius victōriam Galba nūntiat? 11. Nautae victōriam Galba nūntiat.

Imitate the word order of the preceding exercise.

II. 1. To whom do the girls give a wreath? 2. The girls give a wreath to Julia, because Julia loves wreaths. 3. The sailors tell the ladies2 a story, because the ladies love stories. 4. The farmer gives his (§ 22. a) daughter water. 5. Galba announces the cause of the battle to the sailor. 6. The goddess of the moon loves the waters of the forest. 7. Whose wreath is Latona carrying? Diana’s.

LESSON VI

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)

48. The Ablative Case. Another case, lacking in English but found in the fuller Latin declension, is the ab´la-tive.

49. When the nominative singular ends in -a, the ablative singular ends in -ā and the ablative plural in -īs.

a. Observe that the final -ă of the nominative is short, while the final -ā of the ablative is long, as,

Nom. fīliă

Abl. fīliā

b. Observe that the ablative plural is like the dative plural.

c. Form the ablative singular and plural of the following nouns: fuga, causa, fortūna, terra, aqua, puella, agricola, nauta, domina.

50. The Ablative Relation. The ablative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions from, with, by, at, in. It denotes

1. That from which something is separated, from which it starts, or of which it is deprived—generally translated by from.

2. That with which something is associated or by means of which it is done—translated by with or by.

3. The place where or the time when something happens—translated by in or at.

a. What ablative relations do you discover in the following?

In our class there are twenty boys and girls. Daily at eight o’clock they come from home with their books, and while they are at school they study Latin with great zeal. In a short time they will be able to read with ease the books written by the Romans. By patience and perseverance all things in this world can be overcome.

51. Prepositions. While, as stated above (§ 41), many relations expressed in English by prepositions are in Latin expressed by case forms, still prepositions are of frequent occurrence, but only with the accusative or ablative.

52. Rule. Object of a Preposition. A noun governed by a preposition must be in the Accusative or Ablative case.

53. Prepositions denoting the ablative relations from, with, in, on, are naturally followed by the ablative case. Among these are

ā1 or ab, from, away from dē, from, down from ē1 or ex, from, out from, out of cum, with in, in, on

1. Translate into Latin, using prepositions. In the water, on the land, down from the forest, with the fortune, out of the forests, from the victory, out of the waters, with the sailors, down from the moon.

54. Adjectives. Examine the sentence

Puella parva bonam deam amat, the little girl loves the good goddess

In this sentence parva (little) and bonam (good) are not nouns, but are descriptive words expressing quality. Such words are called adjectives,2 and they are said to belong to the noun which they describe.

You can tell by its ending to which noun an adjective belongs. The ending of parva shows that it belongs to puella, and the ending of bonam that it belongs to deam. Words that belong together are said to agree, and the belonging-together is called agreement. Observe that the adjective and its noun agree in number and case.

55. Examine the sentences

Puella est parva, the girl is little Puella parva bonam deam amat, the little girl loves the good goddess

In the first sentence the adjective parva is separated from its noun by the verb and stands in the predicate. It is therefore called a predicate adjective. In the second sentence the adjectives parva and bonam are closely attached to the nouns puella and deam respectively, and are called attributive adjectives.

a. Pick out the attributive and the predicate adjectives in the following:

Do you think Latin is hard? Hard studies make strong brains. Lazy students dislike hard studies. We are not lazy.

56. DIALOGUE

Julia and Galba

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

I. Quis, Galba, est Diāna?
G. Diāna, Iūlia, est pulchra dea lūnae et silvārum.
I. Cuius fīlia, Galba, est Diāna?
G. Lātōnae fīlia, Iūlia, est Diāna.
I. Quid Diāna portat?
G. Sagittās Diāna portat.
I. Cūr Diāna sagittās portat?
G. Diāna sagittās portat, Iūlia, quod malās ferās silvae magnae necat.
I. Amatne Lātōna fīliam?
G. Amat, et fīlia Lātōnam amat.
I. Quid fīlia tua parva portat?
G. Corōnās pulchrās fīlia mea parva portat.
I. Cui fīlia tua corōnās pulchrās dat?
G. Diānae corōnās dat.
I. Quis est cum fīliā tuā? Estne sōla?
G. Sōla nōn est; fīlia mea parva est cum ancillā meā.

a. When a person is called or addressed, the case used is called the voc´ative (Latin vocāre, “to call”). In form the vocative is regularly like the nominative. In English the name of the person addressed usually stands first in the sentence. The Latin vocative rarely stands first. Point out five examples of the vocative in this dialogue.

b. Observe that questions answered by yes or no in English are answered in Latin by repeating the verb. Thus, if you wished to answer in Latin the question Is the sailor fighting? Pugnatne nauta? you would say Pugnat, he is fighting, or Nōn pugnat, he is not fighting.

LESSON VII

THE FIRST OR Ā-DECLENSION

57. In the preceding lessons we have now gone over all the cases, singular and plural, of nouns whose nominative singular ends in -a. All Latin nouns whose nominative singular ends in -a belong to the First Declension. It is also called the Ā-Declension because of the prominent part which the vowel a plays in the formation of the cases. We have also learned what relations are expressed by each case. These results are summarized in the following table:

Case	Noun	Translation	Use and General Meaning of Each Case
		Singular
Nom.	do´min-a	the lady	The subject
Gen.	domin-ae	of the lady, or the lady’s	The possessor of something
Dat.	domin-ae	to or for the lady	Expressing the relation to or for, especially the indirect object
Acc.	domin-am	the lady	The direct object
Abl.	domin-ā	from, with, by, in, the lady	Separation (from), association or means (with, by), place where or time when (in, at)
		Plural
Nom.	domin-ae	the ladies	The same as the singular
Gen.	domin-ā´rum	of the ladies, or the ladies’
Dat.	domin-īs	to or for the ladies
Acc.	domin-ās	the ladies
Abl.	domin-īs	from, with, by, in, the ladies

58. The Base. That part of a word which remains unchanged in inflection and to which the terminations are added is called the base.

Thus, in the declension above, domin- is the base and -a is the termination of the nominative singular.

59. Write the declension of the following nouns, separating the base from the termination by a hyphen. Also give them orally.

pugna, terra, lūna, ancil´la, corō´na, īn´sula, silva

60. Gender. In English, names of living beings are either masculine or feminine, and names of things without life are neuter. This is called natural gender. Yet in English there are some names of things to which we refer as if they were feminine; as, “Have you seen my yacht? She is a beauty.” And there are some names of living beings to which we refer as if they were neuter; as, “Is the baby here? No, the nurse has taken it home.” Some words, then, have a gender quite apart from sex or real gender, and this is called grammatical gender.

Latin, like English, has three genders. Names of males are usually masculine and of females feminine, but names of things have grammatical gender and may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter. Thus we have in Latin the three words, lapis, a stone; rūpēs, a cliff; and saxum, a rock. Lapis is masculine, rūpēs feminine, and saxum neuter. The gender can usually be determined by the ending of the word, and must always be learned, for without knowing the gender it is impossible to write correct Latin.

61. Gender of First-Declension Nouns. Nouns of the first declension are feminine unless they denote males. Thus silva is feminine, but nauta, sailor, and agricola, farmer, are masculine.

62. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284.

I. 1. Agricola cum fīliā in casā habitat. 2. Bona fīlia agricolae cēnam parat. 3. Cēna est grāta agricolae1 et agricola bonam fīliam laudat. 4. Deinde fīlia agricolae gallīnās ad cēnam vocat. 5. Gallīnae fīliam agricolae amant. 6. Malae fīliae bonās cēnās nōn parant. 7. Fīlia agricolae est grāta dominae. 8. Domina in īnsulā magnā habitat. 9. Domina bonae puellae parvae pecūniam dat.

II. 1. Where does the farmer live? 2. The farmer lives in the small cottage. 3. Who lives with the farmer? 4. (His) little daughter lives with the farmer. 5. (His) daughter is getting (parat) a good dinner for the farmer. 6. The farmer praises the good dinner. 7. The daughter’s good dinner is pleasing to the farmer.

What Latin words are suggested by this picture?

63. CONVERSATION

Answer the questions in Latin.

1. Quis cum agricolā in casā habitat?
2. Quid bona fīlia agricolae parat?
3. Quem agricola laudat?
4. Vocatne fīlia agricolae gallīnās ad cēnam?
5. Cuius fīlia est grāta dominae?
6. Cui domina pecūniam dat?

LESSON VIII

FIRST DECLENSION (Continued)

64. We have for some time now been using adjectives and nouns together and you have noticed an agreement between them in case and in number (§ 54). They agree also in gender. In the phrase silva magna, we have a feminine adjective in -a agreeing with a feminine noun in -a.

65. Rule. Agreement of Adjectives. Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case.

66. Feminine adjectives in -a are declined like feminine nouns in -a, and you should learn to decline them together as follows:

Noun		Adjective
domina (base domin-), f., lady		bona (base bon-), good
	Singular		TERMINATIONS
Nom.	do´mina	bona	-a
Gen.	dominae	bonae	-ae
Dat.	dominae	bonae	-ae
Acc.	dominam	bonam	-am
Abl.	dominā	bonā	-ā
	Plural		TERMINATIONS
Nom.	dominae	bonae	-ae
Gen.	dominā´rum	bonā´rum	-ārum
Dat.	dominīs	bonīs	-īs
Acc.	dominās	bonās	-ās
Abl.	dominīs	bonīs	-īs

a. In the same way decline together puella mala, the bad girl; ancil´la parva, the little maid; fortū´na magna, great fortune.

67. The words dea, goddess, and fīlia, daughter, take the ending -ābus instead of -īs in the dative and ablative plural. Note the dative and ablative plural in the following declension:

dea bona (bases de- bon-)
	Singular	Plural
Nom.	dea bona	deae bonae
Gen.	deae bonae	deā´rum bonā´rum
Dat.	deae bonae	deā´bus bonīs
Acc.	deam bonam	deās bonās
Abl.	deā bonā	dea´bus bonīs

a. In the same way decline together fīlīa parva.

68. Latin Word Order. The order of words in English and in Latin sentences is not the same.

In English we arrange words in a fairly fixed order. Thus, in the sentence My daughter is getting dinner for the farmers, we cannot alter the order of the words without spoiling the sentence. We can, however, throw emphasis on different words by speaking them with more force. Try the effect of reading the sentence by putting special force on my, daughter, dinner, farmers.

In Latin, where the office of the word in the sentence is shown by its ending (cf. § 32. 1), and not by its position, the order of words is more free, and position is used to secure the same effect that in English is secured by emphasis of voice. To a limited extent we can alter the order of words in English, too, for the same purpose. Compare the sentences

I saw a game of football at Chicago last November (normal order) Last November I saw a game of football at Chicago At Chicago, last November, I saw a game of football

1. In a Latin sentence the most emphatic place is the first; next in importance is the last; the weakest point is the middle. Generally the subject is the most important word, and is placed first; usually the verb is the next in importance, and is placed last. The other words of the sentence stand between these two in the order of their importance. Hence the normal order of words—that is, where no unusual emphasis is expressed—is as follows:

subject—modifiers of the subject—indirect object—direct object—adverb—verb

Changes from the normal order are frequent, and are due to the desire for throwing emphasis upon some word or phrase. Notice the order of the Latin words when you are translating, and imitate it when you are turning English into Latin.

2. Possessive pronouns and modifying genitives normally stand after their nouns. When placed before their nouns they are emphatic, as fīlia mea, my daughter; mea fīlia, my daughter; casa Galbae, Galba’s cottage; Galbae casa, Galba’s cottage.

Notice the variety of emphasis produced by writing the following sentence in different ways:

Fīlia mea agricolīs cēnam parat (normal order) Mea fīlia agricolīs parat cēnam (mea and cēnam emphatic) Agricolīs fīlia mea cēnam parat (agricolīs emphatic)

3. An adjective placed before its noun is more emphatic than when it follows. When great emphasis is desired, the adjective is separated from its noun by other words.

Fīlia mea casam parvam nōn amat (parvam not emphatic) Fīlia mea parvam casam nōn amat (parvam more emphatic) Parvam fīlia mea casam nōn amat (parvam very emphatic)

4. Interrogative words usually stand first, the same as in English.

5. The copula (as est, sunt) is of so little importance that it frequently does not stand last, but may be placed wherever it sounds well.

69. EXERCISE

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284.

Note the order of the words in these sentences and pick out those that are emphatic.

1. Longae nōn sunt tuae viae. 2. Suntne tubae novae in meā casā? Nōn sunt. 3. Quis lātā in silvā habitat? Diāna, lūnae clārae pulchra dea, lātā in silvā habitat. 4. Nautae altās et lātās amant aquās. 5. Quid ancilla tua portat? Ancilla mea tubam novam portat. 6. Ubi sunt Lesbia et Iūlia? In tuā casa est Lesbia et Iūlia est in meā. 7. Estne Italia lāta terra? Longa est Italia, nōn lāta. 8. Cui Galba agricola fābulam novam nārrat? Fīliābus dominae clārae fābulam novam nārrat. 9. Clāra est īnsula Sicilia. 10. Quem laudat Lātōna? Lātōna laudat fīliam.

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First Review of Vocabulary and Grammar, §§ 502-505

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LESSON IX

THE SECOND OR O-DECLENSION

70. Latin nouns are divided into five declensions.

The declension to which a noun belongs is shown by the ending of the genitive singular. This should always be learned along with the nominative and the gender.

71. The nominative singular of nouns of the Second or O-Declension ends in -us, -er, -ir, or -um. The genitive singular ends in -ī.

72. Gender. Nouns in -um are neuter. The others are regularly masculine.

73. Declension of nouns in -us and -um. Masculines in -us and neuters in -um are declined as follows:

	dominus (base domin-), m., master		pīlum (base pīl-), n., spear
	Singular
		TERMINATIONS		TERMINATIONS
Nom.	do´minus1	-us	pīlum	-um
Gen.	dominī	-ī	pīlī	-ī
Dat.	dominō	-ō	pīlō	-ō
Acc.	dominum	-um	pīlum	-um
Abl.	dominō	-ō	pīlō	-ō
Voc.	domine	-e	pīlum	-um
	Plural
Nom.	dominī	-ī	pīla	-a
Gen.	dominō´rum	-ōrum	pīlō´rum	-ōrum
Dat.	dominīs	-īs	pīlīs	-īs
Acc.	dominōs	-ōs	pīla	-a
Abl.	dominīs	-īs	pīlīs	-īs

a. Observe that the masculines and the neuters have the same terminations excepting in the nominative singular and the nominative and accusative plural.

b. The vocative singular of words of the second declension in -us ends in -ĕ, as domine, O master; serve, O slave. This is the most important exception to the rule in § 56. a.

74. Write side by side the declension of domina, dominus, and pīlum. A comparison of the forms will lead to the following rules, which are of great importance because they apply to all five declensions:

a. The vocative, with a single exception (see § 73. b), is like the nominative. That is, the vocative singular is like the nominative singular, and the vocative plural is like the nominative plural.

b. The nominative, accusative, and vocative of neuter nouns are alike, and in the plural end in -a.

c. The accusative singular of masculines and feminines ends in -m and the accusative plural in -s.

d. The dative and ablative plural are always alike.

e. Final -i and -o are always long; final -a is short, except in the ablative singular of the first declension.

75. Observe the sentences

Lesbia est bona, Lesbia is good Lesbia est ancilla, Lesbia is a maidservant

We have learned (§ 55) that bona, when used, as here, in the predicate to describe the subject, is called a predicate adjective. Similarly a noun, as ancilla, used in the predicate to define the subject is called a predicate noun.

76. Rule. Predicate Noun. A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb.

PILA

77. DIALOGUE

LEGATUS CUM PILO ET TUBA

Galba and Marcus

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

G. Quis, Mārce, est lēgātus cum pīlō et tubā?
M. Lēgātus, Galba, est Sextus.
G. Ubi Sextus habitat?2
M. In oppidō Sextus cum fīliābus habitat.
G. Amantne oppidānī Sextum?
M. Amant oppidānī Sextum et laudant, quod magnā cum cōnstantiā pugnat.
G. Ubi, Mārce, est ancilla tua? Cūr nōn cēnam parat?
M. Ancilla mea, Galba, equō lēgātī aquam et frūmentum dat.
G. Cūr nōn servus Sextī equum dominī cūrat?
M. Sextus et servus ad mūrum oppidī properant. Oppidānī bellum parant.3

habitat

he lives he is living he does live

78. CONVERSATION

Translate the questions and answer them in Latin.

1. Ubi fīliae Sextī habitant?
2. Quem oppidānī amant et laudant?
3. Quid ancilla equō lēgātī dat?
4. Cuius equum ancilla cūrat?
5. Quis ad mūrum cum Sextō properat?
6. Quid oppidānī parant?

LESSON X

SECOND DECLENSION (Continued)

79. We have been freely using feminine adjectives, like bona, in agreement with feminine nouns of the first declension and declined like them. Masculine adjectives of this class are declined like dominus, and neuters like pīlum. The adjective and noun, masculine and neuter, are therefore declined as follows:

Masculine Noun and Adjective			Neuter Noun and Adjective
dominus bonus, the good master			pīlum bonum, the good spear
Bases domin- bon-			Bases pīl- bon-
	Singular
		TERMINATIONS		TERMINATIONS
Nom.	do´minus bonus	-us	pīlum bonum	-um
Gen.	dominī bonī	-ī	pīlī bonī	-ī
Dat.	dominō bonō	-ō	pīlō bonō	-ō
Acc.	dominum bonum	-um	pīlum bonum	-um
Abl.	dominō bonō	-ō	pīlō bonō	-ō
Voc.	domine bone	-e	pīlum bonum	-um
	Plural
Nom.	dominī bonī	-ī	pīla bona	-a
Gen.	dominō´rum bonō´rum	-ōrum	pīlō´rum bonō´rum	-ōrum
Dat.	dominīs bonīs	-is	pīlīs bonīs	-īs
Acc.	dominōs bonōs	-ōs	pīla bona	-a
Abl.	dominīs bonīs	-īs	pīlīs bonīs	-īs

Decline together bellum longum, equus parvus, servus malus, mūrus altus, frūmentum novum.

80. Observe the sentences

Lesbia ancilla est bona, Lesbia, the maidservant, is good Fīlia Lesbiae ancillae est bona, the daughter of Lesbia, the maidservant, is good Servus Lesbiam ancillam amat, the slave loves Lesbia, the maidservant

In these sentences ancilla, ancillae, and ancillam denote the class of persons to which Lesbia belongs and explain who she is. Nouns so related that the second is only another name for the first and explains it are said to be in apposition, and are always in the same case.

81. Rule. Apposition. An appositive agrees in case with the noun which it explains.

82. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

I. 1. Patria servī bonī, vīcus servōrum bonōrum, bone popule. 2. Populus oppidī magnī, in oppidō magnō, in oppidīs magnīs. 3. Cum pīlīs longīs, ad pīla longa, ad mūrōs lātōs. 4. Lēgāte male, amīcī legātī malī, cēna grāta dominō bonō. 5. Frūmentum equōrum parvōrum, domine bone, ad lēgātōs clārōs. 6. Rhēnus est in Germāniā, patriā meā. 7. Sextus lēgātus pīlum longum portat. 8. Oppidānī bonī Sextō lēgātō clārā pecūniam dant. 9. Malī servī equum bonum Mārcī dominī necant. 10. Galba agricola et Iūlia fīlia bona labōrant. 11. Mārcus nauta in īnsulā Siciliā habitat.

II. 1. Wicked slave, who is your friend? Why does he not praise Galba, your master? 2. My friend is from (ex) a village of Germany, my fatherland. 3. My friend does not love the people of Italy. 4. Who is caring for1 the good horse of Galba, the farmer? 5. Mark, where is Lesbia, the maidservant? 6. She is hastening1 to the little cottage2 of Julia, the farmer’s daughter.

LESSON XI

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS

83. Adjectives of the first and second declensions are declined in the three genders as follows:

	Singular
	MASCULINE	FEMININE	NEUTER
Nom.	bonus	bona	bonum
Gen.	bonī	bonae	bonī
Dat.	bonō	bonae	bonō
Acc.	bonum	bonam	bonum
Abl.	bonō	bonā	bonō
Voc.	bone	bona	bonum
	Plural
Nom.	bonī	bonae	bona
Gen.	bonōrum	bonārum	bonōrum
Dat.	bonīs	bonīs	bonīs
Acc.	bonōs	bonās	bona
Abl.	bonīs	bonīs	bonīs

a. Write the declension and give it orally across the page, thus giving the three genders for each case.

b. Decline grātus, -a, -um; malus, -a, -um; altus, -a, -um; parvus, -a, -um.

84. Thus far the adjectives have had the same terminations as the nouns. However, the agreement between the adjective and its noun does not mean that they must have the same termination. If the adjective and the noun belong to different declensions, the terminations will, in many cases, not be the same. For example, nauta, sailor, is masculine and belongs to the first declension. The masculine form of the adjective bonus is of the second declension. Consequently, a good sailor is nauta bonus. So, the wicked farmer is agricola malus. Learn the following declensions:

85. nauta bonus (bases naut- bon-), m., the good sailor

Singular			Plural
Nom.	nauta	bonus	nautae	bonī
Gen.	nautae	bonī	nautārum	bonōrum
Dat.	nautae	bonō	nautīs	bonīs
Acc.	nautam	bonum	nautās	bonōs
Abl.	nautā	bonō	nautīs	bonīs
Voc.	nauta	bone	nautae	bonī

86. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

I. 1. Est1 in vīcō nauta bonus. 2. Sextus est amīcus nautae bonī. 3. Sextus nautae bonō galeam dat. 4. Populus Rōmānus nautam bonum laudat. 5. Sextus cum nautā bonō praedam portat. 6. Ubi, nauta bone, sunt arma et tēla lēgātī Rōmānī? 7. Nautae bonī ad bellum properant. 8. Fāma nautārum bonōrum est clāra. 9. Pugnae sunt grātae nautīs bonīs. 10. Oppidānī nautās bonōs cūrant. 11. Cūr, nautae bonī, malī agricolae ad Rhēnum properant? 12. Malī agricolae cum bonīs nautīs pugnant.

II. 1. The wicked farmer is hastening to the village with (his) booty. 2. The reputation of the wicked farmer is not good. 3. Why does Galba’s daughter give arms and weapons to the wicked farmer? 4. Lesbia invites the good sailor to dinner. 5. Why is Lesbia with the good sailor hastening from the cottage? 6. Sextus, where is my helmet? 7. The good sailors are hastening to the toilsome battle. 8. The horses of the wicked farmers are small. 9. The Roman people give money to the good sailors. 10. Friends care for the good sailors. 11. Whose friends are fighting with the wicked farmers?

GALEAE

LESSON XII

NOUNS IN -IUS AND -IUM

87. Nouns of the second declension in -ius and -ium end in -ī in the genitive singular, not in -iī, and the accent rests on the penult; as, fīlī from fīlius (son), praesi´dī from praesi´dium (garrison).

88. Proper names of persons in -ius, and fīlius, end in -ī in the vocative singular, not in -ĕ, and the accent rests on the penult; as, Vergi´lī, O Vergil; fīlī, O son.

a. Observe that in these words the vocative and the genitive are alike.

89. praesidium (base praesidi-), n., garrison fīlius (base fīli-), m., son

Singular
Nom.	praesidium	fīlius
Gen.	praesi´dī	fīlī
Dat.	praesidiō	fīliō
Acc.	praesidium	fīlium
Abl.	praesidiō	fīliō
Voc.	praesidium	fīlī

The plural is regular. Note that the -i- of the base is lost only in the genitive singular, and in the vocative of words like fīlius.

Decline together praesidium parvum; fīlius bonus; fluvius longus, the long river; proelium clārum, the famous battle.

90. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

I. 1. Frūmentum bonae terrae, gladī malī, bellī longī. 2. Cōnstantia magna, praesidia magna, clāre Vergi´lī. 3. Male serve, Ō clārum oppidum, male fīlī, fīliī malī, fīlī malī. 4. Fluvī longī, fluviī longī, fluviōrum longōrum, fāma praesi´dī magnī. 5. Cum gladiīs parvīs, cum deābus clārīs, ad nautās clārōs. 6. Multōrum proeliōrum, praedae magnae, ad proelia dūra.

Germānia

II. Germānia, patria Germānōrum, est clāra terra. In Germāniā sunt fluviī multī. Rhēnus magnus et lātus fluvius Germāniae est. In silvīs lātīs Germāniae sunt ferae multae. Multi Germāni in oppidīs magnis et in vīcīs parvīs habitant et multī sunt agricolae bonī. Bella Germānōrum sunt magna et clāra. Populus Germāniae bellum et proelia amat et saepe cum finitimīs pugnat. Fluvius Rhēnus est fīnitimus oppidīs1 multīs et clārīs.

LESSON XIII

SECOND DECLENSION (Continued)

91. Declension of Nouns in -er and -ir. In early Latin all the masculine nouns of the second declension ended in -os. This -os later became -us in words like servus, and was dropped entirely in words with bases ending in -r, like puer, boy; ager, field; and vir, man. These words are therefore declined as follows:

92. puer, m., boy ager, m., field vir, m., man

	Base puer-	Base agr-	Base vir-
	Singular			TERMINATIONS
Nom.	puer	ager	vir	——
Gen.	puerī	agrī	virī	-ī
Dat.	puerō	agrō	virō	-ō
Acc.	puerum	agrum	virum	-um
Abl.	puerō	agrō	virō	-ō
	Plural
Nom.	puerī	agrī	virī	-ī
Gen.	puerōrum	agrōrum	virōrum	-ōrum
Dat.	puerīs	agrīs	virīs	-īs
Acc.	puerōs	agrōs	virōs	-ōs
Abl.	puerīs	agrīs	virīs	-īs

a. The vocative case of these words is like the nominative, following the general rule (§ 74. a).

b. The declension differs from that of servus only in the nominative and vocative singular.

c. Note that in puer the e remains all the way through, while in ager it is present only in the nominative. In puer the e belongs to the base, but in ager (base agr-) it does not, and was inserted in the nominative to make it easier to pronounce. Most words in -er are declined like ager. The genitive shows whether you are to follow puer or ager.

93. Masculine adjectives in -er of the second declension are declined like nouns in -er. A few of them are declined like puer, but most of them like ager. The feminine and neuter nominatives show which form to follow, thus,

Masc.	Fem.	Neut.
līber	lībera	līberum	(free)	is like puer
pulcher	pulchra	pulchrum	(pretty)	is like ager

For the full declension in the three genders, see § 469. b. c.

94. Decline together the words vir līber, terra lībera, frūmentum līberum, puer pulcher, puella pulchra, oppidum pulchrum

95. Italia1

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.

Magna est Italiae fāma, patriae Rōmānōrum, et clāra est Rōma, domina orbis terrārum.2 Tiberim,3 fluvium Rōmānum, quis nōn laudat et pulchrōs fluviō fīnitimōs agrōs? Altōs mūrōs, longa et dūra bella, clārās victōriās quis nōn laudat? Pulchra est terra Italia. Agrī bonī agricolīs praemia dant magna, et equī agricolārum cōpiam frūmentī ad oppida et vīcōs portant. In agrīs populī Rōmānī labōrant multī servī. Viae Italiae sunt longae et lātae. Fīnitima Italiae est īnsula Sicilia.

96. DIALOGUE

Marcus and Cornelius

LEGIONARIUS

C. Ubi est, Mārce, fīlius tuus? Estne in pulchrā terrā Italiā?
M. Nōn est, Cornēlī, in Italiā. Ad fluvium Rhēnum properat cum cōpiīs Rōmānīs quia est4 fāma Novī bellī cum Germānīs. Līber Germāniae populus Rōmānōs Nōn amat.
C. Estne fīlius tuus copiārum Rōmānārum lēgātus?
M. Lēgātus nōn est, sed est apud legiōnāriōs.
C. Quae5 arma portat6?
M. Scūtum magnum et lōrīcam dūram et galeam pulchram portat.
C. Quae tēla portat?
M. Gladium et pīlum longum portat.
C. Amatne lēgātus fīlium tuum?
M. Amat, et saepe fīliō meō praemia pulchra et praedam multam dat.
C. Ubi est terra Germānōrum?
M. Terra Germānōrum, Cornēlī est fīnitima Rhēnō, fluviō magnō et altō.

LESSON XIV

THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS

97. Observe the sentences

This is my shield This shield is mine

In the first sentence my is a possessive adjective; in the second mine is a possessive pronoun, for it takes the place of a noun, this shield is mine being equivalent to this shield is my shield. Similarly, in Latin the possessives are sometimes adjectives and sometimes pronouns.

98. The possessives my, mine, your, yours, etc. are declined like adjectives of the first and second declensions.

	Singular
1st Pers.	meus, mea, meum	my, mine
2d Pers.	tuus, tua, tuum	your, yours
3d Pers.	suus, sua, suum	his (own), her (own), its (own)
	Plural
1st Pers.	noster, nostra, nostrum	our, ours
2d Pers.	vester, vestra, vestrum	your, yours
3d Pers.	suus, sua, suum	their (own), theirs

Note. Meus has the irregular vocative singular masculine mī, as mī fīlī, O my son.

a. The possessives agree with the name of the thing possessed in gender, number, and case. Compare the English and Latin in

Sextus is calling his boy Julia is calling her boy

Sextus Iūlia

suum puerum vocat

Observe that suum agrees with puerum, and is unaffected by the gender of Sextus or Julia.

b. When your, yours, refers to one person, use tuus; when to more than one, vester; as,

Lesbia, your wreaths are pretty Girls, your wreaths are pretty

Corōnae tuae, Lesbia, sunt pulchrae Corōnae vestrae, puellae, sunt pulchrae

c. Suus is a reflexive possessive, that is, it usually stands in the predicate and regularly refers back to the subject. Thus, Vir suōs servōs vocat means The man calls his (own) slaves. Here his (suōs) refers to man (vir), and could not refer to any one else.

d. Possessives are used much less frequently than in English, being omitted whenever the meaning is clear without them. (Cf. § 22. a.) This is especially true of suus, -a, -um, which, when inserted, is more or less emphatic, like our his own, her own, etc.

99. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.

I. 1. Mārcus amīcō Sextō cōnsilium suum nūntiat 2. Est cōpia frūmentī in agrīs nostrīs. 3. Amīcī meī bonam cēnam ancillae vestrae laudant 4. Tua lōrīca, mī fīlī, est dūra. 5. Scūta nostra et tēla, mī amīce, in castrls Rōmānīs sunt. 6. Suntne virī patriae tuae līberī? Sunt. 7. Ubi, Cornēlī, est tua galea pulchra? 8. Mea galea, Sexte, est in casā meā. 9. Pīlum longum est tuum, sed gladius est meus. 10. Iūlia gallīnās suās pulchrās amat et gallīnae dominam suam amant. 11. Nostra castra sunt vestra. 12. Est cōpia praedae in castrīs vestrīs. 13. Amīcī tuī miserīs et aegrīs cibum et pecūniam saepe dant.

II. 1. Our teacher praises Mark’s industry. 2. My son Sextus is carrying his booty to the Roman camp.1 3. Your good girls are giving aid to the sick and wretched.2 4. There are 3 frequent battles in our villages. 5. My son, where is the lieutenant’s food? 6. The camp is mine, but the weapons are yours.

AGRICOLA ARAT

LESSON XV

THE ABLATIVE DENOTING WITH

100. Of the various relations denoted by the ablative case (§ 50) there is none more important than that expressed in English by the preposition with. This little word is not so simple as it looks. It does not always convey the same meaning, nor is it always to be translated by cum. This will become clear from the following sentences:

a. Mark is feeble with (for or because of) want of food b. Diana kills the beasts with (or by) her arrows c. Julia is with Sextus d. The men fight with great steadiness

a. In sentence a, with want (of food) gives the cause of Mark’s feebleness. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the ablative of cause:

Mārcus est īnfīrmus inopiā cibī

b. In sentence b, with (or by) her arrows tells by means of what Diana kills the beasts. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the ablative of means:

Diāna sagittīs suīs ferās necat

c. In sentence c we are told that Julia is not alone, but in company with Sextus. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative with the preposition cum, and the construction is called the ablative of accompaniment:

Iūlia est cum Sextō

d. In sentence d we are told how the men fight. The idea is one of manner. This is expressed in Latin by the ablative with cum, unless there is a modifying adjective present, in which case cum may be omitted. This construction is called the ablative of manner:

Virī (cum) cōnstantiā magnā pugnant

101. You are now able to form four important rules for the ablative denoting with:

102. Rule. Ablative of Cause. Cause is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question Because of what?

103. Rule. Ablative of Means. Means is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question By means of what? With what?

N.B. Cum must never be used with the ablative expressing cause or means.

104. Rule. Ablative of Accompaniment. Accompaniment is denoted by the ablative with cum. This answers the question With whom?

105. Rule. Ablative of Manner. The ablative with cum is used to denote the manner of an action. Cum may be omitted, if an adjective is used with the ablative. This answers the question How? In what manner?

106. What uses of the ablative do you discover in the following passage, and what question does each answer?

The soldiers marched to the fort with great speed and broke down the gate with blows of their muskets. The inhabitants, terrified by the din, attempted to cross the river with their wives and children, but the stream was swollen with (or by) the rain. Because of this many were swept away by the waters and only a few, almost overcome with fatigue, with great difficulty succeeded in gaining the farther shore.

107. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.

I. The Romans prepare for War. Rōmānī, clārus Italiae populus, bellum parant. Ex agrīs suīs, vicīs, oppidīsque magnō studiō virī validī ad arma properant. Iam lēgatī cum legiōnariīs ex Italiā ad Rhēnum, fluvium Germāniae altum et lātum, properant, et servī equīs et carrīs cibum frūmentumque ad castra Rōmāna portant. Inopiā bonōrum tēlōrum īnfirmī sunt Germānī, sed Rōmānī armāti galeīs, lōrīcīs, scūtīs, gladiīs, pīlīsque sunt validī.

II. 1. The sturdy farmers of Italy labor in the fields with great diligence. 2. Sextus, the lieutenant, and (his) son Mark are fighting with the Germans. 3. The Roman legionaries are armed with long spears. 4. Where is Lesbia, your maid, Sextus? Lesbia is with my friends in Galba’s cottage. 5. Many are sick because of bad water and for lack of food. 6. The Germans, with (their) sons and daughters, are hastening with horses and wagons.

LESSON XVI

THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES

108. There are nine irregular adjectives of the first and second declensions which have a peculiar termination in the genitive and dative singular of all genders:

	Masc.	Fem.	Neut.
Gen.	-īus	-īus	-īus
Dat.	-ī	-ī	-ī

Otherwise they are declined like bonus, -a, -um. Learn the list and the meaning of each:

alius, alia, aliud, other, another (of several) alter, altera, alterum, the one, the other (of two) ūnus, -a, -um, one, alone; (in the plural) only ūllus, -a, -um, any nūllus, -a, -um, none, no sōlus, -a, -um, alone tōtus, -a, -um, all, whole, entire uter, utra, utrum, which? (of two) neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither (of two)

109. PARADIGMS

	Singular
	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	nūllus	nūlla	nūllum	alius	alia	aliud
Gen.	nūllī´us	nūllī´us	nūllī´us	alī´us	alī´us	alī´us
Dat.	nūllī	nūllī	nūllī	aliī	aliī	aliī
Acc.	nūllum	nūllam	nūllum	alium	aliam	aliud
Abl.	nūllō	nūllā	nūllō	aliō	aliā	aliō
	The Plural is Regular

a. Note the peculiar neuter singular ending in -d of alius. The genitive alīus is rare. Instead of it use alterīus, the genitive of alter.

b. These peculiar case endings are found also in the declension of pronouns (see § 114). For this reason these adjectives are sometimes called the pronominal adjectives.

110. Learn the following idioms:

alter, -era, -erum ... alter, -era, -erum, the one ... the other (of two) alius, -a, -ud ... alius, -a, -ud, one ... another (of any number) aliī, -ae, -a ... aliī, -ae, -a, some ... others

EXAMPLES

1. Alterum oppidum est magnum, alterum parvum, the one town is large, the other small (of two towns).

2. Aliud oppidum est validum, aliud īnfīrmum, one town is strong, another weak (of towns in general).

3. Aliī gladiōs, aliī scūta portant, some carry swords, others shields.

111. EXERCISES

I. 1. In utrā casā est Iūlia? Iūlia est in neutrā casā. 2. Nūllī malō puerō praemium dat magister. 3. Alter puer est nauta, alter agricola. 4. Aliī virī aquam, aliī terram amant. 5. Galba ūnus (or sōlus) cum studiō labōrat. 6. Estne ūllus carrus in agrō meō? 7. Lesbia est ancilla alterīus dominī, Tullia alterīus. 8. Lesbia sōla cēnam parat. 9. Cēna nūllīus alterīus ancillae est bona. 10. Lesbia nūllī aliī virō cēnam dat.

Note. The pronominal adjectives, as you observe, regularly stand before and not after their nouns.

II. 1. The men of all Germany are preparing for war. 2. Some towns are great and others are small. 3. One boy likes chickens, another horses. 4. Already the booty of one town is in our fort. 5. Our whole village is suffering for (i.e. weak because of) lack of food. 6. The people are already hastening to the other town. 7. Among the Romans (there) is no lack of grain.

LESSON XVII

THE DEMONSTRATIVE IS, EA, ID

112. A demonstrative is a word that points out an object definitely, as this, that, these, those. Sometimes these words are pronouns, as, Do you hear these? and sometimes adjectives, as, Do you hear these men? In the former case they are called demonstrative pronouns, in the latter demonstrative adjectives.

113. Demonstratives are similarly used in Latin both as pronouns and as adjectives. The one used most is

is, masculine; ea, feminine; id, neuter

Singular

this that

Plural

these those

114. Is is declined as follows. Compare its declension with that of alius, § 109.

Base e-
	Singular			Plural
	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	is	ea	id	eī (or iī)	eae	ea
Gen.	eius	eius	eius	eōrum	eārum	eōrum
Dat.	eī	eī	eī	eīs (or iīs)	eīs (or iīs)	eīs (or iīs)
Acc.	eum	eam	id	eōs	eās	ea
Abl.	eō	eā	eō	eīs (or iīs)	eīs (or iīs)	eīs (or iīs)

Note that the base e- changes to i- in a few cases. The genitive singular eius is pronounced eh´yus. In the plural the forms with two i’s are preferred and the two i’s are pronounced as one. Hence, pronounce iī as ī and iīs as īs.

115. Besides being used as demonstrative pronouns and adjectives the Latin demonstratives are regularly used for the personal pronoun he, she, it. As a personal pronoun, then, is would have the following meanings:

Sing.	Nom.	is, he; ea, she; id, it
	Gen.	eius, of him or his; eius, of her, her, or hers; eius, of it or its
	Dat.	eī, to or for him; eī, to or for her; eī, to or for it
	Acc.	eum, him; eam, her; id, it
	Abl.	eō, with, from, etc., him; eā, with, from, etc., her; eō, with, from, etc., it
Plur.	Nom.	eī or iī, eae, ea, they
	Gen.	eōrum, eārum, eōrum, of them, their
	Dat.	eīs or iīs, eīs or iīs, eīs or iīs, to or for them
	Acc.	eōs, eās, ea, them
	Abl.	eīs or iīs, eīs or iīs, eīs or iīs, with, from, etc., them

116. Comparison between suus and is. We learned above (§ 98. c) that suus is a reflexive possessive. When his, her (poss.), its, their, do not refer to the subject of the sentence, we express his, her, its by eius, the genitive singular of is, ea, id; and their by the genitive plural, using eōrum to refer to a masculine or neuter antecedent noun and eārum to refer to a feminine one.

EXAMPLES

Galba calls his (own) son, Galba suum fīlium vocat Galba calls his son (not his own, but another’s), Galba eius fīlium vocat Julia calls her (own) children, Iūlia suōs līberōs vocat Julia calls her children (not her own, but another’s), Iūlia eius līberōs vocat The men praise their (own) boys, virī suōs puerōs laudant The men praise their boys (not their own, but others’), virī eōrum puerōs laudant

117. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287.

1. He praises her, him, it, them. 2. This cart, that report, these teachers, those women, that abode, these abodes. 3. That strong garrison, among those weak and sick women, that want of firmness, those frequent plans.

4. The other woman is calling her chickens (her own). 5. Another woman is calling her chickens (not her own). 6. The Gaul praises his arms (his own). 7. The Gaul praises his arms (not his own). 8. This farmer often plows their fields. 9. Those wretched slaves long for their master (their own). 10. Those wretched slaves long for their master (not their own). 11. Free men love their own fatherland. 12. They love its villages and towns.

118. DIALOGUE1

Cornelius and Marcus

M. Quis est vir, Cornēlī, cum puerō parvō? Estne Rōmānus et līber?
C. Rōmānus nōn est, Mārce. Is vir est servus et eius domicilium est in silvīs Galliae.
M. Estne puer fīlius eius servī an alterīus?
C. Neutrīus fīlius est puer. Is est fīlius lēgātī Sextī.
M. Quō puer cum eō servō properat?
C. Is cum servō properat ad lātōs Sextī agrōs.2 Tōtum frūmentum est iam mātūrum et magnus servōrum numerus in Italiae3 agrīs labōrat.
M. Agricolaene sunt Gallī et patriae suae agrōs arant?
C. Nōn agricolae sunt. Bellum amant Gallī, nōn agrī cultūram. Apud eōs virī pugnant et fēminae auxiliō līberōrum agrōs arant parantque cibum.
M. Magister noster puerīs puellīsque grātās Gallōrum fābulās saepe nārrat et laudat eōs saepe.
C. Mala est fortūna eōrum et saepe miserī servī multīs cum lacrimīs patriam suam dēsīderant.

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Second Review, Lessons IX-XVII, §§ 506-509

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LESSON XVIII

CONJUGATION

THE PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE TENSES OF SUM

119. The inflection of a verb is called its conjugation (cf. § 23). In English the verb has but few changes in form, the different meanings being expressed by the use of personal pronouns and auxiliaries, as, I am carried, we have carried, they shall have carried, etc. In Latin, on the other hand, instead of using personal pronouns and auxiliary verbs, the form changes with the meaning. In this way the Romans expressed differences in tense, mood, voice, person, and number.

120. The Tenses. The different forms of a verb referring to different times are called its tenses. The chief distinctions of time are present, past, and future:

1. The present, that is, what is happening now, or what usually happens, is expressed by	the Present Tense
2. The past, that is, what was happening, used to happen, happened, has happened, or had happened, is expressed by	the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect Tenses
3. The future, that is, what is going to happen, is expressed by	the Future and Future Perfect Tenses

121. The Moods. Verbs have inflection of mood to indicate the manner in which they express action. The moods of the Latin verb are the indicative, subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive.

a. A verb is in the indicative mood when it makes a statement or asks a question about something assumed as a fact. All the verbs we have used thus far are in the present indicative.

122. The Persons. There are three persons, as in English. The first person is the person speaking (I sing); the second person the person spoken to (you sing); the third person the person spoken of (he sings). Instead of using personal pronouns for the different persons in the two numbers, singular and plural, the Latin verb uses the personal endings (cf. § 22 a; 29). We have already learned that -t is the ending of the third person singular in the active voice and -nt of the third person plural. The complete list of personal endings of the active voice is as follows:

	Singular		Plural
1st Pers.	I	-m or -ō	we	-mus
2d Pers.	thou or you	-s	you	-tis
3d Pers.	he, she, it	-t	they	-nt

123. Most verbs form their moods and tenses after a regular plan and are called regular verbs. Verbs that depart from this plan are called irregular. The verb to be is irregular in Latin as in English. The present, imperfect, and future tenses of the indicative are inflected as follows:

Present Indicative
	SINGULAR	PLURAL
1st Pers.	su-m, I am	su-mus, we are
2d Pers.	e-s, you1 are	es-tis, you1 are
3d Pers.	es-t, he, she, or it is	su-nt, they are
Imperfect Indicative
1st Pers.	er-a-m, I was	er-ā´-mus, we were
2d Pers.	er-ā-s, you were	er-ā´-tis, you were
3d Pers.	er-a-t, he, she, or it was	er-a-nt, they were
Future Indicative
1st Pers.	er-ō, I shall be	er´-i-mus, we shall be
2d Pers.	er-i-s, you will be	er´-i-tis, you will be
3d Pers.	er-i-t, he will be	er-u-nt, they will be

a. Be careful about vowel quantity and accent in these forms, and consult §§ 12.2; 14; 15.

124. DIALOGUE

The Boys Sextus and Marcus

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287.

S. Ubi es, Mārce? Ubi est Quīntus? Ubi estis, amīcī?
M. Cum Quīntō, Sexte, in silvā sum. Nōn sōlī sumus; sunt in silvā multī aliī puerī.
S. Nunc laetus es, sed nūper nōn laetus erās. Cūr miser erās?
M. Miser eram quia amīcī meī erant in aliō vicō et eram sōlus. Nunc sum apud sociōs meōs. Nunc laetī sumus et erimus.
S. Erātisne in lūdo hodiē?
M. Hodiē nōn erāmus in lūdō, quod magister erat aeger.
S. Eritisne mox in lūdō?
M. Amīcī meī ibi erunt, sed ego (I) nōn erō.
S. Cūr nōn ibi eris? Magister, saepe irātus, inopiam tuam studī dīligentiaeque nōn laudat.
M. Nūper aeger eram et nunc īnfīrmus sum.

125. EXERCISE

1. You are, you were, you will be, (sing. and plur.). 2. I am, I was, I shall be. 3. He is, he was, he will be. 4. We are, we were, we shall be. 5. They are, they were, they will be.

6. Why were you not in school to-day? I was sick. 7. Lately he was a sailor, now he is a farmer, soon he will be a teacher. 8. To-day I am happy, but lately I was wretched. 9. The teachers were happy because of the boys’ industry.

PUERI ROMANI IN LUDO

LESSON XIX

THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS · PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF AMŌ AND MONEŌ

126. There are four conjugations of the regular verbs. These conjugations are distinguished from each other by the final vowel of the present conjugation-stem.1 This vowel is called the distinguishing vowel, and is best seen in the present infinitive.

Below is given the present infinitive of a verb of each conjugation, the present stem, and the distinguishing vowel.

Conjugation	Pres. Infin.	Pres. Stem	DISTINGUISHING VOWEL
I.	amā´re, to love	amā-	ā
II.	monē´re, to advise	monē-	ē
III.	re´gĕre, to rule	regĕ-	ĕ
IV.	audī´re, to hear	audi-	ī

a. Note that the present stem of each conjugation is found by dropping -re, the ending of the present infinitive.

Note. The present infinitive of sum is esse, and es- is the present stem.

127. From the present stem are formed the present, imperfect, and future tenses.

128. The inflection of the Present Active Indicative of the first and of the second conjugation is as follows:

	a´mō, amā´re (love)	mo´neō, monē´re (advise)
	Pres. Stem amā-	Pres. Stem monē-	PERSONAL ENDINGS
Sing.	1. a´mō, I love	mo´neō, I advise	-ō
	2. a´mās, you love	mo´nēs, you advise	-s
	3. a´mat, he (she, it) loves	mo´net, he (she, it) advises	-t
Plur.	1. amā´mus, we love	monē´mus, we advise	-mus
	2. amā´tis, you love	monē´tis, you advise	-tis
	3. a´mant, they love	mo´nent, they advise	-nt

1. The present tense is inflected by adding the personal endings to the present stem, and its first person uses -o and not -m. The form amō is for amā-ō, the two vowels ā-ō contracting to ō. In moneō there is no contraction. Nearly all regular verbs ending in -eo belong to the second conjugation.

2. Note that the long final vowel of the stem is shortened before another vowel (monē-ō = mo´nĕō), and before final -t (amăt, monĕt) and -nt (amănt, monĕnt). Compare § 12. 2.

129. Like amō and moneō inflect the present active indicative of the following verbs2:

Indicative Present	Infinitive Present
a´rō, I plow	arā´re, to plow
cū´rō, I care for	cūrā´re, to care for
*dē´leō, I destroy	dēlē´re, to destroy
dēsī´derō, I long for	dēsīderā´re, to long for
dō,3 I give	da´re, to give
*ha´beō, I have	habē´re, to have
ha´bitō, I live, I dwell	habitā´re, to live, to dwell
*iu´beō, I order	iubē´re, to order
labō´rō, I labor	labōrā´re, to labor
lau´dō, I praise	laudā´re, to praise
mātū´rō, I hasten	mātūrā´re, to hasten
*mo´veō, I move	movē´re, to move
nār´rō, I tell	nārrā´re, to tell
ne´cō, I kill	necā´re, to kill
nūn´tiō, I announce	nūntiā´re, to announce
pa´rō, I prepare	parā´re, to prepare
por´tō, I carry	portā´re, to carry
pro´perō, I hasten	properā´re, to hasten
pug´nō, I fight	pugnā´re, to fight
*vi´deō, I see	vidē´re, to see
vo´cō, I call	vocā´re, to call

130. The Translation of the Present. In English there are three ways of expressing present action. We may say, for example, I live, I am living, or I do live. In Latin the one expression habitō covers all three of these expressions.

131. EXERCISES

Give the voice, mood, tense, person, and number of each form.

I. 1. Vocāmus, properātis, iubent. 2. Movētis, laudās, vidēs. 3. Dēlētis, habētis, dant. 4. Mātūrās, dēsīderat, vidēmus. 5. Iubet, movent, necat. 6. Nārrāmus, movēs, vident. 7. Labōrātis, properant, portās, parant. 8. Dēlet, habētis, iubēmus, dās.

N.B. Observe that the personal ending is of prime importance in translating a Latin verb form. Give that your first attention.

II. 1. We plow, we are plowing, we do plow. 2. They care for, they are caring for, they do care for. 3. You give, you are having, you do have (sing.). 4. We destroy, I do long for, they are living. 5. He calls, they see, we are telling. 6. We do fight, we order, he is moving, he prepares. 7. They are laboring, we kill, you announce.

LESSON XX

IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF AMŌ AND MONEŌ

132. Tense Signs. Instead of using auxiliary verbs to express differences in tense, like was, shall, will, etc., Latin adds to the verb stem certain elements that have the force of auxiliary verbs. These are called tense signs.

133. Formation and Inflection of the Imperfect. The tense sign of the imperfect is -bā-, which is added to the present stem. The imperfect consists, therefore, of three parts:

Present Stem	Tense Sign	PERSONAL ENDING
amā-	ba-	m
loving	was	I

The inflection is as follows:

Conjugation I	Conjugation II
SINGULAR		PERSONAL ENDINGS
1. amā´bam, I was loving	monē´bam, I was advising	-m
2. amā´bās, you were loving	monē´bās, you were advising	-s
3. amā´bat, he was loving	monē´bat, he was advising	-t
PLURAL
1. amābā´mus, we were loving	monēbā´mus, we were advising	-mus
2. amābā´tis, you were loving	monēbā´tis, you were advising	-tis
3. amā´bant, they were loving	monē´bant, they were advising	-nt

a. Note that the ā of the tense sign -bā- is shortened before -nt, and before m and t when final. (Cf. § 12. 2.)

In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in § 129.

134. Meaning of the Imperfect. The Latin imperfect describes an act as going on or progressing in past time, like the English past-progressive tense (as, I was walking). It is the regular tense used to describe a past situation or condition of affairs.

135. EXERCISES

I. 1. Vidēbāmus, dēsīderābat, mātūrābās. 2. Dabant, vocābātis, dēlēbāmus. 3. Pugnant, laudābās, movēbātis. 4. Iubēbant, properābātis, portābāmus. 5. Dabās, nārrābant, labōrābātis. 6. Vidēbant, movēbās, nūntiābāmus. 7. Necābat, movēbam, habēbat, parābātis.

II. 1. You were having (sing. and plur.), we were killing, they were laboring. 2. He was moving, we were ordering, we were fighting. 3. We were telling, they were seeing, he was calling. 4. They were living, I was longing for, we were destroying. 5. You were giving, you were moving, you were announcing, (sing. and plur.). 6. They were caring for, he was plowing, we were praising.

136. Ni´obe and her Children

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287.

Niobē, rēgina Thēbānōrum, erat pulchra fēmina sed superba. Erat superba nōn sōlum fōrmā1 suā marītīque potentiā1 sed etiam magnō līberōrum numerō.1 Nam habēbat2 septem fīliōs et septem fīliās. Sed ea superbia erat rēgīnae3 causa magnae trīstitiae et līberīs3 causa dūrae poenae.

Note. The words Niobē, Thēbānōrum, and marītī will be found in the general vocabulary. Translate the selection without looking up any other words.

LESSON XXI

FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF AMŌ AND MONEŌ

137. The tense sign of the Future Indicative in the first and second conjugations is -bi-. This is joined to the present stem of the verb and followed by the personal ending, as follows:

Present Stem	Tense Sign	PERSONAL ENDING
amā-	bi-	s
love	will	you

138. The Future Active Indicative is inflected as follows.

Conjugation I	Conjugation II
SINGULAR
1. amā´bō, I shall love	monē´bō, I shall advise
2. amā´bis, you will love	monē´bis, you will advise
3. amā´bit, he will love	monē´bit, he will advise
PLURAL
1. amā´bimus, we shall love	monē´bimus, we shall advise
2. amā´bitis will love	monē´bitis, you will advise
3. amā´bunt, they will love	monē´bunt, they will advise

a. The personal endings are as in the present. The ending -bō in the first person singular is contracted from -bi-ō. The -bi- appears as -bu- in the third person plural. Note that the inflection is like that of erō, the future of sum. Pay especial attention to the accent.

In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in § 129.

139. EXERCISES

I. 1. Movēbitis, laudābis, arābō. 2. Dēlēbitis, vocābitis, dabunt. 3. Mātūrābis, dēsīderābit, vidēbimus. 4. Habēbit, movēbunt, necābit. 5. Nārrābimus, monēbis, vidēbunt. 6. Labōrābitis, cūrābunt, dabis. 7. Habitābimus, properābitis, iubēbunt, parābit. 8. Nūntiābō, portābimus, iubēbō.

II. 1. We shall announce, we shall see, I shall hasten. 2. I shall carry, he will plow, they will care for. 3. You will announce, you will move, you will give, (sing. and plur.). 4. We shall fight, we shall destroy, I shall long for. 5. He will call, they will see, you will tell (plur.). 6. They will dwell, we shall order, he will praise. 7. They will labor, we shall kill, you will have (sing. and plur.), he will destroy.

140. Niobe and her Children (Concluded)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Apollō et Diāna erant līberī Lātōnae. Iīs Thēbānī sacra crēbra parābant.1 Oppidānī amābant Lātōnam et līberōs eius. Id superbae rēgīnae erat molestum. “Cūr,” inquit, “Lātōnae et līberīs sacra parātis? Duōs līberōs habet Lātōna; quattuordecim habeō ego. Ubi sunt mea sacra?” Lātōna iīs verbīs2 īrāta līberōs suōs vocat. Ad eam volant Apollō Diānaque et sagittīs3 suīs miserōs līberōs rēgīnae superbae dēlent. Niobē, nūper laeta, nunc misera, sedet apud līberōs interfectōs et cum perpetuīs lacrimīs4 eōs dēsīderat.

Note. Consult the general vocabulary for Apollō, inquit, duōs, and quattuordecim. Try to remember the meaning of all the other words.

LESSON XXII

REVIEW OF VERBS · THE DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES

141. Review the present, imperfect, and future active indicative, both orally and in writing, of sum and the verbs in § 129.

142. We learned in § 43 for what sort of expressions we may expect the dative, and in § 44 that one of its commonest uses is with verbs to express the indirect object. It is also very common with adjectives to express the object toward which the quality denoted by the adjective is directed. We have already had a number of cases where grātus, agreeable to, was so followed by a dative; and in the last lesson we had molestus, annoying to, followed by that case. The usage may be more explicitly stated by the following rule:

143. Rule. Dative with Adjectives. The dative is used with adjectives to denote the object toward which the given quality is directed. Such are, especially, those meaning near, also fit, friendly, pleasing, like, and their opposites.

144. Among such adjectives memorize the following:

idōneus, -a, -um, fit, suitable (for) amīcus, -a, -um, friendly (to) inimīcus, -a, -um, hostile (to) grātus, -a, -um, pleasing (to), agreeable (to) molestus, -a, -um, annoying (to), troublesome (to) fīnitimus, -a, -um, neighboring (to) proximus, -a, -um, nearest, next (to)

145. EXERCISES

I. 1. Rōmānī terram idōneam agrī cultūrae habent. 2. Gallī cōpiīs Rōmānīs inimīcī erant. 3. Cui dea Lātōna amīca non erat? 4. Dea Lātōna superbae rēgīnae amīca nōn erat. 5. Cibus noster, Mārce, erit armātīs virīs grātus. 6. Quid erat molestum populīs Italiae? 7. Bella longa cum Gallīs erant molesta populīs Italiae. 8. Agrī Germānōrum fluviō Rhēnō fīnitimī erant. 9. Rōmānī ad silvam oppidō proximam castra movēbant. 10. Nōn sōlum fōrma sed etiam superbia rēgīnae erat magna. 11. Mox rēgīna pulchra erit aegra trīstitiā. 12. Cūr erat Niobē, rēgīna Thēbānōrum, laeta? Laeta erat Niobē multīs fīliīs et fīliābus.

II. 1. The sacrifices of the people will be annoying to the haughty queen. 2. The sacrifices were pleasing not only to Latona but also to Diana. 3. Diana will destroy those hostile to Latona. 4. The punishment of the haughty queen was pleasing to the goddess Diana. 5. The Romans will move their forces to a large field1 suitable for a camp. 6. Some of the allies were friendly to the Romans, others to the Gauls.

146. Cornelia and her Jewels

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Apud antīquās dominās, Cornēlia, Āfricānī fīlia, erat2 maximē clāra. Fīliī eius erant Tiberius Gracchus et Gāius Gracchus. Iī puerī cum Cornēliā in oppidō Rōmā, clārō Italiae oppidō, habitābant. Ibi eōs cūrābat Cornēlia et ibi magnō cum studiō eōs docēbat. Bona fēmina erat Cornēlia et bonam disciplīnam maximē amābat.

Note. Can you translate the paragraph above? There are no new words.

LESSON XXIII

PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF REGŌ AND AUDIŌ

147. As we learned in § 126, the present stem of the third conjugation ends in -ĕ, and of the fourth in -ī. The inflection of the Present Indicative is as follows:

Conjugation III	Conjugation IV
re´gō, re´gere (rule)	au´diō, audī´re (hear)
Pres. Stem regĕ-	Pres. Stem audī-
SINGULAR
1. re´gō, I rule	au´diō, I hear
2. re´gis, you rule	au´dīs, you hear
3. re´git, he (she, it) rules	au´dit, he (she, it) hears
PLURAL
1. re´gimus, we rule	audī´mus, we hear
2. re´gitis, you rule	audī´tis, you hear
3. re´gunt, they rule	au´diunt, they hear

1. The personal endings are the same as before.

2. The final short -e- of the stem regĕ- combines with the -ō in the first person, becomes -u- in the third person plural, and becomes -ĭ- elsewhere. The inflection is like that of erō, the future of sum.

3. In audiō the personal endings are added regularly to the stem audī-. In the third person plural -u- is inserted between the stem and the personal ending, as audi-u-nt. Note that the long vowel of the stem is shortened before final -t just as in amō and moneō. (Cf. § 12. 2.)

Note that -i- is always short in the third conjugation and long in the fourth, excepting where long vowels are regularly shortened. (Cf. § 12. 1, 2.)

148. Like regō and audiō inflect the present active indicative of the following verbs:

Indicative Present	Infinitive Present
agō, I drive	agere, to drive
dīcō, I say	dīcere, to say
dūcō, I lead	dūcere, to lead
mittō, I send	mittere, to send
mūniō, I fortify	mūnīre, to fortify
reperiō, I find	reperīre, to find
veniō, I come	venīre, to come

149. EXERCISES

I. 1. Quis agit? Cūr venit? Quem mittit? Quem dūcis? 2. Quid mittunt? Ad quem veniunt? Cuius castra mūniunt? 3. Quem agunt? Venīmus. Quid puer reperit? 4. Quem mittimus? Cuius equum dūcitis? Quid dīcunt? 5. Mūnīmus, venītis, dīcit. 6. Agimus, reperītis, mūnīs. 7. Reperis, ducitis, dīcis. 8. Agitis, audimus, regimus.

II. 1. What do they find? Whom do they hear? Why does he come? 2. Whose camp are we fortifying? To whom does he say? What are we saying? 3. I am driving, you are leading, they are hearing. 4. You send, he says, you fortify (sing. and plur.). 5. I am coming, we find, they send. 6. They lead, you drive, he does fortify. 7. You lead, you find, you rule, (all plur.).

150. Cornelia and her Jewels (Concluded)

Proximum domicīliō Cornēliae erat pulchrae Campānae domicilium. Campāna erat superba nōn sōlum fōrmā suā sed maximē ōrnāmentīs suīs. Ea1 laudābat semper. “Habēsne tū ūlla ornāmenta, Cornēlia?” inquit. “Ubi sunt tua ōrnāmenta?” Deinde Cornēlia fīliōs suōs Tiberium et Gāium vocat. “Puerī meī,” inquit, “sunt mea ōrnāmenta. Nam bonī līberī sunt semper bonae fēminae ōrnāmenta maximē clāra.”

Note. The only new words here are Campāna, semper, and tū.

“PUERI MEI SUNT MEA ORNAMENTA”

LESSON XXIV

IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF REGŌ AND AUDIŌ · THE DATIVE WITH SPECIAL INTRANSITIVE VERBS

151. PARADIGMS

Conjugation III	Conjugation IV
SINGULAR
1. regē´bam, I was ruling	audiē´bam, I was hearing
2. regē´bās, you were riding	audiē´bās, you were hearing
3. regē´bat, he was ruling	audiē´bat, he was hearing
PLURAL
1. regēbā´mus, we were ruling	audiēbā´mus, we were hearing
2. regēbā´tis, you were ruling	audiēbā´tis, you were hearing
3. regē´bant, they were ruling	audiē´bant, they were hearing

1. The tense sign is -bā-, as in the first two conjugations.

2. Observe that the final -ĕ- of the stem is lengthened before the tense sign -bā-. This makes the imperfect of the third conjugation just like the imperfect of the second (cf. monēbam and regēbam).

3. In the fourth conjugation -ē- is inserted between the stem and the tense sign -bā- (audi-ē-ba-m).

4. In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in § 148.

152. EXERCISES

I. 1. Agēbat, veniēbat, mittēbat, dūcēbant. 2. Agēbant, mittēbant, dūcēbas, mūniēbant. 3. Mittēbāmus, dūcēbātis, dīcēbant. 4. Mūniēbāmus, veniēbātis, dīcēbās. 5. Mittēbās, veniēbāmus, reperiēbat. 6. Reperiēbās, veniēbās, audiēbātis. 7. Agēbāmus, reperiēbātis, mūniēbat. 8. Agēbātis, dīcēbam, mūniēbam.

II. 1. They were leading, you were driving (sing. and plur.), he was fortifying. 2. They were sending, we were finding, I was coming. 3. You were sending, you were fortifying, (sing. and plur.), he was saying. 4. They were hearing, you were leading (sing. and plur.), I was driving. 5. We were saying, he was sending, I was fortifying. 6. They were coming, he was hearing, I was finding. 7. You were ruling (sing. and plur.), we were coming, they were ruling.

153. The Dative with Special Intransitive Verbs. We learned above (§ 20. a) that a verb which does not admit of a direct object is called an intransitive verb. Many such verbs, however, are of such meaning that they can govern an indirect object, which will, of course, be in the dative case (§ 45). Learn the following list of intransitive verbs with their meanings. In each case the dative indirect object is the person or thing to which a benefit, injury, or feeling is directed. (Cf. § 43.)

crēdō, crēdere, believe (give belief to) faveō, favēre, favor (show favor to) noceō, nocēre, injure (do harm to) pāreō, pārēre, obey (give obedience to) persuādeō, persuādēre, persuade (offer persuasion to) resistō, resistere, resist (offer resistance to) studeō, studēre, be eager for (give attention to)

154. Rule. Dative with Intransitive Verbs. The dative of the indirect object is used with the intransitive verbs crēdō, faveō, noceō, pāreō, persuādeō, resistō, studeō, and others of like meaning.

155. EXERCISE

1. Crēdisne verbīs sociōrum? Multī verbīs eōrum nōn crēdunt. 2. Meī fīnitimī cōnsiliō tuō nōn favēbunt, quod bellō student. 3. Tiberius et Gāius disciplīnae dūrae nōn resistēbant et Cornēliae pārēbant. 4. Dea erat inimīca septem fīliābus rēgīnae. 5. Dūra poena et perpetua trīstitia rēgīnae nōn persuādēbunt. 6. Nūper ea resistēbat et nunc resistit potentiae Lātōnae. 7. Mox sagittae volābunt et līberīs miserīs nocēbunt.

LESSON XXV

FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF REGŌ AND AUDIŌ

156. In the future tense of the third and fourth conjugations we meet with a new tense sign. Instead of using -bi-, as in the first and second conjugations, we use -ā-1 in the first person singular and -ē- in the rest of the tense. In the third conjugation the final -ĕ- of the stem is dropped before this tense sign; in the fourth conjugation the final -ī- of the stem is retained.2

157. PARADIGMS

Conjugation III	Conjugation IV
SINGULAR
1. re´gam, I shall rule	au´diam, I shall hear
2. re´gēs, you will rule	au´diēs, you will hear
3. re´get, he will rule	au´diet, he will hear
PLURAL
1. regē´mus, we shall rule	audiē´mus, we shall hear
2. regē´tis, you will rule	audiē´tis, you will hear
3. re´gent, they will rule	au´dient, they will hear

1. Observe that the future of the third conjugation is like the present of the second, excepting in the first person singular.

2. In the same manner inflect the verbs given in § 148.

158. EXERCISES

I. 1. Dīcet, dūcētis, mūniēmus. 2. Dīcent, dīcētis, mittēmus. 3. Mūnient, venient, mittent, agent. 4. Dūcet, mittēs, veniet, aget. 5. Mūniet, reperiētis, agēmus. 6. Mittam, veniēmus, regent. 7. Audiētis, veniēs, reperiēs. 8. Reperiet, agam, dūcēmus, mittet. 9. Vidēbitis, sedēbō, vocābimus.

II. 1. I shall find, he will hear, they will come. 2. I shall fortify, he will send, we shall say. 3. I shall drive, you will lead, they will hear. 4. You will send, you will fortify, (sing. and plur.), he will say. 5. I shall come, we shall find, they will send.

6. Who3 will believe the story? I4 shall believe the story. 7. Whose friends do you favor? We favor our friends. 8. Who will resist our weapons? Sextus will resist your weapons. 9. Who will persuade him? They will persuade him. 10. Why were you injuring my horse? I was not injuring your horse. 11. Whom does a good slave obey? A good slave obeys his master. 12. Our men were eager for another battle.

LESSON XXVI

VERBS IN -IŌ OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION · THE IMPERATIVE MOOD

159. There are a few common verbs ending in -iō which do not belong to the fourth conjugation, as you might infer, but to the third. The fact that they belong to the third conjugation is shown by the ending of the infinitive. (Cf. § 126.) Compare

audiō, audī´re (hear), fourth conjugation capiō, ca´pere (take), third conjugation

160. The present, imperfect, and future active indicative of capiō are inflected as follows:

capiō, capere, take
Pres. Stem cape-
Present	Imperfect	Future
SINGULAR
1. ca´piō	capiē´bam	ca´piam
2. ca´pis	capiē´bās	ca´piēs
3. ca´pit	capiē´bat	ca´piet
PLURAL
1. ca´pimus	capiēbā´mus	capiē´mus
2. ca´pitis	capiēbā´tis	capiē´tis
3. ca´piunt	capiē´bant	ca´pient

1. Observe that capiō and the other -iō verbs follow the fourth conjugation wherever in the fourth conjugation two vowels occur in succession. (Cf. capiō, audiō; capiunt, audiunt; and all the imperfect and future.) All other forms are like the third conjugation. (Cf. capis, regis; capit, regit; etc.)

2. Like capiō, inflect

faciō, facere, make, do fugiō, fugere, flee iaciō, iacere, hurl rapiō, rapere, seize

161. The Imperative Mood. The imperative mood expresses a command; as, come! send! The present tense of the imperative is used only in the second person, singular and plural. The singular in the active voice is regularly the same in form as the present stem. The plural is formed by adding -te to the singular.

Conjugation		Singular	Plural
I.		amā, love thou	amā´te, love ye
II.		monē, advise thou	monē´te, advise ye
III.	(a)	rege, rule thou	re´gite, rule ye
	(b)	cape, take thou	ca´pite, take ye
IV.		audī, hear thou	audī´te, hear ye
sum (irregular)		es, be thou	este, be ye

1. In the third conjugation the final -ĕ- of the stem becomes -ĭ- in the plural.

2. The verbs dīcō, say; dūcō, lead; and faciō, make, have the irregular forms dīc, dūc, and fac in the singular.

3. Give the present active imperative, singular and plural, of veniō, dūcō, vocō, doceō, laudō, dīcō, sedeō, agō, faciō, mūniō, mittō, rapiō.

162. EXERCISES

I. 1. Fugient, faciunt, iaciēbat. 2. Dēlē, nūntiāte, fugiunt. 3. Venīte, dīc, faciētis. 4. Dūcite, iaciam, fugiēbant. 5. Fac, iaciēbāmus, fugimus, rapite. 6. Sedēte, reperī, docēte. 7. Fugiēmus, iacient, rapiēs. 8. Reperient, rapiēbātis, nocent. 9. Favēte, resistē, pārēbitis.

10. Volā ad multās terrās et dā auxilium. 11. Ego tēla mea capiam et multās ferās dēlēbō. 12. Quis fābulae tuae crēdet? 13. Este bonī, puerī, et audīte verba grāta magistrī.

II. 1. The goddess will seize her arms and will hurl her weapons. 2. With her weapons she will destroy many beasts. 3. She will give aid to the weak.1 4. She will fly to many lands and the beasts will flee. 5. Romans, tell2 the famous story to your children.

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Third Review, Lessons XVIII-XXVI, §§ 510-512

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LESSON XXVII

THE PASSIVE VOICE · PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE OF AMŌ AND MONEŌ

163. The Voices. Thus far the verb forms have been in the active voice; that is, they have represented the subject as performing an action; as,

The lion——> killed——> the hunter

A verb is said to be in the passive voice when it represents its subject as receiving an action; as,

The lion <—— was killed <—— by the hunter

Note the direction of the arrows.

164. Passive Personal Endings. In the passive voice we use a different set of personal endings. They are as follows:

Sing.	1. -r, I	Plur.	1. -mur, we
	2. -ris, -re, you		2. -minī, you
	3. -tur, he, she, it		3. -ntur, they

a. Observe that the letter -r appears somewhere in all but one of the endings. This is sometimes called the passive sign.

165. PARADIGMS

	amō, amāre	monēo, monēre
	Pres. Stem amā-	Pres. Stem monē-
	Present Indicative		PERSONAL ENDINGS
Sing.	a´mor, I am loved	mo´neor, I am advised	-or1
	amā´ris or amā´re, you are loved	monē´ris or monē´re, you are advised	-ris or -re
	amā´tur, he is loved	monē´tur, he is advised	-tur
Plur.	amā´mur, we are loved	monē´mur, we are advised	-mur
	amā´minī, you are loved	monē´minī, you are advised	-mini
	aman´tur, they are loved	monen´tur, they are advised	-ntur
	Imperfect Indicative (Tense Sign -bā-)
Sing.	amā´bar, I was being loved	monē´bar, I was being advised	-r
	amābā´ris or amābā´re, you were being loved	monēbā´ris or monēbā´re, you were being advised	-ris or -re
	amābā´tur, he was being loved	monēbā´tur, he was being advised	-tur
Plur.	amābā´mur, we were being loved	monēbā´mur, we were being advised	-mur
	amābā´minī, you were being loved	monēbā´minī, you were being advised	-minī
	amāban´tur, they were being loved	monēban´tur, they were being advised	-ntur
	Future (Tense Sign -bi-)
Sing.	amā´bor, I shall be loved	monē´bor, I shall be advised	-r
	amā´beris or amā´bere, you will be loved	monē´beris or monē´bere, you will be advised	-ris or -re
	amā´bitur, he will be loved	monē´bitur, he will be advised	-tur
Plur.	amā´bimur, we shall be loved	monē´bimur, we shall be advised	-mur
	amābi´minī, you will be loved	monēbi´minī, you will be advised	-minī
	amābun´tur, they will be loved	monēbun´tur, they will be advised	-ntur

1. The tense sign and the personal endings are added as in the active.

2. In the future the tense sign -bi- appears as -bo- in the first person, -be- in the second, singular number, and as -bu- in the third person plural.

3. Inflect laudō, necō, portō, moveō, dēleō, iubeō, in the present, imperfect, and future indicative, active and passive.

166. Intransitive verbs, such as mātūrō, I hasten; habitō, I dwell, do not have a passive voice with a personal subject.

167. EXERCISES

I. 1. Laudāris or laudāre, laudās, datur, dat. 2. Dabitur, dabit, vidēminī, vidētis. 3. Vocābat, vocābātur, dēlēbitis, dēlēbiminī. 4. Parābātur, parābat, cūrās, cūrāris or cūrāre. 5. Portābantur, portābant, vidēbimur, vidēbimus. 6. Iubēris or iubēre, iubēs, laudābāris or laudābāre, laudābās. 7. Movēberis or movēbere, movēbis, dabantur, dabant. 8. Dēlentur, dēlent, parābāmur, parābāmus.

II. 1. We prepare, we are prepared, I shall be called, I shall call, you were carrying, you were being carried. 2. I see, I am seen, it was being announced, he was announcing, they will order, they will be ordered. 3. You will be killed, you will kill, you move, you are moved, we are praising, we are being praised. 4. I am called, I call, you will have, you are cared for. 5. They are seen, they see, we were teaching, we were being taught, they will move, they will be moved.

PERSEUS ANDROMEDAM SERVAT

168. Per´seus and Androm´eda

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Perseus fīlius erat Iovis,2 maximī3 deōrum. Dē eō multās fabulās nārrant poētae. Eī favent deī, eī magica arma et ālās dant. Eīs tēlīs armātus et ālīs frētus ad multās terrās volābat et mōnstra saeva dēlēbat et miserīs īnfīrmīsque auxilium dabat. Aethiopia est terra Āfricae. Eam terram Cēpheus5 regēbat. Eī6 Neptūnus, maximus aquārum deus, erat īrātus et mittit7 mōnstrum saevum ad Aethiopiam. Ibi mōnstrum nōn sōlum lātīs pulchrīsque Aethiopiae agrīs nocēbat sed etiam domicilia agricolārum dēlēbat, et multōs virōs, fēminās, līberōsque necābat. Populus ex agrīs fugiēbat et oppida mūrīs validīs mūniēbat. Tum Cēpheus magnā trīstitiā commōtus ad Iovis ōrāculum properat et ita dīcit: “Amīcī meī necantur; agrī meī vāstantur. Audī verba mea, Iuppiter. Dā miserīs auxilium. Age mōnstrum saevum ex patriā.”

LESSON XXVIII

PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF REGŌ AND AUDIŌ

169. Review the present, imperfect, and future indicative active of regō and audiō, and learn the passive of the same tenses (§§ 490, 491).

a. Observe that the tense signs of the imperfect and future are the same as in the active voice, and that the passive personal endings (§ 164) are added instead of the active ones.

b. Note the slight irregularity in the second person singular present of the third conjugation. There the final -e- of the stem is not changed to -i-, as it is in the active. We therefore have re´geris or re´gere, not re´giris, re´gire.

c. Inflect agō, dīcō, dūcō, mūniō, reperiō, in the present, imperfect, and future indicative, active and passive.

170. EXERCISES

I. 1. Agēbat, agēbātur, mittēbat, mittēbātur, dūcēbat. 2. Agunt, aguntur, mittuntur, mittunt, mūniunt. 3. Mittor, mittar, mittam, dūcēre, dūcere. 4. Dīcēmur, dīcimus, dīcēmus, dīcimur, mūniēbaminī. 5. Dūcitur, dūciminī, reperīmur, reperiar, agitur. 6. Agēbāmus, agēbāmur, reperīris, reperiēminī. 7. Mūnīminī, veniēbam, dūcēbar, dīcētur. 8. Mittiminī, mittitis, mittēris, mitteris, agēbāminī. 9. Dīcitur, dīcit, mūniuntur, reperient, audientur.

II. 1. I was being driven, I was driving, we were leading, we were being led, he says, it is said. 2. I shall send, I shall be sent, you will find, you will be found, they lead, they are led. 3. I am found, we are led, they are driven, you were being led (sing. and plur.). 4. We shall drive, we shall be driven, he leads, he is being led, they will come, they will be fortified. 5. They were ruling, they were being ruled, you will send, you will be sent, you are sent, (sing. and plur.). 6. He was being led, he will come, you are said (sing. and plur.).

171. Perseus and Andromeda (Continued)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Tum ōrāculum ita respondet: “Mala est fortūna tua. Neptūnus, magnus aquārum deus, terrae Aethiopiae inimīcus, eās poenās mittit. Sed parā īrātō deō sacrum idōneum et mōnstrum saevum ex patriā tuā agētur. Andromeda fīlia tua est mōnstrō grāta. Dā eam mōnstrō. Servā cāram patriam et vītam populī tuī.” Andromeda autem erat puella pulchra. Eam amābat Cēpheus maximē.

LESSON XXIX

PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF -IŌ VERBS · PRESENT PASSIVE INFINITIVE AND IMPERATIVE

172. Review the active voice of capiō, present, imperfect, and future, and learn the passive of the same tenses (§ 492).

a. The present forms capior and capiuntur are like audior, audiuntur, and the rest of the tense is like regor.

b. In like manner inflect the passive of iaciō and rapiō.

173. The Infinitive. The infinitive mood gives the general meaning of the verb without person or number; as, amāre, to love. Infinitive means unlimited. The forms of the other moods, being limited by person and number, are called the finite, or limited, verb forms.

174. The forms of the Present Infinitive, active and passive, are as follows:

Conj.	Pres. Stem	Pres. Infinitive Active	Pres. Infinitive Passive
I.	amā-	amā´re, to love	amā´rī, to be loved
II.	monē-	monē´re, to advise	monē´rī, to be advised
III.	rege-	re´gere, to rule	re´gī, to be ruled
	cape-	ca´pere, to take	ca´pī, to be taken
IV.	audī-	audī´re, to hear	audīrī, to be heard

1. Observe that to form the present active infinitive we add -re to the present stem.

a. The present infinitive of sum is esse. There is no passive.

2. Observe that the present passive infinitive is formed from the active by changing final -e to -ī, except in the third conjugation, which changes final -ere to -ī.

3. Give the active and passive present infinitives of doceō, sedeō, volō, cūrō, mittō, dūcō, mūniō, reperiō, iaciō, rapiō.

175. The forms of the Present Imperative, active and passive, are as follows:

	Active1		Passive
CONJ.	SING.	PLUR.	SING.	PLUR.
I.	a´mā	amā´te	amā´re, be thou loved	amā´minī, be ye loved
II.	mo´nē	monē´te	monē´re, be thou advised	monē´minī, be ye advised
III.	re´ge	re´gite	re´gere, be thou ruled	regi´minī, be ye ruled
	ca´pe	ca´pite	ca´pere, be thou taken	capi´minī, be ye taken
IV.	au´dī	audī´te	audī´re, be thou heard	audī´minī, be ye heard

1. Observe that the second person singular of the present passive imperative is like the present active infinitive, and that both singular and plural are like the second person singular2 and plural, respectively, of the present passive indicative.

2. Give the present imperative, both active and passive, of the verbs in § 174. 3.

176. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289.

I. 1. Tum Perseus ālīs ad terrās multās volabit. 2. Mōnstrum saevum per aquās properat et mox agrōs nostrōs vāstābit. 3. Sī autem Cēpheus ad ōrāculum properābit, ōrāculum ita respondēbit. 4. Quis tēlīs Perseī superābitur? Multa mōnstra tēlīs eius superābuntur. 5. Cum cūrīs magnīs et lacrimīs multīs agricolae ex domiciliīs cārīs aguntur. 6. Multa loca vāstābantur et multa oppida dēlēbantur. 7. Mōnstrum est validum, tamen superābitur. 8. Crēdēsne semper verbīs ōrāculī? Ego iīs non semper crēdam. 9. Pārēbitne Cēpheus ōrāculō? Verba ōrāculī eī persuādēbunt. 10. Si nōn fugiēmus, oppidum capiētur et oppidānī necābuntur. 11. Vocāte puerōs et nārrāte fābulam clāram dē mōnstrō saevō.

II. 1. Fly thou, to be cared for, be ye sent, lead thou. 2. To lead, to be led, be ye seized, fortify thou. 3. To be hurled, to fly, send thou, to be found. 4. To be sent, be ye led, to hurl, to be taken. 5. Find thou, hear ye, be ye ruled, to be fortified.

LESSON XXX

SYNOPSES IN THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS · THE ABLATIVE DENOTING FROM

177. You should learn to give rapidly synopses of the verbs you have had, as follows:1

	Conjugation I		Conjugation II
	Indicative
	ACTIVE	PASSIVE	ACTIVE	PASSIVE
Pres.	a´mō	a´mor	mo´neō	mo´neor
Imperf.	amā´bam	amā´bar	monē´bam	monē´bar
Fut.	amā´bo	amā´bor	monē´bo	monē´bor
	Imperative
Pres.	a´mā	amā´re	mo´nē	monē´re
	Infinitive
Pres.	amā´re	amā´rī	monē´re	monē´rī
	Conjugation III		Conjugation III (-iō verbs)
	Indicative
	ACTIVE	PASSIVE	ACTIVE	PASSIVE
Pres.	re´gō	re´gor	ca´piō	ca´pior
Imperf.	regē´bam	regē´bar	capiē´bam	capiē´bar
Fut.	re´gam	re´gar	ca´piam	ca´piar
	Imperative
Pres.	re´ge	re´gere	ca´pe	ca´pere
	Infinitive
Pres.	re´gere	re´gī	ca´pere	ca´pī

	Conjugation IV
	Indicative
	ACTIVE	PASSIVE
Pres.	au´diō	au´dior
Imperf.	audiē´bam	audiē´bar
Fut.	au´diam	au´diar
	Imperative
Pres.	au´dī	audī´re
	Infinitive
Pres.	audī´re	audī´rī

1. Give the synopsis of rapiō, mūniō, reperiō, doceō, videō, dīcō, agō, laudō, portō, and vary the person and number.

178. We learned in § 50 that one of the three relations covered by the ablative case is expressed in English by the preposition from. This is sometimes called the separative ablative, and it has a number of special uses. You have already grown familiar with the first mentioned below.

179. Rule. Ablative of the Place From. The place from which is expressed by the ablative with the prepositions ā or ab, dē, ē or ex.

Agricolae ex agrīs veniunt, the farmers come from the fields

a. ā or ab denotes from near a place; ē or ex, out from it; and dē, down from it. This may be represented graphically as follows:

180. Rule. Ablative of Separation. Words expressing separation or deprivation require an ablative to complete their meaning.

a. If the separation is actual and literal of one material thing from another, the preposition ā or ab, ē or ex, or dē is generally used. If no actual motion takes place of one thing from another, no preposition is necessary.

(a)	Perseus terram ā mōnstrīs līberat Perseus frees the land from monsters (literal separation— actual motion is expressed)
(b)	Perseus terram trīstitiā līberat Perseus frees the land from sorrow (figurative separation— no actual motion is expressed)

181. Rule. Ablative of the Personal Agent. The word expressing the person from whom an action starts, when not the subject, is put in the ablative with the preposition ā or ab.

a. In this construction the English translation of ā, ab is by rather than from. This ablative is regularly used with passive verbs to indicate the person by whom the act was performed.

Mōnstrum ā Perseō necātur, the monster is being slain by (lit. from) Perseus

b. Note that the active form of the above sentence would be Perseus monstrum necat, Perseus is slaying the monster. In the passive the object of the active verb becomes the subject, and the subject of the active verb becomes the ablative of the personal agent, with ā or ab.

c. Distinguish carefully between the ablative of means and the ablative of the personal agent. Both are often translated into English by the preposition by. (Cf. § 100. b.) Means is a thing; the agent or actor is a person. The ablative of means has no preposition. The ablative of the personal agent has ā or ab. Compare

Fera sagittā necātur, the wild beast is killed by an arrow Fera ā Diānā necātur, the wild beast is killed by Diana

Sagittā, in the first sentence, is the ablative of means; ā Diānā, in the second, is the ablative of the personal agent.

182. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289.

I. 1. Viri inopiā cibī dēfessī ab eō locō discēdent. 2. Germānī castrīs Rōmānīs adpropinquābant, tamen lēgātus cōpiās ā proeliō continēbat. 3. Multa Gallōrum oppida ab Rōmanīs capientur. 4. Tum Rōmānī tōtum populum eōrum oppidōrum gladiīs pīlīsque interficient. 5. Oppidānī Rōmānīs resistent, sed defessī longō proelīo fugient. 6. Multī ex Galliā fugiēbant et in Germānōrum vicīs habitābant. 7. Miserī nautae vulnerantur ab inimīcīs2 saevīs et cibō egent. 8. Discēdite et date virīs frūmentum et cōpiam vīnī. 9. Cōpiae nostrae ā proeliō continēbantur ab Sextō lēgatō. 10. Id oppidum ab prōvinciā Rōmānā longē aberat.

II. 1. The weary sailors were approaching a place dear to the goddess Diana. 2. They were without food and without wine. 3. Then Galba and seven other men are sent to the ancient island by Sextus. 4. Already they are not far away from the land, and they see armed men on a high place. 5. They are kept from the land by the men with spears and arrows. 6. The men kept hurling their weapons down from the high place with great eagerness.

LESSON XXXI

PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT OF SUM

183. Principal Parts. There are certain parts of the verb that are of so much consequence in tense formation that we call them the principal parts.

The principal parts of the Latin verb are the present, the past, and the past participle; as go, went, gone; see, saw, seen, etc.

The principal parts of the Latin verb are the first person singular of the present indicative, the present infinitive, the first person singular of the perfect indicative, and the perfect passive participle.

184. Conjugation Stems. From the principal parts we get three conjugation stems, from which are formed the entire conjugation. We have already learned about the present stem, which is found from the present infinitive (cf. § 126. a). The other two stems are the perfect stem and the participial stem.

185. The Perfect Stem. The perfect stem of the verb is formed in various ways, but may always be found by dropping -ī from the first person singular of the perfect, the third of the principal parts. From the perfect stem are formed the following tenses:

The Perfect Active Indicative
The Pluperfect Active Indicative (English Past Perfect)
The Future Perfect Active Indicative

All these tenses express completed action in present, past, or future time respectively.

186. The Endings of the Perfect. The perfect active indicative is inflected by adding the endings of the perfect to the perfect stem. These endings are different from those found in any other tense, and are as follows:

Sing.	1. -ī, I	Plur.	1. -imus, we
	2. -istī, you		2. -istis, you
	3. -it, he, she, it		3. -ērunt or -ēre, they

187. Inflection of sum in the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative:

Pres. Indic.	Pres. Infin.	Perf. Indic.
Prin. Parts sum	esse	fuī

Perfect Stem fu-
Perfect
SINGULAR	PLURAL
fu´ī, I have been, I was	fu´imus, we have been, we were
fuis´tī, you have been, you were	fuis´tis, you have been, you were
fu´it, he has been, he was	fuē´runt or fuē´re, they have been, they were
Pluperfect (Tense Sign -erā-)
fu´eram, I had been	fuerā´mus, we had been
fu´erās, you had been	fuerā´tis, you had been
fu´erat, he had been	fu´erant, they had been
Future Perfect (Tense Sign -erā-)
fu´erō, I shall have been	fue´rimus, we shall have been
fu´eris, you will have been	fue´ritis, you will have been
fu´erit, he will have been	fu´erint, they will have been

1. Note carefully the changing accent in the perfect.

2. Observe that the pluperfect may be formed by adding eram, the imperfect of sum, to the perfect stem. The tense sign is -erā-.

3. Observe that the future perfect may be formed by adding erō, the future of sum, to the perfect stem. But the third person plural ends in -erint, not in -erunt. The tense sign is -eri-.

4. All active perfects, pluperfects, and future perfects are formed on the perfect stem and inflected in the same way.

188. DIALOGUE

The Boys Titus, Marcus, and Quintus

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289.

M. Ubi fuistis, Tite et Quīnte?
T. Ego in meō lūdō fuī et Quīntus in suō lūdō fuit. Bonī puerī fuimus. Fuitne Sextus in vīcō hodiē?
M. Fuit. Nūper per agrōs proximōs fluviō properābat. Ibi is et Cornēlius habent nāvigium.
T. Nāvigium dīcis? Aliī1 nārrā eam fābulam!
M. Vērō (Yes, truly), pulchrum et novum nāvigium!
Q. Cuius pecūniā2 Sextus et Cornēlius id nāvigium parant? Quis iīs pecūniam dat?
M. Amīcī Cornēlī multum habent aurum et puer pecūniā nōn eget.
T. Quō puerī nāvigābunt? Nāvigābuntne longē ā terrā?
M. Dubia sunt cōnsilia eōrum. Sed hodiē, crēdō, sī ventus erit idōneus, ad maximam īnsulam nāvigābunt. Iam anteā ibi fuērunt. Tum autem ventus erat perfidus et puerī magnō in perīculō erant.
Q. Aqua ventō commōta est inimīca nautīs semper, et saepe perfidus ventus nāvigia rapit, agit, dēletque. Iī puerī, sī nōn fuerint maximē attentī, īrātā aquā et validō ventō superābuntur et ita interficientur.

189. EXERCISE

1. Where had the boys been before? They had been in school. 2. Where had Sextus been? He had been in a field next to the river. 3. Who has been with Sextus to-day? Cornelius has been with him. 4. Who says so? Marcus. 5. If the wind has been suitable, the boys have been in the boat. 6. Soon we shall sail with the boys. 7. There3 will be no danger, if we are (shall have been) careful.4

LESSON XXXII

THE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS

190. Meanings of the Perfect. The perfect tense has two distinct meanings. The first of these is equivalent to the English present perfect, or perfect with have, and denotes that the action of the verb is complete at the time of speaking; as, I have finished my work. As this denotes completed action at a definite time, it is called the perfect definite.

The perfect is also used to denote an action that happened sometime in the past; as, I finished my work. As no definite time is specified, this is called the perfect indefinite. It corresponds to the ordinary use of the English past tense.

a. Note carefully the difference between the following tenses:

I	was finishing used to finish	my work (imperfect, § 134)
I finished my work (perfect indefinite)
I have finished my work (perfect definite)

When telling a story the Latin uses the perfect indefinite to mark the different forward steps of the narrative, and the imperfect to describe situations and circumstances that attend these steps. If the following sentences were Latin, what tenses would be used?

“Last week I went to Boston. I was trying to find an old friend of mine, but he was out of the city. Yesterday I returned home.”

191. Inflection of the Perfect. We learned in § 186 that any perfect is inflected by adding the endings of the perfect to the perfect stem. The inflection in the four regular conjugations is then as follows:

Conj. I	Conj. II	Conj. III		Conj. IV
amāvī	monuī	rēxī	cēpī	audīvī
I have loved I loved or did love	I have advised I advised or did advise	I have ruled I ruled or did rule	I have taken I took or did take	I have heard I heard or did hear
Perfect Stems
amāv-	monu-	rēx-	cēp-	audīv-
Singular
1. amā´vī	mo´nuī	rē´xī	cē´pī	audī´vī
2. amāvis´tī	monuis´tī	rēxis´tī	cēpis´tī	audīvis´tī
3. amā´vit	mo´nuit	rē´xit	cē´pit	audī´vit
Plural
1. amā´vimus	monu´imus	rē´ximus	cē´pimus	audī´vimus
2. amāvis´tis	monuis´tis	rēxis´tis	cēpis´tis	audīvis´tis
3. amāvē´runt or amāvē´re	monuē´runt or monuē´re	rēxē´runt or rēxē´re	cēpē´runt or cēpē´re	audīvē´runt or audīvē´re

1. The first person of the perfect is always given as the third of the principal parts. From this we get the perfect stem. This shows the absolute necessity of learning the principal parts thoroughly.

2. Nearly all perfects of the first conjugation are formed by adding -vī to the present stem. Like amāvī inflect parāvī, vocāvī, cūrāvī, laudāvī.

3. Note carefully the changing accent in the perfect. Drill on it.

192. Learn the principal parts and inflect the perfects:

Pres. Indic.	Pres. Infin.	Perf. Indic.
dō	dăre	dedī	give
dēleō	dēlēre	dēlēvī	destroy
habeō	habēre	habuī	have
moveō	movēre	mōvī	move
pāreō	pārēre	pāruī	obey
prohibeō	prohibēre	prohibuī	restrain, keep from
videō	vidēre	vīdī	see
dīcō	dīcere	dīxī	say
discēdō	discēdere	discessī	depart
dūcō	dūcere	dūxī	lead
faciō	facere	fēcī	make, do
mittō	mittere	mīsī	send
mūniō	mūnīre	mūnīvī	fortify
veniō	venīre	vēnī	come

193. Perseus and Andromeda (Continued)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290.

Cēpheus, adversā fortūnā maximē commōtus, discessit et multīs cum lacrimīs populō Aethiopiae verba ōrāculī nārrāvit. Fāta Andromedae, puellae pulchrae, ā tōtō populō dēplōrābantur, tamen nūllum erat auxilium. Deinde Cēpheus cum plēnō trīstitiae animō cāram suam fīliam ex oppidī portā ad aquam dūxit et bracchia eius ad saxa dūra revīnxit. Tum amīcī puellae miserae longē discessērunt et diū mōnstrum saevum exspectāvērunt.

Tum forte Perseus, ālīs frētus, super Aethiopiam volābat. Vīdit populum, Andromedam, lacrimās, et, magnopere attonitus, ad terram dēscendit. Tum Cēpheus eī tōtās cūrās nārrāvit et ita dīxit: “Pārēbō verbīs ōrāculī, et prō patriā fīliam meam dabō; sed sī id mōnstrum interficiēs et Andromedam servābis, tibi (to you) eam dabō.”

LESSON XXXIII

PLUPERFECT AND FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE · PERFECT ACTIVE INFINITIVE

194.

	Conj. I	Conj. II	Conj. III		Conj. IV
	amō	moneō	regō	capiō	audiō
Perfect Stems	amāv-	monu-	rēx-	cēp-	audīv-

Pluperfect Indicative Active
Tense Sign -erā-
SINGULAR
I had loved	I had advised	I had ruled	I had taken	I had heard
1. amā´veram	monu´eram	rē´xeram	cē´peram	audī´veram
2. amā´verās	monu´erās	rē´xerās	cē´perās	audī´verās
3. amā´verat	monu´erat	rē´xerat	cē´perat	audī´verat
PLURAL
1. amāverā´mus	monuerā´mus	rēxerā´mus	cēperā´mus	audīverā´mus
2. amāverā´tis	monuerā´tis	rēxerā´tis	cēperā´tis	audīverā´tis
3. amā´verant	monu´erant	rē´xerant	cē´perant	audī´verant
Future Perfect Indicative Active
Tense Sign -eri-
SINGULAR
I shall have loved	I shall have advised	I shall have ruled	I shall have taken	I shall have heard
1. amā´verō	monu´erō	rē´xerō	cē´perō	audī´verō
2. amā´veris	monu´eris	rē´xeris	cē´peris	audī´veris
3. amā´verit	monu´erit	rē´xerit	cē´perit	audī´verit
PLURAL
1. amāve´rimus	monue´rimus	rēxe´rimus	cēpe´rimus	audīve´rimus
2. amāve´ritis	monue´ritis	rēxe´ritis	cēpe´ritis	audīve´ritis
3. amā´verint	monu´erint	rē´xerint	cē´perint	audī´verint

1. Observe that these are all inflected alike and the rules for formation given in § 187. 2-4 hold good here.

2. In like manner inflect the pluperfect and future perfect indicative active of dō, portō, dēleō, moveō, habeō, dīcō, discēdō, faciō, veniō, mūniō.

195. The Perfect Active Infinitive. The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding -isse to the perfect stem.

Conj.		Perfect Stem	Perfect Infinitive
I.		amāv-	amāvis´se, to have loved
II.		monu-	monuis´se, to have advised
III.	(a)	rēx-	rēxis´se, to have ruled
	(b)	cēp-	cēpis´se, to have taken
IV.		audīv-	audīvis´se, to have heard
sum		fu-	fuis´se, to have been

1. In like manner give the perfect infinitive active of dō, portō, dēleō, moveō, habeō, dīcō, discēdō, faciō, veniō, mūniō.

196. EXERCISES

I. 1. Habuistī, mōvērunt, miserant. 2. Vīdit, dīxeris, dūxisse. 3. Mīsistis, pāruērunt, discesserāmus. 4. Mūnīvit, dederam, mīserō. 5. Habuerimus, dēlēvī, pāruit, fuisse. 6. Dederās, mūnīveritis, vēnerātis, mīsisse. 7. Vēnerās, fēcisse, dederātis, portāveris.

8. Quem verba ōrāculī mōverant? Populum verba ōrāculī mōverant. 9. Cui Cēpheus verba ōrāculī nārrāverit? Perseō Cēpheus verba ōrāculī nārrāverit. 10. Amīcī ab Andromedā discesserint. 11. Mōnstrum saevum domicilia multa dēlēverat. 12. Ubi mōnstrum vīdistis? Id in aquā vīdimus. 13. Quid mōnstrum faciet? Mōnstrum Andromedam interficiet.

II. 1. They have obeyed, we have destroyed, I shall have had. 2. We shall have sent, I had come, they have fortified. 3. I had departed, he has obeyed, you have sent (sing. and plur.). 4. To have destroyed, to have seen, he will have given, they have carried. 5. He had destroyed, he has moved, you have had (sing. and plur.). 6. I have given, you had moved (sing. and plur.), we had said. 7. You will have made (sing. and plur.), they will have led, to have given.

8. Who had seen the monster? Andromeda had seen it. 9. Why had the men departed from1 the towns? They had departed because the monster had come. 10. Did Cepheus obey2 the oracle3? He did.

LESSON XXXIV

REVIEW OF THE ACTIVE VOICE

197. A review of the tenses of the indicative active shows the following formation:

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE	Present = First of the principal parts
	Imperfect = Present stem + -ba-m
	Future = Present stem +	-bō, Conj. I and II -a-m, Conj. III and IV
	Perfect = Third of the principal parts
	Pluperfect = Perfect stem + -era-m
	Future Perfect = Perfect stem + -erō

198. The synopsis of the active voice of amō, as far as we have learned the conjugation, is as follows:

Principal Parts amō, amāre, amāvī

Pres. Stem amā-		Perf. Stem amāv-
Indic.	Pres. amō	Indic.	Perf. amāvī
	Imperf. amābam		Pluperf. amāveram
	Fut. amābō		Fut. perf. amāverō
Pres. Imv. amā
Pres. Infin. amāre		Perf. Infin. amāvisse

1. Learn to write in the same form and to give rapidly the principal parts and synopsis of parō, dō, laudō, dēleō, habeō, moveō, pāreō, videō, dīcō, discēdō, dūcō, mittō, capiō, muniō, veniō.1

199. Learn the following principal parts:2

	Pres. Indic.	Pres. Infin.	Perf. Indic.
Irregular Verbs	sum ab´sum dō	esse abes´se dare	fuī ā´fuī dedī	be be away give
Conjugation II	contineō doceō egeō faveō iubeō noceō persuādeō respondeō sedeō studeō	continēre docēre egēre favēre iubēre nocēre persuādēre respondēre sedēre studēre	continuī docuī eguī fāvī iussī nocuī persuāsī respondī sēdī studuī	hold in, keep teach need favor order injure persuade reply sit be eager
Conjugation III	agō crēdō fugiō iaciō interficiō rapiō resis´tō	agere crēdere fugere iacere interficere rapere resis´tere	ēgī crēdidī fūgī iēcī interfēcī rapuī re´stitī	drive believe flee hurl kill seize resist
Conjugation IV	repe´riō	reperī´re	rep´perī	find

200. Perseus and Andromeda (Concluded)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290. Read the whole story.

Perseus semper proeliō studēbat3 et respondit,3 “Verba tua sunt maximē grāta,” et laetus arma sua magica parāvit.3 Subitō mōnstrum vidētur; celeriter per aquam properat et Andromedae adpropinquat. Eius amīcī longē absunt et misera puella est sōla. Perseus autem sine morā super aquam volāvit.3 Subitō dēscendit3 et dūrō gladiō saevum mōnstrum graviter vulnerāvit.3 Diū pugnātur,4 diū proelium est dubium. Dēnique autem Perseus mōnstrum interfēcit3 et victōriam reportāvit.3 Tum ad saxum vēnit3 et Andromedam līberāvit3 et eam ad Cēpheum dūxit.3 Is, nūper miser, nunc laetus, ita dīxit3: “Tuō auxiliō, mī amīce, cāra fīlia mea est lībera; tua est Andromeda.” Diū Perseus cum Andromedā ibi habitābat3 et magnopere ā tōtō populō amābātur.3

LESSON XXXV

THE PASSIVE PERFECTS OF THE INDICATIVE · THE PERFECT PASSIVE AND FUTURE ACTIVE INFINITIVE

201. The fourth and last of the principal parts (§ 183) is the perfect passive participle. From it we get the participial stem on which are formed the future active infinitive and all the passive perfects.

1. Learn the following principal parts, which are for the first time given in full:

Conj.	Pres. Indic.	Pres. Infin.	Perf. Indic.	Perf. Pass. Part
I.	amō	amā´-re	amā´v-ī	amā´t-us
This is the model for all regular verbs of the first conjugation.
II.	mo´neō	monē´-re	mo´nu-ī	mo´nit-us
III.	regō	re´ge-re	rēx-ī	rēct-us
	ca´piō	ca´pe-re	cēp-ī	capt-us
IV.	au´diō	audī´-re	audī´v-ī	audī´t-us

2. The base of the participial stem is found by dropping -us from the perfect passive participle.

202. In English the perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses of the indicative passive are made up of forms of the auxiliary verb to be and the past participle; as, I have been loved, I had been loved, I shall have been loved.

Very similarly, in Latin, the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect passive tenses use respectively the present, imperfect, and future of sum as an auxiliary verb with the perfect passive participle, as

Perfect passive, amā´tus sum, I have been or was loved Pluperfect passive, amā´tus eram, I had been loved Future perfect passive, amā´tus erō, I shall have been loved

1. In the same way give the synopsis of the corresponding tenses of moneō, regō, capiō, and audiō, and give the English meanings.

203. Nature of the Participle. A participle is partly verb and partly adjective. As a verb it possesses tense and voice. As an adjective it is declined and agrees with the word it modifies in gender, number, and case.

204. The perfect passive participle is declined like bonus, bona, bonum, and in the compound tenses (§ 202) it agrees as a predicate adjective with the subject of the verb.

Examples in Singular	Vir laudātus est, the man was praised, or has been praised Puella laudāta est, the girl was praised, or has been praised Cōnsilium laudātum est, the plan was praised, or has been praised
Examples in Plural	Virī laudātī sunt, the men were praised, or have been praised Puellae laudātae sunt, the girls were praised, or have been praised Cōnsilia laudāta sunt, the plans were praised, or have been praised

1. Inflect the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative passive of amō, moneō, regō, capiō, and audiō (§§ 488-492).

205. The perfect passive infinitive is formed by adding esse, the present infinitive of sum, to the perfect passive participle; as, amā´t-us (-a, -um) esse, to have been loved; mo´nit-us (-a, -um) esse, to have been advised.

1. Form the perfect passive infinitive of regō, capiō, audiō, and give the English meanings.

206. The future active infinitive is formed by adding esse, the present infinitive of sum, to the future active participle. This participle is made by adding -ūrus, -a, -um to the base of the participial stem. Thus the future active infinitive of amō is amat-ū´rus (-a, -um) esse, to be about to love.

a. Note that in forming the three tenses of the active infinitive we use all three conjugation stems:

Present, amāre (present stem), to love Perfect, amāvisse (perfect stem), to have loved Future, amātūrus esse (participial stem), to be about to love

1. Give the three tenses of the active infinitive of laudō, moneō, regō, capiō, audiō, with the English meanings.

207. EXERCISES

I. 1. Fābula Andromedae nārrāta est. 2. Multae fābulae ā magistrō nārrātae sunt. 3. Ager ab agricolā validō arātus erat. 4. Agrī ab agricolīs validīs arātī erant. 5. Aurum ā servō perfidō ad domicilium suum portātum erit. 6. Nostra arma ā lēgātō laudāta sunt. Quis vestra arma laudāvit? 7. Ab ancillā tuā ad cēnam vocātae sumus. 8. Andromeda mōnstrō nōn data est, quia mōnstrum ā Perseō necātum erat.

II. 1. The provinces were laid waste, the field had been laid waste, the towns will have been laid waste. 2. The oracles were heard, the oracle was heard, the oracles had been heard. 3. The oracle will have been heard, the province had been captured, the boats have been captured. 4. The fields were laid waste, the man was advised, the girls will have been advised. 5. The towns had been ruled, we shall have been captured, you will have been heard.

LESSON XXXVI

REVIEW OF PRINCIPAL PARTS · PREPOSITIONS YES-OR-NO QUESTIONS

208. The following list shows the principal parts of all the verbs you have had excepting those used in the paradigms. The parts you have had before are given for review, and the perfect participle is the only new form for you to learn. Sometimes one or more of the principal parts are lacking, which means that the verb has no forms based on that stem. A few verbs lack the perfect passive participle but have the future active participle in -ūrus, which appears in the principal parts instead.

Irregular Verbs
sum absum dō1	esse abesse dare	fuī āfuī dedī	futūrus āfutūrus datus	be be away give

Conjugation I
portō	portāre	portāvī	portātus	carry
So for all verbs of this conjugation thus far used.
Conjugation II
contineō dēleō doceō egeō faveō iubeō moveō noceō pāreō persuādeō prohibeō respondeō sedeō studeō videō	continēre dēlēre docēre egēre favēre iubēre movēre nocēre pārēre persuādēre prohibēre respondēre sedēre studēre vidēre	continuī dēlēvī docuī eguī fāvī iussī mōvī nocuī pāruī persuāsī prohibuī respondī sēdī studuī vīdī	contentus dēlētus doctus —— fautūrus iussus mōtus nocitūrus —— persuāsus prohibitus respōnsus -sessus —— vīsus	hold in, keep destroy teach lack favor order move injure obey persuade (from) restrain, keep reply sit be eager see
Conjugation III
agō crēdō dīcō discēdō dūcō faciō2 fugiō iaciō interficiō mittō rapiō resistō	agere crēdere dīcere discēdere dūcere facere fugere iacere interficere mittere rapere resistere	ēgī crēdidī dīxī discessī dūxī fēcī fūgī iēcī interfēcī mīsī rapuī restitī	āctus crēditus dictus discessus ductus factus fugitūrus iactus interfectus missus raptus ——	drive believe say depart lead make flee hurl kill send seize resist
Conjugation IV
mūniō reperiō veniō	mūnīre reperīre venīre	mūnīvī rep´perī vēnī	mūnītus repertus ventus	fortify find come

209. Prepositions. 1. We learned in §§ 52, 53 that only the accusative and the ablative are used with prepositions, and that prepositions expressing ablative relations govern the ablative case. Those we have had are here summarized. The table following should be learned.

ā or ab, from, by cum, with dē, down from, concerning ē or ex, out from, out of prō, before, in front of; for, in behalf of sine, without

2. Prepositions not expressing ablative relations must govern the accusative (§ 52). Of these we have had the following:

ad, to apud, among per, through

There are many others which you will meet as we proceed.

3. The preposition in when meaning in or on governs the ablative; when meaning to, into, against (relations foreign to the ablative) in governs the accusative.

210. Yes-or-No Questions. Questions not introduced by some interrogative word like who, why, when, etc., but expecting the answer yes or no, may take one of three forms:

1. Is he coming? (Asking for information. Implying nothing as to the answer expected.) 2. Is he not coming? (Expecting the answer yes.) 3. He isn´t coming, is he? (Expecting the answer no.)

These three forms are rendered in Latin as follows:

1. Venitne? is he coming? 2. Nōnne venit? is he not coming? 3. Num venit? he isn´t coming, is he?

a. -ne, the question sign, is usually added to the verb, which then stands first.

b. We learned in § 56. b that yes-or-no questions are usually answered by repeating the verb, with or without a negative. Instead of this, ita, vērō, certē, etc. (so, truly, certainly, etc.) may be used for yes, and nōn, minimē, etc. for no if the denial is emphatic, as, by no means, not at all.

211. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290.

I. 1. Nōnne habēbat Cornēlia ōrnāmenta aurī? Habēbat. 2. Num Sextus lēgātus scūtum in dextrō bracchiō gerēbat? Nōn in dextrō, sed sinistrō in bracchiō Sextus scūtum gerēbat. 3. Frūstrā bella multa ab Gallīs gesta erant. 4. Ubi oppidum ā perfidō Sextō occupātum est, oppidānī miserī gladiō interfectī sunt. 5. Id oppidum erat plēnum frūmentī. 6. Nōnne Sextus ab oppidānīs frūmentum postulāvit? Vērō, sed iī recūsāvērunt frūmentum dare. 7. Cūr oppidum ab Sextō dēlētum est? Quia frūmentum recūsātum est. 8. Ea victōria nōn dubia erat. 9. Oppidānī erant dēfessī et armīs egēbant. 10. Num fugam temptāvērunt? Minimē.

II. 1. Where was Julia standing? She was standing where you had ordered. 2. Was Julia wearing any ornaments? She had many ornaments of gold. 3. Did she not attempt flight when she saw the danger? She did. 4. Who captured her? Galba captured her without delay and held her by the left arm. 5. She didn´t have the lady’s gold, did she? No, the gold had been taken by a faithless maid and has been brought back.

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Fourth Review, Lessons XXVII-XXXVI, §§ 513-516

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LESSON XXXVII

CONJUGATION OF POSSUM · THE INFINITIVE USED AS IN ENGLISH

212. Learn the principal parts of possum, I am able, I can, and its inflection in the indicative and infinitive. (Cf. § 495.)

a. Possum, I can, is a compound of potis, able, and sum, I am.

213. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative. The infinitive (cf. § 173) is a verbal noun. Used as a noun, it has the constructions of a noun. As a verb it can govern a case and be modified by an adverb. The uses of the infinitive are much the same in Latin as in English.

1. In English certain verbs of wishing, commanding, forbidding, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of a substantive in the objective case and an infinitive, as, he commanded the men to flee. Such object clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive.

Similarly in Latin, some verbs of wishing, commanding, forbidding, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of an infinitive with a subject in the accusative case, as, Is virōs fugere iussit, he commanded the men to flee.

214. Rule. Subject of the Infinitive. The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative.

215. The Complementary Infinitive. In English a verb is often followed by an infinitive to complete its meaning, as, the Romans are able to conquer the Gauls. This is called the complementary infinitive, as the predicate is not complete without the added infinitive.

Similarly in Latin, verbs of incomplete predication are completed by the infinitive. Among such verbs are possum, I am able, I can; properō, mātūrō, I hasten; temptō, I attempt; as

Rōmānī Gallōs superāre possunt, the Romans are able to (or can) conquer the Gauls Bellum gerere mātūrant, they hasten to wage war

a. A predicate adjective completing a complementary infinitive agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject of the main verb.

Malī puerī esse bonī nōn possunt, bad boys are not able to (or cannot) be good.

Observe that bonī agrees with puerī.

216. The Infinitive used as a Noun. In English the infinitive is often used as a pure noun, as the subject of a sentence, or as a predicate nominative. For example, To conquer (= conquering) is pleasing; To see (= seeing) is to believe (= believing). The same use of the infinitive is found in Latin, especially with est, as

Superāre est grātum, to conquer is pleasing Vidēre est crēdere, to see is to believe

a. In the construction above, the infinitive often has a subject, which must then be in the accusative case, as

Galbam superāre inimīcōs est grātum multīs,
for Galba to conquer his enemies is pleasing to many

b. An infinitive used as a noun is neuter singular. Thus, in the sentence superāre est grātum, the predicate adjective grātum is in the neuter nominative singular to agree with superāre the subject.

217. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291.

I. 1. Magister lūdī līberōs cum dīligentiā labōrāre iussit. 2. Egēre cibō et vinō est virīs molestum. 3. Virī armātī vetuērunt Gallōs castra ibi pōnere. 4. Estne lēgātus in castellō an in mūrō? Is est prō portā. 5. Ubi nostrī1 fugere incēpērunt, lēgātus ab vestrīs1 captus est. 6. Gallī castellum ibi oppugnāverant ubi praesidium erat īnfīrmum. 7. Aliī pugnāre temptābant, aliī portās petēbant. 8. Fēminae prō domiciliīs sedēbant neque resistere validīs Gallīs poterant. 9. Bellum est saevum, nec īnfīrmīs nec miserīs favet. 10. Sed virī arma postulābant et studēbant Gallōs dē mūrīs agere. 11. Id castellum ab Gallīs occupārī Rōmānīs nōn grātum erit. 12. Gallī ubi ā Rōmānīs victī sunt, esse līberī2 cessāvērunt. 13. Diū sine aquā vīvere nōn potestis.

II. 1. The girl began daily to carry water from the river to the gates. 2. The Gauls had pitched their camp in a place suitable for a battle. 3. For a long time they tried in vain to seize the redoubt. 4. Neither did they cease to hurl weapons against3 the walls. 5. But they were not able to (could not) take the town.

218. The Faithless Tarpe´ia

Sabīnī ōlim cum Rōmānīs bellum gerēbant et multās victōriās reportāverant. Iam agrōs proximōs mūrīs vāstābant, iam oppidō adpropinquābant. Rōmānī autem in Capitōlium fūgerant et longē perīculō aberant. Mūrīs validīs et saxīs altīs crēdēbant. Frūstrā Sabīnī tēla iaciēbant, frūstrā portās dūrās petēbant; castellum occupāre nōn poterant. Deinde novum cōnsilium cēpērunt.4

Tarpēia erat puella Rōmāna pulchra et superba. Cotīdiē aquam cōpiīs Rōmānīs in Capitōlium portābat. Eī5 nōn nocēbant Sabīnī, quod ea sine armīs erat neque Sabīnī bellum cum fēminīs līberīsque gerēbant. Tarpēia autem maximē amābat ōrnāmenta aurī. Cotīdiē Sabīnōrum ōrnāmenta vidēbat et mox ea dēsīderāre incipiēbat. Eī ūnus ex6 Sabīnīs dīxit, “Dūc cōpiās Sabīnās intrā portās, Tarpēia, et maxima erunt praemia tua.”

TARPEIA PUELLA PERFIDA

LESSON XXXVIII

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN

219. Sentences are simple, compound, or complex.

a. A simple sentence is a sentence containing but one statement, that is, one subject and one predicate: The Romans approached the town.

b. A compound sentence is a sentence containing two or more independent statements: The Romans approached the town | and | the enemy fled.

Note. An independent statement is one that can stand alone; it does not depend upon another statement.

c. A complex sentence is a sentence containing one independent statement and one or more dependent statements: When the Romans approached the town | the enemy fled.

Note. A dependent or subordinate statement is one that depends on or qualifies another statement; thus the enemy fled is independent, and when the Romans approached the town is dependent or subordinate.

d. The separate statements in a compound or complex sentence are called clauses. In a complex sentence the independent statement is called the main clause and the dependent statement the subordinate clause.

220. Examine the complex sentence

The Romans killed the men who were taken

Here are two clauses:

a. The main clause, The Romans killed the men

b. The subordinate clause, who were taken

The word who is a pronoun, for it takes the place of the noun men. It also connects the subordinate clause who were taken with the noun men. Hence the clause is an adjective clause. A pronoun that connects an adjective clause with a substantive is called a relative pronoun, and the substantive for which the relative pronoun stands is called its antecedent. The relative pronouns in English are who, whose, whom, which, what, that.

221. The relative pronoun in Latin is quī, quae, quod, and it is declined as follows:

	Singular			Plural
	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	quī	quae	quod	quī	quae	quae
Gen.	cuius	cuius	cuius	quōrum	quārum	quōrum
Dat.	cui	cui	cui	quibus	quibus	quibus
Acc.	quem	quam	quod	quōs	quās	quae
Abl.	quō	quā	quō	quibus	quibus	quibus

1. Review the declension of is, § 114, and note the similarity in the endings. The forms quī, quae, and quibus are the only forms showing new endings.

Note. The genitive cuius and the dative cui are pronounced co͝oi´yo͝os (two syllables) and co͝oi (one syllable).

222. The Relative Pronoun is translated as follows:1

	Masc. and Fem.	Neut.
Nom.	who, that	which, what, that
Gen.	of whom, whose	of which, of what, whose
Dat.	to or for whom	to or for which, to or for what
Acc.	whom, that	which, what, that
Abl.	from, etc., whom	from, etc., which or what

a. We see from the table above that quī, when it refers to a person, is translated by some form of who or by that; and that when it refers to anything else it is translated by which, what, or that.

223. Note the following sentences:

The Romans killed the men who were taken The Romans killed the woman who was taken Rōmānī interfēcērunt virōs quī captī sunt Rōmānī interfēcērunt fēminam quae capta est

In the first sentence who (quī) refers to the antecedent men (virōs), and is masculine plural. In the second, who (quae) refers to woman (fēminam), and feminine singular. From this we learn that the relative must agree with its antecedent in gender and number. In neither of the sentences are the antecedents and relatives in the same case. Virōs and fēminam are accusatives, and quī and quae are nominatives, being the subjects of the subordinate clauses. Hence

224. Rule. Agreement of the Relative. A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and number; but its case is determined by the way it is used in its own clause.

225. Interrogative Pronouns. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that asks a question. In English the interrogatives are who? which? what? In Latin they are quis? quid? (pronoun) and quī? quae? quod? (adjective).

226. Examine the sentences

a. Who is the man? Quis est vir? b. What man is leading them? Quī vir eōs dūcit?

In a, who is an interrogative pronoun. In b, what is an interrogative adjective. Observe that in Latin quis, quid is the pronoun and quī, quae, quod is the adjective.

227. 1. The interrogative adjective quī, quae, quod is declined just like the relative pronoun. (See § 221.)

2. The interrogative pronoun quis, quid is declined like quī, quae, quod in the plural. In the singular it is declined as follows:

	Masc. and Fem.	Neut.
Nom.	quis, who?	quid, what? which?
Gen.	cuius, whose?	cuius, whose?
Dat.	cui, to or for whom?	cui, to or for what or which?
Acc.	quem, whom?	quid, what? which?
Abl.	quō, from, etc., whom?	quō, from, etc., which or what?

Note. Observe that the masculine and feminine are alike and that all the forms are like the corresponding forms of the relative, excepting quis and quid.

228. EXERCISES

I. 1. Quis est aeger? Servus quem amō est aeger. 2. Cuius scūtum habēs? Scūtum habeō quod lēgātus ad castellum mīsit. 3. Cui lēgātus suum scūtum dabit? Fīliō meō scūtum dabit. 4. Ubi Germānī antīquī vīvēbant? In terrā quae est proxima Rhēnō Germānī vīvēbant. 5. Quibuscum2 Germānī bellum gerēbant? Cum Rōmānīs, qui eōs superāre studēbant, Germānī bellum gerēbant. 6. Quī virī castra pōnunt? Iī sunt virī quōrum armīs Germānī victī sunt. 7. Quibus tēlīs cōpiae nostrae eguērunt? Gladiīs et telīs nostrae cōpiae eguērunt. 8. Ā quibus porta sinistra tenēbātur? Ā sociīs porta sinistra tenēbātur. 9. Quae prōvinciae ā Rōmānīs occupātae sunt? Multae prōvinciae ā Rōmānīs occupātae sunt. 10. Quibus virīs deī favēbunt? Bonīs virīs deī favēbunt.

GERMANI ANTIQUI

II. 1. What victory will you announce? 2. I will announce to the people the victory which the sailors have won. 3. The men who were pitching camp were eager for battle. 4. Nevertheless they were soon conquered by the troops which Sextus had sent. 5. They could not resist our forces, but fled from that place without delay.

229. The Faithless Tarpeia (Concluded)3

Tarpēia, commōta ōrnamentīs Sabīnōrum pulchrīs, diū resistere nōn potuit et respondit: “Date mihi4 ōrnāmenta quae in sinistrīs bracchīs geritis, et celeriter cōpiās vestrās in Capitōlium dūcam.” Nec Sabīnī recūsāvērunt, sed per dūrās magnāsque castellī portās properāvērunt quō5 Tarpēia dūxit et mox intrā validōs et altōs mūrōs stābant. Tum sine morā in6 Tarpēiam scūta graviter iēcērunt; nam scūta quoque in sinistrīs bracchiīs gerēbant. Ita perfida puella Tarpēia interfecta est; ita Sabīnī Capitōlium occupāvērunt.

LESSON XXXIX

THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS

230. Bases and Stems. In learning the first and second declensions we saw that the different cases were formed by adding the case terminations to the part of the word that did not change, which we called the base. If to the base we add -ā in the first declension, and -o in the second, we get what is called the stem. Thus porta has the base port- and the stem portā-; servus has the base serv- and the stem servo-.

These stem vowels, -ā- and -o-, play so important a part in the formation of the case terminations that these declensions are named from them respectively the Ā- and O-Declensions.

231. Nouns of the Third Declension. The third declension is called the Consonant or I-Declension, and its nouns are classified according to the way the stem ends. If the last letter of the stem is a consonant, the word is said to have a consonant stem; if the stem ends in -i-, the word is said to have an i-stem. In consonant stems the stem is the same as the base. In i-stems the stem is formed by adding -i- to the base. The presence of the i makes a difference in certain of the cases, so the distinction is a very important one.

232. Consonant stems are divided into two classes:

I. Stems that add -s to the base to form the nominative singular.

II. Stems that add no termination in the nominative singular.

CLASS I

233. Stems that add -s to the base in the nominative singular are either masculine or feminine and are declined as follows:

	prīnceps, m., chief	mīles, m., soldier	lapis, m., stone
Bases or Stems	prīncip-	mīlit-	lapid-
	Singular			TERMINATIONS M. AND F.
Nom.	prīnceps	mīles	lapis	-s
Gen.	prīn´cipis	mīlitis	lapidis	-is
Dat.	prīn´cipī	mīlitī	lapidī	-ī
Acc.	prīn´cipem	mīlitem	lapidem	-em
Abl.	prīn´cipe	mīlite	lapide	-e
	Plural
Nom.	prīn´cipēs	mīlitēs	lapidēs	-ēs
Gen.	prīn´cipum	mīlitum	lapidum	-um
Dat.	prīnci´pibus	mīlitibus	lapidibus	-ibus
Acc.	prīn´cipēs	mīlitēs	lapidēs	-ēs
Abl.	prīnci´pibus	mīlitibus	lapidibus	-ibus
	rēx, m., king	iūdex, m., judge	virtūs, f., manliness
Bases or Stems	rēg-	iūdic-	virtūt-
Nom.	rēx	iūdex	virtūs	-s
Gen.	rēgis	iūdicis	virtū´tis	-is
Dat.	rēgī	iūdicī	virtū´tī	-ī
Acc.	rēgem	iūdicem	virtū´tem	-em
Abl.	rēge	iūdice	virtū´te	-e
	Plural
Nom.	rēgēs	iūdicēs	virtū´tēs	-ēs
Gen.	rēgum	iūdicum	virtū´tum	-um
Dat.	rēgibus	iūdicibus	virtū´tibus	-ibus
Acc.	rēgēs	iūdicēs	virtū´tēs	-ēs
Abl.	rēgibus	iūdicibus	virtū´tibus	-ibus

1. The base or stem is found by dropping -is in the genitive singular.

2. Most nouns of two syllables, like prīnceps (prīncip-), mīles (mīlit-), iūdex (iūdic-), have i in the base, but e in the nominative.

a. lapis is an exception to this rule.

3. Observe the consonant changes of the base or stem in the nominative:

a. A final -t or -d is dropped before -s; thus mīles for mīlets, lapis for lapids, virtūs for virtūts.

b. A final -c or -g unites with -s and forms -x; thus iūdec + s = iūdex, rēg + s = rēx.

4. Review § 74 and apply the rules to this declension.

In like manner decline dux, ducis, m., leader; eques, equitis, m., horseman; pedes, peditis, m., foot soldier; pēs, pedis, m.,foot.

234. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291.

I. 1. Neque peditēs neque equitēs occupāre castellum Rōmānum poterant. 2. Summā virtūte mūrōs altōs cotīdiē oppugnābant. 3. Pedes mīlitum lapidibus quī dē mūrō iaciēbantur saepe vulnerābantur. 4. Quod novum cōnsilium dux cēpit? 5. Is perfidam puellam pulchrīs ōrnāmentīs temptāvit. 6. Quid puella fēcit? 7. Puella commōta aurō mīlitēs per portās dūxit. 8. Tamen praemia quae summō studiō petīverat nōn reportāvit. 9. Apud Rōmānōs antīquōs Tarpēia nōn est laudāta.

II. 1. What ship is that which I see? That (illud) ship is the Victory. It is sailing now with a favorable wind and will soon approach Italy. 2. The judges commanded the savages to be seized and to be killed. 3. The chiefs of the savages suddenly began to flee, but were quickly captured by the horsemen. 4. The king led the foot soldiers to the wall from which the townsmen were hurling stones with the greatest zeal.

NAVIGIUM

LESSON XL

THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS (Continued)

CLASS II

235. Consonant stems that add no termination in the nominative are declined in the other cases exactly like those that add -s. They may be masculine, feminine, or neuter.

236. PARADIGMS

	Masculines and Feminines
	cōnsul, m., consul	legiō, f., legion	ōrdō, m., row	pater, m., father
Bases or Stems	cōnsul-	legiōn-	ōrdin-	patr-
	Singular				TERMINATIONS M. AND F.
Nom.	cōnsul	legiō	ōrdō	pater	—
Gen.	cōnsulis	legiōnis	ōrdinis	patris	-is
Dat.	cōnsulī	legiōnī	ōrdinī	patrī	-ī
Acc.	cōnsulem	legiōnem	ōrdinem	patrem	-em
Abl.	cōnsule	legiōne	ōrdine	patre	-e
	Plural
Nom.	cōnsulēs	legiōnēs	ōrdinēs	patrēs	-ēs
Gen.	cōnsulum	legiōnum	ōrdinum	patrum	-um
Dat.	cōnsulibus	legiōnibus	ōrdinibus	patribus	-ibus
Acc.	cōnsulēs	legiōnēs	ōrdinēs	patrēs	-ēs
Abl.	cōnsulibus	legiōnibus	ōrdinibus	patribus	-ibus

1. With the exception of the nominative, the terminations are exactly the same as in Class I, and the base or stem is found in the same way.

2. Masculines and feminines with bases or stems in -in- and -ōn- drop -n- and end in -ō in the nominative, as legiō (base or stem legiōn-), ōrdō (base or stem ōrdin-).

3. Bases or stems in -tr- have -ter in the nominative, as pater (base or stem patr-).

4. Note how the genitive singular gives the clue to the whole declension. Always learn this with the nominative.

237. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291.

I. 1. Audīsne tubās, Mārce? Nōn sōlum tubās audiō sed etiam ōrdinēs militum et carrōs impedīmentōrum plēnōs vidēre possum. 2. Quās legiōnēs vidēmus? Eae legiōnēs nūper ex Galliā vēnērunt. 3. Quid ibi fēcērunt? Studēbantne pugnāre an sine virtūte erant? 4. Multa proelia fēcērunt1 et magnās victōriās et multōs captīvōs reportāvērunt. 5. Quis est imperātor eārum legiōnum? Caesar, summus Rōmānōrum imperātor. 6. Quis est eques quī pulchram corōnam gerit? Is eques est frāter meus. Eī corōna ā cōnsule data est quia summā virtūte pugnāverat et ā barbarīs patriam servāverat.

II. 1. Who has seen my father to-day? 2. I saw him just now (nūper). He was hastening to your dwelling with your mother and sister. 3. When men are far from the fatherland and lack food, they cannot be restrained2 from wrong3. 4. The safety of the soldiers is dear to Cæsar, the general. 5. The chiefs were eager to storm a town full of grain which was held by the consul. 6. The king forbade the baggage of the captives to be destroyed.

LESSON XLI

THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS (Concluded)

238. Neuter consonant stems add no termination in the nominative and are declined as follows:

	flūmen, n., river	tempus, n., time	opus, n., work	caput, n., head
Bases or Stems	flūmin-	tempor-	oper-	capit-
	Singular				TERMINATIONS
Nom.	flūmen	tempus	opus	caput	—
Gen.	flūminis	temporis	operis	capitis -is	-is
Dat.	flūminī	temporī	operī	capitī	-ī
Acc.	flūmen	tempus	opus	caput	—
Abl.	flūmine	tempore	opere	capite	-e
	Plural
Nom.	flūmina	tempora	opera	capita	-a
Gen.	flūminum	temporum	operum	capitum	-um
Dat.	flūminibus	temporibus	operibus	capitibus	-ibus
Acc.	flūmina	tempora	opera	capita	-a
Abl.	flūminibus	temporibus	operibus	capitibus	-ibus

1. Review § 74 and apply the rules to this declension.

2. Bases or stems in -in- have -e- instead of -i- in the nominative, as flūmen, base or stem flūmin-.

3. Most bases or stems in -er- and -or- have -us in the nominative, as opus, base or stem oper-; tempus, base or stem tempor-.

239. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292.

I. 1. Barbarī ubi Rōmam cēpērunt, maxima rēgum opera dēlēvērunt. 2. Rōmānī multās calamitātēs ā barbarīs accēpērunt. 3. Ubi erat summus terror apud oppidānōs, animī dubiī eōrum ab ōrātōre clarō cōnfīrmāti sunt. 4. Rōma est in rīpīs fiūminis magnī. 5. Ubi Caesar imperātor mīlitēs suōs arma capere iussit, iī ā proeliō continērī nōn potuērunt. 6. Ubi proelium factum est, imperātor reperīrī nōn potuit. 7. Imperātor sagittā in capite vulnerātus erat et stāre nōn poterat. 8. Eum magnō labōre pedes ex proeliō portāvit. 9. Is bracchiīs suīs imperātōrem tenuit et eum ex perīculīs summīs servāvit. 10. Virtūte suā bonus mīles ab imperātōre corōnam accēpit.

II. 1. The consul placed a crown on the head of the victor. 2. Before the gates he was received by the townsmen. 3. A famous orator praised him and said, “By your labors you have saved the fatherland from disaster.” 4. The words of the orator were pleasing to the victor. 5. To save the fatherland was a great task.

CORONA

LESSON XLII

REVIEW LESSON

240. Review the paradigms in §§ 233, 236, 238; and decline all nouns of the third declension in this selection.

Terror Cimbricus1

Ōlim Cimbrī et Teutonēs, populī Germāniae, cum fēminīs līberīsque Italiae adpropinquāverant et cōpiās Rōmānās maximō proeliō vīcerant. Ubi fuga legiōnum nūntiāta est, summus erat terror tōtīus Rōmae, et Rōmānī, graviter commōtī, sacra crēbra deīs faciēbant et salūtem petēbant.

Tum Mānlius ōrātor animōs populī ita cōnfīrmāvit:—“Magnam calamitātem accēpimus. Oppida nostra ā Cimbrīs Teutonibusque capiuntur, agricolae interficiuntur, agrī vāstantur, cōpiae barbarōrum Rōmae adpropinquant. Itaque, nisi novīs animīs proelium novum faciēmus et Germānōs ex patriā nostrā sine morā agēmus, erit nūlla salūs fēminīs nostrīs līberīsque. Servāte līberōs! Servāte patriam! Anteā superātī sumus quia imperātōrēs nostrī fuērunt īnfīrmī. Nunc Marius, clārus imperātor, quī iam multās aliās victōriās reportāvit, legiōnēs dūcet et animōs nostrōs terrōre Cimbricō līberāre mātūrābit.”

Marius tum in Āfricā bellum gerēbat. Sine morā ex Āfricā in Italiam vocātus est. Cōpiās novās nōn sōlum tōtī Italiae sed etiam prōvinciīs sociōrum imperāvit.2 Disciplīnā autem dūrā labōribusque perpetuīs mīlitēs exercuit. Tum cum peditibus equitibusque, quī iam proeliō studēbant, ad Germānōrum castra celeriter properāvit. Diū et ācriter pugnātum est.3 Dēnique barbarī fūgērunt et multī in fugā ab equitibus sunt interfectī. Marius pater patriae vocātus est.

LESSON XLIII

THE THIRD DECLENSION · I-STEMS

241. To decline a noun of the third declension correctly we must know whether or not it is an i-stem. Nouns with i-stems are

1. Masculines and feminines:

a. Nouns in -ēs and -īs with the same number of syllables in the genitive as in the nominative. Thus caedēs, caedis, is an i-stem, but mīles, mīlitis, is a consonant stem.

b. Nouns in -ns and -rs.

c. Nouns of one syllable in -s or -x preceded by a consonant.

2. Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar.

242. The declension of i-stems is nearly the same as that of consonant stems. Note the following differences:

a. Masculines and feminities have -ium in the genitive plural and -īs or -ēs in the accusative plural.

b. Neuters have -ī in the ablative singular, and an -i- in every form of the plural.

243. Masculine and Feminine I-Stems. Masculine and feminine i-stems are declined as follows:

	caedēs, f., slaughter	hostis, m., enemy	urbs, f., city	cliēns, m., retainer
Stems	caedi-	hosti-	urbi-	clienti-
Bases	caed-	host-	urb-	client-
	Singular				TERMINATIONS M. AND F.
Nom.	caedēs	hostis	urbs	cliēns1	-s, -is, or -ēs
Gen.	caedis	hostis	urbis	clientis	-is
Dat.	caedī	hostī	urbī	clientī	-ī
Acc.	caedem	hostem	urbem	clientem	-em (-im)
Abl.	caede	hoste	urbe	cliente	-e (-ī)
	Plural
Nom.	caedēs	hostēs	urbēs	clientēs	-ēs
Gen.	caedium	hostium	urbium	clientium	-ium
Dat.	caedibus	hostibus	urbibus	clientibus	-ibus
Acc.	caedīs, -ēs	hostīs, -ēs	urbīs, -ēs	clientīs, -ēs	-īs, -ēs
Abl.	caedibus	hostibus	urbibus	clientibus	-ibus

1. avis, cīvis, fīnis, ignis, nāvis have the ablative singular in -ī or -e.

2. turris has accusative turrim and ablative turrī or turre.

244. Neuter I-Stems. Neuter i-stems are declined as follows:

	īnsigne, n., decoration	animal, n., animal	calcar, n., spur
Stems	īnsigni-	animāli-	calcāri-
Bases	īnsign-	animāl-	calcār-
	Singular			TERMINATIONS
Nom.	īnsigne	animal	calcar	-e or—
Gen.	īnsignis	animālis	calcāris	-is
Dat.	īnsignī	animālī	calcārī	-ī
Acc.	īnsigne	animal	calcar	-e or—
Abl.	īnsignī	animālī	calcārī	-ī
	Plural
Nom.	īnsignia	animālia	calcāria	-ia
Gen.	īnsignium	animālium	calcārium	-ium
Dat.	īnsignibus	animālibus	calcāribus	-ibus
Acc.	īnsignia	animālia	calcāria	-ia
Abl.	īnsignibus	animālibus	calcāribus	-ibus

1. Review § 74 and see how it applies to this declension.

2. The final -i- of the stem is usually dropped in the nominative. If not dropped, it is changed to -e.

3. A long vowel is shortened before final -l or -r. (Cf. § 12. 2.)

245. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292.

I. 1. Quam urbem vidēmus? Urbs quam vidētis est Rōma. 2. Cīvēs Rōmānī urbem suam turribus altīs et mūrīs longīs mūnīverant. 3. Ventī nāvīs longās prohibēbant fīnibus hostium adpropinquāre. 4. Imperātor a clientibus suīs calcāria aurī et alia īnsignia accēpit. 5. Mīlitēs Rōmānī cum hostibus bella saeva gessērunt et eōs caede magnā superāvērunt. 6. Alia animālia terram, alia mare amant. 7. Nāvēs longae quae auxilium ad imperātōrem portābant ignī ab hostibus dēlētae sunt. 8. In eō marī avis multās vīdimus quae longē ā terrā volāverant. 9. Nōnne vīdistis nāvīs longās hostium et ignīs quibus urbs nostra vāstābātur? Certē, sed nec caedem cīvium nec fugam clientium vīdimus. 10. Avēs et alia animālia, ubi ignem vīdērunt, salūtem fugā petere celeriter incēpērunt. 11. Num. iūdex in peditum ōrdinibus stābat? Minimē, iūdex erat apud equitēs et equus eius īnsigne pulchrum gerēbat.

NAVES LONGAE

II. 1. Because of the lack of grain the animals of the village were not able to live. 2. When the general2 heard the rumor, he quickly sent a horseman to the village. 3. The horseman had a beautiful horse and wore spurs of gold. 4. He said to the citizens, “Send your retainers with horses and wagons to our camp, and you will receive an abundance of grain.” 5. With happy hearts they hastened to obey his words.3

LESSON XLIV

IRREGULAR NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION · GENDER IN THE THIRD DECLENSION

246. PARADIGMS

	vīs, f., force	iter, n., march
Stems	vī- and vīri-	iter- and itiner-
Bases	v- and vīr-	iter- and itiner-
Singular
Nom.	vīs	iter
Gen.	vīs (rare)	itineris
Dat.	vī (rare)	itinerī
Acc.	vim	iter
Abl.	vī	itinere
Plural
Nom.	vīrēs	itinera
Gen.	vīrium	itinerum
Dat.	vīribus	itineribus
Acc.	vīrīs, or -ēs	itinera
Abl.	vīribus	itineribus

247. There are no rules for gender in the third declension that do not present numerous exceptions.1 The following rules, however, are of great service, and should be thoroughly mastered:

1. Masculine are nouns in -or, -ōs, -er, -ĕs (gen. -itis).

a. arbor, tree, is feminine; and iter, march, is neuter.

2. Feminine are nouns in -ō, -is, -x, and in -s preceded by a consonant or by any long vowel but ō.

a. Masculine are collis (hill), lapis, mēnsis (month), ōrdō, pēs, and nouns in -nis and -guis—as ignis, sanguis (blood)—and the four monosyllables

dēns, a tooth mōns, a mountain pōns, a bridge fōns, a fountain

3. Neuters are nouns in -e, -al, -ar, -n, -ur, -ŭs, and caput.

248. Give the gender of the following nouns and the rule by which it is determined:

animal	calamitās	flūmen	lapis	nāvis
avis	caput	ignis	legiō	opus
caedēs	eques	īnsigne	mare	salūs
calcar	fīnis	labor	mīles	urbs

249. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292.

I. The First Bridge over the Rhine. Salūs sociōrum erat semper cāra Rōmānīs. Ōlim Gallī, amīcī Rōmānōrum, multās iniūriās ab Germānīs quī trāns flūmen Rhēnum vivēbant accēperant. Ubi lēgātī ab iīs ad Caesarem imperātōrem Rōmānum vēnērunt et auxilium postulāvērunt, Rōmānī magnīs itineribus ad hostium fīnīs properāvērunt. Mox ad rīpās magnī flūminis vēnērunt. Imperātor studēbat cōpiās suās trāns fluvium dūcere, sed nūllā viā2 poterat. Nūllās nāvīs habēbat. Alta erat aqua. Imperātor autem, vir clārus, numquam adversā fortūnā commōtus, novum cōnsilium cēpit. Iussit suōs3 in4 lātō flūmine facere pontem. Numquam anteā pōns in Rhēnō vīsus erat. Hostēs ubi pontem quem Rōmānī fēcerant vīdērunt, summō terrōre commōtī, sine morā fugam parāre incēpērunt.

II. 1. The enemy had taken (possession of) the top of the mountain. 2. There were many trees on the opposite hills. 3. We pitched our camp near (ad) a beautiful spring. 4. A march through the enemies’ country is never without danger. 5. The time of the month was suitable for the march. 6. The teeth of the monster were long. 7. When the foot soldiers4 saw the blood of the captives, they began to assail the fortifications with the greatest violence.5

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Fifth Review, Lessons XXXVII-XLIV, §§ 517-520

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LESSON XLV

ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION · I-STEMS

250. Adjectives are either of the first and second declensions (like bonus, aeger, or līber), or they are of the third declension.

251. Nearly all adjectives of the third declension have i-stems, and they are declined almost like nouns with i-stems.

252. Adjectives learned thus far have had a different form in the nominative for each gender, as, bonus, m.; bona, f.; bonum, n. Such an adjective is called an adjective of three endings. Adjectives of the third declension are of the following classes:

I.	Adjectives of three endings— a different form in the nominative for each gender.
II.	Adjectives of two endings— masculine and feminine nominative alike, the neuter different.
III.	Adjectives of one ending— masculine, feminine, and neuter nominative all alike.

253. Adjectives of the third declension in -er have three endings; those in -is have two endings; the others have one ending.

CLASS I

254. Adjectives of Three Endings are declined as follows:

	ācer, ācris, ācre, keen, eager
		Stem ācri-		Base ācr-
	Singular			Plural
	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	ācer	ācris	ācre	ācrēs	ācrēs	ācria
Gen.	ācris	ācris	ācris	ācrium	ācrium	ācrium
Dat.	ācrī	ācrī	ācrī	ācribus	ācribus	ācribus
Acc.	ācrem	ācrem	ācre	ācrīs, -ēs	ācrīs, -ēs	ācria
Abl.	ācrī	ācrī	ācrī	ācribus	ācribus	ācribus

CLASS II

255. Adjectives of Two Endings are declined as follows:

	omnis, omne, every, all1
	Stem omni-		Base omn-
	Singular		Plural
	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	omnis	omne	omnēs	omnia
Gen.	omnis	omnis	omnium	omnium
Dat.	omnī	omnī	omnibus	omnibus
Acc.	omnem	omne	omnīs, ēs	omnia
Abl.	omnī	omnī	omnibus	omnibus

CLASS III

256. Adjectives of One Ending are declined as follows:

	pār, equal
	Stem pari-		Base par-
	Singular		Plural
	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	pār	pār	parēs	paria
Gen.	paris	paris	parium	parium
Dat.	parī	parī	paribus	paribus
Acc.	parem	pār	parīs, ēs	paria
Abl.	parī	parī	paribus	paribus

1. All i-stem adjectives have -ī in the ablative singular.

2. Observe that the several cases of adjectives of one ending have the same form for all genders excepting in the accusative singular and in the nominative and accusative plural.

3. Decline vir ācer, legiō ācris, animal ācre, ager omnis, scūtum omne, proelium pār.

257. There are a few adjectives of one ending that have consonant stems. They are declined exactly like nouns with consonant stems.

258. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293.

I. The Romans invade the Enemy’s Country. Ōlim peditēs Rōmānī cum equitibus vēlōcibus in hostium urbem iter faciēbant. Ubi nōn longē āfuērunt, rapuērunt agricolam, quī eīs viam brevem et facilem dēmōnstrāvit. Iam Rōmānī moenia alta, turrīs validās aliaque opera urbis vidēre poterant. In moenibus stābant multī prīncipēs. Prīncipēs ubi vīdērunt Rōmānōs, iussērunt cīvīs lapidēs aliaque tēla dē mūrīs iacere. Tum mīlitēs fortēs continērī ā proeliō nōn poterant et ācer imperātor signum tubā darī iussit. Summā vī omnēs mātūrāvērunt. Imperātor Sextō lēgātō impedīmenta omnia mandāvit. Sextus impedīmenta in summō colle conlocāvit. Grave et ācre erat proelium, sed hostēs nōn parēs Rōmānīs erant. Aliī interfectī, aliī captī sunt. Apud captīvōs erant māter sororque rēgis. Paucī Rōmānōrum ab hostibus vulnerātī sunt. Secundum proelium Rōmānīs erat grātum. Fortūna fortibus semper favet.

II. 1. Some months are short, others are long. 2. To seize the top of the mountain was difficult. 3. Among the hills of Italy are many beautiful springs. 4. The soldiers were sitting where the baggage had been placed because their feet were weary. 5. The city which the soldiers were eager to storm had been fortified by strong walls and high towers. 6. Did not the king intrust a heavy crown of gold and all his money to a faithless slave? Yes, but the slave had never before been faithless.

AQUILA LEGIONIS

LESSON XLVI

THE FOURTH OR U-DECLENSION

259. Nouns of the fourth declension are either masculine or neuter.

260. Masculine nouns end in -us, neuters in -ū. The genitive ends in -ūs.

a. Feminine by exception are domus, house; manus, hand; and a few others.

PARADIGMS

	adventus, m., arrival	cornū, n., horn
Stems	adventu-	cornu-
Bases	advent-	corn-
	Singular		TERMINATIONS
			MASC.	NEUT.
Nom.	adventus	cornū	-us	-ū
Gen.	adventūs	cornūs	-ūs	-ūs
Dat.	adventuī (ū)	cornū	-uī (ū)	-ū
Acc.	adventum	cornū	-um	-ū
Abl.	adventū	cornū	-ū	-ū
	Plural
Nom.	adventūs	cornua	-ūs	-ua
Gen.	adventuum	cornuum	-uum	-uum
Dat.	adventibus	cornibus	-ibus	-ibus
Acc.	adventūs	cornua	-ūs	-ua
Abl.	adventibus	cornibus	-ibus	-ibus

1. Observe that the base is found, as in other declensions, by dropping the ending of the genitive singular.

2. lacus, lake, has the ending -ubus in the dative and ablative plural; portus, harbor, has either -ubus or -ibus.

3. cornū is the only neuter that is in common use.

261. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293.

I. 1. Ante adventum Caesaris vēlōcēs hostium equitēs ācrem impetum in castra fēcērunt. 2. Continēre exercitum ā proeliō nōn facile erat. 3. Post adventum suum Caesar iussit legiōnēs ex castrīs dūcī. 4. Prō castrīs cum hostium equitātū pugnātum est. 5. Post tempus breve equitātus trāns flūmen fūgit ubi castra hostium posita erant. 6. Tum victor imperātor agrōs vāstāvit et vīcōs hostium cremāvit. 7. Castra autem nōn oppugnāvit quia mīlitēs erant dēfessī et locus difficilis. 8. Hostēs nōn cessāvērunt iacere tēla, quae paucīs nocuērunt. 9. Post adversum proelium principēs Gallōrum lēgātōs ad Caesarem mittere studēbant, sed populō persuādēre nōn poterant.

II. 1. Did you see the man-of-war on the lake? 2. I did not see it (fem.) on the lake, but I saw it in the harbor. 3. Because of the strong wind the sailor forbade his brother to sail. 4. Cæsar didn´t make an attack on the cavalry on the right wing, did he? 5. No, he made an attack on the left wing. 6. Who taught your swift horse to obey? 7. I trained my horse with my (own) hands, nor was the task difficult. 8. He is a beautiful animal and has great strength.

LESSON XLVII

EXPRESSIONS OF PLACE · THE DECLENSION OF DOMUS

262. We have become thoroughly familiar with expressions like the following:

Galba ad (or in) oppidum properat Galba ab (dē or ex) oppidō properat Galba in oppidō habitat

From these expressions we may deduce the following rules:

263. Rule. Accusative of the Place to. The place to which is expressed by ad or in with the accusative. This answers the question Whither?

264. Rule. Ablative of the Place from. The place from which is expressed by ā or ab, dē, ē or ex, with the separative ablative. This answers the question Whence? (Cf. Rule, § 179.)

265. Rule. Ablative of the Place at or in. The place at or in which is expressed by the ablative with in. This answers the question Where?

a. The ablative denoting the place where is called the locative ablative (cf. locus, place).

266. Exceptions. Names of towns, small islands,1 domus, home, rūs, country, and a few other words in common use omit the prepositions in expressions of place, as,

Galba Athēnās properat, Galba hastens to Athens Galba Athēnīs properat, Galba hastens from Athens Galba Athēnīs habitat, Galba lives at (or in) Athens Galba domum properat, Galba hastens home Galba rūs properat, Galba hastens to the country Galba domō properat, Galba hastens from home Galba rūre properat, Galba hastens from the country Galba rūrī (less commonly rūre) habitat, Galba lives in the country

a. Names of countries, like Germānia, Italia, etc., do not come under these exceptions. With them prepositions must not be omitted.

267. The Locative Case. We saw above that the place-relation expressed by at or in is regularly covered by the locative ablative. However, Latin originally expressed this relation by a separate form known as the locative case. This case has been everywhere merged in the ablative excepting in the singular number of the first and second declensions. The form of the locative in these declensions is like the genitive singular, and its use is limited to names of towns and small islands, domī, at home, and a few other words.

268. Rule. Locative and Locative Ablative. To express the place in which with names of towns and small islands, if they are singular and of the first or second declension, use the locative; otherwise use the locative ablative without a preposition; as,

Galba Rōmae habitat, Galba lives at Rome Galba Corinthī habitat, Galba lives at Corinth Galba domī habitat, Galba lives at home

Here Rōmae, Corinthī, and domī are locatives, being singular and of the first and second declensions respectively. But in

Galba Athēnīs habitat, Galba lives at Athens, Galba Pompēiīs habitat, Galba lives at Pompeii

Athēnīs and Pompēiīs are locative ablatives. These words can have no locative case, as the nominatives Athēnae and Pompēiī are plural and there is no plural locative case form.

269. The word domus, home, house, has forms of both the second and the fourth declension. Learn its declension (§ 468).

270. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293.

I. 1. Corinthī omnia īnsignia aurī ā ducibus victōribus rapta erant. 2. Caesar Genāvam exercitum magnīs itineribus dūxit. 3. Quem pontem hostēs cremāverant? Pontem in Rhēnō hostēs cremāverant. 4. Pompēiīs multās Rōmānōrum domōs vidēre poteritis. 5. Rōmā cōnsul equō vēlōcī rūs properāvit. 6. Domī cōnsulis hominēs multī sedēbant. 7. Imperātor iusserat lēgātum Athēnās cum multīs nāvibus longīs nāvigāre. 8. Ante moenia urbis sunt ōrdinēs arborum altārum. 9. Propter arborēs altās nec lacum nec portum reperīre potuimus. 10. Proeliīs crēbrīs Caesar legiōnēs suās quae erant in Galliā exercēbat. 11. Cotīdiē in locō idoneō castra pōnēbat et mūniēbat.

II. 1. Cæsar, the famous general, when he had departed from Rome, hastened to the Roman province on a swift horse.2 2. He had heard a rumor concerning the allies at Geneva. 3. After his arrival Cæsar called the soldiers together and commanded them to join battle. 4. The enemy hastened to retreat, some because3 they were afraid, others because3 of wounds. 5. Recently I was at Athens and saw the place where the judges used to sit.4 6. Marcus and Sextus are my brothers; the one lives at Rome, the other in the country.

DAEDALUS ET ICARUS

271. Daed´alus and Ic´arus

Crēta est īnsula antīqua quae aquā altā magnī maris pulsātur. Ibi ōlim Mīnōs erat rēx. Ad eum vēnit Daedalus quī ex Graeciā patriā fugiēbat. Eum Mīnōs rēx benignīs verbīs accēpit et eī domicilium in Crētā dedit. 5Quō in locō Daedalus sine cūrā vīvebat et rēgī multa et clāra opera faciēbat. Post tempus longum autem Daedalus patriam cāram dēsīderāre incēpit. Domum properāre studēbat, sed rēgī persuādēre nōn potuit et mare saevum fugam vetābat.

LESSON XLVIII

THE FIFTH OR Ē-DECLENSION · THE ABLATIVE OF TIME

272. Gender. Nouns of the fifth declension are feminine except diēs, day, and merīdiēs, midday, which are usually masculine.

273. PARADIGMS

	diēs, m., day	rēs, f. thing
Stems	diē-	rē-
Bases	di-	r-
	Singular		TERMINATIONS
Nom.	diēs	rēs	-ēs
Gen.	diēī	reī	-ē̆ī
Dat.	diēī	reī	-ē̆ī
Acc.	diem	rem	-em
Abl.	diē	rē	-ē
	Plural
Nom.	diēs	rēs	-ēs
Gen.	diērum	rērum	-ērum
Dat.	diēbus	rēbus	-ēbus
Acc.	diēs	rēs	-ēs
Abl.	diēbus	rēbus	-ēbus

1. The vowel e which appears in every form is regularly long. It is shortened in the ending -eī after a consonant, as in r-ĕī; and before -m in the accusative singular, as in di-em. (Cf. § 12. 2.)

2. Only diēs and rēs are complete in the plural. Most other nouns of this declension lack the plural. Aciēs, line of battle, and spēs, hope, have the nominative and accusative plural.

274. The ablative relation (§ 50) which is expressed by the prepositions at, in, or on may refer not only to place, but also to time, as at noon, in summer, on the first day. The ablative which is used to express this relation is called the ablative of time.

275. Rule. The Ablative of Time. The time when or within which anything happens is expressed by the ablative without a preposition.

a. Occasionally the preposition in is found. Compare the English Next day we started and On the next day we started.

276. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 294.

I. Galba the Farmer. Galba agricola rūrī vīvit. Cotīdiē prīmā lūce labōrāre incipit, nec ante noctem in studiō suō cessat. Merīdiē Iūlia fīlia eum ad cēnam vocat. Nocte pedēs dēfessōs domum vertit. Aestāte fīliī agricolae auxilium patrī dant. Hieme agricola eōs in lūdum mittit. Ibi magister pueris multās fābulās dē rēbus gestīs Caesaris nārrat. Aestāte fīliī agricolae perpetuīs labōribus exercentur nec grave agrī opus est iīs molestum. Galba sine ūllā cūrā vivit nec rēs adversās timet.

II. 1. In that month there were many battles in Gaul. 2. The cavalry of the enemy made an attack upon Cæsar’s line of battle. 3. In the first hour of the night the ship was overcome by the billows. 4. On the second day the savages were eager to come under Cæsar’s protection. 5. The king had joined battle, moved by the hope of victory. 6. That year a fire destroyed many birds and other animals. 7. We saw blood on the wild beast’s teeth.

277. Daed´alus and Ic´arus (Continued)

Tum Daedalus gravibus cūrīs commōtus fīliō suō Īcarō ita dixit: “Animus meus, Īcare, est plēnus trīstitiae nec oculī lacrimīs egent. Discēdere ex Crētā, Athēnās properāre, maximē studeō; sed rēx recūsat audīre verba mea et omnem reditūs spem ēripit. Sed numquam rēbus adversīs vincar. Terra et mare sunt inimīca, sed aliam fugae viam reperiam.” Tum in artīs ignōtās animum dīmittit et mīrum capit cōnsilium. Nam pennās in ōrdine pōnit et vērās ālās facit.

LESSON XLIX

PRONOUNS CLASSIFIED · PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

278. We have the same kinds of pronouns in Latin as in English. They are divided into the following eight classes:

1. Personal pronouns, which show the person speaking, spoken to, or spoken of; as, ego, I; tū, you; is, he. (Cf. § 279. etc.)

2. Possessive pronouns, which denote possession; as, meus, tuus, suus, etc. (Cf. § 98.)

3. Reflexive pronouns, used in the predicate to refer back to the subject; as, he saw himself. (Cf. § 281.)

4. Intensive pronouns, used to emphasize a noun or pronoun; as, I myself saw it. (Cf. § 285.)

5. Demonstrative pronouns, which point out persons or things; as, is, this, that. (Cf. § 112.)

6. Relative pronouns, which connect a subordinate adjective clause with an antecedent; as, quī, who. (Cf. § 220.)

7. Interrogative pronouns, which ask a question; as, quis, who? (Cf. § 225.)

8. Indefinite pronouns, which point out indefinitely; as, some one, any one, some, certain ones, etc. (Cf. § 296.)

279. The demonstrative pronoun is, ea, id, as we learned in § 115, is regularly used as the personal pronoun of the third person (he, she, it, they, etc.).

280. The personal pronouns of the first person are ego, I; nōs, we; of the second person, tū, thou or you; vōs, ye or you. They are declined as follows:

Singular
	FIRST PERSON	SECOND PERSON
Nom.	ego, I	tū, you
Gen.	meī, of me	tuī, of you
Dat.	mihi, to or for me	tibi, to or for you
Acc.	mē, me	tē, you
Abl.	mē, with, from, etc., me	tē, with, from, etc., you
Plural
Nom.	nōs, we	vōs, you
Gen.	nostrum or nostrī, of us	vestrum or vestrī, of you
Dat.	nōbīs, to or for us	vōbīs, to or for you
Acc.	nōs, us	vōs, you
Abl.	nōbīs, with, from, etc., us	vōbīs, with, from, etc., you

1. The personal pronouns are not used in the nominative excepting for emphasis or contrast.

281. The Reflexive Pronouns. 1. The personal pronouns ego and tū may be used in the predicate as reflexives; as,

videō mē, I see myself	vidēmus nōs, we see ourselves
vidēs tē, you see yourself	vidētis vōs, you see yourselves

2. The reflexive pronoun of the third person (himself, herself, itself, themselves) has a special form, used only in these senses, and declined alike in the singular and plural.

	Singular and Plural
Gen.	suī	Acc.	sē
Dat.	sibi	Abl.	sē

Examples

Puer sē videt, the boy sees himself Puella sē videt, the girl sees herself Animal sē videt, the animal sees itself Iī sē vident, they see themselves

a. The form sē is sometimes doubled, sēsē, for emphasis.

3. Give the Latin for

I teach myself	We teach ourselves
You teach yourself	You teach yourselves
He teaches himself	They teach themselves

282. The preposition cum, when used with the ablative of ego, tū, or suī, is appended to the form, as, mēcum, with me; tēcum, with you; nōbīscum, with us; etc.

283. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 294.

I. 1. Mea māter est cāra mihi et tua māter est cāra tibi. 2. Vestrae litterae erant grātae nōbis et nostrae litterae erant grātae vōbīs. 3. Nūntius rēgis quī nōbīscum est nihil respondēbit. 4. Nūntiī pācem amīcitiamque sibi et suīs sociīs postulāvērunt. 5. Sī tū arma sūmēs, ego rēgnum occupābō. 6. Uter vestrum est cīvis Rōmānus? Neuter nostrum. 7. Eō tempore multī supplicium dedērunt quia rēgnum petierant. 8. Sūme supplicium, Caesar, dē hostibus patriae ācribus. 9. Prīmā lūce aliī metū commōtī sēsē fugae mandāvērunt; aliī autem magnā virtūte impetum exercitūs nostrī sustinuērunt. 10. Soror rēgis, ubi dē adversō proeliō audīvit, sēsē Pompēiīs interfēcit.

II. 1. Whom do you teach? I teach myself. 2. The soldier wounded himself with his sword. 3. The master praises us, but you he does not praise. 4. Therefore he will inflict punishment on you, but we shall not suffer punishment. 5. Who will march (i.e. make a march) with me to Rome? 6. I will march with you to the gates of the city. 7. Who will show us1 the way? The gods will show you1 the way.

Daed´alus and Ic´arus (Concluded)

284. Puer Īcarus ūnā2 stābat et mīrum patris opus vidēbat. Postquam manus ultima3 ālīs imposita est, Daedalus eās temptāvit et similis avī in aurās volāvit. Tum ālās umerīs fīlī adligāvit et docuit eum volāre et dīxit, “Tē vetō, mī fīlī, adpropinquāre aut sōlī aut marī. Sī fluctibus adpropinquāveris,4 aqua ālīs tuīs nocēbit, et sī sōlī adpropinquāveris,4 ignis eās cremābit.” Tum pater et filius iter difficile incipiunt. Ālās movent et aurae sēsē committunt. Sed stultus puer verbīs patris nōn pāret. Sōlī adpropinquat. Ālae cremantur et Īcarus in mare dēcidit et vitam āmittit. Daedalus autem sine ūllō perīculō trāns fluctūs ad īnsulam Siciliam volāvit.

LESSON L

THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN IPSE AND THE DEMONSTRATIVE ĪDEM

285. Ipse means -self (him-self, her-self, etc.) or is translated by even or very. It is used to emphasize a noun or pronoun, expressed or understood, with which it agrees like an adjective.

a. Ipse must be carefully distinguished from the reflexive suī. The latter is always used as a pronoun, while ipse is regularly adjective. Compare

Homō sē videt, the man sees himself (reflexive) Homō ipse perīculum videt, the man himself (intensive) sees the danger Homō ipsum perīculum videt, the man sees the danger itself (intensive)

286. Except for the one form ipse, the intensive pronoun is declined exactly like the nine irregular adjectives (cf. §§ 108, 109). Learn the declension (§ 481).

287. The demonstrative īdem, meaning the same, is a compound of is. It is declined as follows:

	Singular			Plural
	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	īdem	e´adem	idem	iī´dem eī´dem	eae´dem	e´adem
Gen.	eius´dem	eius´dem	eius´dem	eōrun´dem	eārun´dem	eōrun´dem
Dat.	eī´dem	eī´dem	eī´dem	iīs´dem eīs´dem	iīs´dem eīs´dem	iīs´dem eīs´dem
Acc.	eun´dem	ean´dem	idem	eōs´dem	eās´dem	e´adem
Dat.	eī´dem	eī´dem	eī´dem	iīs´dem eīs´dem	iīs´dem eīs´dem	iīs´dem eīs´dem

a. From forms like eundem (eum + -dem), eōrundem (eōrum + -dem), we learn the rule that m before d is changed to n.

b. The forms iīdem, iīsdem are often spelled and pronounced with one ī.

288. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295.

I. 1. Ego et tū1 in eādem urbe vīvimus. 2. Iter ipsum nōn timēmus sed ferās saevās quae in silvā dēnsā esse dīcuntur. 3. Ōlim nōs ipsī idem iter fēcimus. 4. Eō tempore multās ferās vīdimus. 5. Sed nōbīs nōn nocuērunt. 6. Caesar ipse scūtum dē manibus mīlitis ēripuit et in ipsam aciem properāvit. 7. Itaque mīlitēs summā virtūte tēla in hostium corpora iēcērunt. 8. Rōmānī quoque gravia vulnera accēpērunt. 9. Dēnique hostēs terga vertērunt et ommīs in partīs2 fūgērunt. 10. Eādem hōrā litterae Rōmam ab imperātōre ipsō missae sunt. 11. Eōdem mēnse captīvī quoque in Italiam missī sunt. 12. Sed multī propter vulnera iter difficile trāns montīs facere recūsābant et Genāvae esse dīcēbantur.

II. 1. At Pompeii there is a wonderful mountain. 2. When I was in that place, I myself saw that mountain. 3. On the same day many cities were destroyed by fire and stones from that very mountain. 4. You have not heard the true story of that calamity, have you?3 5. On that day the very sun could not give light to men. 6. You yourself ought to tell (to) us that story.

289. How Horatius held the Bridge4

Tarquinius Superbus, septimus et ultimus rēx Rōmānōrum, ubi in exsilium ab īrātīs Rōmānīs ēiectus est, ā Porsenā, rēge Etrūscōrum, auxilium petiit. Mox Porsena magnīs cum cōpiīs Rōmam vēnit, et ipsa urbs summō in perīculō erat. Omnibus in partibus exercitus Rōmānus victus erat. Iam rēx montem Iāniculum5 occupāverat. Numquam anteā Rōmānī tantō metū tenēbantur. Ex agrīs in urbem properābant et summō studiō urbem ipsam mūniēbant.

LESSON LI

THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS HIC, ISTE, ILLE

290. We have already learned the declension of the demonstrative pronoun is and its use. (Cf. Lesson XVII.) That pronoun refers to persons or things either far or near, and makes no definite reference to place or time. If we wish to point out an object definitely in place or time, we must use hic, iste, or ille. These demonstratives, like is, are used both as pronouns and as adjectives, and their relation to the speaker may be represented graphically thus:

a. In dialogue hic refers to a person or thing near the speaker; iste, to a person or thing near the person addressed; ille, to a person or thing remote from both. These distinctions are illustrated in the model sentences, § 293, which should be carefully studied and imitated.

291. Hic is declined as follows:

	Singular			Plural
	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	hic	haec	hoc	hī	hae	haec
Gen.	huius	huius	huius	hōrum	hārum	hōrum
Dat.	huic	huic	huic	hīs	hīs	hīs
Acc.	hunc	hanc	hoc	hōs	hās	haec
Abl.	hōc	hāc	hōc	hīs	hīs	hīs

a. Huius is pronounced ho͝o´yo͝os, and huic is pronounced ho͝oic (one syllable).

292. The demonstrative pronouns iste, ista, istud, and ille, illa, illud, except for the nominative and accusative singular neuter forms istud and illud, are declined exactly like ipse, ipsa, ipsum. (See § 481.)

293. MODEL SENTENCES

Is this horse (of mine) strong?	Estne hic equus validus?
That horse (of yours) is strong, but that one (yonder) is weak	Iste equus est validus, sed ille est īnfīrmus
Are these (men by me) your friends?	Suntne hī amīcī tuī?
Those (men by you) are my friends, but those (men yonder) are enemies	Istī sunt amīcī meī, sed illī sunt inimīcī

294. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295.

I. A German Chieftain addresses his Followers. Ille fortis Germānōrum dux suōs convocāvit et hōc modō animōs eōrum cōnfirmāvit. “Vōs, quī in hīs fīnibus vīvitis, in hunc locum convocāvī1 quia mēcum dēbētis istōs agrōs et istās domōs ab iniūriīs Rōmānōrum liberāre. Hoc nōbīs nōn difficile erit, quod illī hostēs hās silvās dēnsās, ferās saevās quārum vestīgia vident, montēs altōs timent. Sī fortēs erimus, deī ipsī nōbīs viam salūtis dēmonstrābunt. Ille sōl, istī oculī calamītātēs nostrās vīdērunt.1 Itaque nōmen illīus reī pūblicae Rōmānae nōn sōlum nōbis, sed etiam omnibus hominibus quī lībertātem amant, est invīsum. Ad arma vōs vocō. Exercēte istam prīstinam virtūtem et vincētis.”

II. 1. Does that bird (of yours)2 sing? 2. This bird (of mine)2 sings both3 in summer and in winter and has a beautiful voice. 3. Those birds (yonder)2 in the country don´t sing in winter. 4. Snatch a spear from the hands of that soldier (near you)2 and come home with me. 5. With those very eyes (of yours)2 you will see the tracks of the hateful enemy who burned my dwelling and made an attack on my brother. 6. For (propter) these deeds (rēs) we ought to inflict punishment on him without delay. 7. The enemies of the republic do not always suffer punishment.

HORATIUS PONTEM DEFENDIT

295. How Horatius held the Bridge (Continued)

Altera urbis pars mūrīs, altera flūmine satis mūnīrī vidēbātur. Sed erat pōns in flūmine quī hostibus iter paene dedit. Tum Horātius Cocles, fortis vir, magnā vōce dīxit, “Rescindite pontem, Rōmānī! Brevī tempore Porsena in urbem cōpiās suās trādūcet.” Iam hostēs in ponte erant, sed Horātius cum duōbus (cf. § 479) comitibus ad extrēmam pontis partem properāvit, et hi sōli aciem hostium sustinuērunt. Tum vērō cīvēs Rōmānī pontem ā tergō rescindere incipiunt, et hostēs frūstrā Horātium superāre temptant.

LESSON LII

THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

296. The indefinite pronouns are used to refer to some person or some thing, without indicating which particular one is meant. The pronouns quis and quī, which we have learned in their interrogative and relative uses, may also be indefinite; and nearly all the other indefinite pronouns are compounds of quis or quī and declined almost like them. Review the declension of these words, §§ 221, 227.

297. Learn the declension and meaning of the following indefinites:

Masc.	Fem.	Neut.
quis		quid, some one, any one (substantive)
quī	qua or quae	quod, some, any (adjective), § 483
aliquis		aliquid, some one, any one (substantive), § 487
aliquī	aliqua	aliquod, some, any (adjective), § 487
quīdam	quaedam	quoddam, quiddam, a certain, a certain one, § 485
quisquam		quicquam or quidquam (no plural), any one (at all) (substantive), § 486
quisque		quidque, each one, every one (substantive), § 484
quisque	quaeque	quodque, each, every (adjective), § 484

Note. The meanings of the neuters, something, etc., are easily inferred from the masculine and feminine.

a. In the masculine and neuter singular of the indefinites, quis-forms and quid-forms are mostly used as substantives, quī-forms and quod-forms as adjectives.

b. The indefinites quis and quī never stand first in a clause, and are rare excepting after sī, nisi, nē, num (as, sī quis, if any one; sī quid, if anything; nisi quis, unless some one). Generally aliquis and aliquī are used instead.

c. The forms qua and aliqua are both feminine nominative singular and neuter nominative plural of the indefinite adjectives quī and aliquī respectively. How do these differ from the corresponding forms of the relative quī?

d. Observe that quīdam (quī + -dam) is declined like quī, except that in the accusative singular and genitive plural m of quī becomes n (cf. § 287. a): quendam, quandam, quōrundam, quārundam; also that the neuter has quiddam (substantive) and quoddam (adjective) in the nominative and accusative singular. Quīdam is the least indefinite of the indefinite pronouns, and implies that you could name the person or thing referred to if you cared to do so.

e. Quisquam and quisque (substantive) are declined like quis.

f. Quisquam, any one (quicquam or quidquam, anything), is always used substantively and chiefly in negative sentences. The corresponding adjective any is ūllus, -a, -um (§ 108).

298. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295.

I. 1. Aliquis dē ponte in flūmen dēcidit sed sine ūllō perīculō servātus est. 2. Est vērō in vītā cuiusque hominis aliqua bona fortūna. 3. Nē mīlitum quidem1 quisquam in castrīs mānsit. 4. Sī quem meae domī vidēs, iubē eum discēdere. 5. Sī quis pontem tenet, nē tantus quidem exercitus capere urbem potest. 6. Urbs nōn satis mūnīta erat et merīdiē rēx quīdam paene cōpiās suās trāns pontem trādūxerat. 7. Dēnique mīles quīdam armātus in fluctūs dēsiluit et incolumis ad alteram rīpam oculōs vertit. 8. Quisque illī fortī mīlitī aliquid dare dēbet. 9. Tanta vērō virtūs Rōmānīs semper placuit. 10. Ōlim Corinthus erat urbs satis magna et paene par Rōmae ipsī; nunc vērō moenia dēcidērunt et pauca vestīgia urbis illīus reperīrī possunt. 11. Quisque lībertātem amat, et aliquibus vērō nōmen rēgis est invīsum.

II. 1. If you see a certain Cornelius at Corinth, send him to me. 2. Almost all the soldiers who fell down into the waves were unharmed. 3. Not even at Pompeii did I see so great a fire. 4. I myself was eager to tell something to some one. 5. Each one was praising his own work. 6. Did you see some one in the country? I did not see any one. 7. Unless some one will remain on the bridge with Horatius, the commonwealth will be in the greatest danger.

299. How Horatius held the Bridge (Concluded)

Mox, ubi parva pars pontis mānsit, Horātius iussit comitēs discēdere et sōlus mīrā cōnstantiā impetum illius tōtius exercitūs sustinēbat. Dēnique magnō fragōre pōns in flūmen dēcīdit. Tum vērō Horātius tergum vertit et armātus in aquās dēsiluit. In eum hostēs multa tēla iēcērunt; incolumis autem per fluctūs ad alteram rīpam trānāvit. Eī propter tantās rēs gestās populus Rōmānus nōn sōlum alia magna praemia dedit sed etiam statuam Horāti in locō pūblicō posuit.

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Sixth Review, Lessons XLV-LII, §§ 521-523

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LESSON LIII

REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

300. The quality denoted by an adjective may exist in either a higher or a lower degree, and this is expressed by a form of inflection called comparison. The mere presence of the quality is expressed by the positive degree, its presence in a higher or lower degree by the comparative, and in the highest or lowest of all by the superlative. In English the usual way of comparing an adjective is by using the suffix -er for the comparative and -est for the superlative; as, positive high, comparative higher, superlative highest. Less frequently we use the adverbs more and most; as, positive beautiful, comparative more beautiful, superlative most beautiful.

In Latin, as in English, adjectives are compared by adding suffixes or by using adverbs.

301. Adjectives are compared by using suffixes as follows:

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
clārus, -a, -um (bright) (Base clār-)	clārior, clārīus (brighter)	clārissimus, -a, -um (brightest)
brevis, breve (short) (Base brev-)	brevior, brevius (shorter)	brevissimus, -a, -um (shortest)
vēlōx (swift) (Base veloc-)	vēlōcior, vēlōcius (swifter)	vēlōcissimus, -a, -um (swiftest)

a. The comparative is formed from the base of the positive by adding -ior masc. and fem., and -ius neut.; the superlative by adding -issimus, -issima, -issimum.

302. Less frequently adjectives are compared by using the adverbs magis, more; maximē, most; as, idōneus, suitable; magis idōneus, more suitable; maximē idōneus, most suitable.

303. Declension of the Comparative. Adjectives of the comparative degree are declined as follows:

	Singular		Plural
	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	clārior	clārīus	clāriōrēs	clāriōra
Gen.	clāriōris	clāriōris	clāriōrum	clāriōrum
Dat.	clāriōrī	clāriōrī	clāriōribus	clāriōribus
Acc.	clāriōrem	clārius	clāriōrēs	clāriōra
Abl.	clāriōre	clāriōre	clāriōribus	clāriōribus

a. Observe that the endings are those of the consonant stems of the third declension.

b. Compare longus, long; fortis, brave; recēns (base, recent-), recent; and decline the comparative of each.

304. Adjectives in -er form the comparative regularly, but the superlative is formed by adding -rimus, -a, -um to the nominative masculine of the positive; as,

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
ācer, ācris, ācre (Base acr-)	ācrior, ācrius	ācerrimus, -a, -um
pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum (Base pulchr-)	pulchrior, pulchrius	pulcherrimus, -a, -um
līber, lībera, līberum (Base līber-)	līberior, līberius	līberrimus, -a, -um

a. In a similar manner compare miser, aeger, crēber.

305. The comparative is often translated by quite, too, or somewhat, and the superlative by very; as, altior, quite (too, somewhat) high; altissimus, very high.

306. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296.

I. 1. Quid explōrātōrēs quaerēbant? Explōrātōrēs tempus opportūnissimum itinerī quaerēbant. 2. Mediā in silvā ignīs quam crēberrimōs fēcimus, quod ferās tam audācis numquam anteā vīderāmus. 3. Antīquīs temporibus Germānī erant fortiōrēs quam Gallī. 4. Caesar erat clārior quam inimīcī1 quī eum necāvērunt. 5. Quisque scūtum ingēns et pīlum longius gerēbat. 6. Apud barbarōs Germānī erant audācissimī et fortissimī. 7. Mēns hominum est celerior quam corpus. 8. Virī aliquārum terrārum sunt miserrimī. 9. Corpora Germānōrum erant ingentiōra quam Rōmānōrum. 10. Ācerrimī Gallōrum prīncipēs sine ūllā morā trāns flūmen quoddam equōs vēlōcissimōs trādūxērunt. 11. Aestāte diēs sunt longiōrēs quam hieme. 12. Imperātor quīdam ab explōrātōribus dē recentī adventū nāvium longārum quaesīvit.

II. 1. Of all birds the eagle is the swiftest. 2. Certain animals are swifter than the swiftest horse. 3. The Roman name was most hateful to the enemies of the commonwealth. 4. The Romans always inflicted the severest2 punishment on faithless allies. 5. I was quite ill, and so I hastened from the city to the country. 6. Marcus had some friends dearer than Cæsar.3 7. Did you not seek a more recent report concerning the battle? 8. Not even after a victory so opportune did he seek the general’s friendship.

N.B. Beginning at this point, the selections for reading will be found near the end of the volume. (See p. 197.)

LESSON LIV

IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES · THE ABLATIVE WITH COMPARATIVES WITHOUT QUAM

307. The following six adjectives in -lis form the comparative regularly; but the superlative is formed by adding -limus to the base of the positive. Learn the meanings and comparison.

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
facilis, -e, easy	facilior, -ius	facillimus, -a, -um
difficilis, -e, hard	difficilior, -ius	difficillimus, -a, -um
similis, -e, like	similior, -ius	simillimus, -a, -um
dissimilis, -e, unlike	dissimilior, -ius	dissimillimus, -a, -um
gracilis, -e, slender	gracilior, -ius	gracillimus, -a, -um
humilis, -e, low	humilior, -ius	humillimus, -a, -um

308. From the knowledge gained in the preceding lesson we should translate the sentence Nothing is brighter than the sun

Nihil est clārius quam sōl

But the Romans, especially in negative sentences, often expressed the comparison in this way,

Nihil est clārius sōle

which, literally translated, is Nothing is brighter away from the sun; that is, starting from the sun as a standard, nothing is brighter. This relation is expressed by the separative ablative sōle. Hence the rule

309. Rule. Ablative with Comparatives. The comparative degree, if quam is omitted, is followed by the separative ablative.

310. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296.

I. 1. Nēmō mīlitēs alacriōrēs Rōmānīs vīdit. 2. Statim imperātor iussit nūntiōs quam celerrimōs litterās Rōmam portāre. 3. Multa flūmina sunt lēniōra Rhēnō. 4. Apud Rōmanōs quis erat clārior Caesare? 5. Nihil pulchrius urbe Rōmā vīdī. 6. Subitō multitūdo audacissima magnō clamōre proelium ācrius commīsit. 7. Num est equus tuus tardus? Nōn vērō tardus, sed celerior aquilā. 8. Ubi Romae fuī, nēmō erat mihi amicior Sextō. 9. Quaedam mulierēs cibum mīlitibus dare cupīvērunt. 10. Rēx vetuit cīvis ex urbe noctū discēdere. 11. Ille puer est gracilior hāc muliere. 12. Explōrātor duās (two) viās, alteram facilem, alteram difficiliōrem, dēmōnstrāvit.

II. 1. What city have you seen more beautiful than Rome? 2. The Gauls were not more eager than the Germans. 3. The eagle is not slower than the horse. 4. The spirited woman did not fear to make the journey by night. 5. The mind of the multitude was quite gentle and friendly. 6. But the king’s mind was very different. 7. The king was not like (similar to) his noble father. 8. These hills are lower than the huge mountains of our territory.

ARMA ROMANA

LESSON LV

IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (Continued)

311. Some adjectives in English have irregular comparison, as good, better, best; many, more, most. So Latin comparison presents some irregularities. Among the adjectives that are compared irregularly are

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
bonus, -a, -um, good	melior, melius	optimus, -a, -um
magnus, -a, -um, great	maior, maius	maximus, -a, -um
malus, -a, -um, bad	peior, peius	pessimus, -a, -um
multus, -a, -um, much	——, plūs	plūrimus, -a, -um
multī, -ae, -a, many	plūrēs, plūra	plūrimī, -ae, -a
parvus, -a, -um, small	minor, minus	minimus, -a, -um

312. The following four adjectives have two superlatives. Unusual forms are placed in parentheses.

exterus, -a, -um, outward	(exterior, -ius, outer)	extrēmus, -a, -um (extimus, -a, -um)	outermost, last
īnferus, -a, -um, low	īnferior, -ius, lower	īnfimus, -a, -um īmus, -a, -um	lowest
posterus, -a, -um, next	(posterior, -ius, later)	postrēmus, -a, -um (postumus, -a, -um)	last
superus, -a, -um, above	superior, -ius, higher	suprēmus, -a, -um summus, -a, -um	highest

313. Plūs, more (plural more, many, several), is declined as follows:

	Singular		Plural
	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	——	plūs	plūrēs	plūra
Gen.	——	plūris	plūrium	plūrium
Dat.	——	——	plūribus	plūribus
Acc.	——	plūs	plūrīs, -ēs	plūra
Abl.	——	plūre	plūribus	plūribus

a. In the singular plūs is used only as a neuter substantive.

314. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296.

I. 1. Reliquī hostēs, quī ā dextrō cornū proelium commīserant, dē superiōre locō fūgērunt et sēsē in silvam maximam recēpērunt. 2. In extrēmā parte silvae castra hostium posita erant. 3. Plūrimī captīvī ab equitibus ad Caesarem ductī sunt. 4. Caesar vērō iussit eōs in servitūtem trādī. 5. Posterō diē magna multitūdō mulierum ab Rōmānīs in valle īmā reperta est. 6. Hae mulierēs maximē perterritae adventū Caesaris sēsē occīdere studēbant. 7. Eae quoque plūrīs fābulās dē exercitūs Rōmānī sceleribus audīverant. 8. Fāma illōrum mīlitum optima nōn erat. 9. In barbarōrum aedificiīs maior cōpia frūmentī reperta est. 10. Nēmō crēbrīs proeliīs contendere sine aliquō perīculō potest.

II. 1. The remaining women fled from their dwellings and hid themselves. 2. They were terrified and did not wish to be captured and given over into slavery. 3. Nothing can be worse than slavery. 4. Slavery is worse than death. 5. In the Roman empire a great many were killed because they refused to be slaves. 6. To surrender the fatherland is the worst crime.

LESSON LVI

IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (Concluded) · ­ABLATIVE OF THE MEASURE OF DIFFERENCE

315. The following adjectives are irregular in the formation of the superlative and have no positive. Forms rarely used are in parentheses.

Comparative	Superlative
citerior, hither	(citimus, hithermost)
interior, inner	(intimus, inmost)
prior, former	prīmus, first
propior, nearer	proximus, next, nearest
ulterior, further	ultimus, furthest

316. In the sentence Galba is a head taller than Sextus, the phrase a head taller expresses the measure of difference in height between Galba and Sextus. The Latin form of expression would be Galba is taller than Sextus by a head. This is clearly an ablative relation, and the construction is called the ablative of the measure of difference.

Examples

Galba est altior capite quam Sextus Galba is a head taller (taller by a head) than Sextus. Illud iter ad Italiam est multō brevius That route to Italy is much shorter (shorter by much)

317. Rule. Ablative of the Measure of Difference. With comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the measure of difference.

a. Especially common in this construction are the neuter ablatives

eō, by this, by that hōc, by this multō, by much nihilō,1 by nothing paulō, by a little

318. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297.

I. 1. Barbarī proelium committere statuērunt eō magis quod Rōmānī īnfīrmī esse vidēbantur. 2. Meum cōnsilium est multō melius quam tuum quia multō facilius est. 3. Haec via est multō lātior quam illa. 4. Barbarī erant nihilō tardiōrēs quam Rōmānī. 5. Tuus equus est paulō celerior quam meus. 6. Iī quī paulō fortiōrēs erant prohibuērunt reliquōs aditum relinquere. 7. Inter illās cīvitātēs Germānia mīlitēs habet optimōs. 8. Propior via quae per hanc vallem dūcit est inter portum et lacum. 9. Servī, quī agrōs citeriōrēs incolēbant, priōrēs dominōs relinquere nōn cupīvērunt, quod eōs amābant. 10. Ultimae Germāniae partēs numquam in fidem Rōmānōrum vēnērunt. 11. Nam trāns Rhēnum aditus erat multō difficilior exercituī Rōmānō.

II. 1. Another way much more difficult (more difficult by much) was left through hither Gaul. 2. In ancient times no state was stronger than the Roman empire. 3. The states of further Gaul did not wish to give hostages to Cæsar. 4. Slavery is no better (better by nothing) than death. 5. The best citizens are not loved by the worst. 6. The active enemy immediately withdrew into the nearest forest, for they were terrified by Cæsar’s recent victories.

LESSON LVII

FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

319. Adverbs are generally derived from adjectives, as in English (e.g. adj. sweet, adv. sweetly). Like adjectives, they can be compared; but they have no declension.

320. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second declensions are formed and compared as follows:

	Positive	Comparative	Superlative
Adj. Adv.	cārus, dear cārē, dearly	cārior cārius	cārissimus cārissimē
Adj. Adv.	pulcher, beautiful pulchrē, beautifully	pulchrior pulchrius	pulcherrimus pulcherrimē
Adj. Adv.	līber, free līberē, freely	līberior līberius	līberrimus līberrimē

a. The positive of the adverb is formed by adding -ē to the base of the positive of the adjective. The superlative of the adverb is formed from the superlative of the adjective in the same way.

b. The comparative of any adverb is the neuter accusative singular of the comparative of the adjective.

321. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the third declension are formed like those described above in the comparative and superlative. The positive is usually formed by adding -iter to the base of adjectives of three endings or of two endings, and -ter to the base of those of one ending;1 as,

	Positive	Comparative	Superlative
Adj. Adv.	fortis, brave fortiter, bravely	fortior fortius	fortissimus fortissimē
Adj. Adv.	audāx, bold audācter, boldly	audācior audācius	audācissimus audācissimē

322. Case Forms as Adverbs. As we learned above, the neuter accusative of comparatives is used adverbially. So in the positive or superlative some adjectives, instead of following the usual formation, use the accusative or the ablative singular neuter adverbially; as,

Adj. Adv.	facilis, easy facile (acc.), easily	prīmus, first prīmum (acc.), first prīmō (abl.), at first
Adj. Adv.	multus, many multum (acc.), much multō (abl.), by much	plūrimus, most plūrimum (acc.), most

323. Learn the following irregular comparisons:

bene, well	melius, better	optimē, best
diū, long (time)	diūtius, longer	diūtissimē, longest
magnopere, greatly	magis, more	maximē, most
parum, little	minus, less	minimē, least
prope, nearly, near	propius, nearer	proximē, nearest
saepe, often	saepius, oftener	saepissimē, oftenest

324. Form adverbs from the following adjectives, using the regular rules, and compare them: laetus, superbus, molestus, amīcus, ācer, brevis, gravis, recēns.

325. Rule. Adverbs. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

326. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297.

I. 1. Nūlla rēs melius gesta est quam proelium illud2 ubi Marius multō minōre exercitū multō maiōrēs cōpiās Germānōrum in fugam dedit. 2. Audācter in Rōmānōrum cohortīs hostēs impetūs fēcērunt 3. Marius autem omnēs hōs fortissimē sustinuit. 4. Barbarī nihilō fortiōrēs erant quam Rōmānī. 5. Prīmō barbarī esse superiōrēs vidēbantur, tum Rōmānī ācrius contendērunt. 6. Dēnique, ubi iam diūtissimē paene aequō proeliō pugnātum est, barbarī fugam petiērunt. 7. Quaedam Germānōrum gentēs, simul atque rūmōrem illīus calamitātis audīvērunt, sēsē in ultimīs regiōnibus fīnium suōrum abdidērunt. 8. Rōmānī saepius quam hostēs vīcērunt, quod meliōra arma habēbant. 9. Inter omnīs gentīs Rōmānī plūrimum valēbant. 10. Hae cohortēs simul atque in aequiōrem regiōnem sē recēpērunt, castra sine ūllā difficultāte posuērunt.

II. 1. Some nations are easily overcome by their enemies. 2. Germany is much larger than Gaul. 3. Were not the Romans the most powerful among the tribes of Italy? 4. On account of (his) wounds the soldier dragged his body from the ditch with the greatest difficulty. 5. He was able neither to run nor to fight. 6. Who saved him? A certain horseman boldly undertook the matter. 7. The rumors concerning the soldier’s death were not true.

LESSON LVIII

NUMERALS · THE PARTITIVE GENITIVE

327. The Latin numeral adjectives may be classified as follows:

1. Cardinal Numerals, answering the question how many? as, ūnus, one; duo, two; etc.

2. Ordinal Numerals, derived in most cases from the cardinals and answering the question in what order? as, prīmus, first; secundus, second; etc.

3. Distributive Numerals, answering the question how many at a time? as, singulī, one at a time.

328. The Cardinal Numerals. The first twenty of the cardinals are as follows:

1, ūnus	6,	sex	11, ūndecim	16, sēdecim
2, duo	7,	septem	12, duodecim	17, septendecim
3, trēs	8,	octō	13, tredecim	18, duodēvīgintī
4, quattuor	9,	novem	14, quattuordecim	19, ūndēvīgintī
5, quīnque	10,	decem	15, quīndecim	20, vīgintī

a. Learn also centum = 100, ducentī = 200, mīlle = 1000.

329. Declension of the Cardinals. Of the cardinals only ūnus, duo, trēs, the hundreds above one hundred, and mīlle used as a noun, are declinable.

a. ūnus is one of the nine irregular adjectives, and is declined like nūllus (cf. §§ 109, 470). The plural of ūnus is used to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning, as, ūna castra, one camp; and with other nouns in the sense of only, as, Gallī ūnī, only the Gauls.

b. Learn the declension of duo, two; trēs, three; and mīlle, a thousand. (§ 479.)

c. The hundreds above one hundred are declined like the plural of bonus; as,

ducentī, -ae, -a ducentōrum, -ārum, -ōrum etc.   etc.   etc.

330. We have already become familiar with sentences like the following:

Omnium avium aquila est vēlōcissima Of all birds the eagle is the swiftest Hoc ōrāculum erat omnium clārissimum This oracle was the most famous of all

In such sentences the genitive denotes the whole, and the word it modifies denotes a part of that whole. Such a genitive, denoting the whole of which a part is taken, is called a partitive genitive.

331. Rule. Partitive Genitive. Words denoting a part are often used with the genitive of the whole, known as the partitive genitive.

a. Words denoting a part are especially pronouns, numerals, and other adjectives. But cardinal numbers excepting mīlle regularly take the ablative with ex or dē instead of the partitive genitive.

b. Mīlle, a thousand, in the singular is usually an indeclinable adjective (as, mīlle mīlitēs, a thousand soldiers), but in the plural it is a declinable noun and takes the partitive genitive (as, decem mīlia mīlitum, ten thousand soldiers).

Examples:

Fortissimī hōrum sunt Germānī The bravest of these are the Germans Decem mīlia hostium interfecta sunt Ten thousand (lit. thousands) of the enemy were slain Ūna ex captīvīs erat soror rēgis One of the captives was the king’s sister

332. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297.

I. 1. Caesar maximam partem aedificiōrum incendit. 2. Magna pars mūnītiōnis aquā flūminis dēlēta est. 3. Gallī huius regiōnis quīnque mīlia hominum coēgerant. 4. Duo ex meīs frātribus eundem rūmōrem audīvērunt. 5. Quis Rōmānōrum erat clarior Caesare? 6. Quīnque cohortēs ex illā legiōne castra quam fortissimē dēfendēbant. 7. Hic locus aberat aequō spatiō1 ab castrīs Caesaris et castrīs Germānōrum. 8. Caesar simul atque pervēnit, plūs commeātūs ab sociīs postulāvit. 9. Nōnne mercātōrēs magnitūdinem īnsulae cognōverant? Longitūdinem sed nōn lātitūdinem cognōverant. 10. Paucī hostium obtinēbant collem quem explōrātōrēs nostrī vīdērunt.

II. 1. I have two brothers, and one of them lives at Rome. 2. Cæsar stormed that very town with three legions. 3. In one hour he destroyed a great part of the fortification. 4. When the enemy could no longer2 defend the gates, they retreated to a hill which was not far distant.3 5. There three thousand of them bravely resisted the Romans.4

LESSON LIX

NUMERALS (Continued) · THE ACCUSATIVE OF EXTENT

333. Learn the first twenty of the ordinal numerals (§ 478). The ordinals are all declined like bonus.

334. The distributive numerals are declined like the plural of bonus. The first three are

singulī, -ae, -a, one each, one by one bīnī, -ae, -a, two each, two by two ternī, -ae, -a, three each, three by three

335. We have learned that, besides its use as object, the accusative is used to express space relations not covered by the ablative. We have had such expressions as per plūrimōs annōs, for a great many years; per tōtum diem, for a whole day. Here the space relation is one of extent of time. We could also say per decem pedēs, for ten feet, where the space relation is one of extent of space. While this is correct Latin, the usual form is to use the accusative with no preposition, as,

Vir tōtum diem cucurrit, the man ran for a whole day Caesar mūrum decem pedēs mōvit, Cæsar moved the wall ten feet

336. Rule. Accusative of Extent. Duration of time and extent of space are expressed by the accusative.

a. This accusative answers the questions how long? how far?

b. Distinguish carefully between the accusative of time how long and the ablative of time when, or within which.

Select the accusatives of time and space and the ablatives of time in the following:

When did the general arrive? He arrived at two o’clock. How long had he been marching? For four days. How far did he march? He marched sixty-five miles. Where has he pitched his camp? Three miles from the river, and he will remain there several days. The wall around the camp is ten feet high. When did the war begin? In the first year after the king’s death.

337. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 298.

I. Cæsar in Gaul. Caesar bellum in Gallia septem annōs gessit. Prīmō annō Helvētiōs vīcit, et eōdem annō multae Germanōrum gentēs eī sēsē dēdidērunt. Multōs iam annōs Germānī Gallōs vexabant1 et ducēs Germānī cōpiās suās trāns Rhēnum saepe trādūcēbant.1 Nōn singulī veniēbant, sed multa milia hominum in Galliam contendēbant. Quā dē causā prīncipēs Galliae concilium convocāvērunt atque statuērunt legates ad Caesarem mittere. Caesar, simul atque hunc rūmōrem audīvit, cōpiās suās sine morā coēgit. Primā lūce fortiter cum Germanīs proelium commīsit. Tōtum diem ācriter pugnātum est. Caesar ipse ā dextrō cornū acicm dūxit. Magna pars exercitūs Germānī cecidit. Post magnam caedem paucī multa milia passuum ad flūmen fūgērunt.

II. 1. Cæsar pitched camp two miles from the river. 2. He fortified the camp with a ditch fifteen feet wide and a rampart nine feet high. 3. The camp of the enemy was a great way off (was distant by a great space). 4. On the next day he hastened ten miles in three hours. 5. Suddenly the enemy with all their forces made an attack upon (in with acc.) the rear. 6. For two hours the Romans were hard pressed by the barbarians. 7. In three hours the barbarians were fleeing.

LESSON LX

DEPONENT VERBS

338. A number of verbs are passive in form but active in meaning; as, hortor, I encourage; vereor, I fear. Such verbs are called deponent because they have laid aside (dē-pōnere, to lay aside) the active forms.

a. Besides having all the forms of the passive, deponent verbs have also the future active infinitive and a few other active forms which will be noted later. (Sec§§ 375, 403.b.)

339. The principal parts of deponents are of course passive in form, as,

Conj. I		hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum, encourage
Conj. II		vereor, verērī, veritus sum, fear
Conj. III	(a)	sequor, sequī, secūtus sum, follow
	(b)	patior, patī, passus sum, suffer, allow
Conj. IV		partior, partīrī, partītus sum, share, divide

Learn the synopses of these verbs. (See § 493.) Patior is conjugated like the passive of capiō (§ 492).

340. PREPOSITIONS WITH THE ACCUSATIVE

The prepositions with the accusative that occur most frequently are

ante, before apud, among circum, around contrā, against, contrary to extrā, outside of in, into, in, against, upon inter, between, among

intrā, within ob, on account of (quam ob rem, wherefore, therefore) per, through, by means of post, after, behind propter, on account of, because of trāns, across, over

a. Most of these you have had before. Review the old ones and learn the new ones. Review the list of prepositions governing the ablative, § 209.

341. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 298.

I. 1. Trēs ex lēgātīs, contrā Caesaris opīniōnem, iter facere per hostium fīnīs verēbantur. 2. Quis eōs hortātus est? Imperātor eōs hortātus est et iīs persuādēre cōnātus est, sed nōn potuit. 3. Quid lēgātōs perterruit? Aut timor hostium, quī undique premēbant, aut longitūdō viae eōs perterruit. 4. Tamen omnēs ferē Caesarem multō magis quam hostīs veritī sunt. 5. Fortissimae gentēs Galliae ex Germānīs oriēbantur. 6. Quam ob rem tam fortēs erant? Quia nec vīnum nec alia quae virtūtem dēlent ad sē portārī patiēbantur. 7. Caesar ex mercātōribus dē īnsulā Britanniā quaesīvit, sed nihil cognōscere potuit. 8. Itaque ipse statuit hanc terram petere, et mediā ferē aestāte cum multīs nāvibus longīs profectus est. 9. Magnā celeritāte iter confēcit et in opportūnissimō locō ēgressus est. 10. Barbarī summīs vīribus eum ab īnsulā prohibēre cōnātī sunt. 11. Ille autem barbarōs multa mīlia passuum īnsecūtus est; tamen sine equitātū eōs cōnsequī nōn potuit.

II. 1. Contrary to our expectation, the enemy fled and the cavalry followed close after them. 2. From all parts of the multitude the shouts arose of those who were being wounded. 3. Cæsar did not allow the cavalry to pursue too far.1 4. The cavalry set out at the first hour and was returning2 to camp at the fourth hour. 5. Around the Roman camp was a rampart twelve feet high. 6. Cæsar will delay three days because of the grain supply. 7. Nearly all the lieutenants feared the enemy and attempted to delay the march.

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Seventh Review, Lessons LIII-LX, §§ 524-526

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INTRODUCTORY NOTE

The preceding part of this book has been concerned chiefly with forms and vocabulary. There remain still to be learned the forms of the Subjunctive Mood, the Participles, and the Gerund of the regular verb, and the conjugation of the commoner irregular verbs. These will be taken up in connection with the study of constructions, which will be the chief subject of our future work. The special vocabularies of the preceding lessons contain, exclusive of proper names, about six hundred words. As these are among the commonest words in the language, they must be mastered. They properly form the basis of the study of words, and will be reviewed and used with but few additions in the remaining lessons.

For practice in reading and to illustrate the constructions presented, a continued story has been prepared and may be begun at this point (see p. 204). It has been divided into chapters of convenient length to accompany progress through the lessons, but may be read with equal profit after the lessons are finished. The story gives an account of the life and adventures of Publius Cornelius Lentulus, a Roman boy, who fought in Cæsar’s campaigns and shared in his triumph. The colored plates illustrating the story are faithful representations of ancient life and are deserving of careful study.

LESSON LXI

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

342. In addition to the indicative, imperative, and infinitive moods, which you have learned, Latin has a fourth mood called the subjunctive. The tenses of the subjunctive are

Present Imperfect Perfect Pluperfect

Active and Passive

343. The tenses of the subjunctive have the same time values as the corresponding tenses of the indicative, and, in addition, each of them may refer to future time. No meanings of the tenses will be given in the paradigms, as the translation varies with the construction used.

344. The present subjunctive is inflected as follows:

Conj. I	Conj. II	Conj. III		Conj. IV
Active Voice
SINGULAR
1. a´mem	mo´neam	re´gam	ca´piam	au´diam
2. a´mēs	mo´neās	re´gās	ca´piās	au´diās
3. a´met	mo´neat	re´gat	ca´piat	au´diat
PLURAL
1. amē´mus	moneā´mus	regā´mus	capiā´mus	audiā´mus
2. amē´tis	moneā´tis	regā´tis	capiā´tis	audiā´tis
3. a´ment	mo´neant	re´gant	ca´piant	au´diant
Passive Voice
SINGULAR
1. a´mer	mo´near	re´gar	ca´piar	au´diar
2. amē´ris (-re)	moneā´ris (-re)	regā´ris (-re)	capiā´ris (-re)	audiā´ris (-re)
3. amē´tur	moneā´tur	regā´tur	capiā´tur	audiā´tur
PLURAL
1. amē´mur	moneā´mur	regā´mur	capiā´mur	audiā´mur
2. amē´minī	moneā´minī	regā´minī	capiā´minī	audiā´minī
3. amen´tur	monean´tur	regan´tur	capian´tur	audian´tur

a. The present subjunctive is formed from the present stem.

b. The mood sign of the present subjunctive is -ē- in the first conjugation and -ā- in the others. It is shortened in the usual places (cf. § 12), and takes the place of the final vowel of the stem in the first and third conjugations, but not in the second and fourth.

c. The personal endings are the same as in the indicative.

d. In a similar way inflect the present subjunctive of cūrō, iubeō, sūmō, iaciō, mūniō.

345. The present subjunctive of the irregular verb sum is inflected as follows:

Sing.

1. sim 2. sīs 3. sit

Plur.

1. sīmus 2. sītis 3. sint

346. The Indicative and Subjunctive Compared. 1. The two most important of the finite moods are the indicative and the subjunctive. The indicative deals with facts either real or assumed. If, then, we wish to assert something as a fact or to inquire after a fact, we use the indicative.

2. On the other hand, if we wish to express a desire or wish, a purpose, a possibility, an expectation, or some such notion, we must use the subjunctive. The following sentences illustrate the difference between the indicative and the subjunctive ideas.

	Indicative Ideas		Subjunctive Ideas
1.	He is brave Fortis est	1.	May he be brave Fortis sit (idea of wishing)
2.	We set out at once Statim proficīscimur	2.	Let us set out at once Statim proficīscāmur (idea of willing)
3.	You hear him every day Cotīdiē eum audīs	3.	You can hear him every day Cotīdiē eum audiās (idea of possibility)
4.	He remained until the ship arrived Mānsit dum nāvis pervēnit	4.	He waited until the ship should arrive Exspectāvit dum nāvis pervenīret1 (idea of expectation)
5.	Cæsar sends men who find the bridge Caesar mittit hominēs quī pontem reperiunt	5.	Cæsar sends men who are to find (or to find) the bridge Caesar hominēs mittit quī pontem reperiant (idea of purpose)

Note. From the sentences above we observe that the subjunctive may be used in either independent or dependent clauses; but it is far more common in the latter than in the former.

347. EXERCISE

Which verbs in the following paragraph would be in the indicative and which in the subjunctive in a Latin translation?

There have been times in the history of our country when you might be proud of being an American citizen. Do you remember the day when Dewey sailed into Manila Bay to capture or destroy the enemy’s fleet? You might have seen the admiral standing on the bridge calmly giving his orders. He did not even wait until the mines should be removed from the harbor’s mouth, but sailed in at once. Let us not despair of our country while such valor exists, and may the future add new glories to the past.

LESSON LXII

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE

348. Observe the sentence

Caesar hominēs mittit quī pontem reperiant,
Cæsar sends men to find the bridge

The verb reperiant in the dependent clause is in the subjunctive because it tells us what Cæsar wants the men to do; in other words, it expresses his will and the purpose in his mind. Such a use of the subjunctive is called the subjunctive of purpose.

349. Rule. Subjunctive of Purpose. The subjunctive is used in a dependent clause to express the purpose of the action in the principal clause.

350. A clause of purpose is introduced as follows:

I. If something is wanted, by

quī, the relative pronoun (as above) ut, conj., in order that, that quō (abl. of quī, by which), in order that, that, used when the purpose clause contains a comparative. The ablative quō expresses the measure of difference. (Cf. § 317.)

II. If something is not wanted, by

nē, conj., in order that not, that not, lest

351. EXAMPLES

1.	Caesar cōpiās cōgit quibus hostīs īnsequātur Cæsar collects troops with which to pursue the foe
2.	Pācem petunt ut domum revertantur They ask for peace in order that they may return home
3.	Pontem faciunt quō facilius oppidum capiant They build a bridge that they may take the town more easily (lit. by which the more easily)
4.	Fugiunt nē vulnerentur They flee that they may not (or lest they) be wounded

352. Expression of Purpose in English. In English, purpose clauses are sometimes introduced by that or in order that, but much more frequently purpose is expressed in English by the infinitive, as We eat to live, She stoops to conquer. In Latin prose, on the other hand, purpose is never expressed by the infinitive. Be on your guard and do not let the English idiom betray you into this error.

353. EXERCISES

I.

1. Veniunt ut	dūcant, mittant, videant, audiant, dūcantur, mittantur, videantur, audiantur.
2. Fugimus nē	capiāmur, trādāmur, videāmus, necēmur, rapiāmur, resistāmus.
3. Mittit nūntiōs quī	dicant, audiant, veniant, nārrent, audiantur, in conciliō sedeant.
4. Castra mūniunt quō facilius	sēsē dēfendant, impetum sustineant, hostīs vincant, salūtem petant.

II. 1. The Helvetii send ambassadors to seek1 peace. 2. They are setting out at daybreak in order that they may make a longer march before night. 3. They will hide the women in the forest (acc. with in) that they may not be captured. 4. The Gauls wage many wars to free1 their fatherland from slavery. 5. They will resist the Romans2 bravely lest they be destroyed.

LESSON LXIII

INFLECTION OF THE IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES

354. The imperfect subjunctive may be formed by adding the personal endings to the present active infinitive.

Conj. I	Conj. II	Conj. III		Conj. IV
ACTIVE
1. amā´rem	monē´rem	re´gerem	ca´perem	audī´rem
2. amā´rēs	monē´rēs	re´gerēs	ca´perēs	audī´rēs
3. amā´ret	monē´ret	re´geret	ca´peret	audī´ret
1. amārē´mus	monērē´mus	regerē´mus	caperē´mus	audīrē´mus
2. amārē´tis	monērē´tis	regerē´tis	caperē´tis	audīrē´tis
3. amā´rent	monē´rent	re´gerent	ca´perent	audī´rent
PASSIVE
1. amā´rer	monē´rer	re´gerer	ca´perer	audī´rer
2. amārē´ris(-re)	monērē´ris(-re)	regerē´ris(-re)	caperē´ris(-re)	audīrē´ris(-re)
3. amārē´tur	monērē´tur	regerē´tur	caperē´tur	audīrē´tur
1. amārē´mur	monērē´mur	regerē´mur	caperē´mur	audīrē´mur
2. amārē´minī	monērē´minī	regerē´minī	caperē´minī	audīrē´minī
3. amāren´tur	monēren´tur	regeren´tur	caperen´tur	audīren´tur

a. In a similar way inflect the imperfect subjunctive, active and passive, of cūrō, iubeō, sūmō, iaciō, mūniō.

355. The imperfect subjunctive of the irregular verb sum is inflected as follows:

Sing.	1. es´sem	Plur.	1. essē´mus
	2. es´sēs		2. essē´tis
	3. es´set		3. es´sent

356. The three great distinctions of time are present, past, and future. All tenses referring to present or future time are called primary tenses, and those referring to past time are called secondary tenses. Now it is a very common law of language that in a complex sentence the tense in the dependent clause should be of the same kind as the tense in the principal clause. In the sentence He says that he is coming, the principal verb, says, is present, that is, is in a primary tense; and is coming, in the dependent clause, is naturally also primary. If I change he says to he said,—in other words, if I make the principal verb secondary in character,—I feel it natural to change the verb in the dependent clause also, and I say, He said that he was coming. This following of a tense by another of the same kind is called tense sequence, from sequī, “to follow.”

In Latin the law of tense sequence is obeyed with considerable regularity, especially when an indicative in the principal clause is followed by a subjunctive in the dependent clause. Then a primary tense of the indicative is followed by a primary tense of the subjunctive, and a secondary tense of the indicative is followed by a secondary tense of the subjunctive. Learn the following table:

357. Table for Sequence of Tenses

	Principal Verb in the Indicative	Dependent Verbs in the Subjunctive
		Incomplete or Continuing Action	Completed Action
P r i m a r y	Present Future Future perfect	Present	Perfect
S e c o n d a r y	Imperfect Perfect Pluperfect	Imperfect	Pluperfect

358. Rule. Sequence of Tenses. Primary tenses are followed by primary tenses and secondary by secondary.

359. EXAMPLES

I. Primary tenses in principal and dependent clauses:

		Mittit Mittet Mīserit	hominēs ut agrōs vāstent
He	sends will send will have sent		men	that they may in order to to	lay waste the fields

II. Secondary tenses in principal and dependent clauses:

		Mittēbat Mīsit Mīserat	hominēs ut agrōs vāstārent
He	was sending sent or has sent had sent		men	that they might in order to to	lay waste the fields

360. EXERCISES

I.

1. Vēnerant ut	dūcerent, mitterent, vidērent, audīrent, dūcerentur, mitterentur, vidērentur, audirentur
2. Fugiēbat nē	caperētur, trāderētur, vidērētur, necārētur, raperētur, resiteret.
3. Misit nūntiōs quī	dīcerent, audīrent, venīrent, nārrārent, audīrentur, in conciliō sedērent.
4. Castra mūnīvērunt quō facilius	sēsē dēfenderent, impetum sustinērent, hostīs vincerent, salūtem peterent.

II. 1. Cæsar encouraged the soldiers in order that they might fight more bravely. 2. The Helvetii left their homes to wage war. 3. The scouts set out at once lest they should be captured by the Germans. 4. Cæsar inflicted punishment on them in order that the others might be more terrified. 5. He sent messengers to Rome to announce the victory.

LESSON LXIV

THE PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE

361. The perfect and the pluperfect subjunctive active are inflected as follows:

Conj. I	Conj. II	Conj. III		Conj. IV
Perfect Subjunctive Active
SINGULAR
1. amā´verim	monu´erim	rē´xerim	cē´perim	audī´verim
2. amā´veris	monu´eris	rē´xeris	cē´peris	audī´veris
3. amā´verit	monu´erit	rē´xerit	cē´perit	audī´verit
PLURAL
1. amāve´rimus	monue´rimus	rēxe´rimus	cēpe´rimus	audīve´rimus
2. amāve´ritis	monue´ritis	rēxe´ritis	cēpe´ritis	audīve´ritis
3. amā´verint	monu´erint	rē´xerint	cē´perint	audī´verint
Pluperfect Subjunctive Active
SINGULAR
1. amāvis´sem	monuis´sem	rēxis´sem	cēpis´sem	audīvis´sem
2. amāvis´sēs	monuis´sēs	rēxis´sēs	cēpis´sēs	audīvis´sēs
3. amāvis´set	monuis´set	rēxis´set	cēpis´set	audīvis´set
PLURAL
1. amāvissē´mus	monuissē´mus	rēxissē´mus	cēpissē´mus	audīvissē´mus
2. amāvissē´tis	monuissē´tis	rēxissē´tis	cēpissē´tis	audīvissē´tis
3. amāvis´sent	monuis´sent	rēxis´sent	cēpis´sent	audīvis´sent

a. Observe that these two tenses, like the corresponding ones in the indicative, are formed from the perfect stem.

b. Observe that the perfect subjunctive active is like the future perfect indicative active, excepting that the first person singular ends in -m and not in -ō.

c. Observe that the pluperfect subjunctive active may be formed by adding -issem, -issēs, etc. to the perfect stem.

d. In a similar way inflect the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive active of cūrō, iubeō, sūmō, iaciō, mūniō.

362. The passive of the perfect subjunctive is formed by combining the perfect passive participle with sim, the present subjunctive of sum.

Conj. I	Conj. II	Conj. III		Conj. IV
Perfect Subjunctive Passive
SINGULAR
1. amā´tus sim	mo´nitus sim	rēc´tus sim	cap´tus sim	audī´tus sim
2. amā´tus sīs	mo´nitus sīs	rēc´tus sīs	cap´tus sīs	audī´tus sīs
3. amā´tus sit	mo´nitus sit	rēc´tus sit	cap´tus sit	audī´tus sit
PLURAL
1. amā´tī sīmus	mo´nitī sīmus	rēc´tī sīmus	cap´tī sīmus	audī´tī sīmus
2. amā´tī sītis	mo´nitī sītis	rēc´tī sītis	cap´tī sītis	audī´tī sītis
3. amā´tī sint	mo´nitī sint	rēc´tī sint	cap´tī sint	audī´tī sint

363. The passive of the pluperfect subjunctive is formed by combining the perfect passive participle with essem, the imperfect subjunctive of sum.

Conj. I	Conj. II	Conj. III		Conj. IV
Pluperfect Subjunctive Passive
SINGULAR
1. amātus essem	monitus essem	rēctus essem	captus essem	audītus essem
2. amātus essēs	monitus essēs	rēctus essēs	captus essēs	audītus essēs
3. amātus esset	monitus esset	rēctus esset	captus esset	audītus esset
PLURAL
1. amātī essēmus	monitī essēmus	rēctī essēmus	captī essēmus	audītī essēmus
2. amātī essētis	monitī essētis	rēctī essētis	captī essētis	audītī essētis
3. amātī essent	monitī essent	rēctī essent	captī essent	audītī essent

a. In a similar way inflect the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive passive of cūrō, iubeō, sūmō, iaciō, mūniō.

364. The perfect and pluperfect subjunctive of the irregular verb sum are inflected as follows:

Perfect		Pluperfect
fu´erim	fue´rimus	fuis´sem	fuissē´mus
fu´eris	fue´ritis	fuis´sēs	fuissē´tis
fu´erit	fu´erint	fuis´set	fuis´sent

365. A substantive clause is a clause used like a noun, as,

That the men are afraid is clear enough (clause as subject) He ordered them to call on him (clause as object)

We have already had many instances of infinitive clauses used in this way (cf. § 213), and have noted the similarity between Latin and English usage in this respect. But the Latin often uses the subjunctive in substantive clauses, and this marks an important difference between the two languages.

366. Rule. Substantive Clauses of Purpose. A substantive clause of purpose with the subjunctive is used as the object of verbs of commanding, urging, asking, persuading, or advising, where in English we should usually have the infinitive.

EXAMPLES

1.	The general ordered the soldiers to run	Imperātor mīlitibus imperāvit ut currerent
2.	He urged them to resist bravely	Hortātus est ut fortiter resisterent
3.	He asked them to give the children food	Petīvit ut līberīs cibum darent
4.	He will persuade us not to set out	Nōbīs persuādēbit nē proficīscāmur
5.	He advises us to remain at home	Monet ut domī maneāmus

a. The object clauses following these verbs all express the purpose or will of the principal subject that something be done or not done. (Cf. § 348.)

367. The following verbs are used with object clauses of purpose. Learn the list and the principal parts of the new ones.

hortor, urge imperō, order (with the dative of the person ordered and a subjunctive clause of the thing ordered done) moneō, advise

petō, quaerō, rogō, ask, seek persuādeō, persuade (with the same construction as imperō) postulō, demand, require suādeō, advise (cf. persuādeō)

N.B. Remember that iubeō, order, takes the infinitive as in English. (Cf. § 213. 1.) Compare the sentences

Iubeō eum venīre, I order him to come Imperō eī ut veniat, I give orders to him that he is to come

We ordinarily translate both of these sentences like the first, but the difference in meaning between iubeō and imperō in the Latin requires the infinitive in the one case and the subjunctive in the other.

368. EXERCISES

I. 1. Petit atque hortātur ut ipse dīcat. 2. Caesar Helvētiīs imperāvit nē per prōvinciam iter facerent. 3. Caesar nōn iussit Helvētiōs per prōvinciam iter facere. 4. Ille cīvibus persuāsit ut dē fīnibus suīs discēderent. 5. Caesar prīncipēs monēbit nē proelium committant. 6. Postulāvit nē cum Helvētiīs aut cum eōrum sociīs bellum gererent. 7. Ab iīs quaesīvī nē proficīscerentur. 8. Iīs persuādēre nōn potuī ut domī manērent.

II. 1. Who ordered Cæsar to make the march? (Write this sentence both with imperō and with iubeō.) 2. The faithless scouts persuaded him to set out at daybreak. 3. They will ask him not to inflict punishment. 4. He demanded that they come to the camp. 5. He advised them to tell everything (omnia).

Note. Do not forget that the English infinitive expressing purpose must be rendered by a Latin subjunctive. Review § 352.

LEGIO ITER FACIT

LESSON LXV

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF POSSUM · VERBS OF FEARING

369. Learn the subjunctive of possum (§ 495), and note especially the position of the accent.

370. Subjunctive after Verbs of Fearing. We have learned that what we want done or not done is expressed in Latin by a subjunctive clause of purpose. In this class belong also clauses after verbs of fearing, for we fear either that something will happen or that it will not, and we either want it to happen or we do not. If we want a thing to happen and fear that it will not, the purpose clause is introduced by ut. If we do not want it to happen and fear that it will, nē is used. Owing to a difference between the English and Latin idiom we translate ut after a verb of fearing by that not, and nē by that or lest.

371. EXAMPLES

timeō timēbō timuerō

ut

veniat   vēnerit

I fear, shall fear, shall have feared, that he will not come, has not come

timēbam timuī timueram

ut

venīret   vēnisset

I was fearing, feared, had feared, that he would not come, had not come

The same examples with nē instead of ut would be translated I fear that or lest he will come, has come, etc.

372. Rule. Subjunctive after Verbs of Fearing. Verbs of fearing are followed by a substantive clause of purpose introduced by ut (that not) or nē (that or lest).

373. EXERCISES

I. 1. Caesar verēbātur ut supplicium captīvōrum Gallīs placēret. 2. Rōmānī ipsī magnopere verēbantur nē Helvētiī iter per prōvinciam facerent. 3. Timēbant ut satis reī frūmentāriae mittī posset. 4. Vereor ut hostium impetum sustinēre possim. 5. Timuit nē impedīmenta ab hostibus capta essent. 6. Caesar numquam timuit nē legiōnēs vincerentur. 7. Legiōnēs pugnāre nōn timuērunt.1

II. 1. We fear that they are not coming. 2. We fear lest they are coming. 3. We feared that they had come. 4. We feared that they had not come. 5. They feared greatly that the camp could not be defended. 6. Almost all feared1 to leave the camp.

LESSON LXVI

THE PARTICIPLES

374. The Latin verb has the following Participles:1

	Conj. I	Conj. II	Conj. III		Conj. IV
	ACTIVE
Present	amāns loving	monēns advising	regēns ruling	capiēns taking	audiēns hearing
Future	amātūrus about to love	monitūrus about to advise	rēctūrus about to rule	captūrus about to take	audītūrus about to hear
	PASSIVE
Perfect	amātus loved, having been loved	monitus advised, having been advised	rēctus ruled, having been ruled	captus taken, having been taken	audītus heard, having been heard
Future2	amandus to be loved	monendus to be advised	regendus to be ruled	capiendus to be taken	audiendus to be heard

a. The present active and future passive participles are formed from the present stem, and the future active and perfect passive participles are formed from the participial stem.

b. The present active participle is formed by adding -ns to the present stem. In -iō verbs of the third conjugation, and in the fourth conjugation, the stem is modified by the addition of -ē-, as capi-ē-ns, audi-ē-ns. It is declined like an adjective of one ending of the third declension. (Cf. § 256.)

	amāns, loving
	Base amant-		Stem amanti-
	Singular		Plural
	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	amāns	amāns	amantēs	amantia
Gen.	amantis	amantis	amantium	amantium
Dat.	amantī	amantī	amantibus	amantibus
Acc.	amantem	amāns	amantīs or -ēs	amantia
Abl.	amantī or -e	amantī or -e	amantibus	amantibus

(1) When used as an adjective the ablative singular ends in -ī; when used as a participle or as a substantive, in -e.

(2) In a similar way decline monēns, regēns, capiēns, audiēns.

c. The future active participle is formed by adding -ūrus to the base of the participial stem. We have already met this form combined with esse to produce the future active infinitive. (Cf. § 206.)

d. For the perfect passive participle see § 201. The future passive participle or gerundive is formed by adding -ndus to the present stem.

e. All participles in -us are declined like bonus.

f. Participles agree with nouns or pronouns like adjectives.

g. Give all the participles of the following verbs: cūrō, iubeō, sūmō, iaciō, mūniō.

375. Participles of Deponent Verbs. Deponent verbs have the participles of the active voice as well as of the passive; consequently every deponent verb has four participles, as,

Pres. Act.	hortāns, urging
Fut. Act.	hortātūrus, about to urge
Perf. Pass. (in form)	hortātus, having urged
Fut. Pass. (Gerundive)	hortandus, to be urged

a. Observe that the perfect participle of deponent verbs is passive in form but active in meaning. No other verbs have a perfect active participle. On the other hand, the future passive participle of deponent verbs is passive in meaning as in other verbs.

b. Give the participles of cōnor, vereor, sequor, patior, partior.

376. Tenses of the Participle. The tenses express time as follows:

1. The present active participle corresponds to the English present active participle in -ing, but can be used only of an action occurring at the same time as the action of the main verb; as, mīlitēs īnsequentēs cēpērunt multōs, the soldiers, while pursuing, captured many. Here the pursuing and the capturing are going on together.

2. The perfect participle (excepting of deponents) is regularly passive and corresponds to the English past participle with or without the auxiliary having been; as, audītus, heard or having been heard.

3. The future active participle, translated about to, etc., denotes time after the action of the main verb.

377. Review §§ 203, 204, and, note the following model sentences:

1. Mīlitēs currentēs erant dēfessī, the soldiers who were running (lit. running) were weary.

2. Caesar profectūrus Rōmam nōn exspectāvit, Cæsar, when about to set out (lit. about to set out) for Rome, did not wait.

3. Oppidum captum vīdimus, we saw the town which had been captured (lit. captured town).

4. Imperātor trīduum morātus profectus est, the general, since (when, or after) he had delayed (lit. the general, having delayed) three days, set out.

5. Mīlitēs vīctī terga nōn vertērunt, the soldiers, though they were conquered (lit. the soldiers conquered), did not retreat.

In each of these sentences the literal translation of the participle is given in parentheses. We note, however, that its proper translation usually requires a clause beginning with some conjunction (when, since, after, though, etc.), or a relative clause. Consider, in each case, what translation will best bring out the thought, and do not, as a rule, translate the participle literally.

378. EXERCISES

I. 1. Puer timēns nē capiātur fugit. 2. Aquila īrā commōta avīs reliquās interficere cōnāta erat. 3. Mīlitēs ab hostibus pressī tēla iacere nōn potuērunt. 4. Caesar decimam legiōnem laudātūrus ad prīmum agmen prōgressus est. 5. Imperātor hortātus equitēs ut fortiter pugnārent signum proeliō dedit. 6. Mīlitēs hostīs octō milia passuum īnsecūtī multīs cum captīvīs ad castra revertērunt. 7. Sōl oriēns multōs interfectōs vīdit. 8. Rōmānī cōnsilium audāx suspicātī barbaris sēsē nōn commīsērunt. 9. Nāvis ē portū ēgressa nūllō in perīculō erat.

II.3 1. The army was in very great danger while marching through the enemy’s country. 2. Frightened by the length of the way, they longed for home. 3. When the scouts were about to set out, they heard the shouts of victory. 4. When we had delayed many days, we set fire to the buildings and departed. 5. While living at Rome I heard orators much better than these. 6. The soldiers who are fighting across the river are no braver than we.

LESSON LXVII

THE IRREGULAR VERBS VOLŌ, NŌLŌ, MĀLŌ · THE ABLATIVE WITH A PARTICIPLE, OR ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE

379. Learn the principal parts and conjugation of volō, wish; nōlō (ne + volō), be unwilling; mālō (magis + volō), be more willing, prefer (§ 497). Note the irregularities in the present indicative, subjunctive, and infinitive, and in the imperfect subjunctive. (Cf. § 354.)

a. These verbs are usually followed by the infinitive with or without a subject accusative; as, volunt venīre, they wish to come; volunt amīcōs venīre, they wish their friends to come. The English usage is the same.1

380. Observe the following sentences:

1. Magistrō laudante omnēs puerī dīligenter labōrant, with the teacher praising, or since the teacher praises, or the teacher praising, all the boys labor diligently.

2. Caesare dūcente nēmō prōgredī timet, with Cæsar leading, or when Cæsar leads, or if Cæsar leads, or Cæsar leading, no one fears to advance.

3. Hīs rēbus cognitīs mīlitēs fūgērunt, when this was known, or since this was known, or these things having been learned, the soldiers fled.

4. Proeliō commissō multī vulnerātī sunt, after the battle had begun, or when the battle had begun, or the battle having been joined, many were wounded.

a. One of the fundamental ablative relations is expressed in English by the preposition with (cf. § 50). In each of the sentences above we have a noun and a participle in agreement in the ablative, and the translation shows that in each instance the ablative expresses attendant circumstance. For example, in the first sentence the circumstance attending or accompanying the diligent labor of the boys is the praise of the teacher. This is clearly a with relation, and the ablative is the case to use.

b. We observe, further, that the ablative and its participle are absolutely independent grammatically of the rest of the sentence. If we were to express the thought in English in a similar way, we should use the nominative independent or absolute. In Latin the construction is called the Ablative Absolute, or the Ablative with a Participle. This form of expression is exceedingly common in Latin, but rather rare in English, so we must not, as a rule, employ the English absolute construction to translate the ablative abolute. The attendant circumstance may be one of time (when or after), or one of cause (since), or one of concession (though), or one of condition (if). In each case try to discover the precise relation, and translate the ablative and its participle by a clause which will best express the thought.

381. Rule. Ablative Absolute. The ablative of a noun or pronoun with a present or perfect participle in agreement is used to express attendant circumstance.

Note 1. The verb sum has no present participle. In consequence we often find two nouns or a noun and an adjective in the ablative absolute with no participle expressed; as, tē duce, you (being) leader, with you as leader; patre īnfirmō, my father (being) weak.

Note 2. Be very careful not to put in the ablative absolute a noun and participle that form the subject or object of a sentence. Compare

a. The Gauls, having been conquered by Cæsar, returned home b. The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar, the army returned home

In a the subject is The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar, and we translate,

Gallī ā Caesare victi domum revertērunt

In b the subject is the army. The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar is nominative absolute in English, which requires the ablative absolute in Latin, and we translate,

Gallīs ā Caesare victīs exercitus domum revertit

Note 3. The fact that only deponent verbs have a perfect active participle (cf. § 375. a) often compels a change of voice when translating from one language to the other. For example, we can translate Cæsar having encouraged the legions just as it stands, because hortor is a deponent verb. But if we wish to say Cæsar having conquered the Gauls, we have to change the voice of the participle to the passive because vincō is not deponent, and say, the Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar (see translation above).

382. EXERCISES

I. 1. Māvīs, nōn vīs, vultis, nōlumus. 2. Ut nōlit, ut vellēmus, ut mālit. 3. Nōlī, velle, nōluisse, mālle. 4. Vult, māvultis, ut nōllet, nōlīte. 5. Sōle oriente, avēs cantāre incēpērunt. 6. Clāmōribus audītīs, barbarī prōgredī recūsābant. 7. Caesare legiōnēs hortātō, mīlitēs paulō fortius pugnāvērunt. 8. Hīs rēbus cognitīs, Helvētiī fīnitimīs persuāsērunt ut sēcum iter facerent. 9. Labōribus cōnfectīs, mīlitēs ā Caesare quaerēbant ut sibi praemia daret. 10. Conciliō convocātō, prīncipēs ita respondērunt. 11. Dux plūrīs diēs in Helvētiōrum fīnibus morāns multōs vīcōs incendit. 12. Magnitūdine Germānōrum cognitā, quīdam ex Rōmānis timēbant. 13. Mercātōribus rogātīs, Caesar nihilō plūs reperīre potuit.

II. 1. He was unwilling, lest they prefer, they have wished. 2. You prefer, that they might be unwilling, they wish. 3. We wish, they had preferred, that he may prefer. 4. Cæsar, when he heard the rumor (the rumor having been heard), commanded (imperāre) the legions to advance more quickly. 5. Since Cæsar was leader, the men were willing to make the journey. 6. A few, terrified2 by the reports which they had heard, preferred to remain at home. 7. After these had been left behind, the rest hastened as quickly as possible. 8. After Cæsar had undertaken the business (Cæsar, the business having been undertaken), he was unwilling to delay longer.3

LESSON LXVIII

THE IRREGULAR VERB FĪŌ · THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF RESULT

383. The verb fīō, be made, happen, serves as the passive of faciō, make, in the present system. The rest of the verb is formed regularly from faciō. Learn the principal parts and conjugation (§ 500). Observe that the i is long except before -er and in fit.

a. The compounds of facio with prepositions usually form the passive regularly, as,

Active	cōnficiō, cōnficere, cōnfēcī, cōnfectus
Passive	cōnficior, cōnficī, cōnfectus sum

384. Observe the following sentences:

1. Terror erat tantus ut omnēs fugerent, the terror was so great that all fled.

2. Terror erat tantus ut nōn facile mīlitēs sēsē reciperent, the terror was so great that the soldiers did not easily recover themselves.

3. Terror fēcit ut omnēs fugerent, terror caused all to flee (lit. made that all fled).

a. Each of these sentences is complex, containing a principal clause and a subordinate clause.

b. The principal clause names a cause and the subordinate clause states the consequence or result of this cause.

c. The subordinate clause has its verb in the subjunctive, though it is translated like an indicative. The construction is called the subjunctive of consequence or result, and the clause is called a consecutive or result clause.

d. In the last example the clause of result is the object of the verb fēcit.

e. The conjunction introducing the consecutive or result clause is ut = so that; negative, ut nōn = so that not.

385. Rule. Subjunctive of Result. Consecutive clauses of result are introduced by ut or ut nōn and have the verb in the subjunctive.

386. Rule. Object clauses of result with ut or ut nōn are found after verbs of effecting or bringing about.

387. Purpose and Result Clauses Compared. There is great similarity in the expression of purpose and of result in Latin. If the sentence is affirmative, both purpose and result clauses may be introduced by ut; but if the sentence is negative, the purpose clause has nē and the result clause ut nōn. Result clauses are often preceded in the main clause by such words as tam, ita, sic (so), and these serve to point them out. Compare

a.	Tam graviter vulnerātus est ut caperētur	He was so severely wounded that he was captured
b.	Graviter vulnerātus est ut caperētur	He was severely wounded in order that he might be captured

Which sentence contains a result clause, and how is it pointed out?

388. EXERCISES

I. 1. Fit, fīet, ut fīat, fīēbāmus. 2. Fīō, fīēs, ut fierent, fierī, fīunt. 3. Fīētis, ut fīāmus, fīs, fīemus. 4. Mīlitēs erant tam tardī ut ante noctem in castra nōn pervenīrent. 5. Sōl facit ut omnia sint pulchra. 6. Eius modī perīcula erant ut nēmō proficīscī vellet. 7. Equitēs hostium cum equitātū nostrō in itinere contendērunt, ita tamen1 ut nostrī omnibus in partibus superiōrēs essent. 8. Virtūs mīlitum nostrōrum fēcit ut hostēs nē ūnum quidem2 impetum sustinērent. 9. Hominēs erant tam audācēs ut nūllō modō continērī possent. 10. Spatium erat tam parvum ut mīlitēs tēla iacere nōn facile possent. 11. Hōc proeliō factō barbarī ita perterritī sunt ut ab ultimīs gentibus lēgātī ad Caesarem mitterentur. 12. Hoc proelium factum est nē lēgātī ad Caesarem mitterentur.

II. 1. It will happen, they were being made, that it may happen. 2. It happens, he will be made, to happen. 3. They are made, we were being made, lest it happen. 4. The soldiers are so brave that they conquer. 5. The soldiers are brave in order that they may conquer. 6. The fortification was made so strong that it could not be taken. 7. The fortification was made strong in order that it might not be taken. 8. After the town was taken,3 the townsmen feared that they would be made slaves. 9. What state is so weak that it is unwilling to defend itself?

LESSON LXIX

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC OR DESCRIPTION · THE PREDICATE ACCUSATIVE

389. Akin to the subjunctive of consequence or result is the use of the subjunctive in clauses of characteristic or description.

This construction is illustrated in the following sentences:

1. Quis est quī suam domum nōn amet? who is there who does not love his own home?

2. Erant quī hoc facere nōllent, there were (some) who were unwilling to do this.

3. Tū nōn is es quī amīcōs trādās, you are not such a one as to, or you are not the man to, betray your friends.

4. Nihil videō quod timeam, I see nothing to fear (nothing of such as character as to fear it).

a. Each of these examples contains a descriptive relative clause which tells what kind of a person or thing the antecedent is. To express this thought the subjunctive is used. A relative clause that merely states a fact and does not describe the antecedent uses the indicative. Compare the sentences

Cæsar is the man who is leading us, Caesar est is quī nōs dūcit (mere statement of fact, no description, with the indicative) Cæsar is the man to lead us, Caesar est is quī nōs dūcat (descriptive relative clause with the subjunctive)

b. Observe that in this construction a demonstrative pronoun and a relative, as is quī, are translated such a one as to, the man to.

c. In which of the following sentences would you use the indicative and in which the subjunctive?

These are not the men who did this These are not the men to do this

390. Rule. Subjunctive of Characteristic. A relative clause with the subjunctive is often used to describe an antecedent. This is called the subjunctive of characteristic or description.

391. Observe the sentences

1. Rōmānī Caesarem cōnsulem fēcērunt, the Romans made Cæsar consul. 2. Caesar cōnsul ā Rōmānīs factus est, Cæsar was made consul by the Romans.

a. Observe in 1 that the transitive verb fēcērunt, made, has two objects: (1) the direct object, Caesarem; (2) a second object, cōnsulem, referring to the same person as the direct object and completing the predicate. The second accusative is called a Predicate Accusative.

b. Observe in 2 that when the verb is changed to the passive both of the accusatives become nominatives, the direct object becoming the subject and the predicate accusative the predicate nominative.

392. Rule. Two Accusatives. Verbs of making, choosing, calling, showing, and the like, may take a predicate accusative along with the direct object. With the passive voice the two accusatives become nominatives.

393. The verbs commonly found with two accusatives are

creo, creāre, creāvī, creātus, choose
appellō, appellāre, appellāvī, appellātus nōminō, nōmināre, nōmināvī, nōminātus vocō, vocāre, vocāvī, vocātus	call
faciō, facere, fēcī, factus, make

394. EXERCISES

I. 1. In Germāniae silvis sunt1 multa genera ferārum quae reliquīs in locīs nōn vīsa sint. 2. Erant1 itinera duo quibus Helvētiī domō discēdere possent. 3. Erat1 manus nūlla, nūllum oppidum, nūllum praesidium quod sē armīs dēfenderet. 4. Tōtō frūmentō raptō, domī nihil erat quō mortem prohibēre possent. 5. Rōmānī Galbam ducem creāvērunt et summā celeritāte profectī sunt. 6. Neque erat1 tantae multitūdinis quisquam quī morārī vellet. 7. Germānī nōn iī sunt quī adventum Caesaris vereantur. 8. Cōnsulibus occīsīs erant quī2 vellent cum rēgem creāre. 9. Pāce factā erat nēmō quī arma trādere nōllet. 10. Inter Helvētiōs quis erat quī nōbilior illō esset?

II. 1. The Romans called the city Rome. 2. The city was called Rome by the Romans. 3. The better citizens wished to choose him king. 4. The brave soldier was not the man to run. 5. There was no one 3to call me friend. 6. These are not the men to4 betray their friends. 7. There were (some) who called him the bravest of all.

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Eighth Review, Lessons LXI-LXIX, §§ 527-528

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LESSON LXX

THE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE CONJUNCTION CUM · THE ABLATIVE OF SPECIFICATION

395. The conjunction cum has the following meanings and constructions:

cum temporal = when, followed by the indicative or the subjunctive cum causal = since, followed by the subjunctive cum concessive = although, followed by the subjunctive

As you observe, the mood after cum is sometimes indicative and sometimes subjunctive. The reason for this will be made clear by a study of the following sentences:

1. Caesarem vīdī tum cum in Galliā eram, I saw Cæsar at the time when I was in Gaul.

2. Caesar in eōs impetum fēcit cum pācem peterent, Cæsar made an attack upon them when they were seeking peace.

3. Hoc erat difficile cum paucī sine vulneribus essent, this was difficult, since only a few were without wounds.

4. Cum prīmī ōrdinēs fūgissent, tamen reliquī fortiter cōnsistēbant, though the front ranks had fled, yet the rest bravely stood their ground.

a. The underlying principle is one already familiar to you (cf. § 389.a). When the cum clause states a fact and simply fixes the time at which the main action took place, the indicative mood is used. So, in the first example, cum in Galliā eram fixes the time when I saw Cæsar.

b. On the other hand, when the cum clause describes the circumstances under which the main act took place, the subjunctive mood is used. So, in the second example, the principal clause states that Cæsar made an attack, and the cum clause describes the circumstances under which this act occurred. The idea of time is also present, but it is subordinate to the idea of description. Sometimes the descriptive clause is one of cause and we translate cum by since; sometimes it denotes concession and cum is translated although.

396. Rule. Constructions with Cum. The conjunction cum means when, since, or although. It is followed by the subjunctive unless it means when and its clause fixes the time at which the main action took place.

Note. Cum in clauses of description with the subjunctive is much more common than its use with the indicative.

397. Note the following sentences:

1. Oppidum erat parvum magnitūdine sed magnum multitūdine hominum, the town was small in size but great in population.

2. Homō erat corpore īnfīrmus sed validus animō, the man was weak in body but strong in courage.

a. Observe that magnitūdine, multitūdine, corpore, and animō tell in what respect something is true. The relation is one covered by the ablative case, and the construction is called the ablative of specification.

398. Rule. Ablative of Specification. The ablative is used to denote in what respect something is true.

399. IDIOMS

aliquem certiōrem facere, to inform some one (lit. to make some one more certain) certior fierī, to be informed (lit. to be made more certain) iter dare, to give a right of way, allow to pass obsidēs inter sē dare, to give hostages to each other

400. EXERCISES

I. 1. Helvētiī cum patrum nostrōrum tempore domō prefectī essent, cōnsulis exercitum in fugam dederant. 2. Cum Caesar in Galliam vēnit, Helvētiī aliōs agrōs petēbant. 3. Caesar cum in citeriōre Gallia esset, tamen dē Helvētiōrum cōnsiliīs certior fīēbat. 4. Cum Helvētiī bellō clārissimī essent, Caesar iter per prōvinciam dare recūsāvit. 5. Lēgātus cum haec audīvisset, Caesarem certiōrem fecit. 6. Cum principēs inter sē obsidēs darent, Rōmānī bellum parāvērunt. 7. Caesar, cum id nūntiātum esset, mātūrat ab urbe proficīscī. 8. Nē virtūte quidem Gallī erant parēs Germānis. 9. Caesar neque corpore neque animō īnfīrmus erat. 10. Illud bellum tum incēpit cum Caesar fuit cōnsul.

Observe in each case what mood follows cum, and try to give the reasons for its use. In the third sentence the cum clause is concessive, in the fourth and sixth causal.

II. 1. That battle was fought at the time when (tum cum) I was at Rome. 2. Though the horsemen were few in number, nevertheless they did not retreat. 3. When the camp had been sufficiently fortified, the enemy returned home. 4. Since the tribes are giving hostages to each other, we shall inform Cæsar. 5. The Gauls and the Germans are very unlike in language and laws.

LESSON LXXI

VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE · THE PREDICATE GENITIVE

401. Review the word lists in §§ 510, 511.

402. The Gerund. Suppose we had to translate the sentence

By overcoming the Gauls Cæsar won great glory

We can see that overcoming here is a verbal noun corresponding to the English infinitive in -ing, and that the thought calls for the ablative of means. To translate this by the Latin infinitive would be impossible, because the infinitive is indeclinable and therefore has no ablative case form. Latin, however, has another verbal noun of corresponding meaning, called the gerund, declined as a neuter of the second declension in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular, and thus supplying the cases that the infinitive lacks.1 Hence, to decline in Latin the verbal noun overcoming, we should use the infinitive for the nominative and the gerund for the other cases, as follows:

Nom.	superāre	overcoming to overcome	Infinitive
Gen. Dat. Acc. Abl.	superandī, of overcoming superandō, for overcoming superandum, overcoming superandō, by overcoming		Gerund

Like the infinitive, the gerund governs the same case as the verb from which it is derived. So the sentence given above becomes in Latin

Superandō Gallōs Caesar magnam glōriam reportāvit

403. The gerund2 is formed by adding -ndī, -ndō, -ndum, -ndō, to the present stem, which is shortened or otherwise changed, as shown below:

	Paradigm of the Gerund
	CONJ. I	CONJ. II	CONJ. III		CONJ. IV
Gen.	amandī	monendī	regendī	capiendī	audiendī
Dat.	amandō	monendō	regendō	capiendō	audiendō
Acc.	amandum	monendum	regendum	capiendum	audiendum
Abl.	amandō	monendō	regendō	capiendō	audiendō

a. Give the gerund of cūrō, dēleō, sūmō, iaciō, veniō.

b. Deponent verbs have the gerund of the active voice (see § 493). Give the gerund of cōnor, vereor, sequor, patior, partior.

404. The Gerundive. The gerundive is the name given to the future passive participle (§ 374. d) when the participle approaches the meaning of a verbal noun and is translated like a gerund. It is the adjective corresponding to the gerund. For example, to translate the plan of waging war, we may use the gerund with its direct object and say cōnsilium gerendī bellum; or we may use the gerundive and say cōnsilium bellī gerendī, which means, literally, the plan of the war to be waged, but which came to have the same force as the gerund with its object, and was even preferred to it.

405. Compare the following parallel uses of the gerund and gerundive:

	Gerund	Gerundive
Gen.	Spēs faciendī pācem The hope of making peace	Spēs faciendae pācis The hope of making peace
Dat.	Locus idōneus pugnandō A place suitable for fighting	Locus idōneus castrīs pōnendīs A place suitable for pitching camp
Acc.	Mīsit equitēs ad īnsequendum He sent horsemen to pursue	Mīsit equitēs ad īnsequendōs hostīs He sent horsemen to pursue the enemy
Abl.	Nārrandō fābulās magister puerīs placuit The teacher pleased the boys by telling stories	Nārrandīs fābulīs magister puerīs placuit The teacher pleased the boys by telling stories

a. We observe

(1) That the gerund is a noun and the gerundive an adjective.

(2) That the gerund, being a noun, may stand alone or with an object.

(3) That the gerundive, being an adjective, is used only in agreement with a noun.

406. Rule. Gerund and Gerundive. 1. The Gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular. The constructions of these cases are in general the same as those of other nouns.

2. The Gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of gerund + object excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without a preposition. Even in these instances the gerundive construction is more usual.

407. Rule. Gerund or Gerundive of Purpose. The accusative of the gerund or gerundive with ad, or the genitive with causā3 (= for the sake of), is used to express purpose.

Gerund	Gerundive
Ad audiendum vēnērunt or Audiendī causā vēnērunt They came to hear	Ad urbem videndam vēnērunt or Urbis videndae causā vēnērunt They came to see the city

Note. These sentences might, of course, be written with the subjunctive of purpose,—vēnērunt ut audīrent; vēnērunt ut urbem vidērent. In short expressions, however, the gerund and gerundive of purpose are rather more common.

408. We have learned that the word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the genitive, as, equus Galbae, Galba’s horse. If, now, we wish to express the idea the horse is Galba’s, Galba remains the possessor, and hence in the genitive as before, but now stands in the predicate, as, equus est Galbae. Hence this is called the predicate genitive.

409. Rule. Predicate Genitive. The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, especially after the forms of sum, and is then called the predicate genitive.

410. IDIOMS

alīcui negōtium dare, to employ someone (lit. to give business to some one) novīs rēbus studēre, to be eager for a revolution (lit. to be eager for new things) reī mīlitāris perītissimus, very skillful in the art of war sē suaque omnia, themselves and all their possessions

411. EXERCISES

I. 1. Caesar cum in Galliā bellum gereret, militibus decimae legiōnis maximē fāvit quia reī mīlitāris perītissimī erant. 2. Sociīs negōtium dedit reī frumentāriae cūrandae. 3. Lēgāti nōn sōlum audiendī causā sed etiam dicendī causā vēnērunt. 4. Imperātor iussit explōrātōres locum idōneum mūnindō reperīre. 5. Nuper hae gentēs novīs rēbus studēbant; mox iīs persuādēbō ut Caesarī sē suaque omnia dēdant. 6. Iubēre est regīnae1 et pārēre est multitūdinis.4 7. Hōc proeliō factō quīdam ex hostibus ad pācem petendam venērunt. 8. Erant quī arma trādere nōllent. 9. Hostēs tam celeriter prōgressī sunt ut spatium pīla in hostīs iaciendī non darētur. 10. Spatium neque arma capiendī5 neque auxilī petendī2 datum est.

II. 1. These ornaments 6belong to Cornelia. 2. Men very skillful in the art of war were sent 7to capture the town. 3. The scouts found a hill suitable for fortifying very near to the river. 4. Soon the cavalry will come 8to seek supplies. 5. The mind of the Gauls is eager for revolution and for undertaking wars. 6. To lead the line of battle 8belongs to the general. 7. 10Whom shall we employ to look after the grain supply?

LESSON LXXII

THE IRREGULAR VERB EŌ · INDIRECT STATEMENTS

412. Learn the principal parts and the conjugation of eō, go (§ 499).

a. Notice that ī-, the root of eō, is changed to e- before a vowel, excepting in iēns, the nominative of the present participle. In the perfect system -v- is regularly dropped.

413. Learn the meaning and principal parts of the following compounds of eō with prepositions:

ad´eō, adī´re, ad´iī, ad´itus, go to, visit, with the accusative ex´eō, exī´re, ex´iī, ex´itus, go forth, with ex or dē and the ablative of the place from which in´eō, inī´re, in´iī, in´itus, begin, enter upon, with the accusative red´eō, redī´re, red´iī, red´itus, return, with ad or in and the accusative of the place to which trāns´eō, trānsī´re, trāns´iī, trāns´itus, cross, with the accusative

414. Indirect Statements in English. Direct statements are those which the speaker or writer makes himself or which are quoted in his exact language. Indirect statements are those reported in a different form of words from that used by the speaker or writer. Compare the following direct and indirect statements:

Direct statements	1. The Gauls are brave 2. The Gauls were brave 3. The Gauls will be brave
Indirect statements after a verb in the present tense	1. He says that the Gauls are brave 2. He says that the Gauls were brave 3. He says that the Gauls will be brave
Indirect statements after a verb in a past tense	1. He said that the Gauls were brave 2. He said that the Gauls had been brave 3. He said that the Gauls would be brave

We see that in English

a. The indirect statement forms a clause introduced by the conjunction that.

b. The verb is finite (cf. § 173) and its subject is in the nominative.

c. The tenses of the verbs originally used are changed after the past tense, He said.

415. Indirect Statements in Latin. In Latin the direct and indirect statements above would be as follows:

Direct Statements	1. Gallī sunt fortēs 2. Gallī erant fortēs 3. Gallī erunt fortēs
Indirect Statements	1. Dīcit or Dīxit Gallōs esse fortīs (He says or He said the Gauls to be brave)1 2. Dīcit or Dīxit Gallōs fuisse fortīs (He says or He said the Gauls to have been brave)1 3. Dīcit or Dīxit Gallōs futūrōs esse fortīs (He says or He said the Gauls to be about to be brave)1

Comparing these Latin indirect statements with the English in the preceding section, we observe three marked differences:

a. There is no conjunction corresponding to that.

b. The verb is in the infinitive and its subject is in the accusative.

c. The tenses of the infinitive are not changed after a past tense of the principal verb.

416. Rule. Indirect Statements. When a direct statement becomes indirect, the principal verb is changed to the infinitive and its subject nominative becomes subject accusative of the infinitive.

417. Tenses of the Infinitive. When the sentences in § 415 were changed from the direct to the indirect form of statement, sunt became esse, erant became fuisse, and erunt became futūrōs esse.

418. Rule. Infinitive Tenses in Indirect Statements. A present indicative of a direct statement becomes present infinitive of the indirect, a past indicative becomes perfect infinitive, and a future indicative becomes future infinitive.

Note. When translating into Latin an English indirect statement, first decide what tense of the indicative would have been used in the direct form. That will show you what tense of the infinitive to use in the indirect.

419. Rule. Verbs followed by Indirect Statements. The accusative-with-infinitive construction in indirect statements is found after verbs of saying, telling, knowing, thinking, and perceiving.

420. Verbs regularly followed by indirect statements are:

a.	Verbs of saying and telling: dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictus, say negō, negāre, negāvī, negātus, deny, say not nūntiō, nūntiāre, nūntiāvī, nūntiātus, announce respondeō, respondēre, respondī, respōnsus, reply
b.	Verbs of knowing: cognōscō, cognōscere, cognōvī, cognitus, learn, (in the perf.) know sciō, scīre, scīvī, scītus, know
c.	Verbs of thinking: arbitror, arbitrārī, arbitrātus sum, think, consider exīstimō, exīstimāre, exīstimāvī, exīstimātus, think, believe iūdicō, iūdicāre, iūdicāvi, iūdicātus, judge, decide putō, putāre, putāvī, putātus, reckon, think spērō, spērāre, spērāvi, spērātus, hope
d.	Verbs of perceiving: audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītus, hear sentiō, sentīre, sēnsī, sēnsus, feel, perceive videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsus, see intellegō, intellegere, intellēxī, intellēctus, understand, perceive

Learn such of these verbs as are new to you.

421. IDIOMS

postrīdiē eius diēī, on the next day (lit. on the next day of that day) initā aestāte, at the beginning of summer memoriā tenēre, to remember (lit. to hold by memory) per explōrātōrēs cognōscere, to learn through scouts

422. EXERCISES

I. 1. It, īmus, īte, īre. 2. Euntī, iisse or īsse, ībunt, eunt. 3. Eundi, ut eant, ībitis, īs. 4. Nē īrent, ī, ībant, ierat. 5. Caesar per explorātores cognōvit Gallōs flūmen trānsīsse. 6. Rōmānī audīvērunt Helvētiōs initā aestāte dē fīnibus suīs exitūrōs esse. 7. Legātī respondērunt nēminem ante Caesarem illam īnsulam adīsse. 8. Prīncipēs Gallōrum dīcunt sē nūllum cōnsilium contrā Caesaris imperium initūrōs esse. 9. Arbitrāmur potentiam rēgīnae esse maiōrem quam cīvium. 10. Rōmānī negant se lībertātem Gallīs ēreptūrōs esse. 11. Hīs rēbus cognitīs sēnsimus lēgātōs non vēnisse ad pācem petendam. 12. Helvētii sciunt Rōmānōs priōrēs victōriās memoriā tenēre. 13. Sociī cum intellegerent multōs vulnerārī, statuērunt in suōs fīnīs redīre. 14. Aliquis nūntiāvit Mārcum cōnsulem creātum esse.

II. 1. The boy is slow. He says that the boy is, was, (and) will be slow. 2. The horse is, has been, (and) will be strong. He judged that the horse was, had been, (and) would be strong. 3. We think that the army will go forth from the camp at the beginning of summer. 4. The next day we learned through scouts that the enemy’s town was ten miles off.2 5. The king replied that the ornaments belonged to3 the queen.

TUBA

LESSON LXXIII

VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE IRREGULAR VERB FERŌ · THE DATIVE WITH COMPOUNDS

423. Review the word lists in §§ 513, 514.

424. Learn the principal parts and conjugation of the verb ferō, bear (§ 498).

1. Learn the principal parts and meanings of the following compounds of ferō, bear:

ad´ferō, adfer´re, at´tulī, adlā´tus, bring to; report cōn´ferō, cōnfer´re, con´tulī, conlā´tus, bring together, collect dē´ferō, dēfer´re, dē´tulī, dēlā´tus, bring to; report; grant, confer īn´ferō, īnfer´re, in´tulī, inlā´tus, bring in, bring against re´ferō, refer´re, ret´tulī, relā´tus, bear back, report

425. The dative is the case of the indirect object. Many intransitive verbs take an indirect object and are therefore used with the dative (cf. § 153). Transitive verbs take a direct object in the accusative; but sometimes they have an indirect object or dative as well. The whole question, then, as to whether or not a verb takes the dative, depends upon its capacity for governing an indirect object. A number of verbs, some transitive and some intransitive, which in their simple form would not take an indirect object, when compounded with certain prepositions, have a meaning which calls for an indirect object. Observe the following sentences:

1. Haec rēs exercituī magnam calamitātem attulit, this circumstance brought great disaster to the army. 2. Germānī Gallīs bellum īnferunt, the Germans make war upon the Gauls. 3. Hae cōpiae proeliō nōn intererant, these troops did not take part in the battle. 4. Equitēs fugientibus hostibus occurrunt, the horsemen meet the fleeing enemy. 5. Galba cōpiīs fīlium praefēcit, Galba put his son in command of the troops.

In each sentence there is a dative, and in each a verb combined with a preposition. In no case would the simple verb take the dative.

426. Rule. Dative with Compounds. Some verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, dē, in, inter, ob, post, prae, prō, sub, super, admit the dative of the indirect object. Transitive compounds may take both an accusative and a dative.

Note 1. Among such verbs are1

ad´ferō, adfer´re, at´tulī, adlā´tus, bring to; report ad´sum, ades´se, ad´fuī, adfutū´rus, assist; be present dē´ferō, dēfer´re, dē´tulī, dēlātus, report; grant, confer dē´sum, dees´se, dē´fuī, ——, be wanting, be lacking īn´ferō, īnfer´re, in´tulī, inlā´tus, bring against, bring upon inter´sum, interes´se, inter´fuī, interfutū´rus, take part in occur´rō, occur´rere, occur´rī, occur´sus, run against, meet praefi´ciō, praefi´cere, praefē´cī, praefec´tus, appoint over, place in command of prae´sum, praees´se, prae´fuī, ——, be over, be in command

427. IDIOMS

graviter or molestē ferre, to be annoyed at, to be indignant at, followed by the accusative and infinitive sē cōnferre ad or in, with the accusative, to betake one’s self to alicui bellum īnferre, to make war upon some one pedem referre, to retreat (lit. to bear back the foot)

428. EXERCISES

I. 1. Fer, ferent, ut ferant, ferunt. 2. Ferte, ut ferrent, tulisse, tulerant. 3. Tulimus, ferēns, lātus esse, ferre. 4. Cum nāvigia insulae adpropinquārent, barbarī terrōre commōtī pedem referre cōnātī sunt. 5. Gallī molestē ferēbant Rōmānōs agrōs vastāre. 6. Caesar sociīs imperāvit nē fīnitimis suīs bellum īnferrent. 7. Explorātōrēs, qui Caesarī occurrērunt, dīxērunt exercitum hostium vulneribus dēfessum sēsē in alium locum contulisse. 8. Hostes sciēbant Rōmānōs frūmentō egēre et hanc rem Caesarī summum perīculum adlātūram esse. 9. Impedīmentīs in ūnum locum conlātis, aliquī mīlitum flūmen quod nōn longē aberat trānsiērunt. 10. Hōs rēx hortātus est ut ōrāculum adīrent et rēs audītās ad sē referrent. 11. Quem imperātor illī legiōnī praefēcit? Pūblius illī legiōnī pracerat. 12. Cum esset Caesar in citeriōre Galliā, crēbrī ad eum2 rūmōrēs adferēbantur litterīsque quoque certior fīēbat Gallōs obsidēs inter sē dare.

II. 1. The Gauls will make war upon Cæsar’s allies. 2. We heard that the Gauls would make war upon Cæsar’s allies. 3. Publius did not take part in that battle. 4. We have been informed that Publius did not take part in that battle. 5. The man who was in command of the cavalry was wounded and began to retreat. 6. Cæsar did not place you in command of the cohort to bring3 disaster upon the army.

LESSON LXXIV

VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS

429. Review the word lists in §§ 517, 518.

430. When we report a statement instead of giving it directly, we have an indirect statement. (Cf. § 414.) So, if we report a question instead of asking it directly, we have an indirect question.

Direct Question	Indirect Question
Who conquered the Gauls?	He asked who conquered the Gauls

a. An indirect question depends, usually as object, upon a verb of asking (as petō, postulō, quaerō, rogō) or upon some verb or expression of saying or mental action. (Cf. § 420.)

431. Compare the following direct and indirect questions:

Direct	Indirect
Quis Gallōs vincit? Who is conquering the Gauls?	a.	Rogat quis Gallōs vincat He asks who is conquering the Gauls
	b.	Rogavit quis Gallōs vinceret He asked who was conquering the Gauls
Ubī est Rōma? Where is Rome?	a.	Rogat ubi sit Rōma He asks where Rome is
	b.	Rogāvit ubi esset Rōma He asked where Rome was
Caesarne Gallōs vīcit? Did Cæsar conquer the Gauls?	a.	Rogat num Caesar Gallōs vīcerit He asks whether Cæsar conquered the Gauls
	b.	Rogāvit num Caesar Gallōs vīcisset He asked whether Cæsar had conquered the Gauls

a. The verb in a direct question is in the indicative mood, but the mood is subjunctive in an indirect question.

b. The tense of the subjunctive follows the rules for tense sequence.

c. Indirect questions are introduced by the same interrogative words as introduce direct questions, excepting thatyes-or-no direct questions (cf. § 210) on becoming indirect are usually introduced by num, whether.

432. Rule. Indirect Questions. In an indirect question the verb is in the subjunctive and its tense is determined by the law for tense sequence.

433. IDIOMS

dē tertiā vigiliā, about the third watch iniūriās alicui īnferre, to inflict injuries upon some one facere verba prō, with the ablative, to speak in behalf of in reliquum tempus, for the future

434. EXERCISES

I. 1. Rēx rogāvit quid lēgātī postulārent et cūr ad sē vēnissent. 2. Quaesīvit quoque num nec recentīs iniūriās nec dubiam Rōmānōrum amīcitiam memoriā tenērent. 3. Vidētisne quae oppida hostēs oppugnāverint? 4. Nōnne scītis cūr Gallī sub montem sēse contulerint? 5. Audīvimus quās iniūrias tibi Germānī intulissent. 6. Dē tertiā vigiliā imperātor mīsit hominēs quī cognōscerent quae esset nātūra montis. 7. Prō hīs ōrātor verba fēcit et rogāvit cūr cōnsulēs nāvīs ad plēnem summī perīculī locum mittere vellent. 8. Lēgātīs convocātīs dēmōnstrāvit quid fierī vellet. 9. Nūntius referēbat quid in Gallōrum conciliō dē armīs trādendīs dictum esset. 10. Moneō nē in reliquum tempus peditēs et equitēs trāns flūmen dūcās.

II. 1. What hill did they seize? I see what hill they seized. 2. Who has inflicted these injuries upon our dependents? 3. They asked who had inflicted those injuries upon their dependents. 4. Whither did you go about the third watch? You know whither I went. 5. At what time did the boys return home? I will ask at what time the boys returned home.

LESSON LXXV

VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE DATIVE OF PURPOSE, OR END FOR WHICH

435. Review the word lists in §§ 521, 522.

436. Observe the following sentences:

1. Explōrātōrēs locum castrīs dēlēgērunt, the scouts chose a place for a camp. 2. Hoc erat magnō impedīmentō Gallīs, this was (for) a great hindrance to the Gauls. 3. Duās legiōnēs praesidiō castrīs relīquit, he left two legions as (lit. for) a guard to the camp.

In each of these sentences we find a dative expressing the purpose or end for which something is intended or for which it serves. These datives are castrīs, impedīmentō, and praesidiō. In the second and third sentences we find a second dative expressing the person or thing affected (Gallīs and castrīs). As you notice, these are true datives, covering the relations of for which and to which. (Cf. § 43.)

437. Rule. Dative of Purpose or End. The dative is used to denote the purpose or end for which, often with another dative denoting the person or thing affected.

438. IDIOMS

cōnsilium omittere, to give up a plan locum castrīs dēligere, to choose a place for a camp alicui magnō ūsuī esse, to be of great advantage to some one (lit. for great advantage to some one)

439. EXERCISES

I. 1. Rogāvit cūr illae cōpiae relictae essent. Respondērunt illās cōpiās esse praesidiō castrīs. 2. Caesar mīsit explōrātōrēs ad locum dēligendum castrīs. 3. Quisque exīstimāvit ipsum nōmen Caesaris magnō terrōrī barbarīs futūrum esse. 4. Prīmā lūce īdem exercitus proelium ācre commīsit, sed gravia suōrum vulnera magnae cūrae imperātōrī erant. 5. Rēx respondit amīcitiam populī Rōmānī sibi ōrnāmentō et praesidiō dēbēre esse. 6. Quis praeerat equitātuī quem auxiliō Caesarī sociī mīserant? 7. Aliquibus rēs secundae sunt summae calamitātī et rēs adversae sunt mīrō ūsuī. 8. Gallīs magnō ad pugnam erat impedīmentō quod equitātus ā dextrō cornū premēbat. 9. Memoria prīstinae virtūtis nōn minus quam metus hostium erat nostrīs magnō ūsuī. 10. Tam dēnsa erat silva ut prōgredī nōn possent.

II. 1. I advise you 1to give up the plan 2of making war upon the brave Gauls. 2. Do you know 3where the cavalry has chosen a place for a camp? 3. The fear of the enemy will be of great advantage to you. 4. Cæsar left three cohorts as (for) a guard to the baggage. 5. In winter the waves of the lake are so great 4that they are (for) a great hindrance to ships. 6. Cæsar inflicted severe5 punishment on those who burned the public buildings.

LESSON LXXVI

VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE GENITIVE AND ABLATIVE OF QUALITY OR DESCRIPTION

440. Review the word lists in §§ 524, 525.

441. Observe the English sentences

(1) A man of great courage, or (2) A man with great courage (3) A forest of tall trees, or (4) A forest with tall trees

Each of these sentences contains a phrase of quality or description. In the first two a man is described; in the last two a forest. The descriptive phrases are introduced by the prepositions of and with.

In Latin the expression of quality or description is very similar.

The prepositions of and with suggest the genitive and the ablative respectively, and we translate the sentences above

(1) Vir magnae virtūtis, or (2) Vir magnā virtūte (3) Silva altārum arborum, or (4) Silva altīs arboribus

There is, however, one important difference between the Latin and the English. In English we may say, for example, a man of courage, using the descriptive phrase without an adjective modifier. In Latin, however, an adjective modifier must always be used, as above.

a. Latin makes a distinction between the use of the two cases in that numerical descriptions of measure are in the genitive and descriptions of physical characteristics are in the ablative. Other descriptive phrases may be in either case.

442. EXAMPLES

1. Fossa duodecim pedum, a ditch of twelve feet. 2. Homō magnīs pedibus et parvō capite, a man with big feet and a small head. 3. Rēx erat vir summā audāciā or rēx erat vir summae audāciae, the king was a man of the greatest boldness.

443. Rule. Genitive of Description. Numerical descriptions of measure are expressed by the genitive with a modifying adjective.

444. Rule. Ablative of Description. Descriptions of physical characteristics are expressed by the ablative with a modifying adjective.

445. Rule. Genitive or Ablative of Description. Descriptions involving neither numerical statements nor physical characteristics may be expressed by either the genitive or the ablative with a modifying adjective.

446. IDIOMS

Helvētiīs in animō est, the Helvetii intend, (lit. it is in mind to the Helvetians) in mātrimōnium dare, to give in marriage nihil posse, to have no power fossam perdūcere, to construct a ditch (lit. to lead a ditch through)

447. EXERCISES

I. 1. Mīlitēs fossam decem pedum per eōrum fīnīs perdūxērunt. 2. Prīnceps Helvētiōrum, vir summae audāciae, prīncipibus gentium fīnitimārum sorōrēs in mātrimōnium dedit. 3. Eōrum amīcitiam cōnfīrmāre voluit quō facilius Rōmānīs bellum īnferret. 4. Germanī et Gallī nōn erant eiusdem gentis. 5. Omnēs ferē Germānī erant magnīs corporum vīribus.1 6. Gallī qui oppidum fortiter dēfendēbant saxa ingentis magnitūdinis dē mūrō iaciēbant. 7. Cum Caesar ab explōrātōribus quaereret quī illud oppidum incolerent, explōrātōrēs respondērunt eōs esse homines summā virtūte et magnō cōnsiliō. 8. Moenia vīgintī pedum ā sinistrā parte, et ā dextrā parte flūmen magnae altitūdinis oppidum dēfendēbant. 9. Cum Caesar in Galliam pervēnisset, erat rūmor Helvētiīs in animō esse iter per prōvinciam Rōmānam facere. 10. Caesar, ut eōs ab fīnibus Rōmānis prohibēret, mūnītiōnem 2multa mīlia passuum longam fēcit.

II. 1. Cæsar was a general of much wisdom and great boldness, and very skillful in the art of war. 2. The Germans were of great size, and thought that the Romans had no power. 3. Men of the highest courage were left in the camp as (for) a guard to the baggage. 4. The king’s daughter, who was given in marriage to the chief of a neighboring state, was a woman of very beautiful appearance. 5. The soldiers will construct a ditch of nine feet around the camp. 6. A river of great width was between us and the enemy.

GLADII

LESSON LXXVII

REVIEW OF AGREEMENT, AND OF THE GENITIVE, DATIVE, AND ACCUSATIVE

448. There are four agreements:

1. That of the predicate noun or of the appositive with the noun to which it belongs (§§ 76, 81).

2. That of the adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle with its noun (§ 65).

3. That of a verb with its subject (§ 28).

4. That of a relative pronoun with its antecedent (§ 224).

449. The relation expressed by the genitive is, in general, denoted in English by the preposition of. It is used to express

1. Possession	a. As attributive (§ 38). b. In the predicate (§ 409).
2. The whole of which a part is taken (partitive genitive) (§ 331).
3. Quality or description (§§ 443, 445).

450. The relation expressed by the dative is, in general, denoted in English by the prepositions to or for when they do not imply motion through space. It is used to express

1. The indirect object	a. With intransitive verbs and with transitive verbs in connection with a direct object in the accusative (§ 45). b. With special intransitive verbs (§ 154). c. With verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, dē, in, inter, ob, post, prae, prō, sub, super (§ 426).
2. The object to which the quality of an adjective is directed (§ 143).
3. The purpose, or end for which, often with a second dative denoting the person or thing affected (§ 437).

451. The accusative case corresponds, in general, to the English objective. It is used to express

1. The direct object of a transitive verb (§ 37).

2. The predicate accusative together with the direct object after verbs of making, choosing, falling, showing, and the like (§ 392).

3. The subject of the infinitive (§ 214).

4. The object of prepositions that do not govern the ablative (§ 340).

5. The duration of time and the extent of space (§ 336).

6. The place to which (§§ 263, 266).

452. EXERCISES

I. 1. Mīlitēs quōs vīdimus dīxērunt imperium bellī esse Caesaris imperātōris. 2. Helvētiī statuērunt quam1 maximum numerum equōrum et carrōrum cōgere. 3. Tōtīus Galliae Helvētiī plūrimum valuērunt. 4. Multās hōrās ācriter pugnātum est neque quisquam poterat vidēre hostem fugientem. 5. Virī summae virtūtis hostīs decem mīlia passuum īnsecūtī sunt. 6. Caesar populō Rōmānō persuāsit ut sē cōnsulem creāret. 7. Victōria exercitūs erat semper imperātōrī grātissima. 8. Trīduum iter fēcērunt et Genāvam, in oppidum2 hostium, pervēnērunt. 9. Caesar audīvit Germānōs bellum Gallīs intulisse. 10. Magnō ūsuī mīlitibus Caesaris erat quod priōribus proeliīs sēsē exercuerant.

II. 1. One3 of the king’s sons and many of his men were captured. 2. There was no one who wished4 to appoint her queen. 3. The grain supply was always a care (for a care) to Cæsar, the general. 4. I think that the camp is ten miles distant. 5. We marched for three hours through a very dense forest. 6. The plan 5of making war upon the allies was not pleasing to the king. 7. When he came to the hill he fortified it 6by a twelve-foot wall.

LESSON LXXVIII

REVIEW OF THE ABLATIVE

453. The relations of the ablative are, in general, expressed in English by the prepositions with (or by), from (or by), and in (or at). The constructions growing out of these meanings are

I. Ablative rendered with (or by):
	1. Cause (§ 102) 2. Means (§ 103) 3. Accompaniment (§ 104) 4. Manner (§ 105) 5. Measure of difference (§ 317) 6. With a participle (ablative absolute) (§ 381) 7. Description or quality (§§ 444, 445) 8. Specification (§ 398)
II. Ablative rendered from (or by):
	1. Place from which (§§ 179, 264) 2. Ablative of separation (§ 180) 3. Personal agent with a passive verb (§ 181) 4. Comparison without quam (§ 309)
III. Ablative rendered in (or at):
	1. Place at or in which (§§ 265, 266) 2. Time when or within which (§ 275)

454. EXERCISES

I. 1. Gallī locīs superiōribus occupātīs itinere exercitum prohibēre cōnantur. 2. Omnēs oppidānī ex oppidō ēgressī salūtem fugā petere incēpērunt. 3. Caesar docet sē mīlitum vītam suā salūte habēre multō cāriōrem. 4. Cum celerius omnium opīniōne pervēnisset, hostēs ad eum obsidēs mīsērunt 5. Vīcus in valle positus montibus altissimīs undique continētur. 6. Plūrimum inter Gallōs haec gēns et virtūte et hominum numerō valēbat. 7. Secundā vigiliā nūllō certō ōrdine neque imperiō ē castrīs ēgressī sunt. 8. Duābus legiōnibus Genāvae relictīs, proximō diē cum reliquīs domum profectus est. 9. Erant itinera duo quibus itineribus Helvētiī domō exīre possent. 10. Rēx erat summā audāciā et magnā apud populum potentiā. 11. Gallī timōre servitūtis commōtī bellum parābant. 12. Caesar monet lēgātōs ut contineant militēs, nē studiō pugnandī aut spē praedae longius1 prōgrediantur. 13. Bellum ācerrimum ā Caesare in Gallōs gestum est.

II. 1. The lieutenant after having seized the mountain restrained his (men) from battle. 2. All the Gauls differ from each other in laws. 3. This tribe is much braver than the rest. 4. This road is 2ten miles shorter than that. 5. In summer Cæsar carried on war in Gaul, in winter he returned to Italy. 6. At midnight the general set out from the camp with three legions. 7. I fear that you cannot protect3 yourself from these enemies. 8. 4After this battle was finished peace was made by all the Gauls.

LESSON LXXIX

REVIEW OF THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE, THE INFINITIVE, AND THE SUBJUNCTIVE

455. The gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular. The constructions of these cases are in general the same as those of other nouns (§§ 402; 406.1).

456. The gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of gerund + object, excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without a preposition. Even in these instances the gerundive construction is more usual (§ 406.2).

457. The infinitive is used:

I. As in English.

a. As subject or predicate nominative (§ 216).

b. To complete the predicate with verbs of incomplete predication (complementary infinitive) (§ 215).

c. As object with subject accusative after verbs of wishing, commanding, forbidding, and the like (§ 213).

II. In the principal sentence of an indirect statement after verbs of saying and mental action. The subject is in the accusative (§§ 416, 418, 419).

458. The subjunctive is used:

1. To denote purpose (§§ 349, 366, 372).

2. To denote consequence or result (§§ 385, 386).

3. In relative clauses of characteristic or description (§ 390).

4. In cum clauses of time, cause, and concession (§ 396).

5. In indirect questions (§ 432).

459. EXERCISES

I. 1. Caesar, cum pervēnisset, militēs hortābātur nē cōnsilium oppidī capiendi omitterent. 2. Rēx, castrīs prope oppidum positīs, mīsit explōrātōrēs quī cognōscerent ubi exercitus Rōmanus esset. 3. Nēmo relinquēbātur quī arma ferre posset. 4. Nūntiī vīdērunt ingentem armōrum multitudinem dē mūrō in fossani iactam esse. 5. Dux suōs trānsīre flūmen iussit. Trānsīre autem hoc flūmen erat difficillimum. 6. Rōmānī cum hanc calamitātem molestē ferrant, tamen terga vertere recūsāvērunt. 7. Hōc rūmōre audītō, tantus terror omnium animōs occupāvit ut nē fortissimī quidem proelium committere vellent. 8. Erant quī putārent tempus annī idōneum nōn esse itinerī faciendō. 9. Tam ācriter ab utraque parte pugnābātur ut multa mīlia hominum occīderentur. 10. Quid timēs? Timeō nē Rōmānīs in animō sit tōtam Galliam superāre et nōbīs iniūriās inferre.

II. 1. Do you not see who is standing on the wall? 2. We hear that the plan of taking the town has been given up. 3. Since the Germans thought that the Romans could not cross the Rhine, Cæsar ordered a bridge to be made. 4. When the bridge was finished, the savages were so terrified that they hid themselves. 5. They feared that Cæsar would pursue them. 6. Cæsar 1asked the traders what the size of the island was. 7. The traders advised him not 2to cross the sea. 8. He sent scouts 3to choose a place for a camp.

INTRODUCTORY SUGGESTIONS

How to Translate. You have already had considerable practice in translating simple Latin, and have learned that the guide to the meaning lies in the endings of the words. If these are neglected, no skill can make sense of the Latin. If they are carefully noted and accurately translated, not many difficulties remain. Observe the following suggestions:

1. Read the Latin sentence through to the end, noting endings of nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc.

2. Read it again and see if any of the words you know are nominatives or accusatives. This will often give you what may be called the backbone of the sentence; that is, subject, verb, and object.

3. Look up the words you do not know, and determine their use in the sentence from their endings.

4. If you cannot yet translate the sentence, put down the English meanings of all the words in the same order as the Latin words. You will then generally see through the meaning of the sentence.

5. Be careful to

a. Translate adjectives with the nouns to which they belong.

b. Translate together prepositions and the nouns which they govern.

c. Translate adverbs with the words that they modify.

d. Make sense. If you do not make sense, you have made a mistake. One mistake will spoil a whole sentence.

6. When the sentence is correctly translated, read the Latin over again, and try to understand it as Latin, without thinking of the English translation.

The Parts of a Sentence. You will now meet somewhat longer sentences than you have had before. To assist in translating them, remember, first of all, that every sentence conveys a meaning and either tells us something, asks a question, or gives a command. Every sentence must have a subject and a verb, and the verb may always have an adverb, and, if transitive, will have a direct object.

However long a sentence is, you will usually be able to recognize its subject, verb, and object or predicate complement without any difficulty. These will give you the leading thought, and they must never be lost sight of while making out the rest of the sentence. The chief difficulty in translating arises from the fact that instead of a single adjective, adverb, or noun, we often have a phrase or a clause taking the place of one of these; for Latin, like English, has adjective, adverbial, and substantive clauses and phrases. For example, in the sentence The idle boy does not study, the word idle is an adjective. In The boy wasting his time does not study, the words wasting his time form an adjective phrase modifying boy. In the sentence The boy who wastes his time does not study, the words who wastes his time form an adjective clause modifying boy, and the sentence is complex. These sentences would show the same structure in Latin.

In translating, it is important to keep the parts of a phrase and the parts of a clause together and not let them become confused with the principal sentence. To distinguish between the subordinate clauses and the principal sentence is of the first importance, and is not difficult if you remember that a clause regularly contains a word that marks it as a clause and that this word usually stands first. These words join clauses to the words they depend on, and are called subordinate conjunctions. They are not very numerous, and you will soon learn to recognize them. In Latin they are the equivalents for such words as when, while, since, because, if, before, after, though, in order that, that, etc. Form the habit of memorizing the Latin subordinate conjunctions as you meet them, and of noting carefully the mood of the verb in the clauses which they introduce.

HERCULES

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THE LABORS OF HERCULES

Hercules, a Greek hero celebrated for his great strength, was pursued throughout his life by the hatred of Juno. While yet an infant he strangled some serpents sent by the goddess to destroy him. During his boyhood and youth he performed various marvelous feats of strength, and on reaching manhood he succeeded in delivering the Thebans from the oppression of the Minyæ. In a fit of madness, sent upon him by Juno, he slew his own children; and, on consulting the Delphic oracle as to how he should cleanse himself from this crime, he was ordered to submit himself for twelve years to Eurystheus, king of Tiryns, and to perform whatever tasks were appointed him. Hercules obeyed the oracle, and during the twelve years of his servitude accomplished twelve extraordinary feats known as the Labors of Hercules. His death was caused, unintentionally, by his wife Deiani´ra. Hercules had shot with his poisoned arrows a centaur named Nessus, who had insulted Deianira. Nessus, before he died, gave some of his blood to Deianira, and told her it would act as a charm to secure her husband’s love. Some time after, Deianira, wishing to try the charm, soaked one of her husband’s garments in the blood, not knowing that it was poisoned. Hercules put on the robe, and, after suffering terrible torments, died, or was carried off by his father Jupiter.

LIII.1 THE INFANT HERCULES AND THE SERPENTS

HERCULES ET SERPENTES

Dī2 grave supplicium sūmmit de malīs, sed iī quī lēgibus3 deōrum pārent, etiam post mortem cūrantur. Illa vīta dīs2 erat grātissima quae hominibus miserīs ūtilissima fuerat. Omnium autem praemiōrum summum erat immortālitās. Illud praemium Herculī datum est.

Herculis pater fuit Iuppiter, māter Alcmēna, et omnium hominum validissimus fuisse dīcitur. Sed Iūnō, rēgīna deōrum, eum, adhūc īnfantem, interficere studēbat; nam eī4 et5 Herculēs et Alcmēna erant invīsī. Itaque mīsit duās serpentīs, utramque saevissimam, quae mediā nocte domum6 Alcmēnae vēnērunt. Ibi Herculēs, cum frātre suō, nōn in lectulō sed in scūtō ingentī dormiēbat. Iam audācēs serpentēs adpropinquāverant, iam scūtum movēbant. Tum frāter, terrōre commōtus, magnā vōce mātrem vocāvit, sed Herculēs ipse, fortior quam frāter, statim ingentīs serpentīs manibus suīs rapuit et interfēcit.

LIV. HERCULES CONQUERS THE MINYÆ

Herculēs ā puerō1 corpus suum gravissimīs et difficillimīs labōribus exercēbat et hōc modō vīrēs2 suās cōnfirmāvit. Iam adulēscēns Thēbīs3 habitābat. Ibi Creōn quīdam erat rēx. Minyae, gēns validissima, erant fīnitimī Thēbānīs, et, quia ōlim Thēbānōs vīcerant, quotannīs lēgātōs mittēbant et vectīgal postulābant. Herculēs autem cōnstituit cīvīs suōs hōc vectīgālī līberāre et dixit rēgī, “Dā mihi exercitum tuum et ego hōs superbōs hostīs superābō.” Hanc condiciōnem rēx nōn recūsāvit, et Herculēs nūntiōs in omnīs partis dīmīsit et cōpiās coēgit.4 Tum tempore opportūnissimō proelium cum Minyīs commīsit. Diū pugnātum est, sed dēnique illī impetum Thēbānōrum sustinēre nōn potuērunt et terga vertērunt fugamque cēpērunt.

HE COMMITS A CRIME AND GOES TO THE DELPHIAN ORACLE TO SEEK EXPIATION

Post hoc proelium Creōn rēx, tantā victōriā laetus, fīliam suam Herculī in mātrimōnium dedit. Thēbīs Herculēs cum uxōre suā diū vīvēbat et ab omnibus magnopere amābātur; sed post multōs annōs subitō 1in furōrem incidit et ipse suā manū līberōs suōs interfēcit. Post breve tempus 2ad sānitātem reductus tantum scelus expiāre cupiēbat et cōnstituit ad ōrāculum Delphicum iter facere. Hoc autem ōrāculum erat omnium clārissimum. Ibi sedēbat fēmina quaedam quae Pȳthia appellābātur. Ea cōnsilium dabat iīs quī ad ōrāculum veniēbant.

HERCULES LEONEM SUPERAT

LV. HERCULES BECOMES SUBJECT TO EURYSTHEUS1 · HE STRANGLES THE NEME´AN LION

Itaque Herculēs Pȳthiae tōtam rem dēmonstrāvit nec scelus suum abdidit. Ubi iam Herculēs fīnem fēcit, Pȳthia iussit eum ad urbem Tīryntha2 discēdere et ibi rēgī Eurystheō sēsē committere. Quae3 ubi audīvit, Herculēs ad illam urbem statim contendit et Eurystheō sē in servitūtem trādidit et dīxit, “Quid prīmum, Ō rēx, mē facere iubēs?” Eurystheus, quī perterrēbātur vī et corpore ingentī Herculis et eum occidī4 studēbat, ita respondit: “Audī, Herculēs! Multa mira5 nārrantur dē leōne saevissimō quī hōc tempore in valle Nemaeā omnia vāstat. Iubeō tē, virōrum omnium fortissimum, illō mōnstrō hominēs līberāre.” Haec verba Herculī maximē placuērunt. “Properābo,” inquit, “et parēbō imperiō6 tuō.” Tum in silvās in quibus leō habitābat statim iter fēcit. Mox feram vīdit et plūrīs impetūs fēcit; frūstrā tamen, quod neque sagittīs neque ūllō aliō tēlō mōnstrum vulnerāre potuit. Dēnique Herculēs saevum leōnem suīs ingentibus bracchiīs rapuit et faucīs eius omnibus vīribus compressit. Hōc modō brevī tempore eum interfēcit. Tum corpus leōnis ad oppidum in umerīs reportāvit et pellem posteā prō7 veste gerēbat. Omnēs autem quō eam regiōnem incolēbant, ubi fāmam dē morte leōnis ingentis accēpērunt, erant laetissimī et Herculem laudābant verbīs amplissimīs.

LVI. SLAYING THE LERNE´AN HYDRA

Deinde Herculēs ab Eurystheō iussus est Hydram occīdere. Itaque cum amīcō Iolāō1 contendit ad palūdem Lernaeam ubi Hydra incolēbat. Hoc autem mōnstrum erat serpēns ingēns quae novem capita habēbat. Mox is mōnstrum repperit et summō2 cum perīculō collum eius sinistrā manū rapuit et tenuit. Tum dextrā manū capita novem abscīdere incēpit, sed frūstrā labōrābat, quod quotiēns hoc fēcerat totiēns alia nova capita vidēbat. Quod3 ubi vīdit, statuit capita ignī cremāre. Hōc modō octō capita dēlēvit, sed extrēmum caput vulnerārī nōn potuit, quod erat immortāle. Itaque illud sub ingentī saxō Herculēs posuit et ita victōriam reportāvit.

LVII. THE ARCADIAN STAG AND THE ERYMANTHIAN BOAR

Postquam Eurystheō mors Hydrae nuntiata est, summus terror animum eius occupavit. Itaque iussit Herculem capere et ad sē reportāre cervum quendam; nam minimē cupīvit tantum virum in rēgnō suō tenēre. Hie autem cervus dīcēbātur aurea cornua et pedēs multō1 celeriōrēs ventō2 habēre. Prīmum Herculēs vestīgia animālis petīvit, deinde, ubi cervum ipsum vīdit, omnibus vīribus currere incēpit. Per plūrimōs diēs contendit nec noctū cessāvit. Dēnique postquam per tōtum annum cucurrerat—ita dīcitur—cervum iam dēfessum cēpit et ad Eurystheum portāvit.

Tum vērō iussus est Herculēs aprum quendam capere quī illō tempore agrōs Erymanthiōs vāstābat et hominēs illīus locī magnopere perterrēbat. Herculēs laetē negōtium suscēpit et in Arcadiam celeriter sē recēpit. Ibi mox aprum repperit. Ille autem; simul atque Herculem vīdit, statim quam3 celerrimē fūgit et metū perterritus in fossam altam sēsē abdidit. Herculēs tamen summā cum difficultāte eum extrāxit, nec aper ūllō modō sēsē līberāre potuit, et vīvus ad Eurystheum portātus est.

LVIII. HERCULES CLEANS THE AUGE´AN STABLES AND KILLS THE STYMPHALIAN BIRDS

Deinde Eurystheus Herculī hunc labōrem multō graviōrem imperāvit. Augēās1 quīdam, quī illō tempore rēgnum Ēlidis2 obtinēbat, tria mīlia boum3 habēbat. Hī4 ingentī stabulō continēbantur. Hoc stabulum, quod per trīgintā annōs nōn pūrgātum erat, Herculēs intrā spatium ūnīus diēī pūrgāre iussus est. llle negōtium alacriter suscēpit, et prīmum labōre gravissimō maximam fossam fōdit per quam flūminis aquam dē montibus ad mūrum stabulī dūxit. Tum partem parvam mūrī dēlēvit et aquam in stabulum immīsit. Hōc modō fīnm operis fēcit ūnō diē facillimē.

Post paucōs diēs Herculēs ad oppidum Stymphālum iter fēcit; nam Eurystheus iusserat eum avis Stymphālidēs occīdere. Hae avēs rōstra ferrea habēbant et hominēs miserōs dēvorābant. Ille, postquam ad locum pervēnit, lacum vīdit in quō avēs incolēbant. Nūllō tamen modō Herculēs avibus adpropinquāre potuit; lacus enim nōn ex aquā sed ē līmō cōnstitit.5 Dēnique autem avēs 6dē aliquā causā perterritae in aurās volāvērunt et magna pars eārum sagittīs Herculis occīsa est.

HERCULES ET TAURUS

LIX. HERCULES CAPTURES THE CRETAN BULL AND CARRIES HIM LIVING TO EURYSTHEUS

Tum Eurystheus iussit Herculem portāre vīvum ex īnsulā Crētā taurum quendam saevissimum. Ille igitur nāvem cōnscendit—nam ventus erat idōneus—atque statim solvit. Postquam trīduum nāvigavit, incolumis īnsulae adpropinquāvit. Deinde, postquam omnia parāta sunt, contendit ad eam regiōnem quam taurus vexābat. Mox taurum vīdit ac sine ūllō metū cornua eius corripuit. Tum ingentī labōre mōnstrum ad nāvem trāxit atque cum hāc praedā ex īnsulā discessit.

THE FLESH-EATING HORSES OF DIOME´DES

Postquam ex īnsulā Crētā domum pervēnit, Hercules ab Eurystheō in Thrāciam missus est. Ibi Diomēdēs quīdam, vir saevissimus, rēgnum obtinēbat et omnīs ā fīnibus suīs prohibēbat. Herculēs iussus erat equōs Diomedis rapere et ad Eurystheum dūcere. Hī autem equī hominēs miserrimōs dēvorābant dē quibus rēx supplicium sūmere cupiēbat. Herculēs ubi pervēnit, prīmum equōs ā rēge postulāvit, sed rēx eōs dēdere recūsāvit. Deinde ille īrā commōtus rēgem occīdit et corpus eius equīs trādidit. Itaque is quī anteā multōs necāverat, ipse eōdem suppliciō necātus est. Et equī, nūper saevissima animālia, postquam dominī suī corpus dēvorāvērunt, mānsuētī erant.

LX. THE BELT OF HIPPOL´YTE, QUEEN OF THE AMAZONS

Gēns Amāzonum1 dīcitur2 omnīnō ex mulieribus fuisse. Hae cum virīs proelium committere nōn verēbantur. Hippolytē, Amāzonum rēgīna, balteum habuit pulcherrimum. Hunc balteum possidēre fīlia Eurystheī vehementer cupiēbat. Itaque Eurystheus iussit Herculem impetum in Amāzonēs facere. Ille multīs cum cōpiīs nāvem cōnscendīt et paucis diēbus in Amāzonum fīnīs pervēnit, ac balteum postulāvit. Eum trādere ipsa Hipporytē quidem cupīvit; reliquīs tamen Amazonibus3 persuādēre nōn potuit. Postrīdiē Herculēs proelium commīsit. Multās hōrās utrimque quam fortissimē pugnātum est Dēnique tamen mulieres terga vertērunt et fugā salūtem petiērunt. Multae autem captae sunt, in quō numerō erat ipsa Hippolytē. Herculēs postquam balteum accēpit, omnibus captīvīs lībertātem dedit.

THE DESCENT TO HADES AND THE DOG CER´BERUS

HERCULES ET CERBERUS

Iamque ūnus modo ē duodecim labōribus relinquēbātur sed inter omnīs hic erat difficillimus. Iussus est enim canem Cerberum4 ex Orcō in lūcem trahere. Ex Orcō autem nēmō anteā reverterat. Praetereā Cerberus erat mōnstrum maximē horribile et tria capita habēbat. Herculēs postquam imperia Eurystheī accēpit, statim profectus est et in Orcum dēscendit. Ibi vērō nōn sine summō periculō Cerberum manibus rapuit et ingentī cum labōre ex Orcō in lūcem et adurbem Eurystheī trāxit.

Sic duodecim laborēs illī5 intrā duodecim annōs cōnfectī sunt. Dēmum post longam vītam Herculēs ā deīs receptus est et Iuppiter fīliō suō dedit immortālitātem.

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P. CORNELIUS LENTULUS: THE STORY OF A ROMAN BOY1

LXI. PUBLIUS IS BORN NEAR POMPE´II

P. Cornēlius Lentulus,2 adulēscēns Rōmānus, amplissimā familiā3 nātus est; nam pater eius, Mārcus, erat dux perītissimus, cuius virtūte4 et cōnsiliō multae victōriae reportātae erant; atque mater eius, lūlia, ā clārissimīs maiōribus orta est. Nōn vērō in urbe sed rūrī5 Pūblius nātus est, et cum mātre habitābat in vīllā quae in maris lītore et sub radīcibus magnī montis sita erat. Mōns autem erat Vesuvius et parva urbs Pompēiī octō mīlia6 passuum7 aberat. In Italiā antīquā erant plūrimae quidem villae et pulchrae, sed inter hās omnīs nūlla erat pulchrior quam villa Mārcī Iūliaeque. Frōns vīllae mūrō a maris fluctibus mūniēbātur. Hinc mare et lītora et īnsulae longē lātēque cōnspicī8 ac saepe nāvēs longae et onerāriae poterant. Ā tergō et ab utrōque latere agrī ferācissimī patēbant. Undique erat magna variōrum flōrum cōpia et multa ingentium arborum genera quae aestāte9 umbram dēfessīs agricolīs grātissimam adferēbant. Praetereā erant1 in agrīs stabulīsque multa animālium genera, nōn sōlum equī et bovēs sed etiam rārae avēs. Etiam erat10 magna piscīna plēna piscium; nam Rōmānī piscīs dīligenter colēbant.

PUERI ROMANI

LXII. HIS LIFE ON THE FARM

Huius vīllae Dāvus, servus Mārcī, est vīlicus1 et cum Lesbiā uxōre omnia cūrat. Vīlicus et uxor in casā humilī, mediīs in agrīs sitā, habitant. Ā prīmā lūce ūsque ad vesperum sē2 gravibus labōribus exercent ut omnī rēs bene gerant.3 Plūrima enim sunt officia Dāvī et Lesbiae. Vīlicus servōs regit nē tardī sint4; mittit aliōs quī agrōs arent,4 aliōs quī hortōs inrigent,4 et opera in5 tōtum diem impōnit. Lesbia autem omnibus vestīmenta parat, cibum coquit, pānem facit.

CASA ROMANA

Nōn longē ab hōrum casā et in summō colle situm surgēbat domicilium ipsīus dominī dominaeque amplissimum. Ibi plūrīs annōs6 Pūblius cum mātre vītam fēlīcem agēbat; nam pater eius, Mārcus, in terrīs longinquīs gravia reī pūblicae bella gerēbat nec domum7 revertī poterat. Neque puerō quidem molestum est rūrī8 vīvere. Eum multae rēs dēlectant. Magnopere amat silvās, agrōs, equōs, bovēs, gallīnās, avīs, reliquaque animālia. Saepe plūrīs hōrās9 ad mare sedet quō9 melius fluctūs et nāvīs spectet. Nec omnīnō sine comitibus erat, quod Lȳdia, Dāvī fīlia, quae erat eiusdem aetātis, cum eō adhūc infante lūdēbat, inter quōs cum annīs amīcitia crēscēbat. Lȳdia nūllum alium ducem dēligēbat et Pūblius ab puellae latere rārō discēdēbat. Itaque sub clārō Italiae sōle Pūblius et Lȳdia, amīcī fidēlissimī, per campōs collīsque cotīdiē vagābantur. Modo in silvā fīnitimā lūdebant ubi Pūblius sagittīs10 celeribus avis dēiciēbat et Lȳdia corōnīs variōrum flōrum comās suās ōrnābat; modo aquam et cibum portābant ad Dāvum servōsque dēfessōs quī agrōs colēbant: modo in casā parvā aut hōrās lactās in lūdō cōnsūmēbant aut auxilium dabant Lesbiae, quae cibum virō et servīs parābat vel aliās rēs domesticās agēbat.

LXIII. MARCUS LENTULUS, THE FATHER OF PUBLIUS, IS SHIPWRECKED · JULIA RECEIVES A LETTER FROM HIM

Iam Pūblius1 decem annōs habēbat cum M. Cornēlius Lentulus, pater eius, quī quīnque annōs2 grave bellum in Asiā gerēbat, non sine glōriā domum3 revertēbātur. Namque multa secunda proelia fēcerat, maximās hostium cōpiās dēlēverat, multās urbīs populo4 Rōmānō inimīcās cēperat. Primum nūntius pervēnit quī ā Lentulō5 missus erat6 ut profectiōnem suam nūntiāret. Deinde plūrīs diēs7 reditum virī optimī māter fīliusque exspectābant et animīs8 sollicitis deōs immortālīs frūstrā colēbant. Tum dēmum hās litterās summo cum gaudiō accēpērunt:

9“Mārcus Iūliae suac salūtem dīcit. Sī valēs, bene est; ego valeō. Ex Graeciā, quō10 praeter spem et opīniōnem hodiē pervēnī, hās litterās ad tē scribō. Namque nāvis nostra frācta est; nōs autem—11dīs est gratia—incolumes sumus. Ex Asiae12 portū nāvem lēnī ventō solvimus. Postquam13 altum mare tenuimus 14nec iam ūllae terrae appāruērunt, caelum undique et undique fluctūs, subitō magna tempestās coorta est et nāvem vehementissimē adflīxit. Ventīs fluctibusque adflīctātī15 nec sōlem discernere nec cursum tenēre poterāmus et omnia praesentem mortem intentābant. Trīs diēs16 et trīs noctīs16 sine rēmīs vēlīsque agimur. Quārtō diē17 prīmum terra vīsa est et violenter in saxa, quae nōn longē ā lītore aberant, dēiectī sumus. Tum vērō maiōra perīcula timēbāmus; sed nauta quīdam, vir fortissimus, ex nāve in fluctūs īrātōs dēsiluit 18ut fūnem ad lītus portāret; quam rem summō labōre vix effēcit. Ita omnēs servātī sumus. Grātiās igitur et honōrem Neptūnō dēbēmus, quī deus nōs ē perīculō ēripuit. Nunc Athēnīs19 sum, quō cōnfūgī ut mihi paucās hōrās ad quiētem darem.20 Quam prīmum autem aliam nāvem condūcam ut iter ad Italiam reliquum cōnficiam et domum21 ad meōs cārōs revertar. Salūtā nostrum Pūblium amīcissimē et valētūdinem tuam cūrā dīligenter. 22Kalendīs Mārtiīs.”

LXIV. LENTULUS REACHES HOME · PUBLIUS VISITS POMPEII WITH HIS FATHER

Post paucōs diēs nāvis M. Cornēlī Lentulī portum Mīsēnī1 petiit, quī portus nōn longē ā Pompēiīs situs est; quō in portū classis Rōmānā pōnēbātur et ad pugnās nāvālīs ōrnābātur. Ibi nāvēs omnium generum cōnspicī poterant. Iamque incrēdibilī celeritāte nāvis longa quā Lentulus vehēbātur lītorī adpropinquāvit; nam nōn sōlum ventō sed etiam rēmīs impellēbātur. In altā puppe stābat gubernātor et nōn procul aliquī mīlitēs Rōmānī cum armīs splendidīs, inter quōs clārissimus erat Lentulus. Deinde servī rēmīs contendere cessāvērunt2; nautae vēlum contrāxērunt et ancorās iēcērunt. Lentulus statim ē nāvī ēgressus est et3 ad villam suam properāvit. Eum Iūlia, Pūblius, tōtaque familia excēpērunt. 4Quī complexūs, quanta gaudia fuērunt!

Postrīdiē eius diēī Lentulus fīliō suō dīxit, “Venī, mī Pūblī, mēcum. Pompēiōs iter hodiē faciam. Māter tua suādet5 ut frūctūs et cibāria emam. Namque plūrīs amīcōs ad cēnam vocāvimus et multīs rēbus6 egēmus. Ea hortātur ut quam prīmum proficīscāmur.” “Libenter, mī pater,” inquit Pūblius. “Tēcum esse mihi semper est grātum; nec Pompēiōs umquam vīdī. Sine morā proficīscī parātus sum.” Tum celeriter currum cōnscendērunt et ad urbis mūrōs vectī sunt. Stabiānā portā7 urbem ingressī sunt. Pūblius strātās viās mīrātur et saxa altiōra quae in mediō disposita erant et altās orbitās quās rotae inter haec saxa fēcerant. Etiam strepitum mīrātur, multitūdinem, carrōs, fontīs, domōs, tabernās, forum8 cum statuīs, templīs, reliquīsque aedificiīs pūblicīs.

LXV. A DAY AT POMPEII

Apud forum ē currū dēscendērunt et Lentulus dīxit, “Hīc sunt multa tabernārum genera, mī Pūblī. Ecce, trāns viam est popīna! 1Hoc genus tabernārum cibāria vēndit. Frūctūs quoque ante iānuam stant. Ibi cibāria mea emam.” “Optimē,” respondit Pūblius. “At ubi, mī pater, crūstula emere possumus? Namque māter nōbīs imperāvit 2ut haec quoque parārēmus. Timeō ut3 ista popīna vēndat crūstula.” “Bene dīcis,” inquit Lentulus. “At nōnne vidēs illum fontem ā dextrā ubi aqua per leōnis caput fluit? In illō ipsō locō est taberna pīstōris quī sine dubiō vēndit crūstula.”

Brevī tempore4 omnia erant parāta, iamque 5quīnta hōra erat. Deinde Lentulus et fīlius ad caupōnam properāvērunt, quod famē6 et sitī7 urgēbantur. Ibi sub arboris umbrā sēdērunt et puerō imperāvērunt ut sibi8 cibum et vīnum daret. Huic imperiō9 puer celeriter pāruit. Tum laetī sē10 ex labōre refēcērunt.

Post prandium prefectī sunt ut alia urbis spectācula vidērent. Illō tempore fuērunt Pompēiīs11 multa templa, duo theātra, thermae magnumque amphitheātrum, quae omnia post paucōs annōs flammīs atque incendiīs Vesuvī et terrae mōtū dēlēta sunt. Ante hanc calamitātem autem hominēs 1nihil dē monte veritī sunt. In amphitheātrō quidem Pūblius morārī cupīvit ut spectācula gladiātōria vidēret, quae in13 illum ipsum diem prōscrīpta erant et iam 15rē vērā incēperant. Sed Lentulus dīxit, “Morārī, Pūblī, 16vereor ut possīmus. Iam decima hōra est et via est longa. Tempus suādet ut quam prīmum domum revertāmur.” Itaque servō imperāvit ut equōs iungeret, et sōlis occāsū16 ad vīllam pervēnērunt.

LXVI. LENTULUS ENGAGES A TUTOR FOR HIS SON

Ā prīmīs annīs quidem Iūlia ipsa fīlium suum docuerat, et Pūblius nōn sōlum 1pūrē et Latīnē loquī poterat sed etiam commodē legēbat et scrībēbat. Iam Ennium2 aliōsque poētās lēgerat. Nunc vērō Pūblius 3duodecim annōs habēbat; itaque eī pater bonum magistrum, 4virum omnī doctrīnā et virtūte ōrnātissimum, parāvit, 5quī Graeca, mūsicam, aliāsque artīs docēret. 6Namque illīs temporibus omnēs ferē gentēs Graecē loquēbantur. Cum Pūbliō aliī puerī, Lentulī amīcōrum fīliī,7 discēbant. Nam saepe apud Rōmānōs mōs erat 8nōn in lūdum fīliōs mittere sed domī per magistrum docēre. Cotīdiē discipulī cum magistrō in peristȳlō9 Mārcī domūs sedēbant. Omnēs puerī bullam auream, orīginis honestae signum, in collō gerēbant, et omnēs togā praetextā amictī erant, 10quod nōndum sēdecim annōs11 nātī sunt.

SCENE IN SCHOOL · AN EXERCISE IN COMPOSITION

TABULA ET STILUS

Discipulī. Salvē, magister.

Magister. Vōs quoque omnēs, salvēte. 1Tabulāsne portāvistis et stilōs?

D. Portāvimus.

M. Iam fābulam Aesōpī2 discēmus. Ego legam, vōs in tabulīs scrībite. Et tū, Pūblī, dā mihi ē capsā3 Aesōpī volūmen.4 Iam audīte omnēs: Vulpēs et Ūva.

Vulpēs ōlim famē coācta ūvam dēpendentem vīdit. Ad ūvam saliēbat, sūmere cōnāns. Frūstrā diū cōnāta, tandem īrāta erat et salīre cessāns dīxit: “Illa ūva est acerba; acerbam ūvam 5nihil moror.”

Omnia´ne scrīpsistis, puerī?

D. Omnia, magister.

LXVII. PUBLIUS GOES TO ROME TO FINISH HIS EDUCATION

Iamque Pūblius, 1quīndecim annōs nātus, 2prīmīs litterārum elementīs cōnfectīs, Rōmam petere voluit ut scholās grammaticōrum et philosophōrum frequentāret. Et facillimē patrī3 suō, qui ipse philosophiae studiō tenēbātur, persuāsit. Itaque 4omnibus rēbus ad profectiōnem comparātīs, pater fīliusque equīs animōsīs vectī5 ad magnam urbem profectī sunt. Eōs proficīscentīs Iūlia tōtaque familia vōtīs precibusque prōsecūtae sunt. Tum per loca6 plāna et collis silvīs vestītōs viam ingressī sunt ad Nōlam, quod oppidum eōs hospitiō modicō excēpit. Nōlae7 duās hōrās morātī sunt, quod sōl merīdiānus ārdēbat. Tum rēctā viā8 circiter vīgintī mīlia9 passuum9 Capuam,9 ad īnsignem Campāniae urbem, contendērunt. Eō10 multā nocte dēfessī pervēnērunt. 11Postrīdiē eius diēī, somnō et cibō recreātī, Capuā discessērunt et 13viam Appiam ingressī, quae Capuam tangit et ūsque ad urbem Rōmam dūcit, ante merīdiem Sinuessam pervēnērunt, quod oppidum tangit mare. Inde prīmā lūce proficīscentēs Formiās13 properāvērunt, ubi Cicerō, ōrātor clarissimus, quī forte apud vīllam suam erat, eōs benignē excēpit. Hinc 14itinere vīgintī quīnque mīlium passuum factō, Tarracīnam, oppidum in saxīs altissimīs situm, vīdērunt. Iamque nōn longē aberant palūdēs magnae, quae multa mīlia passuum undique patent. Per eās pedestris via est gravis et in nāve viātōrēs vehuntur. Itaque 15equīs relictīs Lentulus et Pūblius nāvem cōnscendērunt, et, ūnā nocte in trānsitū cōnsūmptā, Forum Appī vēnērunt. Tum brevī tempore Arīcia eōs excēpit. Hoc oppidum, in colle situm, ab urbe Romā sēdecim mīlia passuum abest. Inde dēclivis via ūsque ad latum campum dūcit ubi Rōma stat. Quem ad locum ubi Pūblius vēnit et Rōmam adhūc remōtam, maximam tōtīus orbis terrārum urbem, cōnspēxit, summā admīrātiōne et gaudiō adfectus est. Sine morā dēscendērunt, et, mediō intervāllō quam celerrimē superātō, urbem portā Capēnā ingressī sunt.

LXVIII. PUBLIUS PUTS ON THE TOGA VIRILIS

BULLA

Pūblius iam tōtum annum Rōmae morābātur1 multaque urbis spectācula vīderat et multōs sibi2 amīcōs parāverat. Eī3 omnēs favēbant; 4dē eō omnēs bene spērāre poterant. Cotīdiē Pūblius scholas philosophōrum et grammaticōrum tantō studiō frequentābat 5ut aliīs clārum exemplum praebēret. Saepe erat cum patre in cūriā6; quae rēs effēcit 7ut summōs reī pūblicae virōs et audīret et vidēret. Ubi 8sēdecim annōs natus est, bullam9 auream et togam praetextam mōre Rōmānō dēposuit atque virīlem togam sūmpsit. Virīlis autem toga erat omnīnō alba, sed praetexta clāvum purpureum in margine habēbat. 10Dēpōnere togam praetextam et sūmere togam virīlem erat rēs grātissima puerō Rōmānō, quod posteā vir et cīvis Rōmānus habēbātur.

11Hīs rēbus gestīs Lentulus ad uxōrem suam hās litterās scrīpsit:

12“Mārcus Iūliae suae salūtem dīcit. Sī valēs, bene est; ego valeō. Accēpī tuās litterās. Hās nunc Rōmā per servum fidēlissimum mittō ut dē Pūbliō nostrō quam celerrimē sciās. Nam hodiē eī togam virīlem dedī. Ante lucem surrēxī13 et prīmum bullam auream dē collō eius remōvī. Hāc Laribus14 cōnsecrātā et sacrīs factīs, eum togā virīlī vestīvī. Interim plūrēs amīcī cum multitūdine optimōrum cīvium et honestōrum clientium pervēnerant 15quī Pūblium domō in forum dēdūcerent. Ibi in cīvitātem receptus est et nōmen, Pūblius Cornēlius Lentulus, apud cīvīs Rōmānōs ascrīptum est. Omnēs eī amīcissimī fuērunt et magna16 de eō praedīcunt. Sapientior enim aequālibus17 est et magnum ingenium habet. 18Cūrā ut valeās.”

LXIX. PUBLIUS JOINS CÆSAR’S ARMY IN GAUL

Pūblius iam adulēscēns postquam togam virīlem sūmpsit, aliīs rēbus studēre incēpit et praesertim ūsū1 armōrum sē2 dīligenter exercuit. Magis magisque amāvit illās artīs quae mīlitārem animum dēlectant. Iamque erant 3quī eī cursum mīlitārem praedīcerent. Nec sine causā, quod certē patris īsigne exemplum 4ita multum trahēbat. 5Paucīs ante annīs C. Iūlius Caesar, ducum Rōmānōrum maximus, cōnsul creātus erat et hōc tempore in Galliā bellum grave gerēbat. Atque in exercitū eius plūrēs adulēscentēs mīlitābant, apud quōs erat amīcus quīdam Pūblī. Ille Pūblium crēbrīs litterīs vehementer hortābātur 6ut iter in Galliam faceret. Neque Pūblius recūsāvit, et, multīs amīcīs ad portam urbis prōsequentibus, ad Caesaris castra profectus est. Quārtō diē postquam iter ingressus est, ad Alpīs, montīs altissimōs, pervēnit. Hīs summā difficultāte superātīs, tandem Gallōrum in fīnibus erat. Prīmō autem veritus est ut7 castrīs Rōmānīs adpropinquāre posset, quod Gallī, maximīs cōpiīs coāctīs, Rōmānōs obsidēbant et viās omnīs iam clauserant. Hīs rēbus commōtus Pūblius vestem Gallicam induit nē ā Gallīs caperētur, et ita per hostium cōpiās incolumis ad castra pervenīre potuit. Intrā mūnītiōnes acceptus, ā Caesare benignē exceptus est. Imperātor fortem adulēscentem amplissimīs verbīs laudāvit et eum 8tribūnum mīlītum creāvit.

IMPEDIMENTA

HOW THE ROMANS MARCHED AND CAMPED

Exercitus quī in hostium fīnibus bellum genit multīs perīcuīs circumdatus est. 1Quae perīcula ut vītāret, Rōmāni summam cūram adhībēre solēbant. Adpropinquanteēs cōpiīs hostium agmen ita dispōnēbant 2ut imperātor ipse cum plāribus legiōnibus expedītīs3 prīmum agmen dūceret. Post eās cōpiās impedīmenta4 tōtīus exercitūs conlocābant. 5Tum legiōnēs quae proximē cōnscrīptae erant tōtum agmen claudēbant. Equitēs quoque in omnīs partīs dīmittēbantur quī loca explōrārent; et centuriōnēs praemittēbantur ut locum castrīs idōneum dēligerent. Locus habēbatur idōneus castrīs 6quī facile dēfendī posset et prope aquam esset. Quā dē causā castra7 in colle ab utrāque parte arduō, ā fronte lēniter dēclīvī saepe pōnēbantur; vel locus palūdibus cīnctus vel in flūminis rīpīs situs dēligēbātur. Ad locum postquam exercitus pervēnit, aliī mīlitum 8in armīs erant, aliī castra mūnīre incipiēbant. Nam 9quō tūtiōrēs ab hostibus mīlitēs essent, nēve incautī et imparātī opprimerentur, castra fossā lātā et vāllō altō mūniēbant. In castrīs portae quattuor erant ut ēruptiō mīlitum omnīs in partīs fierī posset. In angulīs castrōrum erant turrēs dē quibus tēla in hostīs coniciēbantur. 10Tālibus in castrīs quālia dēscrīpsimus Pūblius ā Caesare exceptus est.

LXX. THE RIVAL CENTURIONS

CENTURIO

Illīs in castrīs erant duo centuriōnēs,1 fortissimī virī, T. Pullō et L. Vorēnus, quōrum neuter alterī virtūte2 cēdere volēbat. Inter eōs iam multōs annōs īnfēnsum certāmen gerēbātur. Tum dēmum fīnis contrōversiae hōc modō3 factus est. Diē tertiō postquam Pūblius pervēnit, hostēs, maiōribus cōpiīs coāctīs, ācerrimum impetum in castra fēcērunt. Tum Pullō, 4cum Rōmānī tardiōrēs5 vidērentur, “Cūr dubitās,” inquit, “Vorēne? Quam commodiōrem occāsiōnem exspectās? Hic diēs dē virtūte nostrā iūdicābit.” Haec6 cum dīxisset, extrā mūnītiōnēs prōcessit et in eam hostium partem quae cōfertissima 7vidēbātur inrūpit. Neque Vorēnus quidem tum vāllō8 sēsē continet, sed Pullōnem subsequitur. Tum Pullō pīlum in hostīs immittit atque ūnum ex multitūdine prōcurrentem trāicit. Hunc percussum et exanimātum hostēs scūtīs prōtegunt et in Pullōnem omnēs tēla coniciunt. Eius scūtum trānsfīgitur et tēlum in balteō dēfīgitur. Hic cāsus vāgīnam āvertit et dextram manum eius gladium ēdūcere cōnantis9 morātur. Eum ita impedītum hostēs circumsistunt.

Tum vēro 10eī labōrantī Vorēnus, cum sit inimīcus, tamen auxilium dat. Ad hunc cōnfestim 11ā Pullōne omnis multitūdō sē convertit. Gladiō comminus pugnat Vorēnus, atque, ūnō interfectō, reliquōs paulum prōpellit. Sed īnstāns cupidius12 īnfēlīx, 13pede sē fallente, concidit.

Huic rūrsus circumventō auxilium dat Pullō, atque ambō incolumēs, plūribus interfectīs, summā cum laude intrā mūnītiōnēs sē recipiunt. Sic inimīcōrum alter alterī auxilium dedit nec de eōrum virtūte quisquam iūdicāre potuit.

LXXI. THE ENEMY BESIEGING THE CAMP ARE REPULSED

Cum iam sex hōrās pugnatum esset1 ac nōn sōlum vīrēs sed etiam tēla Rōmānōs dēficerent1, atque hostēs ācrius instārent,1 et vāllum scindere fossamque complēre incēpissent,1 Caesar, vir reī mīlitāris perītissimus, suīs imperāvit ut proelium paulisper intermitterent,2 et, signō datō, ex castrīs ērumperent.2 3Quod iussī sunt faciunt, et subitō ex omnibus portīs ērumpunt. Atque tam celeriter mīlitēs concurrērunt et tam propinquī erant hostēs4 ut spatium pīla coniciendī5 nōn darētur. Itaque reiectīs pīlīs 6comminus gladiīs pugnātum est. Diū et audācter hostēs restitērunt et in extrēmā spē salūtis tantam virtūtem praestitērunt ut ā dextrō cornū vehementer 7multitūdine suōrum aciem Rōmanam premerent. 8Id imperātor cum animadvertisset, Pūblium adulēscentem cum equitātū mīsit quī labōrantibus9 auxilium daret. Eius impetum sustinēre nōn potuērunt hostēs10 et omnēs terga vertērunt. Eōs in fugam datōs Pūblius subsecūtus est ūsque ad flūmen Rhēnum, quod ab eō locō quīnque mīlia passuum aberat. Ibi paucī salūtem sibi repperērunt. Omnibus reliquīs interfectīs, Pūblius et equitēs in castra sēsē recēpērunt. Dē hāc calamitāte fīnitimae gentēs cum certiōrēs factae essent, ad Caesarem lēgātōs mīsērunt et sē suaque omnia dēdidērunt.

LXXII. PUBLIUS GOES TO GERMANY · ITS GREAT FORESTS AND STRANGE ANIMALS

Initā aestāte Caesar litterīs certior fīēbat et per explōrātōrēs cognōscēbat plūrīs cīvitātēs Galliae novīs rēbus studēre,1 et contrā populum Rōmānum coniūrāre1 obsidēsque 2inter sē dare,1 atque cum hīs Germānōs quōsdam quoque sēsē coniūnctūrōs esse.1 Hīs litterīs nūntiīsque commōtus Caesar cōnstituit quam celerrimē in Gallōs proficīscī,3 ut eōs inopīnantīs opprimeret, et Labiēnum lēgātum cum duābus legiōnibus peditum et duōbus mīlibus equitum in Germānōs mittere.3 4Itaque rē frūmentāriā comparātā castra mōvit. Ab utrōque5 rēs bene gesta est; nam Caesar tam celeriter in hostium fīnīs pervēnit ut spatium 6cōpiās cōgendī nōn darētur7; et Labiēnus dē Germānīs tam grave supplicium sūmpsit ut nēmō ex eā gente in reliquum tempus Gallīs auxilium dare audēret.7

Hoc iter in Germāniam Pūblius quoque fēcit et, 8cum ibi morārētur, multa mīrābilia vīdit. Praesertim vērō ingentem silvam mīrābātur, quae tantae magnitūdinis esse dīcēbātur 9ut nēmō eam trānsīre posset, nec quisquam scīret aut initium aut fīnem. Quā dē rē plūra cognōverat ā mīlite quōdam quī ōlim captus ā Germānīs multōs annōs ibi incoluit. Ille10 dē silvā dīcēns, “Īnfīnītae magnitūdinis est haec silva,” inquit; “nee quisquam est 11huius Germāniae 12quī initium eius sciat aut ad fīnem adierit. Nāscuntur illīc multa tālia animālium genera quālia reliquīs in locīs nōn inveniuntur. Sunt bovēs quī ūnum13 cornū habent; sunt etiam animālia quae appellantur alcēs. Hae nūllōs crūrum14 articulōs habent. Itaque, sī forte concidērunt, sēsē ērigere nūllō modō possunt. Arborēs habent prō15 cubīlibus; ad eās sē applicant atque ita reclīnātae quiētem capiunt. Tertium est genus eōrum quī ūrī appellantur. Hī sunt paulō minōrēs elephantīs.16 Magna vis eōrum est et magna vēlōcitās. Neque hominī neque ferae parcunt.17”

LXXIII. THE STORMING OF A CITY

Pūblius plūrīs diēs in Germāniā morātus1 in Galliam rediit, et ad Caesaris castra sē contulit. Ille quia molestē ferēbat Gallōs2 eius regiōnis obsidēs dare recūsāvisse et exercituī frūmentum praebēre nōluisse, cōnstituit eīs3 bellum īnferre. Agrīs vāstātīs, vīcīs incēnsīs, pervēnit ad oppidum validissimum quod et nātūrā et arte mūnītum erat. Cingēbātur mūrō vīgintī quīnque pedēs4 altō. Ā lateribus duōsitum, praeruptō fastīgiō ad plānitiem vergēgat; ā quārtō tantum5 latere aditus erat facilis. Hoc oppidum oppugnāre, 6cum opus esset difficillimum, tamen cōnstituit Caesar. Et castrīs mūnītīs Pūbliō negōtium dedit ut rēs 7ad oppugnandum necessāriās parāret.

VINEA

Rōmānōrum autem oppugnātiō est haec.8 Prīmum turrēs aedificantur quibus mīlitēs in summum mūrum ēvādere possint9; vīneae10 fīunt quibus tēctī mīlitēs ad mūrum succēdant; pluteī11 parantur post quōs mīlitēs tormenta12 administrent; sunt quoque arietēs quī mūrum et portās discutiant. Hīs omnibus rēbus comparātīs, deinde 13agger ab eā parte ubi aditus est facillimus exstruitur et cum vīneīs ad ipsum oppidum agitur. Tum turris in aggere prōmovētur; arietibus quī sub vīneīs conlocātī erant mūrus et portae discutiuntur; ballistīs, catapultīs, reliquīsque tormentīs lapidēs et tēla in oppidum coniciuntur. Postrēmō cum iam turris et agger altitūdinem mūrī adaequant et arietēs moenia perfrēgērunt,14 signō datō mīlitēs inruunt et oppidum expugnant.

LXXIV. THE CITY IS TAKEN · THE CAPTIVES ARE QUESTIONED

BALLISTA

Omnibus rēbus necessāriīs ad oppugnandum ā Pūbliō comparātīs, dēlīberātur in conciliō quod cōnsilium 1oppidī expugnandī ineant.2 Tum ūnus3 ex centuriōnibus, vir reī mīlitāris perītissimus, “Ego suādeō,” inquit, “ut ab eā parte, ubi aditus sit4 facillimus, aggerem exstruāmus5 et turrim prōmoveāmus5 atque ariete admōtō simul mūrum discutere cōnēmur.5” 6Hoc cōnsilium cum omnibus placēret, Caesar concilium dīmīsit. Deinde mīlitēs hortātus ut priōrēs victōriās memoriā7 tenērent, iussit aggerem exstruī, turrim et arietem admovērī. Neque oppidānīs8 cōnsilium dēfuit. Aliī ignem et omne genus tēlōrum dē mūrō in turrim coniēcērunt, aliī ingentia saxa in vīneās et arietem dēvolvērunt. Diū utrimque ācerrimē pugnātum est. Nē vulnerātī quidem pedem rettulērunt. Tandem, 9dē tertiā vigiliā, Pūblius, quem Caesar illī operī10 praefēcerat, nūntiāvit partem11 mūrī ictibus arietis labefactam concidisse. Quā rē audītā Caesar signum dat; mīlitēs inruunt et magnā cum caede hostium oppidum capiunt.

TURRES, ARIETES, VINEA

Postrīdiē eius diēī, hōc oppidō expugnātō, 12captīvōrum quī nōbilissimī sunt ad imperātōrem ante praetōrium13 addūcuntur. Ipse, lōrīcā aurātā et paludāmentō purpureō īnsignis, captīvōs per interpretem in hunc modum interrogat:14 Vōs quī estis15?

Interpres. Rogat imperātor quī sītis.

Captīvī. Fīliī rēgis sumus.

Interpres. Dīcunt sē fīliōs esse rēgis.

Imperātor. Cūr mihi tantās iniūriās intulistis?

Interpres. Rogat cūr sibi tantās iniūriās intuleritis.

Captīvī. Iniūriās eī nōn intulimus sed prō patriā bellum gessimus. Semper voluimus Rōmānīs esse amīcī, sed Rōmānī sine causā nōs domō patriāque expellere cōnātī sunt.

Interpres. 16Negant sē iniūriās tibi intulisse, sed prō patriā bellum gessisse. 17Semper sē voluisse amīcōs Rōmānīs esse, sed Rōmānōs sine causā sē domō patriāque expellere cōnātōs esse.

Imperātor. 18Manēbitisne in reliquum tempus in fidē, hāc rebelliōne condōnātā?

Tum vērō captīvī multīs cum lacrimīs iūrāvērunt sē in fidē mānsūrōs esse, et Caesar eōs incolumīs domum dīmīsit.

LXXV. CIVIL WAR BREAKS OUT BETWEEN CÆSAR AND POMPEY · THE BATTLE OF PHARSALIA

Nē cōnfectō1 quidem bellō Gallicō, 2bellum cīvīle inter Caesarem et Pompēium exortum est. Nam Pompēius, quī summum imperium petēbat, senātuī persuāserat ut Caesarem reī pūblicae hostem3 iūdicāret et exercitum eius dīmittī iubēret. Quibus cognitīs rēbus Caesar exercitum suum dīmittere recūsāvit, atque, hortātus mīlitēs ut ducem totiēns victōrem ab inimīcōrum iniūriīs dēfenderent, imperāvit ut sē Rōmam sequerentur. Summā cum alacritāte mīlitēs pāruērunt, et trānsitō Rubicōne4 initium bellī cīvīlis factum est.

Italiae urbēs quidem omnēs ferē 5rēbus Caesaris favēbant et eum benignē excēpērunt. Quā rē commōtus Pompēius ante Caesaris adventum Rōmā excessit et Brundisium6 pervēnit, inde 7paucīs post diēbus cum omnibus cōpiīs ad Ēpīrum mare trānsiit. Eum Caesar cum septem legiōnibus et quīngentīs equitibus secūtus est, et īnsignis inter Caesaris comitātum erat Pūblius.

Plūribus leviōribus proeliīs factīs, tandem cōpiae adversae ad Pharsālum8 in Thessaliā sitam castra posuērunt. Cum Pompeī exercitus esset bis tantus quantus Caesaris, tamen erant multī quī veterānās legiōnēs quae Gallōs et Germānōs superāverant vehementer timēbant. Quōs9 10ante proelium commissum Labiēnus11 lēgātus, quī ab Caesare nūper dēfēcerat, ita adlocūtus est: “12Nōlīte exīstimāre hunc esse exercitum veterānōrum mīlitum. Omnibus interfuī proeliīs13 neque temerē incognitam rem prōnūntiō. Perexigua pars illīus exercitūs quī Gallōs superāvit adhūc superest. Magna pars occīsa est, multī domum discessērunt, multī sunt relictī in Italiā. Hae cōpiae quās vidētis in 14citeriōre Galliā nūper cōnscrīptae sunt.” Haec15 cum dīxisset, iūrāvit sē nisi victōrem in castra nōn reversūrum esse. 16Hoc idem Pompēius et omnēs reliquī iūrāvērunt, et magnā spē et laetitiā, sīcut certam ad victōriam, cōpiae ē castrīs exiērunt.

Item Caesar, animō17 ad dīmicandum parātus, exercitum suum ēdūxit et septem cohortibus 18praesidiō castrīs relictīs cōpiās triplicī aciē īnstrūxit. Tum, mīlitibus studiō pugnae ārdentibus, tubā signum dedit. Mīlitēs prōcurrērunt et pīlīs missīs gladiōs strīnxērunt. Neque vērō virtūs hostibus dēfuit. Nam et tēla missa sustinuērunt et impetum gladiōrum excēpērunt et ōrdinēs cōnservāvērunt. Utrimque diū et ācriter pugnātum est nec quisquam pedem rettulit. Tum equitēs Pompēī aciem Caesaris circumīre cōnātī sunt. Quod19 ubi Caesar animadvertit, tertiam aciem,20 quae ad id tempus quiēta fuerat, prōcurrere iussit. Tum vērō integrōrum impetum21 dēfessī hostēs sustinēre nōn potuērunt et omnēs terga vertērunt. Sed Pompēius dē fortūnīs suīs dēspērāns sē in castra equō contulit, inde mox cum paucīs equitibus effūgit.

LXXVI. THE TRIUMPH OF CAESAR

SIGNIFER

Pompēiō amīcīsque eius superātīs atque omnibus hostibus ubīque victīs, Caesar imperātor Rōmam rediit et 1extrā moenia urbis in campō Mārtiō castra posuit. Tum vērō amplissimīs honōribus adfectus est. Dictātor creātus est, et eī triumphus ā senātū est dēcrētus. 2Quō diē de Gallīs triumphum ēgit, tanta multitūdō hominum in urbem undique cōnflūxit 3ut omnia loca essent cōnferta. Templa patēbant, ārae fūmābant, columnae sertīs ōrnātae erant. 4Cum vērō pompa urbem intrāret, quantus hominum fremitus ortus est! Prīmum per portam ingressī sunt senātus et magistrātūs. Secūtī sunt tībīcinēs, signiferī, peditēs laureā corōnātī canentēs: “Ecce Caesar nunc triumphat, quī subēgit Galliam,” et “Mīlle, mīlle, mīlle, mīlle Gallōs trucīdāvimus.” Multī praedam captārum urbium portābant, arma, omnia bellī īnstrūmenta. Secūtī sunt equitēs, animōsīs atque splendidissimē ōrnātīs equīs vectī, inter quōs Pūblius adulēscēns fortissimus habēbātur. Addūcēbantur taurī, arietēs, 5quī dīs immortālibus immolārentur. Ita longō agmine prōgrediēns exercitus 6sacrā viā per forum in Capitōlium perrēxit.

LICTORES CUM FASCIBUS

Imperātor ipse cum urbem intrāret, undique laetō clāmōre multitūdinis salūtātus est. Stābat in currū aureō quem quattuor albī equī vehēbant. Indūtus 7togā pictā, alterā manū habēnās et lauream tenēbat, alterā eburneum scēptrum. Post eum servus in currū stāns auream corōnam super caput eius tenēbat. Ante currum miserrimī captīvī, rēgēs prīncipēsque superātārum gentium, catēnīs vīnctī, prōgrediēbantur; et vīgintī quattuor līctōrēs8 laureatās fascīs ferentēs et signiferī currum Caesaris comitābantur. Conclūdit agmen multitūdō captīvōrum, quī, in servitūtem redāctī,9 dēmissō vultū, vīnctīs10 bracchiīs, sequuntur; quibuscum veniunt longissimō ōrdine mīlitēs, etiam hī praedam vel insignia mīlitāria ferentēs.

Caesar cum Capitōlium ascendisset, in templō Iovī Capitōlīnō sacra fēcit. Simul11 captivōrum quī nōbilissimī erant, abductī in carcerem,12 interfectī sunt. Sacrīs factīs Caesar dē Capitōliō dēscendit et in forō mīitibus suīs honōrēs mīlitārīs dedit eīsque pecūniam ex bellī praedā distribuit.

Hīs omnibus rēbus cōnfectīs, Pūblius Caesarem valēre13 iussit et quam celerrimē ad vīllam contendit ut patrem mātremque salūtāret.

15Dē rēbus gestīs P. Cornēlī Lentulī hāctenus.

NOUNS

460. Nouns are inflected in five declensions, distinguished by the final letter of the stem and by the termination of the genitive singular.

First Declension—Ā-stems, Gen. Sing. -ae

Second Declension—O-stems, Gen. Sing. -ī

Third Declension—Consonant stems and I-stems, Gen. Sing. -is

Fourth Declension—U-stems, Gen. Sing. -ūs

Fifth Declension—Ē-stems, Gen. Sing. -ē̆ī

461. FIRST DECLENSION. Ā-STEMS

	domina, lady   Stem dominā-   Base domin-
	Singular		Plural
		TERMINATIONS		TERMINATIONS
Nom.	domina	-a	dominae	-ae
Gen.	dominae	-ae	dominārum	-ārum
Dat.	dominae	-ae	dominīs	-īs
Acc.	dominam	-am	dominās	-ās
Abl.	dominā	-ā	dominīs	-īs

a. Dea and fīlia have the termination -ābus in the dative and ablative plural.

462. SECOND DECLENSION. O-STEMS

a. Masculines in -us

	dominus, master   Stem domino-   Base domin-
	Singular		Plural
		TERMINATIONS		TERMINATIONS
Nom.	dominus	-us	dominī	-ī
Gen.	dominī	-ī	dominōrum	-ōrum
Dat.	dominō	-ō	dominīs	-īs
Acc.	dominum	-um	dominōs	-ōs
Abl.	dominō	-ō	dominīs	-īs

1. Nouns in -us of the second declension have the termination -e´ in the vocative singular, as domine.

2. Proper names in -ius, and filius, end in -ī in the vocative singular, and the accent rests on the penult, as Vergi´lī, fīlī.

b. Neuters in -um

	pīlum, spear   Stem   pīlo- Base pīl-
	Singular		Plural
		TERMINATIONS		TERMINATIONS
Nom.	pīlum	-um	pīla	-a
Gen.	pīlī	-ī	pīlōrum	-ōrum
Dat.	pīlō	-ō	pīlīs	-īs
Acc.	pīlum	-um	pīla	-a
Abl.	pīlō	-ō	pīlīs	-īs

1. Masculines in -ius and neuters in -ium end in -ī in the genitive singular, not in -iī, and the accent rests on the penult.

c. Masculines in -er AND -ir

	puer, boy	ager, field	vir, man
Stems	puero-	agro-	viro-
Bases	puer-	agr-	vir-
	Singular			TERMINATIONS
Nom.	puer	ager	vir	—
Gen.	puerī	agrī	virī	-ī
Dat.	puerō	agrō	virō	-ō
Acc.	puerum	agrum	virum	-um
Abl.	puerō	agrō	virō	-ō
	Plural
Nom.	puerī	agrī	virī	-ī
Gen.	puerōrum	agrōrum	virōrum	-ōrum
Dat.	puerīs	agrīs	virīs	-īs
Acc.	puerōs	agrōs	virōs	-ōs
Abl.	puerīs	agrīs	virīs	-īs

463. THIRD DECLENSION.

CLASSIFICATION	I. Consonant Stems	1. Stems that add -s to the base to form the nominative singular: masculines and feminines only. 2. Stems that add no termination in the nominitive singular: a. masculines and feminines; b. neuters.
	II. I-Stems.	Masculines, feminines, and neuters.

464. I. CONSONANT STEMS

1. Nouns that add -s to the base to form the nominative singular: masculines and feminines only

	prīnceps, m., chief	mīles, m., soldier	lapis, m., stone
Bases or Stems	prīncip-	mīlit-	lapid-
	Singular			TERMINATIONS
Nom.	prīnceps	mīles	lapis	-s
Gen.	prīn´cipis	mīlitis	lapidis	-is
Dat.	prīn´cipī	mīlitī	lapidī	-ī
Acc.	prīn´cipem	mīlitem	lapidem	-em
Abl.	prīn´cipe	mīlite	lapide	-e
	Plural
Nom.	prīn´cipēs	mīlitēs	lapidēs	-ēs
Gen.	prīn´cipum	mīlitum	lapidum	-um
Dat.	prīnci´pibus	mīlitibus	lapidibus	-ibus
Acc.	prīn´cipēs	mīlitēs	lapidēs	-ēs
Abl.	prīnci´pibus	mīlitibus	lapidibus	-ibus
	rēx, m., king	iūdex, m., judge	virtūs, f., manliness
Bases or Stems	rēg-	iūdic-	virtūt-
Nom.	rēx	iūdex	virtūs	-s
Gen.	rēgis	iūdicis	virtū´tis	-is
Dat.	rēgī	iūdicī	virtū´tī	-ī
Acc.	rēgem	iūdicem	virtū´tem	-em
Abl.	rēge	iūdice	virtū´te	-e
	Plural
Nom.	rēgēs	iūdicēs	virtū´tēs	-ēs
Gen.	rēgum	iūdicum	virtū´tum	-um
Dat.	rēgibus	iūdicibus	virtū´tibus	-ibus
Acc.	rēgēs	iūdicēs	virtū´tēs	-ēs
Abl.	rēgibus	iūdicibus	virtū´tibus	-ibus

Note. For consonant changes in the nominative singular, cf. § 233. 3.

2. Nouns that have no termination in the nominative singular

a. Masculines and Feminines

	cōnsul, m., consul	legiō, f., legion	ōrdō, m., row	pater, m., father
Bases or Stems	cōnsul-	legiōn-	ōrdin-	patr-
	Singular				TERMINATIONS
Nom.	cōnsul	legiō	ōrdō	pater	—
Gen.	cōnsulis	legiōnis	ōrdinis	patris	-is
Dat.	cōnsulī	legiōnī	ōrdinī	patrī	-ī
Acc.	cōnsulem	legiōnem	ōrdinem	patrem	-em
Abl.	cōnsule	legiōne	ōrdine	patre	-e
	Plural
Nom.	cōnsulēs	legiōnēs	ōrdinēs	patrēs	-ēs
Gen.	cōnsulum	legiōnum	ōrdinum	patrum	-um
Dat.	cōnsulibus	legiōnibus	ōrdinibus	patribus	-ibus
Acc.	cōnsulēs	legiōnēs	ōrdinēs	patrēs	-ēs
Abl.	cōnsulibus	legiōnibus	ōrdinibus	patribus	-ibus

Note. For vowel and consonant changes in the nominative singular, cf. § 236. 1-3.

b. Neuters

	flūmen, n., river	tempus, n., time	opus, n., work	caput, n., head
Bases or Stems	flūmin-	tempor-	oper-	capit-
	Singular				TERMINATIONS
Nom.	flūmen	tempus	opus	caput	—
Gen.	flūminis	temporis	operis	capitis -is	-is
Dat.	flūminī	temporī	operī	capitī	-ī
Acc.	flūmen	tempus	opus	caput	—
Abl.	flūmine	tempore	opere	capite	-e
	Plural
Nom.	flūmina	tempora	opera	capita	-a
Gen.	flūminum	temporum	operum	capitum	-um
Dat.	flūminibus	temporibus	operibus	capitibus	-ibus
Acc.	flūmina	tempora	opera	capita	-a
Abl.	flūminibus	temporibus	operibus	capitibus	-ibus

Note. For vowel and consonant changes in the nominative singular, cf. § 238. 2, 3.

465. II. I-STEMS

a. Masculines and Feminines

	caedēs, f., slaughter	hostis, m., enemy	urbs, f., city	cliēns, m., retainer
Stems	caedi-	hosti-	urbi-	clienti-
Bases	caed-	host-	urb-	client-
	Singular				TERMINATIONS
Nom.	caedēs	hostis	urbs	cliēns	-s, -is, or -ēs
Gen.	caedis	hostis	urbis	clientis	-is
Dat.	caedī	hostī	urbī	clientī	-ī
Acc.	caedem	hostem	urbem	clientem	-em (-im)
Abl.	caede	hoste	urbe	cliente	-e (-ī)
	Plural
Nom.	caedēs	hostēs	urbēs	clientēs	-ēs
Gen.	caedium	hostium	urbium	clientium	-ium
Dat.	caedibus	hostibus	urbibus	clientibus	-ibus
Acc.	caedīs, -ēs	hostīs, -ēs	urbīs, -ēs	clientīs, -ēs	-īs, -ēs
Abl.	caedibus	hostibus	urbibus	clientibus	-ibus

1. Avis, cīvis, fīnis, ignis, nāvis, have the abl. sing. in -ī or -e.

2. Turris has accusative turrim and ablative turrī or turre.

b. Neuters

	īnsigne, n., decoration	animal, n., animal	calcar, n., spur
Stems	īnsigni-	animāli-	calcāri-
Bases	īnsign-	animāl-	calcār-
	Singular			TERMINATIONS
Nom.	īnsigne	animal	calcar	-e or —
Gen.	īnsignis	animālis	calcāris	-is
Dat.	īnsignī	animālī	calcārī	-ī
Acc.	īnsigne	animal	calcar	-e or —
Abl.	īnsignī	animālī	calcārī	-ī
	Plural
Nom.	īnsignia	animālia	calcāria	-ia
Gen.	īnsignium	animālium	calcārium	-ium
Dat.	īnsignibus	animālibus	calcāribus	-ibus
Acc.	īnsignia	animālia	calcāria	-ia
Abl.	īnsignibus	animālibus	calcāribus	-ibus

466. THE FOURTH DECLENSION. U-STEMS

	adventus, m., arrival	cornū, n., horn
Stems	adventu-	cornu-
Bases	advent-	corn-
	Singular		TERMINATIONS
			MASC.	NEUT.
Nom.	adventus	cornū	-us	-ū
Gen.	adventūs	cornūs	-ūs	-ūs
Dat.	adventuī (ū)	cornū	-uī (ū)	-ū
Acc.	adventum	cornū	-um	-ū
Abl.	adventū	cornū	-ū	-ū
	Plural
Nom.	adventūs	cornua	-ūs	-ua
Gen.	adventuum	cornuum	-uum	-uum
Dat.	adventibus	cornibus	-ibus	-ibus
Acc.	adventūs	cornua	-ūs	-ua
Abl.	adventibus	cornibus	-ibus	-ibus

467. THE FIFTH DECLENSION. Ē-STEMS

	diēs, m., day	rēs, f. thing
Stems	diē-	rē-
Bases	di-	r-
	Singular		TERMINATIONS
Nom.	diēs	rēs	-ēs
Gen.	diēī	reī	-ē̆ī
Dat.	diēī	reī	-ē̆ī
Acc.	diem	rem	-em
Abl.	diē	rē	-ē
	Plural
Nom.	diēs	rēs	-ēs
Gen.	diērum	rērum	-ērum
Dat.	diēbus	rēbus	-ēbus
Acc.	diēs	rēs	-ēs
Abl.	diēbus	rēbus	-ēbus

468. SPECIAL PARADIGMS

	deus, m., god	domus, f., house	vīs, f., strength	iter, n., way
Stems	deo-	domu-	vī- and vīri-	iter- and itiner-
Bases	de-	dom-	v- and vīr-	iter- and itiner-
Singular
Nom.	deus	domus	vīs	iter
Gen.	deī	domūs	vīs (rare)	itineris
Dat.	deō	domuī, -ō	vī (rare)	itinerī
Acc.	deum	domum	vim	iter
Abl.	deō	domō, -ū	vī	itinere
Plural
Nom.	deī, dī	domūs	vīrēs	itinera
Gen.	deōrum, deum	domuum, -ōrum	vīrium	itinerum
Dat.	deīs, dīs	domibus	vīribus	itineribus
Acc.	deōs	domōs, -ūs	vīrīs, -ēs	itinera
Abl.	deīs, dīs	domibus	vīribus	itineribus

a. The vocative singular of deus is like the nominative.

b. The locative of domus is domī.

ADJECTIVES

469. FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. O- AND Ā-STEMS

a. Adjectives in -us

bonus, good   Stems bono- m. and n., bona- f.   Base bon-
Singular
	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	bonus	bona	bonum
Gen.	bonī	bonae	bonī
Dat.	bonō	bonae	bonō
Acc.	bonum	bonam	bonum
Abl.	bonō	bonā	bonō
Plural
Nom.	bonī	bonae	bona
Gen.	bonōrum	bonārum	bonōrum
Dat.	bonīs	bonīs	bonīs
Acc.	bonōs	bonās	bona
Abl.	bonīs	bonīs	bonīs

b. Adjectives in -er

līber, free   Stems lībero- m. and n., līberā- f.   Base līber-
Singular
	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	līber	lībera	līberum
Gen.	līberī	līberae	līberī
Dat.	līberō	līberae	līberō
Acc.	līberum	līberam	līberum
Abl.	līberō	līberā	līberō
Plural
Nom.	līberī	līberae	lībera
Gen.	līberōrum	līberārum	līberōrum
Dat.	līberīs	līberīs	līberīs
Acc.	līberōs	līberās	lībera
Abl.	līberīs	līberīs	līberīs

pulcher, pretty   Stems pulchro- m. and n., pulchrā- f.   Base pulchr-
Singular
	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	pulcher	pulchra	pulchrum
Gen.	pulchrī	pulchrae	pulchrī
Dat.	pulchrō	pulchrae	pulchrō
Acc.	pulchrum	pulchram	pulchrum
Abl.	pulchrō	pulchrā	pulchrō
Plural
Nom.	pulchrī	pulchrae	pulchra
Gen.	pulchrōrum	pulchrārum	pulchrōrum
Dat.	pulchrīs	pulchrīs	pulchrīs
Acc.	pulchrōs	pulchrās	pulchra
Abl.	pulchrīs	pulchrīs	pulchrīs

470. THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES

alius, another   Stems alio- m. and n., aliā- f.   Base ali-
	Singular			Plural
	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	alius	alia	aliud	aliī	aliae	alia
Gen.	alīus	alīus	alīus	aliōrum	aliārum	aliōrum
Dat.	aliī	aliī	aliī	aliīs	aliīs	aliīs
Acc.	alium	aliam	aliud	aliōs	aliās	alia
Abl.	aliō	aliā	aliō	aliīs	aliīs	aliīs
ūnus, one, only   Stems ūno- m. and n., ūnā- f.   Base ūn-
	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	ūnus	ūna	ūnum	ūnī	ūnae	ūna
Gen.	ūnīus	ūnīus	ūnīus	ūnōrum	ūnārum	ūnōrum
Dat.	ūnī	ūnī	ūnī	ūnīs	ūnīs	ūnīs
Acc.	ūnum	ūnam	ūnum	ūnōs	ūnās	ūna
Abl.	ūnō	ūnā	ūnō	ūnīs	ūnīs	ūnīs

a. For the complete list see § 108.

471. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. I-STEMS

I. THREE ENDINGS

	ācer, ācris, ācre, keen, eager			Stem ācri-   Base ācr-
	Singular			Plural
	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	ācer	ācris	ācre	ācrēs	ācrēs	ācria
Gen.	ācris	ācris	ācris	ācrium	ācrium	ācrium
Dat.	ācrī	ācrī	ācrī	ācribus	ācribus	ācribus
Acc.	ācrem	ācrem	ācre	ācrīs, -ēs	ācrīs, -ēs	ācria
Abl.	ācrī	ācrī	ācrī	ācribus	ācribus	ācribus

II. TWO ENDINGS

	omnis, omne, every, all		Stem omni-   Base omn-
	Singular		Plural
	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	omnis	omne	omnēs	omnia
Gen.	omnis	omnis	omnium	omnium
Dat.	omnī	omnī	omnibus	omnibus
Acc.	omnem	omne	omnīs, -ēs	omnia
Abl.	omnī	omnī	omnibus	omnibus

III. ONE ENDING

	pār, equal   Stem pari-   Base par-
	Singular		Plural
	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	pār	pār	parēs	paria
Gen.	paris	paris	parium	parium
Dat.	parī	parī	paribus	paribus
Acc.	parem	pār	parīs, -ēs	paria
Abl.	parī	parī	paribus	paribus

1. Observe that all i-stem adjectives have -ī in the ablative singular.

472. PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLES

	amāns, loving   Stem amanti-   Base amant-
	Singular		Plural
	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	amāns	amāns	amantēs	amantia
Gen.	amantis	amantis	amantium	amantium
Dat.	amantī	amantī	amantibus	amantibus
Acc.	amantem	amāns	amantīs, -ēs	amantia
Abl.	amante, -ī	amante, -ī	amantibus	amantibus
	iēns, going   Stem ienti-, eunti-   Base ient-, eunt-
Nom.	iēns	iēns	euntēs	euntia
Gen.	euntis	euntis	euntium	euntium
Dat.	euntī	euntī	euntibus	euntibus
Acc.	euntem	iēns	euntīs, -ēs	euntia
Abl.	eunte, -ī	eunte, -ī	euntibus	euntibus

473. REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

Positive	Comparative		Superlative
MASC.	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
altus (alto-)	altior	altius	altissimus	-a	-um
līber (lībero-)	līberior	līberius	līberrimus	-a	-um
pulcher (pulchro-)	pulchrior	pulchrius	pulcherrimus	-a	-um
audāx (audāci-)	audācior	audācius	audācissimus	-a	-um
brevis (brevi-)	brevior	brevius	brevissimus	-a	-um
ācer (ācri-)	ācrior	ācrius	ācerrimus	-a	-um

474. DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES

altior, higher
	Singular		Plural
	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	altior	altius	altiōrēs	altiōra
Gen.	altiōris	altiōris	altiōrum	altiōrum
Dat.	altiōrī	altiōrī	altiōribus	altiōribus
Acc.	altiōrem	altius	altiōrēs	altiōra
Abl.	altiōre	altiōre	altiōribus	altiōribus
plūs, more
Nom.	——	plūs	plūrēs	plūra
Gen.	——	plūris	plūrium	plūrium
Dat.	——	——	plūribus	plūribus
Acc.	——	plūs	plūrīs (-ēs)	plūra
Abl.	——	plūre	plūribus	plūribus

475. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
bonus, -a, -um, good	melior, melius, better	optimus, -a, -um, best
malus, -a, -um, bad	peior, peius, worse	pessimus, -a, -um, worst
magnus, -a, -um, great	maior, maius, greater	maximus, -a, -um, greatest
multus, -a, -um, much	——, plūs, more	plūrimus, -a, -um, most
parvus, -a, -um, small	minor, minus, smaller	minimus, -a, -um, smallest
senex, senis, old	senior	maximus nātū
iuvenis, -e, young	iūnior	minimus nātū
vetus, veteris, old	vetustior, -ius	veterrimus, -a, -um
facilis, -e, easy	facilior, -ius	facillimus, -a, -um
difficilis, -e, difficult	difficilior, -ius	difficillimus, -a, -um
similis, -e, similar	similior, -ius	simillimus, -a, -um
dissimilis, -e, dissimilar	dissimilior, -ius	dissimillimus, -a, -um
humilis, -e, low	humilior, -ius	humillimus, -a, -um
gracilis, -e, slender	gracilior, -ius	gracillimus, -a, -um
exterus, outward	exterior, outer, exterior	extrēmus extimus	outermost, last
īnferus, below	īnferior, lower	īnfimus īmus	lowest
posterus, following	posterior, later	postrēmus postumus	last
superus, above	superior, higher	suprēmus summus	highest
[cis, citrā, on this side]	citerior, hither	citimus, hithermost
[in, intrā, in, within]	interior, inner	intimus, inmost
[prae, prō, before]	prior, former	prīmus, first
[prope, near]	propior, nearer	proximus, next
[ultrā, beyond]	ulterior, further	ultimus, furthest

476. REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
cārē (cārus), dearly	cārius	cārissimē
miserē (miser), wretchedly	miserius	miserrimē
ācriter (ācer), sharply	ācrius	ācerrimē
facile (facilis), easily	facilius	facillimē

477. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
diū, long, a long time	diūtius	diūtissimē
bene (bonus), well	melius, better	optimē, best
male (malus), ill	peius, worse	pessimē, worst
magnopere, greatly	magis, more	maximē, most
multum (multus), much	plūs, more	plūrimum, most
parum, little	minus, less	minimē, least
saepe, often	saepīus	saepissimē

478. NUMERALS

The cardinal numerals are indeclinable excepting ūnus, duo, trēs, the hundreds above one hundred, and mīlle used as a noun. The ordinals are declined like bonus, -a, -um.

	Cardinals		Ordinals
	(How many)		(In what order)
1,	ūnus, -a, -um,	one	prīmus, -a, -um	first
2,	duo, duae, duo	two	secundus (or alter)	second
3,	trēs, tria	three,	tertius	third,
4,	quattuor	etc.	quārtus	etc.
5,	quīnque		quīntus
6,	sex		sextus
7,	septem		septimus
8,	octō		octāvus
9,	novem		nōnus
10,	decem		decimus
11,	ūndecim		ūndecimus
12,	duodecim		duodecimus
13,	tredecim (decem (et) trēs)		tertius decimus
14,	quattuordecim		quārtus decimus
15,	quīndecim		quīntus decimus
16,	sēdecim		sextus decimus
17,	septendecim		septimus decimus
18,	duodēvīgintī (octōdecim)		duodēvīcēnsimus
19,	ūndēvīgintī (novendecim)		ūndēvīcēnsimus
20,	vīgintī		vīcēnsimus
21,	vīgintī ūnus or ūnus et vīgintī, etc.		vīcēnsimus prīmus or ūnus et vīcēnsimus, etc.
30,	trīgintā		trīcēnsimus
40,	quadrāgintā		quadrāgēnsimus
50,	quīnquāgintā		quīnquāgēnsimus
60,	sexāgintā		sexāgēnsimus
70,	septuāgintā		septuāgēnsimus
80,	octōgintā		octōgēnsimus
90,	nōnāgintā		nōnāgēnsimus
100,	centum		centum
101,	centum (et) ūnus, etc.		centum (et) ūnus, etc.
120,	centum (et) vīgintī		centum (et) vīgintī
121,	centum (et) vīgintī ūnus, etc.		centum (et) vīgintī ūnus, etc.
200,	ducentī, -ae, -a		ducentī, -ae, -a
300,	trecentī		trecentī
400,	quadringentī		quadringentī
500,	quīngentī		quīngentī
600,	sescentī		sescentī
700,	septingentī		septingentī
800,	octingentī		octingentī
900,	nōngentī		nōngentī
1000,	mīlle		mīlle

479. Declension of duo, two, trēs, three, and mīlle, a thousand.

	Masc.	Fem.	Neut.	M. and F.	Neut.	Sing.	Plur.
N.	duo	duae	duo	trēs	trīa	mīlle	mīlia
G.	duōrum	duārum	duōrum	trium	trium	mīlle	mīlium
D.	duōbus	duābus	duōbus	tribus	tribus	mīlle	mīlibus
A.	duōs or duo	duās	duo	trīs or trēs	tria	mīlle	mīlia
A.	duōbus	duābus	duōbus	tribus	tribus	mīlle	mīlibus

Note. Mīlle is used in the plural as a noun with a modifying genitive, and is occasionally so used in the nominative and accusative singular. For the declension of ūnus cf. § 470.

PRONOUNS

480. PERSONAL

	ego, I		tū, you		suī, of himself, etc.
	Sing.	Plur.	Sing.	Plur.	Sing.	Plur.
Nom.	ego	nōs	tū	vōs	——	——
Gen.	meī	nostrum, -trī	tuī	vestrum, -trī	suī	suī
Dat.	mihi	nōbīs	tibi	vōbīs	sibi	sibi
Acc.	mē	nōs	tē	vōs	sē, sēsē	sē, sēsē
Abl.	mē	nōbīs	tē	vōbīs	sē, sēsē	sē, sēsē

Note that suī is always reflexive.

481. DEMONSTRATIVE

Demonstratives belong to the first and second declensions, but have the pronominal endings -ī̆us and -ī in the gen. and dat. sing.

ipse, self
	Singular			Plural
	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	ipse	ipsa	ipsum	ipsī	ipsae	ipsa
Gen.	ipsī´us	ipsī´us	ipsī´us	ipsōrum	ipsārum	ipsōrum
Dat.	ipsī	ipsī	ipsī	ipsīs	ipsīs	ipsīs
Acc.	ipsum	ipsam	ipsum	ipsōs	ipsās	ipsa
Abl.	ipsō	ipsā	ipsō	ipsīs	ipsīs	ipsīs
hic, this (here), he
Nom.	hic	haec	hoc	hī	hae	haec
Gen.	huius	huius	huius	hōrum	hārum	hōrum
Dat.	huic	huic	huic	hīs	hīs	hīs
Acc.	hunc	hanc	hoc	hōs	hās	haec
Abl.	hōc	hāc	hōc	hīs	hīs	hīs
iste, this, that (of yours), he
Nom.	iste	ista	istud	istī	istae	ista
Gen.	istī´us	istī´us	istī´us	istōrum	istārum	istōrum
Dat.	istī	istī	istī	istīs	istīs	istīs
Acc.	istum	istam	istud	istōs	istās	ista
Abl.	istō	istā	istō	istīs	istīs	istīs
ille, that (yonder), he
Nom.	ille	illa	illud	illī	illae	illa
Gen.	illī´us	illī´us	illī´us	illōrum	illārum	illōrum
Dat.	illī	illī	illī	illīs	illīs	illīs
Acc.	illum	illam	illud	illōs	illās	illa
Abl.	illō	illā	illō	illīs	illīs	illīs
is, this, that, he
Nom.	is	ea	id	iī, eī	eae	ea
Gen.	eius	eius	eius	eōrum	eārum	eōrum
Dat.	eī	eī	eī	iīs, eīs	iīs, eīs	iīs, eīs
Acc.	eum	eam	id	eōs	eās	ea
Abl.	eō	eā	eō	iīs, eīs	iīs, eīs	iīs, eīs
īdem, the same
Nom.	īdem	e´adem	idem	iī´dem eī´dem	eae´dem	e´adem
Gen.	eius´dem	eius´dem	eius´dem	eōrun´dem	eārun´dem	eōrun´dem
Dat.	eī´dem	eī´dem	eī´dem	iīs´dem eīs´dem	iīs´dem eīs´dem	iīs´dem eīs´dem
Acc.	eun´dem	ean´dem	idem	eōs´dem	eās´dem	e´adem
Abl.	eō´dem	eā´dem	eō´dem	iīs´dem eīs´dem	iīs´dem eīs´dem	iīs´dem eīs´dem

Note. In the plural of is and īdem the forms with two i’s are preferred, the two i’s being pronounced as one.

482. RELATIVE

quī, who, which, that
	Singular			Plural
	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	quī	quae	quod	quī	quae	quae
Gen.	cuius	cuius	cuius	quōrum	quārum	quōrum
Dat.	cui	cui	cui	quibus	quibus	quibus
Acc.	quem	quam	quod	quōs	quās	quae
Abl.	quō	quā	quō	quibus	quibus	quibus

483. INTERROGATIVE

quis, substantive, who, what
	Singular		Plural
	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	quis	quid	qui	quae	quae
Gen.	cuius	cuius	quōrum	quārum	quōrum
Dat.	cui	cui	quibus	quibus	quibus
Acc.	quem	quid	quōs	quās	quae
Abl.	quō	quō	quibus	quibus	quibus

The interrogative adjective quī, quae, quod, is declined like the relative.

484. INDEFINITES

quis and quī, as declined above,1 are used also as indefinites (some, any). The other indefinites are compounds of quis and quī.

quisque, each
	Substantive		Adjective
	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	quisque	quidque	quisque	quaeque	quodque
Gen.	cuius´que	cuius´que	cuius´que	cuius´que	cuius´que
Dat.	cuique	cuique	cuique	cuique	cuique
Acc.	quemque	quidque	quemque	quamque	quodque
Abl.	quōque	quōque	quōque	quāque	quōque

485. quīdam, a certain one, a certain

Observe that in the neuter singular the adjective has quoddam and the substantive quiddam.

Singular
	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	quīdam	quaedam	quoddam quiddam (subst.)
Gen.	cuius´dam	cuius´dam	cuius´dam
Dat.	cuidam	cuidam	cuidam
Acc.	quendam	quandam	quoddam quiddam (subst.)
Abl.	quōdam	quādam	quōdam
Plural
Nom.	quīdam	quaedam	quaedam
Gen.	quōrun´dam	quārun´dam	quōrun´dam
Dat.	quibus´dam	quibus´dam	quibus´dam
Acc.	quōsdam	quāsdam	quaedam
Abl.	quibus´dam	quibus´dam	quibus´dam

486. quisquam, substantive, any one (at all)

	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	quisquam	quicquam (quidquam)
Gen.	cuius´quam	cuius´quam
Dat.	cuiquam	cuiquam
Acc.	quemquam	quicquam (quidquam)
Abl.	quōquam	quōquam

487. aliquis, substantive, some one.   aliquī, adjective, some

Singular
	Substantive		Adjective
	MASC. AND FEM.	NEUT.	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	aliquis	aliquid	aliquī	aliqua	aliquod
Gen.	alicu´ius	alicu´ius	alicu´ius	alicu´ius	alicu´ius
Dat.	alicui	alicui	alicui	alicui	alicui
Acc.	aliquem	aliquid	aliquem	aliquam	aliquod
Abl.	aliquō	aliquō	aliquō	aliquā	aliquō

Plural for both Substantive and Adjective
	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Nom.	aliquī	aliquae	aliqua
Gen.	aliquō´rum	aliquā´rum	aliquō´rum
Dat.	ali´quibus	ali´quibus	ali´quibus
Acc.	aliquōs	aliquās	aliqua
Abl.	ali´quibus	ali´quibus	ali´quibus

a. quis (quī), any one, any, is the least definite (§ 297. b). aliquis (aliquī), some one, some, is more definite than quis. quisquam, any one (at all), and its adjective ūllus, any, occur mostly with a negative, expressed or implied, and in clauses of comparison.

REGULAR VERBS

488. FIRST CONJUGATION. Ā-VERBS. AMŌ

Principal Parts amō, amāre, amāvī, amātus
Pres. Stem amā-   Perf. Stem amāv-   Part. Stem amāt-
ACTIVE		PASSIVE
INDICATIVE
PRESENT
I love, am loving, do love, etc.		I am loved, etc.
amō	amāmus	amor		amāmur
amās	amātis	amāris, -re		amāminī
amat	amant	amātur		amantur
IMPERFECT
I loved, was loving, did love, etc.		I was loved, etc.
amābam	amābāmus	amābar		amābāmur
amābās	amābātis	amābāris, -re		amābāminī
amābat	amābant	amābātur		amābantur
FUTURE
I shall love, etc.		I shall be loved, etc.
amābō	amābimus	amābor		amābimur
amābis	amābitis	amāberis, -re		amābiminī
amābit	amābunt	amābitur		amābuntur
PERFECT
I have loved, loved, did love, etc.		I have been (was) loved, etc.
amāvi	amāvimus	amātus, -a, -um	sum	amātī, -ae, -a	sumus
amāvistī	amāvistis		es		estis
amāvit	amāvērunt, -re		est		sunt
PLUPERFECT
I had loved, etc.		I had been loved, etc.
amāveram	amāverāmus	amātus, -a, -um	eram	amātī, -ae, -a	erāmus
amāverās	amāverātis		erās		erātis
amāverat	amāverant		erat		erant
FUTURE PERFECT
I shall have loved, etc.		I shall have been loved, etc.
amāverō	amāverimus	amātus, -a, -um	erō	amātī, -ae, -a	erimus
amāveris	amāveritis		eris		eritis
amāverit	amāverint		erit		erunt
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
amem	amēmus	amer		amēmur
amēs	amētis	amēris, -re		amēminī
amet	ament	amētur		amentur
IMPERFECT
amārem	amāremus	amārer		amārēmur
amārēs	amārētis	amārēris, -re		amārēminī
amāret	amārent	amārētur		amārentur
PERFECT
amāverim	amāverimus	amātus, -a, -um	sim	amātī, -ae, -a	sīmus
amāveris	amāveritis		sīs		sītis
amāverit	amāverint		sit		sint
PLUPERFECT
amāvissem	amāvissēmus	amātus, -a, -um	essem	amātī, -ae, -a	essēmus
amāvissēs	amāvissētis		essēs		essētis
amāvisset	amāvissent		esset		essent
IMPERATIVE
PRESENT
amā, love thou		amāre, be thou loved
amāte, love ye		amāminī, be ye loved
FUTURE
amātō, thou shalt love		amātor, thou shalt be loved
amātō, he shall love		amātor, he shall be loved
amātōte, you shall love		——
amantō, they shall love		amantor, they shall be loved
INFINITIVE
Pres. amāre, to love		amārī, to be loved
Perf. amāvisse, to have loved		amātus, -a, -um esse, to have been loved
Fut. amātūrus, -a, -um esse, to be about to love		[amātum īrī], to be about to be loved
PARTICIPLES
Pres. amāns, -antis, loving		Pres. ——
Fut. amātūrus, -a, -um, about to love		Gerundive1 amandus, -a, -um, to be loved
Perf. ——		Perf. amātus, -a, -um, having been loved, loved
GERUND
Nom. ——		SUPINE (Active Voice)
Gen. amandī, of loving		Acc. [amātum], to love
Dat. amandō, for loving		Abl. [amātū], to love, in the loving
Acc. amandum, loving
Abl. amandō, by loving

489. SECOND CONJUGATION. Ē-VERBS. MONEŌ

Principal Parts moneō, monēre, monuī, monitus
Pres. Stem monē-   Perf. Stem monu-   Part. Stem monit-
ACTIVE		PASSIVE
INDICATIVE
PRESENT
I advise, etc.,		I am advised, etc.
moneō	monēmus	moneor		monēmur
monēs	monētis	monēris, -re		monēminī
monet	monent	monētur		monentur
IMPERFECT
I was advising, etc.,		I was advised, etc.
monēbam	monēbāmus	monēbar		monēbāmur
monēbās	monēbātis	monēbāris, -re		monēbāminī
monēbat	monēbant	monēbātur		monēbāntur
FUTURE
I shall advise, etc.,		I shall be advised, etc.
monēbō	monēbimus	monēbor		monēbimur
monēbis	monēbitis	monēberis, -re		monēbiminī
monēbit	monēbunt	monēbitur		monēbuntur
PERFECT
I have advised, I advised, etc.		I have been (was) advised, etc.
monuī	monuimus	monitus, -a, -um	sum	monitī, -ae, -a	sumus
monuistī	monuistis		es		estis
monuit	monuērunt, -re		est		sunt
PLUPERFECT
I had advised, etc.,		I had been advised, etc.
monueram	monuerāmus	monitus, -a, -um	eram	monitī, -ae, -a	erāmus
monuerās	monuerātis		eras		eratis
monuerat	monuerant		erat		erant
FUTURE PERFECT
I shall have advised, etc.		I shall have been advised, etc.
monuerō	monuerimus	monitus, -a, -um	erō	monitī, -ae, -a	erimus
monueris	monuerītis		eris		eritis
monuerit	monuerīnt		erit		erunt
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
moneam	moneāmus	monear		moneāmur
moneās	moneātis	moneāris, -re		moneāminī
moneat	moneant	moneātur		moneantur
IMPERFECT
monērem	monērēmus	monērer		monērēmur
monērēs	monērētis	monērēris, -re		monērēminī
monēret	monērent	monērētur		monērentur
PERFECT
monuerim	monuerimus	monitus, -a, -um	sim	monitī, -ae, -a	sīmus
monueris	monueritis		sīs		sītis
monuerit	monuerint		sit		sint
PLUPERFECT
monuissem	monuissēmus	monitus, -a, -um	essem	monitī, -ae, -a	essēmus
monuissēs	monuissētis		essēs		essētis
monuisset	monuissent		esset		essent
IMPERATIVE
PRESENT
monē, advise thou		monēre, be thou advised
monēte, advise ye		monēminī, be ye advised
FUTURE
monētō, thou shall advise		monētor, thou shalt be advised
monētō, he shall advise		monētor, he shall be advised
monētōte, you shall advise		——
monentō, they shall advise		monentor, they shall be advised
INFINITIVE
Pres. monēre, to advise		monērī, to be advised
Perf. monuisse, to have advised		monitus, -a, -um esse, to have been advised
Fut. monitūrus, -a, -um esse, to be about to advise		[monitum īrī], to be about to be advised
PARTICIPLES
Pres. monēns, -entis, advising		Pres. ——
Fut. monitūrus, -a, -um, about to advise		Ger. monendus, -a, -um, to be advised
Perf. ——		Perf. monitus, -a, -um, having been advised, advised
GERUND
Nom. ——		SUPINE (Active Voice)
Gen. monendī, of advising		Acc. [monitum], to advise
Dat. monendō, for advising		Abl. [monitū], to advise, in the advising
Acc. monendum, advising
Abl. monendō, by advising

490. THIRD CONJUGATION. Ĕ-VERBS. REGŌ

Principal Parts regō, regere, rexī, rēctus
Pres. Stem rege-   Perf. Stem rēx-   Part. Stem rēct-
ACTIVE		PASSIVE
INDICATIVE
PRESENT
I rule, etc.		I am ruled, etc.
regō	regimus	re´gor		re´gimur
regis	regitis	re´geris, -re		regi´minī
regit	regunt	re´gitur		regun´tur
IMPERFECT
I was ruling, etc.		I was ruled, etc.
regēbam	regēbāmus	regē´bar		regēbā´mur
regēbās	regēbātis	regēbā´ris, -re		regēbā´minī
regēbat	regēbant	regēbā´tur		regēban´tur
FUTURE
I shall rule, etc.		I shall be ruled, etc.
regam	regēmus	re´gar		regē´mur
regēs	regētis	regē´ris, -re		regē´minī
reget	regent	regē´tur		regen´tur
PERFECT
I have ruled, etc.		I have been ruled, etc.
rēxī	rēximus	rēctus, -a, -um	sum	rēctī, -ae, -a	sumus
rēxistī	rēxistis		es		estis
rēxit	rēxērunt, -re		est		sunt
PLUPERFECT
I had ruled, etc.		I had been ruled, etc.
rēxeram	rēxerāmus	rēctus, -a, -um	eram	rēctī, -ae, -a	erāmus
rēxerās	rēxerātis		erās		erātis
rēxerat	rēxerant		erat		erant
FUTURE PERFECT
I shall have ruled, etc.		I shall have been ruled, etc.
rēxerō	rēxerimus	rēctus, -a, -um	erō	rēctī, -ae, -a	erimus
rēxeris	rēxeritis		eris		eritis
rēxerit	rēxerint		erit		erunt
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
regam	regāmus	regar		regāmur
regās	regātis	regāris, -re		regāminī
regat	regant	regātur		regantur
IMPERFECT
regerem	regerēmus	regerer		regerēmur
regerēs	regerētis	regerēris, -re		regerēminī
regeret	regerent	regerētur		regerentur
PERFECT
rēxerim	rēxerimus	rēctus, -a, -um	sim	rēctī, -ae, -a	sīmus
rēxeris	rēxeritis		sīs		sītis
rēxerit	rēxerint		sit		sint
PLUPERFECT
rēxissem	rēxissēmus	rēctus, -a, -um	essem	rēctī, -ae, -a	essēmus
rēxissēs	rēxissētis		essēs		essētis
rēxisset	rēxissent		esset		essent
IMPERATIVE
PRESENT
rege, rule thou		regere, be thou ruled
regite, rule ye		regiminī, be ye ruled
FUTURE
regitō, thou shalt rule		regitor, thou shalt be ruled
regitō he shall rule		regitor, he shall be ruled
regitōte, ye shall rule		——
reguntō, they shall rule		reguntor, they shall be ruled
INFINITIVE
Pres. regere, to rule		regī, to be ruled
Perf. rēxisse, to have ruled		rēctus, -a, -um esse, to have been ruled
Fut.rēctūrus, -a, -um esse, to be about to rule		[rēctum īrī], to be about to be ruled
PARTICIPLES
Pres. regēns, -entis, ruling		Pres. ——
Fut. rēctūrus, -a, -um, about to rule		Ger. regendus, -a, -um, to be ruled
Perf. ——		Perf. rēctus, -a, -um, having been ruled, ruled
GERUND
Nom. ——		SUPINE (Active Voice)
Gen. regendī, of ruling		Acc [rēctum], to rule
Dat. regendō, for ruling		Abl. [rēctū], to rule, in the ruling
Acc. regendum, ruling
Abl. regendō, by ruling

491. FOURTH CONJUGATION. Ī-VERBS. AUDIŌ

Principal Parts audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītus
Pres. Stem audī-   Perf. Stem audīv-   Part. Stem audīt-
ACTIVE		PASSIVE
INDICATIVE
PRESENT
I hear, etc.		I am heard, etc.
audiō	audīmus	au´dior		audī´mur
audīs	audītis	audī´ris, -re		audī´minī
audit	audiunt	audī´tur		audiun´tur
IMPERFECT
I was hearing, etc.		I was heard, etc.
audiēbam	audiēbāmus	audiē´bar		audiēbā´mur
audiēbās	audiēbātis	audiēbā´ris, -re		audiēbā´minī
audiēbat	audiēbant	audiēbā´tur		audiēban´tur
FUTURE
I shall hear, etc.		I shall be heard, etc.
audiam	audiēmus	au´diar		audiē´mur
audiēs	audiētis	audiē´ris, -re		audiē´minī
audiet	audient	audiē´tur		audien´tur
PERFECT
I have heard, etc.		I have been heard, etc.
audīvī	audīvimus	audītus, -a, -um	sum	audītī, -ae, -a	sumus
audīvistī	audīvistis		es		estis
audīvit	audīvērunt, -re		est		sunt
PLUPERFECT
I had heard, etc.		I had been heard, etc.
audīveram	audīverāmus	audītus, -a, -um	eram	audītī, -ae, -a	erāmus
audīverās	audīverātis		erās		erātis
audīverat	audīverant		erat		erant
FUTURE PERFECT
I shall have heard, etc.		I shall have been heard, etc.
audīverō	audīverimus	audītus, -a, -um	erō	audītī, -ae, -a	erimus
audīveris	audīveritis		eris		eritis
audīverit	audīverint		erit		erunt
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
audiam	audiāmus	audiar		audiāmur
audiās	audiātis	audiāris, -re		audiāminī
audiat	audiant	audiātur		audiantur
IMPERFECT
audīrem	audīrēmus	audīrer		audīrēmur
audīrēs	audīrētis	audīrēris, -re		audīrēminī
audīret	audīrent	audīrētur		audīrentur
PERFECT
audīverim	audiverimus	audītus, -a, -um	sim	audītī, -ae, -a	sīmus
audīveris	audiveritis		sīs		sītis
audīverit	audīverint		sit		sint
PLUPERFECT
audīvissem	audīvissēmus	audītus, -a, -um	essem	audītī, -ae, -a	essēmus
audīvissēs	audīvissētis		essēs		essētis
audīvisset	audīvissent		esset		essent
IMPERATIVE
PRESENT
audī, hear thou		audīre, be thou heard
audīte, hear ye		audīminī, be ye heard
FUTURE
audītō, thou shalt hear		audītor, thou shalt be heard
audītō, he shall hear		audītor, he shall be heard
audītōte, ye shall hear		——
audiuntō, they shall hear		audiuntor, they shall be heard
INFINITIVE
Pres. audīre, to hear		audīrī, to be heard
audīvisse, to have heard		audītus, -a, -um esse, to have been heard
audītūrus, -a, -um esse, to be about to hear		[audītum īrī, to be about to be heard
PARTICIPLES
Pres. audiēns, -entis, hearing		Pres. ——
Fut. audītūrus, -a, -um, about to hear		Ger. audiendus, -a, -um to be heard
Perf. ——		Perf. audītus, -a, -um, having been heard, heard
GERUND
Nom. ——		SUPINE (Active Voice)
Gen. audiendī, of hearing		Acc. [audītum], to hear
Dat. audiendō, for hearing		Abl. [audītu], to hear, in the hearing
Acc. audiendum, hearing
Abl. audiendō, by hearing

492. THIRD CONJUGATION. VERBS IN -IŌ. CAPIŌ

Principal Parts capiō, capere, cēpī, captus
Pres. Stem cape-   Perf. Stem cēp-   Part. Stem capt-
ACTIVE		PASSIVE
INDICATIVE
PRESENT
capiō	capimus	ca´pior	ca´pimur
capis	capitis	ca´peris, -re	capi´minī
capit	capiunt	ca´pitur	capiun´tur
IMPERFECT
capiēbam	capiebamus	capiē´bar	capiēbā´mur
capiēbas	capiēbātis	capiēba´ris, -re	capiēbā´minī
capiēbat	capiēbant	capiēbā´tur	capieban´tur
FUTURE
capiam	capiēmus	ca´piar	capiē´mur
capiēs	capiētis	capiē´ris, -re	capiē´minī
capiet	capient	capiē´tur	capien´tur
PERFECT
cēpī, cēpistī, cēpit, etc.		captus, -a, -um   sum, es, est, etc.
PLUPERFECT
cēperam, cēperās, cēperat, etc.		captus, -a, -um   eram, erās, erat, etc.
FUTURE PERFECT
cēperō, cēperis, cēperit, etc.		captus, -a, -um   erō, eris, erit, etc.
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
capiam, capiās, capiat, etc.		capiar, -iāris, -re, -iātur, etc.
IMPERFECT
caperem, caperēs, caperet, etc.		caperer, -erēris, -re, -erētur, etc.
PERFECT
cēperim, cēperis, cēperit, etc.		captus, -a, -um   sim, sīs, sit, etc.
PLUPERFECT
cēpissem, cēpissēs, cēpisset, etc.		captus,-a, -um   essem, essēs, esset, etc.
IMPERATIVE
PRESENT
2d Pers. cape	capite	capere	capiminī
FUTURE
2d Pers. capitō	capitōte	capitor	——
3rd Pers. capitō	capiuntō	capitor	capiuntor
INFINITIVE
Pres. capere		capī
Perf. cēpisse		captus, -a, -um esse
Fut. captūrus, -a, -um esse		[captum īrī]
PARTICIPLES
Pres. capiēns, -ientis		Pres. ——
Fut. captūrus, -a, -um		Ger. capiendus, -a, -um
Perf. ——		Perf. captus, -a, -um
GERUND		SUPINE (Active Voice)
Gen. capiendī		Acc. [captum]
etc.		Abl. [captū]

493. DEPONENT VERBS

Principal Parts	I.	hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum, urge
	II.	vereor, verērī, veritus sum, fear
	III.	sequor, sequī, secūtus sum, follow
	IV.	partior, partīrī, partītus sum, share, divide

Note. In addition to the passive conjugation, deponent verbs use certain forms from the active. These are marked with a star. Deponent -iō verbs of the third conjugation are inflected like the passive of capiō.

Indicative
Pres.	hortor	vereor	sequor	partior
	hortāris, -re	verēris, -re	sequeris, -re	partīris, -re
	hortātur	verētur	sequitur	partītur
	hortāmur	verēmur	sequimur	partīmur
	hortāminī	verēminī	sequiminī	partīminī
	hortantur	verentur	sequuntur	partiuntur
Impf.	hortābar	verēbar	sequēbar	partiēbar
Fut.	hortābor	verēbor	sequar	partiar
Perf.	hortātus sum	veritus sum	secūtus sum	partītus sum
Plup.	hortātus eram	veritus eram	secūtus eram	partītus eram
F. P.	hortātus erō	veritus erō	secūtus erō	partītus erō
Subjunctive
Pres.	horter	verear	sequar	partiar
Impf.	hortārer	verērer	sequerer	partīrer
Perf.	hortātus sim	veritus sim	secūtus sim	partītus sim
Plup.	hortātus essem	veritus essem	secūtus essem	partītus essem
Imperative
Pres.	hortāre	verēre	sequere	partīre
Fut.	hortātor	verētor	sequitor	partītor
Infinitive
Pres.	hortārī	verērī	sequī	partīrī
Perf.	hortātus esse	veritus esse	secūtus esse	partītus esse
Fut.	*hortātūrus esse	*veritūrus esse	*secūtūrus esse	*partītūrus esse
Participles
Pres.	*hortāns	*verēns	*sequēns	*partiēns
Fut.	*hortāturus	*veritūrus	*secūtūrus	*partītūrus
Perf.	hortātus	veritus	secūtus	partītus
Ger.	hortandus	verendus	sequendus	partiendus
Gerund
	*hortandī, etc.	*verendī, etc.	*sequendī, etc.	*partiendī, etc.
Supine
	*[hortātus, -tū]	*[veritum, -tū]	*[secūtum, -tū]	*[partītum, -tū]

IRREGULAR VERBS

494. sum, am, be

Principal Parts sum, esse, fuī, futūrus
Pres. Stem es-   Perf. Stem fu-   Part. Stem fut-
Indicative
Present
SINGULAR		PLURAL
sum, I am		sumus, we are
es, thou art		estis, you are
est, he (she, it) is		sunt, they are
Imperfect
eram, I was		erāmus, we were
erās, thou wast		erātis, you were
erat, he was		erant, they were
Future
erō, I shall be		erimus, we shall be
eris, thou wilt be		eritis, you will be
erit, he will be		erunt, they will be
Perfect
fuī, I have been, was		fuimus, we have been, were
fuistī, thou hast been, wast		fuistis, you have been, were
fuit, he has been, was		fuērunt, fuēre, they have been, were
Pluperfect
fueram, I had been		fuerāmus, we had been
fuerās, thou hadst been		fuerātis, you had been
fuerat, he had been		fuerant, they had been
Future Perfect
fuerō, I shall have been		fuerimus, we shall have been
fueris, thou wilt have been		fueritis, you will have been
fuerit, he will have been		fuerint, they will have been
Subjunctive
Present		Imperfect
SINGULAR	PLURAL	SINGULAR	PLURAL
sim	sīmus	essem	essēmus
sīs	sītis	essēs	essētis
sit	sint	esset	essent
Perfect		Pluperfect
fuerim	fuerimus	fuissem	fuissēmus
fueris	fueritis	fuissēs	fuissētis
fuerit	fuerint	fuisset	fuissent
Imperative
PRESENT		FUTURE
2d Pers. Sing. es, be thou		2d Pers. Sing. estō, thou shalt be
2d Pers. Plur. este, be ye		3d Pers. Sing. estō, he shall be
2d Pers. Plur. estōte, ye shall be 3d Pers. Plur. suntō, they shall be
Infinitive		Participle
Pres. esse, to be
Perf. fuisse, to have been
Fut. futūrus, -a, -um esse or fore, to be about to be		futūrus, -a, -um, about to be

495. possum, be able, can

	Principal Parts possum, posse, potuī, ——
	Indicative		Subjunctive
	SINGULAR	PLURAL	SINGULAR	PLURAL
Pres.	possum	pos´sumus	possim	possī´mus
	potes	potes´tis	possīs	possī´tis
	potest	possunt	possit	possint
Impf.	poteram	poterāmus	possem	possē´mus
Fut.	poterō	poterimus	——	——
Perf.	potuī	potuimus	potuerim	potuerimus
Plup.	potueram	potuerāmus	potuissem	potuissēmus
F. P.	potuerō	potuerimus	——	——
	Infinitive
	Pres. posse		Perf. potuisse
	Participle
	Pres. potens, gen. -entis, (adjective) powerful

496. prōsum, benefit

	Principal Parts prōsum, prōdesse, prōfuī, prōfutūrus
	Pres. Stem prōdes-   Perf. Stem prōfu-   Part. Stem prōfut-
	Indicative		Subjunctive
	SINGULAR	PLURAL	SINGULAR	PLURAL
Pres.	prōsum	prō´sumus	prōsim	prōsī´mus
	prōdes	prōdes´tis	prōsīs	prōsī´tis
	prōdest	prōsunt	prōsit	prōsint
Impf.	prōderam	prōderāmus	prōdessem	prodessē´mus
Fut.	prōderō	prōderimus	——	——
Perf.	prōfuī	prōfuimus	prōfuerim	prōfuerimus
Plup.	prōfueram	prōfuerāmus	prōfuissem	prōfuissēmus
F. P.	prōfuerō	prōfuerimus	——	——
	Imperative
	Pres. 2d Pers. prōdes, prōdeste		Fut. 2d Pers. prōdestō, prōdestōte
	Infinitive
Pres. prōdesse		Perf. prōfuisse	Fut. prōfutūrus, -a, -um esse
	Future Participle prōfutūrus, -a, -um

497.

Principal Parts

volō, velle, voluī, ——, be willing, will, wish nōlō, nōlle, nōluī, ——, be unwilling, will not mālō, mālle, māluī, ——, be more willing, prefer

Nōlō and mālō are compounds of volō. Nōlō is for ne (not) + volō, and mālō for mā (from magis, more) + volō. The second person vīs is from a different root.

Indicative
SINGULAR
Pres.	volō	nōlō	mālō
	vīs	nōn vis	māvīs
	vult	nōn vult	māvult
PLURAL
	volumus	nōlumus	mālumus
	vultis	nōn vultis	māvul´tis
	volunt	nōlunt	mālunt
Impf.	volēbam	nōlēbam	mālēbam
Fut.	volam, volēs, etc.	nōlam, nōlēs, etc.	mālam, mālēs, etc.
Perf.	voluī	nōluī	māluī
Plup.	volueram	nōlueram	mālueram
F. P.	voluerō	nōluerō	māluerō
Subjunctive
SINGULAR
Pres.	velim	nōlim	mālim
	velīs	nōlīs	mālīs
	velit	nōlit	mālit
PLURAL
	velī´mus	nōlī´mus	mālī´mus
	velī´tis	nōlī´tis	mālī´tis
	velint	nōlint	mālint
Impf.	vellem	nōllem	māllem
Perf.	voluerim	nōluerim	māluerim
Plup.	voluissem	nōluissem	māluissem
Imperative
Pres.	——	nōlī nōlīte	——
Fut.	——	nōlītō, etc.	——
Infinitive
Pres.	velle	nōlle	mālle
Perf.	voluisse	nōluisse	māluisse
Participle
Pres.	volēns, -entis	nōlēns, -entis	——

498. ferō, bear, carry, endure

	Principal Parts ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus
	Pres. Stem fer-   Perf. Stem tul-   Part. Stem lāt-
	Indicative
	ACTIVE		PASSIVE
Pres.	ferō	ferimus	feror	ferimur
	fers	fertīs	ferris, -re	ferimimī
	fert	ferunt	fertur	feruntur
Impf.	ferēbam		ferēbar
Fut.	feram, ferēs, etc.		ferar, ferēris, etc.
Perf.	tulī		lātus, -a, -um sum
Plup.	tuleram		lātus, -a, -um eram
F. P.	tulerō		lātus, -a, -um erō
	Subjunctive
Pres.	feram, ferās, etc.		ferar, ferāris, etc.
Impf.	ferrem		ferrer
Perf.	tulerim		lātus, -a, -um sim
Plup.	tulissem		lātus, -a, -um essem
	Imperative
Pres. 2d Pers. fer		ferte	ferre	feriminī
Fut. 2d Pers. fertō		fertōte	fertor
3d Pers. fertō		ferunto	fertor	feruntor
	Infinitive
Pres.	ferre		ferrī
Perf.	tulisse		lātus, -a, -um esse
Fut.	lātūrus, -a, -um esse		——
	Participles
Pres.	ferēns, -entis		Pres. ——
Fut.	lātūrus, -a, -um		Ger. ferendus, -a, -um
Perf.	——		Perf. lātus, -a, -um

Gerund		Supine (Active Voice)
Gen. ferendī	Acc. ferendum	Acc. [lātum]
Dat. ferendō	Abl. ferendō	Abl. [lātū]

499. eō, go

	Principal Parts eō, īre, iī (īvī), ĭtum (n. perf. part.)
	Pres. Stem ī-   Perf. Stem ī- or īv-   Part. Stem it-
	Indicative		Subjunctive	Imperative
				SING.	PLUR.
Pres.	eō īs it	īmus ītis eunt	eam	2d Pers. ī	īte
Impf.	ībam		īrem
Fut.	ībō		——	2d Pers. ītō 3d Pers. ītō	ītōte euntō
Perf.	iī (īvī)		ierim (īverim)
Plup.	ieram (īveram)		īssem (īvissem)
F. P.	ierō (īverō)
	Infinitive		Participles
Pres.	īre		Pres. iēns, gen. euntis (§ 472)
Perf.	īsse (īvisse)		Fut. itūrus, -a, -um
Fut.	itūrus, -a, -um esse		Ger. eundum
			Gerund	Supine
			Gen. eundī	Acc. [itum]
			Dat. eundō	Abl. [itū]
			Acc. eundum
			Abl. eundō

a. The verb eō is used impersonally in the third person singular of the passive, as ītur, itum est, etc.

b. In the perfect system the forms with v are very rare.

500. fīō, passive of faciō; be made, become, happen

	Principal Parts fīō, fierī, factus sum
	Indicative		Subjunctive	Imperative
Pres.	fīō fīs fit	—— —— fīunt	fīam	2d Pers. fī	fīte
Impf.	fīēbam		fierem
Fut.	fīam		——
Perf.	factus, -a, -um sum		factus, -a, -um sim
Plup.	factus, -a, -um eram		factus, -a, -um essem
F. P.	factus, -a, -um erō
	Infinitive			Participles
Pres.	fierī			Perf. factus, -a, -um
Perf.	factus, -a, -um esse			Ger. faciendus, -a, -um
Fut.	[factum īrī]

CASTRA MURO FOSSAQUE MUNIUNTUR

501. RULES OF SYNTAX

Note. The rules of syntax are here classified and numbered consecutively. The number of the text section in which the rule appears is given at the end of each.

Nominative Case

1. The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative and answers the question Who? or What? § 36.

Agreement

2. A finite verb must always be in the same person and number as its subject. § 28.

3. A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb. § 76.

4. An appositive agrees in case with the noun which it explains. § 81.

5. Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case. § 65.

6. A predicate adjective completing a complementary infinitive agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject of the main verb. § 215. a.

7. A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and number; but its case is determined by the way it is used in its own clause. § 224.

Prepositions

8. A noun governed by a preposition must be in the accusative or ablative case. § 52.

Genitive Case

9. The word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the genitive and answers the question Whose? § 38.

10. The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, especially after the forms of sum, and is then called the predicate genitive. § 409.

11. Words denoting a part are often used with the genitive of the whole, known as the partitive genitive. § 331.

12. Numerical descriptions of measure are expressed by the genitive with a modifying adjective. § 443.

Dative Case

13. The indirect object of a verb is in the dative. § 45.

14. The dative of the indirect object is used with the intransitive verbs crēdō, faveō, noceō, pāreō, persuādeō, resistō, studeō, and others of like meaning. § 154.

15. Some verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, dē, in, inter, ob, post, prae, prō, sub, super, admit the dative of the indirect object. Transitive compounds may take both an accusative and a dative. § 426.

16. The dative is used with adjectives to denote the object toward which the given quality is directed. Such are, especially, those meaning near, also fit, friendly, pleasing, like, and their opposites. § 143.

17. The dative is used to denote the purpose or end for which; often with another dative denoting the person or thing affected. § 437.

Accusative Case

18. The direct object of a transitive verb is in the accusative and answers the question Whom? or What? § 37.

19. The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative. § 214.

20. The place to which is expressed by ad or in with the accusative. Before names of towns, small islands, domus, and rūs the preposition is omitted. §§ 263, 266.

21. Duration of time and extent of space are expressed by the accusative. § 336.

22. Verbs of making, choosing, calling, showing, and the like, may take a predicate accusative along with the direct object. With the passive voice the two accusatives become nominatives. § 392.

Ablative Case

23. Cause is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question Because of what? § 102.

24. Means is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question By means of what? or With what? § 103.

25. Accompaniment is denoted by the ablative with cum. This answers the question With whom? § 104.

26. The ablative with cum is used to denote the manner of an action. Cum may be omitted, if an adjective is used with the ablative. This answers the question How? or In what manner? § 105.

27. With comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the measure of difference. § 317.

28. The ablative of a noun or pronoun with a present or perfect participle in agreement is used to express attendant circumstance. This is called the ablative absolute. § 381.

29. 1. Descriptions of physical characteristics are expressed by the ablative with a modifying adjective. § 444.

2. Descriptions involving neither numerical statements nor physical characteristics may be expressed by either the genitive or the ablative with a modifying adjective. § 445.

30. The ablative is used to denote in what respect something is true. § 398.

31. The place from which is expressed by ā or ab, dē, ē or ex with the separative ablative. This answers the question Whence? Before names of towns, small islands, domus, and rūs the preposition is omitted. §§ 264, 266.

32. Words expressing separation or deprivation require an ablative to complete their meaning. This is called the ablative of separation. § 180.

33. The word expressing the person from whom an action starts, when not the subject, is put in the ablative with the preposition ā or ab. This is called the ablative of the personal agent. § 181.

34. The comparative degree, if quam is omitted, is followed by the separative ablative. § 309.

35. The time when or within which anything happens is expressed by the ablative without a preposition. § 275.

36. 1. The place at or in which is expressed by the ablative with in. This answers the question Where? Before names of towns, small islands, and rūs the preposition is omitted. §§ 265, 266.

2. Names of towns and small islands, if singular and of the first or second declension, and the word domus express the place in which by the locative. § 268.

Gerund and Gerundive

37. 1. The gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular. The constructions of these cases are in general the same as those of other nouns. § 406. 1.

2. The gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of gerund + object, excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without a preposition. Even in these instances the gerundive construction is more usual. § 406. 2.

38. The accusative of the gerund or gerundive with ad, or the genitive with causā, is used to express purpose. § 407.

Moods and Tenses of Verbs

39. Primary tenses are followed by primary tenses, and secondary by secondary. § 358.

40. The subjunctive is used in a dependent clause to express the purpose of the action in the principal clause. § 349.

41. A substantive clause of purpose with the subjunctive is used as object with verbs of commanding, urging, asking, persuading, or advising, where in English we should usually have the infinitive. § 366.

42. Verbs of fearing are followed by a substantive clause of purpose introduced by ut (that not) or nē (that or lest). § 372.

43. Consecutive clauses of result are introduced by ut or ut nōn, and have the verb in the subjunctive. § 385.

44. Object clauses of result with ut or ut nōn are found after verbs of effecting or bringing about. § 386.

45. A relative clause with the subjunctive is often used to describe an antecedent. This is called the subjunctive of characteristic or description. § 390.

46. The conjunction cum means when, since, or although. It is followed by the subjunctive unless it means when and its clause fixes the time at which the main action took place. § 396.

47. When a direct statement becomes indirect, the principal verb is changed to the infinitive, and its subject nominative becomes subject accusative of the infinitive. § 416.

48. The accusative-with-infinitive construction in indirect statements is found after verbs of saying, telling, knowing, thinking, and perceiving. § 419.

49. A present indicative of a direct statement becomes present infinitive of the indirect, a past indicative becomes perfect infinitive, and a future indicative becomes future infinitive. § 418.

50. In an indirect question the verb is in the subjunctive and its tense is determined by the law for tense sequence. § 432.

DOMINA

I. REVIEW OF VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR THROUGH LESSON VIII

502. Give the English of the following words:1

Nouns
agricola ancilla aqua casa causa cēna corōna	dea domina fābula fera fīlia fortūna fuga	gallīna iniūria īnsula lūna nauta pecūnia puella	pugna sagitta silva terra tuba via victōria

Adjectives
alta bona	clāra grāta	lāta longa	magna mala	nova parva	pulchra sōla

Verbs
amat dat	est habitat	labōrat laudat	nārrat necat	nūntiat parat	portat pugnat	sunt vocat

Prepositions	Pronouns	Adverbs	Conjunctions	Interrogative Particle
ā or ab ad cum dē ē or ex in	mea tua quis cuius cui quem quid	cūr deinde nōn ubi	et quia quod	-ne

503. Give the Latin of the following words:1

Underline the words you do not remember. Do not look up a single word till you have gone through the entire list. Then drill on the words you have underlined.

flight story new lives (verb) away from who why forest wreath deep, high dinner famous cottage battle (noun) trumpet lady, mistress whom island

wide tells money calls with your then, in the next place daughter to whom fortune out from labors (verb) gives small in and sailor farmer

goddess wild beast praises (verb) alone pleasing prepares are to because arrow my kills girl fights (verb) carries chicken victory land

what way bad loves pretty water great is announces injury, wrong where not good maid down from long cause whose

504. Review Questions. How many syllables has a Latin word? How are words divided into syllables? What is the ultima? the penult? the antepenult? When is a syllable short? When is a syllable long? What is the law of Latin accent? Define the subject of a sentence; the predicate; the object; the copula. What is inflection? declension? conjugation? What is the ending of the verb in the third person singular, and what in the plural? What does the form of a noun show? Name the Latin cases. What case is used for the subject? the direct object? the possessor? What relation is expressed by the dative case? Give the rule for the indirect object. How are questions answered in Latin? What is a predicate adjective? an attributive adjective? What is meant by agreement? Give the rule for the agreement of the adjective. What are the three relations expressed by the ablative? What can you say of the position of the possessive pronoun? the modifying genitive? the adjective? What is the base? What is grammatical gender? What is the rule for gender in the first declension? What are the general principles of Latin word order?

505. Fill out the following summary of the first declension:

The First or Ā-Declension	1. Ending in the nominative singular
	2. Rule for gender
	3. Case terminations	a. Singular b. Plural
	4. Irregular nouns

II. REVIEW OF LESSONS IX-XVII

506. Give the English of the following words:

Nouns of the First Declension
agrī cultūra cōnstantia	cōpia dīligentia	fāma fēmina	galea inopia	lacrima lōrīca	patria praeda

Nouns of the Second Declension
ager amīcus arma (plural) auxilium bellum carrus castrum	cibus cōnsilium domicilium dominus equus fīlius fluvius	frūmentum gladius lēgātus līberī magister mūrus numerus	oppidānus oppidum pīlum populus praemium proelium puer	scūtum servus studium tēlum vīcus vir

Adjectives of the First and Second Declensons
aeger, aegra, aegrum alius, alia, aliud alter, altera, alterum armātus, -a, -um crēber, crēbra, crēbrum dūrus, -a, -um fīnitimus, -a, -um īnfīrmus, -a, -um legiōnārius, -a, -um līber, lībera, līberum mātūrus, -a, -um meus, -a, -um miser, misera, miserum multus, -a, -um	neuter, neutra, neutrum noster, nostra, nostrum alter, altera, alterum pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum sōlus, -a, -um suus, -a, -um fīnitimus, -a, -um tuus, -a, -um ūllus, -a, -um ūnus, -a, -um uter, utra, utrum validus, -a, -um vester, vestra, vestrum

Verbs	Demonstrative Pronoun	Adverbs
arat cūrat dēsīderat mātūrat properat	is, ea, id Conjunctions an -que sed	iam quō saepe Preposition apud

507. Give the Latin of the following words:

sword corselet man your (plural) hasten but among tear (noun) village strong long for and (enclitic) often want (noun) which (of two) care for or (in a question) whither wagon townsman wretched ripe

war number my free (adj.) children wall grain weapon one plow (verb) this or that already helmet river zeal any he son slave your (singular) she woman horse

shield (noun) whole it aid (noun) legionary weak arms master (of school) friend neighboring sick lieutenant field report, rumor abode boy his own alone prize (noun) master (owner) carefulness plenty troops

plan (noun) people beautiful no (adj.) our battle spear food steadiness fatherland town fort camp neither (of two) much agriculture other the other (of two) hard booty frequent armed

508. Review Questions. How many declensions are there? What three things must be known about a noun before it can be declined? What three cases of neuter nouns are always alike, and in what do they end in the plural? What two plural cases are always alike? When is the vocative singular not like the nominative? What is a predicate noun? With what does it agree? What is an appositive? Give the rule for the agreement of an appositive. How can we tell whether a noun in -er is declined like puer or like ager? Decline bonus, līber, pulcher. How can we tell whether an adjective in -er is declined like līber or like pulcher? Why must we say nauta bonus and not nauta bona? Name the Latin possessive pronouns. How are they declined? With what does the possessive pronoun agree? When do we use tuus and when vester? Why is suus called a reflexive possessive? What is the non-reflexive possessive of the third person? When are possessives omitted? What four uses of the ablative case are covered by the relations expressed in English by with? Give an illustration in Latin of the ablative of manner; of the ablative of cause; of the ablative of means; of the ablative of accompaniment. What ablative regularly has cum? What ablative sometimes has cum? What uses of the ablative never have cum? Name the nine pronominal adjectives, with their meanings. Decline alius, nūllus. Decline is. What does is mean as a demonstrative adjective or pronoun? What other important use has it?

509. Fill out the following summary of the second declension:

The Second or O-Declension	1. Endings in the nominative
	2. Rule for gender
	3. Case terminations of nouns in -us	a. Singular b. Plural
	a. The vocative singular of nouns in -us
	4. Case terminations of nouns in -um	a. Singular b. Plural
	5. Peculiarities of nouns in -er and -ir
	6. Peculiarities of nouns in -ius and -ium

III. REVIEW OF LESSONS XVIII-XXVI

510. Give the English of the following words:

Nouns of the First Declension
	disciplīna fōrma	poena potentia	rēgīna superbia	trīstitia

Nouns of the Second Declension
lūdus	ōrnāmentum	sacrum	socius	verbum

Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions
amīcus antīquus fīnitimus	grātus idōneus inimīcus	interfectus īrātus laetus	molestus perpetuus proximus	septem superbus

Adverbs		Conjunctions	Personal Pronoun
hodiē ibi maximē	mox nunc nūper	etiam nōn sōlum ... sed etiam	ego

Verbs
CONJ. I	CONJ. II	CONJ. III	CONJ. IV
volō, -āre IRREGULAR VERB sum, esse	dēleō, -ēre doceō, -ēre faveō, -ēre habeō, -ēre iubeō, -ēre moneō, -ēre moveō, -ēre noceō, -ēre pāreō, -ēre persuādeō, -ēre sedeō, -ēre studeō, -ēre videō, -ēre	agō, -ere capiō, -ere crēdō, -ere dīcō, -ere dūcō, -ere faciō, -ere fugiō, -ere iaciō, -ere mittō, -ere rapiō, -ere regō, -ere resistō, -ere	audiō, -īre mūniō, -īre reperiō, -īre veniō, -īre

511. Give the Latin of the following words. In the case of verbs always give the first form and the present infinitive.

ancient come resist see be fly I proud word sadness find rule (verb) be eager for

not only ... but also seven ally, companion pride fortify send sit also school hear hurl persuade only

nearest sacred rite queen flee obey lately constant ornament power make, do injure now annoying lead

move soon glad punishment believe advise especially, most of all angry beauty say command (verb) there slain

training take have to-day unfriendly drive favor (verb) suitable pleasing teach neighboring destroy friendly seize

512. Review Questions. What is conjugation? Name two important differences between conjugation in Latin and in English. What is tense? What is mood? What are the Latin moods? When do we use the indicative mood? Name the six tenses of the indicative. What are personal endings? Name those you have had. Inflect sum in the three tenses you have learned. How many regular conjugations are there? How are they distinguished? How is the present stem found? What tenses are formed from the present stem? What is the tense sign of the imperfect? What is the meaning of the imperfect? What is the tense sign of the future in the first two conjugations? in the last two? Before what letters is a final long vowel of the stem shortened? What are the three possible translations of a present, as of pugnō? Inflect arō, sedeō, mittō, faciō, and veniō, in the present, imperfect, and future active. What forms of -iō verbs of the third conjugation are like audiō? what like regō? Give the rule for the dative with adjectives. Name the special intransitive verbs that govern the dative. What does the imperative mood express? How is the present active imperative formed in the singular? in the plural? What three verbs have a shortened present active imperative? Give the present active imperative of portō, dēleō, agō, faciō, mūniō.

IV. REVIEW OF LESSONS XXVII-XXXVI

513. Give the English of the following words:

Nouns of the First Declension
āla	cūra	mora	porta	prōvincia	vīta

Nouns of the Second Declension
animus aurum	bracchium deus	locus mōnstrum	nāvigium ōrāculum	perīculum ventus	vīnum

Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions
adversus attentus cārus	commōtus dēfessus dexter	dubius maximus perfidus	plēnus saevus sinister

Adverbs
anteā celeriter dēnique	diū frūstrā graviter	ita longē semper	subitō tamen tum

Conjunctions
autem	sī	ubi

Prepositions
dē	per	prō	sine

Verbs
CONJ. I			CONJ. II
adpropinquō nāvigō occupō postulō	recūsō reportō servō stō	superō temptō vāstō vulnerō	contineō egeō prohibeō respondeō teneō
CONJ. III			IRREGULAR VERB
discēdō	gerō	interficiō	absum

514. Translate the following words. Give the genitive and the gender of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs.

be away wind through if savage wound (verb) wine delay faithless right seize quickly before, in behalf of battle down from or concerning

moreover greatest oracle danger lay waste gate doubtful opposite, adverse demand finally attentive then, at that time weary overcome, conquer

boat, ship sail (verb) life save full refuse heavily monster approach nevertheless place be without, lack moved gold restrain, keep from

without hold suddenly dear always god hold in, keep afar thus, so, as follows arm (noun) when in vain stand bring back, win

before, previously depart, go away province care, trouble kill reply (verb) wing mind, heart left (adj.) bear, carry on try for a long time

515. Give the principal parts and meaning of the following verbs:

sum dō teneō iubeō agō mittō mūniō

moveō crēdō rapiō reperiō dēleō resistō audiō

moneō capiō doceō regō faveō noceō dīcō

pāreō dūcō faciō persuādeō sedeō studeō fugiō

veniō iaciō videō absum egeō gerō stō

516. Review Questions. What are the personal endings in the passive voice? What is the letter -r sometimes called? What are the distinguishing vowels of the four conjugations? What forms constitute the principal parts? What are the three different conjugation stems? How may they be found? What are the tenses of the indicative? of the infinitive? What tense of the imperative have you learned? What forms are built on the present stem? on the perfect stem? on the participial stem? What are the endings of the perfect active indicative? What is the tense sign of the pluperfect active? of the future perfect active? How is the present active infinitive formed? the present passive infinitive? How is the present active imperative formed? the present passive imperative? How is the perfect active infinitive formed? the perfect passive infinitive? How is the future active infinitive formed? What is a participle? How are participles in -us declined? Give the rule for the agreement of the participle. How are the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect passive indicative formed? Conjugate the verb sum in all moods and tenses as far as you have learned it (§ 494). What is meant by the separative ablative? How is the place from which expressed in Latin? Give the rule for the ablative of separation; for the ablative of the personal agent. How can we distinguish between the ablative of means and the ablative of the personal agent? What is the perfect definite? the perfect indefinite? What is the difference in meaning between the perfect indefinite and the imperfect? What two cases in Latin may be governed by a preposition? Name the prepositions that govern the ablative. What does the preposition in mean when it governs the ablative? the accusative? What are the three interrogatives used to introduce yes-and-no questions? Explain the force of each. What words are sometimes used for yes and no? What are the different meanings and uses of ubi?

V. REVIEW OF LESSONS XXXVII-XLIV

517. Give the English of the following words:

Nouns
FIRST DECLENSION	SECOND DECLENSION
rīpa	barbarī captīvus	castellum impedīmentum

THIRD DECLENSION
animal arbor avis caedēs calamitās calcar caput cīvis cliēns	collis cōnsul dēns dux eques fīnis flūmen fōns frāter	homō hostīs ignis imperātor īnsigne iter iūdex labor lapis	legiō mare māter mēnsis mīles mōns nāvis opus ōrātor	ōrdō pater pedes pēs pōns prīnceps rēx salūs sanguis	soror tempus terror turris urbs victor virtūs vīs

Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions
barbarus	dexter	sinister	summus

Prepositions	Adverbs	Conjunctions
in with the abl. in with the acc. trāns	cotīdiē numquam	nec, neque nec ... nec, or neque ... neque

Verbs
CONJ. I		CONJ. III
cessō confirmō	oppugnō vetō	accipiō incipiō	petō ponō	vincō vivō

518. Translate the following words. Give the genitive and the gender of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs:

forbid rank, row brother force across savages horseman never mountain manliness, courage leader put, place time savage, barbarous sister seek captive hindrance, baggage

man-of-war judge defeat, disaster fire tree foot soldier receive general highest fountain orator neither ... nor and not left tooth soldier month city victor daily live (verb)

conquer consul mother retainer citizen head safety assail, storm begin march decoration bridge bird cease man river work (noun) and ship bank

redoubt, fort sea tower drill (verb) legion terror into, to right (adj.) in stone blood labor (noun) king spur chief slaughter strengthen foot enemy animal father

519. Review Questions. Give the conjugation of possum. What is an infinitive? What three uses has the Latin infinitive that are like the English? What is the case of the subject of the infinitive? What is meant by a complementary infinitive? In the sentence The bad boy cannot be happy, what is the case of happy? Give the rule. Decline quī. Give the rule for the agreement of the relative. What are the two uses of the interrogative? Decline quis. What is the base of a noun? How is the stem formed from the base? Are the stem and the base ever the same? How many declensions of nouns are there? Name them. What are the two chief divisions of the third declension? How are the consonant stems classified? Explain the formation of lapis from the stem lapid-, mīles from mīlit-, rēx from rēg-. What nouns have i-stems? What peculiarities of form do i-stems have,—masc., fem., and neut.? Name the five nouns that have -ī and -e in the abl. Decline turris. Give the rules for gender in the third declension. Decline mīles, lapis, rēx, virtūs, cōnsul, legiō, homō, pater, flūmen, opus, tempus, caput, caedēs, urbs, hostis, mare, animal, vīs, iter.

520. Fill out the following scheme:

The Third Declension	Gender Endings	Masculine Feminine Neuter
	Case Terminations	I. Consonant Stems	a. Masc. and fem. b. Neuters
		II. I-Stems	a. Masc. and fem. b. Neuters
		Irregular Nouns

VI. REVIEW OF LESSONS XLV-LII

521. Give the English of the following words:

Nouns
FIRST DECLENSION		SECOND DECLENSION
amīcitia hōra littera	annus modus nūntius oculus	rēgnum signum supplicium, supplicium dare supplicium sūmere dē	tergum, tergum vertere vestīgium

THIRD DECLENSION		FOURTH DECLENSION
aestās corpus hiems lībertās lūx, prīma lūx nōmen	nox pars pāx rūs sōl vōx vulnus	adventus cornū domus equitātus exercitus fluctus	impetus lacus manus metus portus

FIFTH DECLENSION			INDECLINABLE NOUN
aciēs diēs fidēs, in fidem venīre	rēs, rēs gestae rēs adversae rēs pūblica rēs secundae	spēs	nihil

Adjectives
FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS		THIRD DECLENSION
dēnsus invīsus mīrus paucī prīmus	prīstinus pūblicus secundus tantus vērus	ācer, ācris, ācre brevis, breve difficilis, difficile facīlis, facile fortis, forte	gravis, grave incolumis, incolume omnis, omne pār, pār vēlōx, vēlōx

Pronouns
PERSONAL	DEMONSTRATIVE	INTENSIVE	INDEFINITE
ego nōs suī tū vōs	hic īdem ille iste	ipse	aliquis, aliquī quīdam quis, quī quisquam quisque

Adverbs			Conjunctions	Prepositions
nē ... quidem ōlim	paene quoque	satis vērō	itaque nisi	ante post propter

Verbs
CONJ. I	CONJ. II	CONJ. III	CONJ. IV
conlocō convocō cremō dēmōnstrō mandō	dēbeō exerceō maneō placeō sustineō	committō, committere proelium dēcidō ēripiō sūmō, sūmere supplicium dē trādūcō vertō	dēsiliō

522. Translate the following words. Give the genitive and the gender of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs.

if not, unless on account of unharmed public commonwealth leap down, dismount lead across remain call together friendship footprint, trace each fear (noun) hope therefore behind, after so great equal in truth, indeed that (yonder) a certain fall down owe, ought measure, mode eye name wave, billow thing, matter exploits republic prosperity

adversity former, old-time all, every any one (at all) this (of mine) heavy, serious hateful, detested true burn snatch from letter punishment inflict punishment on suffer punishment liberty sun sustain take up, assume hour reign, realm messenger part, direction body harbor faith, protection of himself also, too sufficiently

burn that (of yours) before you (plur.) light daybreak winter attack line of battle army drill, train join battle house, home midday wonderful brave almost the same some, any if any one self, very not even easy dense point out, explain difficult first arrange, station please year

peace back turn the back, retreat night hand, force lake day commit, intrust a few only sharp, eager we turn you (sing.) I signal summer cavalry wound horn, wing country second, favorable short voice formerly, once arrival come under the protection of swift nothing

523. Review Questions. By what declensions are Latin adjectives declined? What can you say about the stem of adjectives of the third declension? Into what classes are these adjectives divided? How can you tell to which of the classes an adjective belongs? Decline ācer, omnis, pār. What are the nominative endings and genders of nouns of the fourth or u-declension? What nouns are feminine by exception? Decline adventus, lacus, cornū, domus. Give the rules for the ordinary expression of the place to which, the place from which, the place in which. What special rules apply to names of towns, small islands, and rūs? What is the locative case? What words have a locative case? What is the form of the locative case? Translate Galba lives at home, Galba lives at Rome, Galba lives at Pompeii. What is the rule for gender in the fifth or ē-declension? Decline diēs, rēs. When is the long ē shortened? What can you say about the plural of the fifth declension? Decline tuba, servus, pīlum, ager, puer, mīles, cōnsul, flūmen, caedēs, animal. How is the time when expressed? Name the classes of pronouns and define each class. Decline ego, tū, is. What are the reflexives of the first and second persons? What is the reflexive of the third person? Decline it. Translate I see myself, he sees himself, he sees him. Decline ipse. How is ipse used? Decline īdem. Decline hic, iste, ille. Explain the use of these words. Name and translate the commoner indefinite pronouns. Decline aliquis, quisquam, quīdam, quisque.

VII. REVIEW OF LESSONS LIII-LX

524. Give the English of the following words:

Nouns
FIRST DECLENSION	SECOND DECLENSION
aquila fossa	aedificium captīvus concilium	imperium negōtium	spatium vāllum

THIRD DECLENSION
agmen celeritās cīvitās clāmor cohors difficultās explōrātor	gēns lātitūdō longitūdō magnitūdō mēns mercātor mīlle	mors mulier multitūdō mūnītiō nēmō obses opīniō	regiō rūmor scelus servitūs timor vallēs

FOURTH DECLENSION		FIFTH DECLENSION
aditus commeātus	passus	rēs frūmentāria

Adjectives
FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS
aequus bīnī ducentī duo exterus īnferus	maximus medius minimus opportūnus optimus pessimus	plūrimus posterus prīmus reliquus secundus	singulī superus tardus ternī ūnus

THIRD DECLENSION
alacer, alacris, alacre audāx, audāx celer, celeris, celere citerior, citerius difficilis, difficile dissimilis, dissimile facilis, facile gracilis, gracile	humilis, humile ingēns, ingēns interior, interius lēnis, lēne maior, maius melior, melius minor, minus nōbilis, nōbile	peior, peius ——, plūs prior, prius recēns, recēns similis, simile trēs, tria ulterior, ulterius

Adverbs
ācriter audācter bene facile ferē fortiter	magis magnopere maximē melius minimē multum	optimē parum paulō plūrimum prope propius	proximē quam statim tam undique

Conjunctions		Prepositions
atque, ac aut aut ... aut et ... et nam	quā dē causā quam ob rem simul atque or simul ac	circum contrā inter ob trāns

Verbs
CONJ. I		CONJ. II
cōnor hortor	moror vexō	obtineō perterreō	valeō vereor

CONJ. III
abdō cadō cognōscō cōnsequor contendō cupiō currō	dēdō dēfendō ēgredior incendō incolō īnsequor occīdō	patior premō proficīscor prōgredior quaerō recipiō relinquō	revertor sequor statuō subsequor suscipiō trādō trahō
CONJ. III
	orior	perveniō

525. Translate the following words. Give the genitive and the gender of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs:

on account of nearly keenly, sharply thousand two opportune remaining above (adj.) next grain supply pace shout (noun) from all sides against around three further line of march manor region fortification eagle almost boldly bravely across between, among hither (adj.) so less more most worst difficulty hostage death command, power captive or and arrive attempt, try length

width scout cohort tribe, nation business by a little somewhat crime difficult equal move forward, advance multitude woman desire (verb) give over, surrender kill overtake hasten, strive hide one first second, favorable two hundred former inner middle low outward three by three provisions speed ditch wherefore or therefore for this reason fear (noun) return inquire set out move out, disembark

fear (verb) worse greater, larger two by two least (adv.) opinion, expectation approach, entrance trader magnitude, size council, assembly space, room either ... or rise, arise suffer, allow press hard fall surrender set fire to defend possess, hold delay (verb) nearest (adv.) nearer (adv.) better (adj.) well known, noble mild, gentle swift eager low (adj.) slender one by one no one least (adv.) little (adv.) learn, know drag undertake run fix, decide

leave abandon be strong receive, recover terrify, frighten dwell state, citizenship valley slavery greatly best of all (adv.) better (adv.) well (adv.) very much much unlike like (adj.) slow very greatly, exceedingly building mind (noun) easily easy recent huge, great bold immediately as soon as for than best (adj.) greatest follow close encourage annoy, ravage hide follow pursue both ... and rampart

526. Review Questions. What is meant by comparison? In what two ways may adjectives be compared? Compare clārus, brevis, vēlōx, and explain the formation of the comparative and the superlative. What are the adverbs used in comparison? Compare brevis by adverbs. Decline the comparative of vēlōx. How are adjectives in -er compared? Compare ācer, pulcher, liber. What are possible translations for the comparative and superlative? Name the six adjectives that form the superlative in -limus. Translate in two ways Nothing is brighter than the sun. Give the rule for the ablative with comparatives. Compare bonus, magnus, malus, multus, parvus, exterus, īnferus, posterus, superus. Decline plūs. Compare citerior, interior, propior, ulterior. Translate That route to Italy is much shorter. Give the rule for the expression of measure of difference. Name five words that are especially common in this construction. How are adverbs usually formed from adjectives of the first and second declensions? from adjectives of the third declension? Compare the adverbs cārē, līberē, fortiter, audācter. What cases of adjectives are sometimes used as adverbs? What are the adverbs from facilis? multus? prīmus? plūrimus? bonus? magnus? parvus? Compare prope, saepe, magnopere. How are numerals classified? Give the first twenty cardinals. Decline ūnus, duo, trēs, mīlle. How are the hundreds declined? What is meant by the partitive genitive? Give the rule for the partitive genitive. What sort of words are commonly used with this construction? What construction is used with quīdam and cardinal numbers excepting mīlle? Give the first twenty ordinals. How are they declined? How are the distributives declined? Give the rule for the expression of duration of time and extent of space. What is the difference between the ablative of time and the accusative of time? What is a deponent verb? Give the synopsis of one. What form always has a passive meaning? Conjugate amō, moneō, regō, capiō, audiō, in the active and passive.

VIII. REVIEW OF LESSONS LXI-LXIX

527. Review the vocabularies of the first seventeen lessons. See §§ 502, 503, 506, 507.

528. Review Questions. Name the tenses of the subjunctive. What time is denoted by these tenses? What are the mood signs of the present subjunctive? How may the imperfect subjunctive be formed? How do the perfect subjunctive and the future perfect indicative active differ in form? How is the pluperfect subjunctive active formed? Inflect the subjunctive active and passive of cūrō, dēleō, vincō, rapiō, mūniō. Inflect the subjunctive tenses of sum; of possum. What are the tenses of the participles in the active? What in the passive? Give the active and passive participles of amō, moneō, regō, capiō, audiō. Decline regēns. What participles do deponent verbs have? What is the difference in meaning between the perfect participle of a deponent verb and of one not deponent? Give the participles of vereor. How should participles usually be translated? Conjugate volō, nolō, mālō, fīō.

What is the difference between the indicative and subjunctive in their fundamental ideas? How is purpose usually expressed in English? How is it expressed in Latin? By what words is a Latin purpose clause introduced? When should quō be used? What is meant by sequence of tenses? Name the primary tenses of the indicative and of the subjunctive; the secondary tenses. What Latin verbs are regularly followed by substantive clauses of purpose? What construction follows iubeō? What construction follows verbs of fearing? How is consequence or result expressed in Latin? How is a result clause introduced? What words are often found in the principal clause foreshadowing the coming of a result clause? How may negative purpose be distinguished from negative result? What is meant by the subjunctive of characteristic or description? How are such clauses introduced? Explain the ablative absolute. Why is the ablative absolute of such frequent occurrence in Latin? Explain the predicate accusative. After what verbs are two accusatives commonly found? What do these accusatives become when the verb is passive?

IMPERATOR MILITES HORTATUR

The words in heavy type are used in Cæsar’s “Gallic War.”

LESSON IV, § 39

Nouns dea, goddess (deity) Diā´na, Diana fera, a wild beast (fierce) Lātō´na, Latona sagit´ta, arrow	Verbs est, he (she, it) is; sunt, they are necat, he (she, it) kills, is killing, does kill Conjunction1 et, and
Pronouns quis, interrog. pronoun, nom. sing., who? cuius (pronounced co͝oi´yo͝os, two syllables), interrog. pronoun, gen. sing., whose?

LESSON V, § 47

Nouns corō´na, wreath, garland, crown fā´bula, story (fable) pecū´nia, money (pecuniary) pugna, battle (pugnacious) victō´ria, victory	Verbs dat, he (she, it) gives nārrat, he (she, it) tells (narrate) Conjunction1 quia or quod, because
Pronoun cui (pronounced co͝oi, one syllable), interrog. pronoun, dat. sing., to whom? for whom?

LESSON VI, § 56

Adjectives bona, good grāta, pleasing magna, large, great mala, bad, wicked parva, small, little pulchra, beautiful, pretty sōla, alone	Nouns ancil´la, maidservant Iūlia, Julia Adverbs1 cūr, why nōn, not Pronouns mea, my; tua, thy, your (possesives) quid, interrog. pronoun, nom. and acc. sing., what?
-ne, the question sign, an enclitic (§ 16) added to the first word, which, in a question, is usually the verb, as amat, he loves, but amat´ne? does he love? est, he is; estne? is he? Of course -ne is not used when the sentence contains quis, cūr, or some other interrogative word.

LESSON VII, § 62

Nouns casa, -ae, f., cottage cēna, -ae, f., dinner gallī´na, -ae, f., hen, chicken īn´sula, ae, f., island (pen-insula) Adverbs de-in´de, then, in the next place ubi, where Preposition ad, to, with acc. to express motion toward	Verbs ha´bitat, he (she, it) lives, is living, does live (inhabit) laudat, he (she, it) praises, is praising, does praise (laud) parat, he (she, it) prepares, is preparing, does prepare vocat, he (she, it) calls, is calling, does call; invites, is inviting, does invite (vocation)
Pronoun quem, interrog. pronoun, acc. sing., whom?

LESSON VIII, § 69

Nouns Italia, -ae, f., Italy Sicilia, -ae, f., Sicily tuba, -ae, f., trumpet (tube) via, -ae, f., way, road, street (viaduct)

Adjectives alta, high, deep (altitude) clāra, clear, bright; famous lāta, wide (latitude) longa, long (longitude) nova, new (novelty)

LESSON IX, § 77

Nouns
bellum, -ī, n., war (re-bel) cōnstantia, -ae, f., firmness, constancy, steadiness dominus, -ī, m., master, lord (dominate) equus, -ī, m., horse (equine) frūmentum, -ī, n., grain lēgātus, -ī, m., lieutenant, ambassador (legate) Mārcus, -ī, m., Marcus, Mark	mūrus, -ī, m., wall (mural) oppidānus, -ī, m., townsman oppidum, -ī, n., town pīlum, -ī, n., spear (pile driver) servus, -ī, m., slave, servant Sextus, -ī, m., Sextus Verbs cūrat, he (she, it) cares for, with acc. properat, he (she, it) hastens

LESSON X, § 82

Nouns
amīcus, -ī, m., friend (amicable) Germānia, -ae, f., Germany patria, -ae, f., fatherland	populus, -ī, m., people Rhēnus, -ī, m., the Rhine vīcus, -ī, m., village

LESSON XI, § 86

Nouns
arma, armōrum, n., plur., arms, especially defensive weapons fāma, -ae, f., rumor; reputation, fame	galea, -ae, f., helmet praeda, -ae, f., booty, spoils (predatory) tēlum, -ī, n., weapon of offense, spear
Adjectives
dūrus, -a, -um, hard, rough; unfeeling, cruel; severe, toilsome (durable)	Rōmānus, -a, -um, Roman. As a noun, Rōmānus, -ī, m., a Roman

LESSON XII, § 90

Nouns fīlius, fīlī, m., son (filial) fluvius, fluvī, m., river (fluent) gladius, gladī, m., sword (gladiator) praesidium, praesi´dī, n., garrison, guard, protection proelium, proelī, n., battle	Adjectives fīnitimus, -a, -um, bordering upon, neighboring, near to. As a noun, fīnitimī, -ōrum, m., plur., neighbors Germānus, -a, -um, German. As a noun, Germānus, -ī, m., a German multus, -a, -um, much; plur., many
Adverb saepe, often

LESSON XIII, § 95

Nouns
ager, agrī, m., field (acre) cōpia, -ae, f., plenty, abundance (copious); plur., troops, forces Cornēlius, Cornē´lī, m., Cornelius lōrī´ca, -ae, f., coat of mail, corselet	praemium, praemī, n., reward, prize (premium) puer, puerī, m., boy (puerile) Rōma, -ae, f., Rome scūtum, -ī, n., shield (escutcheon) vir, virī, m., man, hero (virile)
Adjectives
legiōnārius, -a, -um,1 legionary, belonging to the legion. As a noun, legiōnāriī, -ōrum, m., plur., legionary soldiers līber, lībera, līberum, free (liberty) As a noun. līberī, -ōrum, m., plur., children (lit. the freeborn)	pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum, pretty, beautiful Preposition apud, among, with acc. Conjunction sed, but

LESSON XIV, § 99

Nouns
auxilium, auxi´lī, n., help, aid (auxiliary) castrum, -ī, n., fort (castle); plur., camp (lit. forts) cibus, -ī, m., food	cōnsilium, cōnsi´lī, n., plan (counsel) dīligentia, -ae, f., diligence, industry magister, magistrī, m., master, teacher1
Adjectives
aeger, aegra, aegrum, sick crēber, crēbra, crēbrum, frequent	miser, misera, miserum, wretched, unfortunate (miser)

LESSON XV, § 107

Nouns carrus, -ī, m., cart, wagon inopia, -ae, f., want, lack; the opposite of cōpia studium, studī, n., zeal, eagerness (study) Verb mātūrat, he (she, it) hastens. Cf. properat	Adjectives armātus, -a, -um, armed īnfīrmus, -a, -um, week, feeble (infirm) vali´dus, -a, -um, strong, sturdy Adverb iam, already, now
-que, conjunction, and; an enclitic (cf. § 16) and always added to the second of two words to be connected, as arma tēla´que, arms and weapons.

LESSON XVII, § 117

Nouns
agrī cultūra, -ae, f., agriculture domicilīum, domīci´lī, n., dwelling place (domicile) abode fēmina, -ae, f., woman (female)	Gallia, -ae, f., Gaul Gallus, -i, m., a Gaul lacrima, -ae, f., tear numerus, -ī, m., number (numeral)
Adjective mātūrus, -a, -um, ripe, mature Verbs arat, he (she, it) plows (arable) dēsīderat, he (she, it) misses, longs for (desire), with acc.	Adverb quō, whither Conjunction an, or, introducing the second half of a double question, as Is he a Roman or a Gaul, Estne Romanus an Gallus?

LESSON XVIII, § 124

Nouns lūdus, -ī, m.,school socius, socī, m., companion, ally (social)	Adjectives īrātus, -a, -um, angry, furious (irate) laetus, -a, -um, happy, glad (social)
Adverbs
hodiē, to-day ibi, there, in that place mox, presently, soon, of the immediate future	nunc, now, the present moment nūper, lately, recently, of the immediate past

LESSON XX, § 136

Nouns
fōrma, -ae, f., form, beauty poena, -ae, f., punishment, penalty potentia, -ae, f., power (potent)	regīna, -ae, f., queen (regal) superbia, -ae, f., pride, haughtiness trīstītīa, -ae, f., sadness, sorrow
Adjectives septem, indeclinable, seven superbus, -a, -um, proud, haughty (superb)	Conjunctions nōn sōlum ... sed etiam, not only ... but also

LESSON XXI, § 140

Nouns sacrum, -ī, n., sacrifice, offering, rite verbum, -ī, n., word (verb) Verbs sedeō, -ēre, sit (sediment) volō, -āre, fly (volatile)	Adjectives interfectus, -a, -um, slain molestus, -a, -um, troublesome, annoying (molest) perpetuus, -a, -um, perpetual, continuous
ego, personal pronoun, I (egotism). Always emphatic in the nominative.

LESSON XXII, § 146

Nouns
disciplīna, -ae, f., training, culture, discipline ōrnāmentum, -ī, n., ornament, jewel	Gāius, Gāī, m., Caius, a Roman first name Tiberius, Tibe´rī, m., Tiberius, a Roman first name
Verb doceō, -ēre, teach (doctrine)	Adverb maximē, most of all, especially
Adjective antīquus, -qua, -quum, old, ancient (antique)

LESSON XXVII, § 168

Nouns āla, -ae, f., wing deus, -ī, m., god (deity)1 monstrum, -ī, n., omen, prodigy; monster ōrāculum, -ī, n., oracle Verb vāstō, -āre, lay waste, devastate

Adjectives commōtus, -a, -um, moved, excited maximus, -a, -um, greatest (maximum) saevus, -a, -um, fierce, savage Adverbs ita, thus, in this way, as follows tum, then, at that time

LESSON XXVIII, § 171

Verbs respondeō, -ēre, respond, reply servō, -āre, save, preserve Adjective cārus, -a, -um, dear (cherish)

Conjunction autem, but, moreover, now. Usually stands second, never first Noun vīta, -ae, f., life (vital)

LESSON XXIX, § 176

Verb superō, -āre, conquer, overcome (insuperable) Nouns cūra, -ae, f., care, trouble locus, -ī, m., place, spot (location). Locus is neuter in the plural and is declined loca, -ōrum, etc. perīculum, -ī, n., danger, peril

Adverbs semper, always tamen, yet, nevertheless Prepositions dē, with abl., down from; concerning per, with acc., through Conjunction si, if

LESSON XXX, § 182

Verbs
absum, abesse, irreg., be away, be absent, be distant, with separative abl. adpropinquō, -āre, draw near, approach (propinquity), with dative1 contineō, -ēre, hold together, hem in, keep (contain)	discēdō, -ere, depart, go away, leave, with separative abl. egeō, -ēre, lack, need, be without, with separative abl. interficiō, -ere, kill prohibeō, -ēre, restrain, keep from (prohibit) vulnerō, -āre, wound (vulnerable)
Nouns prōvincia, -ae, f., province vīnum, -ī, n., wine	Adjective dēfessus, -a, -um, weary, worn out Adverb longē, far, by far, far away

LESSON XXXI, § 188

Nouns aurum, -ī, n., gold (oriole) mora, -ae, f., delay nāvigium, nāvi´gī, n., boat, ship ventus, -ī, m., wind (ventilate) Verb nāvigō, -āre, sail (navigate)	Adjectives attentus, -a, -um, attentive, careful dubius, -a, -um, doubtful (dubious) perfidus, -a, -um, faithless, treacherous (perfidy) Adverb anteā, before, previously
Preposition sine, with abl., without

LESSON XXXII, § 193

Nouns animus, -ī, m., mind, heart; spirit, feeling (animate) bracchium, bracchī, n., forearm, arm porta, -ae, f., gate (portal)	Adjectives adversus, -a, -um, opposite; adverse, contrary plēnus, -a, -um, full (plenty)
Preposition prō, with abl., before; in behalf of; instead of	Adverb diū, for a long time, long

LESSON XXXIV, § 200

Adverbs
celeriter, quickly (celerity) dēnique, finally	graviter, heavily, severely (gravity) subitō, suddenly
Verb reportō, -āre, -āvī, bring back, restore; win, gain (report)

LESSON XXXVI, § 211

dexter, dextra, dextrum, right (dextrous)

sinister, sinistra, sinistrum, left frūstrā, adv., in vain (frustrate)

gerō, gerere, gessī, gestus, bear, carry on; wear; bellum gerere, to wage war occupō, occupāre, occupāvī, occupātus, seize, take possession of (occupy) postulō, postulāre, postulāvī, postulātus, demand (ex-postulate) recūsō, recūsāre, recūsāvī, recūsātus, refuse stō, stāre, stetī, status, stand temptō, temptāre, temptāvī, temptātus, try, tempt, test; attempt teneō, tenēre, tenuī, ——, keep, hold (tenacious) The word ubi, which we have used so much in the sense of where in asking a question, has two other uses equally important: 1. ubi = when, as a relative conjunction denoting time; as, Ubi mōnstrum audīvērunt, fūgērunt, when they heard the monster, they fled 2. ubi = where, as a relative conjunction denoting place; as, Videō oppidum ubi Galba habitat, I see the town where Galba lives Ubi is called a relative conjunction because it is equivalent to a relative pronoun. When in the first sentence is equivalent to at the time at which; and in the second, where is equivalent to the place in which.

LESSON XXXVII, § 217

neque or nec, conj., neither, nor, and ... not; neque ... neque, neither ... nor

castellum, -ī, n., redoubt, fort (castle) cotīdiē, adv., daily

cessō, cessāre, cessāvī, cessātus, cease, with the infin. incipiō, incipere, incēpī, inceptus, begin (incipient), with the infin. oppugnō, oppugnāre, oppugnāvī, oppugnātus, storm, assail petō, petere, petivi or petiī, petītus, aim at, assail, storm, attack; seek, ask (petition) pōnō, pōnere, posuī, positus, place, put (position); castra pōnere, to pitch camp possum, posse, potuī, ——, be able, can (potent), with the infin. vetō, vetāre, vetuī, vetitus, forbid (veto), vith the infin.; opposite of iubeō, command vincō, vincere, vīcī, victus, conquer (in-vincible) vīvō, vīvere, vīxī, ——, live, be alive (re-vive)

LESSON XXXIX, § 234

barbarus, -a, -um, strange, foreign, barbarous. As a noun, barbarī, -ōrum, m., plur., savages, barbarians dux, ducis, m., leader (duke). Cf. the verb dūcō eques, equitis, m., horseman, cavalryman (equestrian) iūdex, iūdicis, m., judge lapis, lapidis, m., stone (lapidary) mīles, mīlitis, m., soldier (militia)

pedes, peditis, m., foot soldier (pedestrian) pēs, pedis,1 m., foot (pedal) prīnceps, prīncipis, m., chief (principal) rēx, rēgis, m., king (regal) summus, -a, -um, highest, greatest (summit) virtūs, virtūtis, f., manliness, courage (virtue)

LESSON XL, § 237

Caesar, -aris, m., Cæsar captīvus, -ī, m., captive, prisoner cōnsul, -is, m., consul frāter, frātris, m., brother (fraternity) homō, hominis, m., man, human being impedīmentum, -ī, n., hindrance (impediment); plur. impedīmenta, -ōrum, baggage

imperātor, imperātōris, m., commander in chief, general (emperor) legiō, legiōnis, f., legion māter, mātris, f., mother (maternal) ōrdō, ōrdinis, m., row, rank (order) pater, patris, m., father (paternal) salūs, salūtis, f., safety (salutary) soror, sorōris, f., sister (sorority)

LESSON XLI, § 239

calamitās, calamitātis, f., loss, disaster, defeat (calamity) caput, capitis, n., head (capital) flūmen, flūminis, n., river (flume) labor, labōris, m., labor, toil opus, operis, n., work, task	ōrātor, ōrātōris, m., orator rīpa, -ae, f., bank (of a stream) tempus, temporis, n., time (temporal) terror, terrōris, m., terror, fear victor, victōris, m., victor
accipiō, accipere, accēpī, acceptus, receive, accept cōnfirmō, cōnfīrmāre, cōnfīrmāvī, cōnfīrmātus, strengthen, establish, encourage (confirm)

LESSON XLIII, § 245

animal, animālis (-ium1), n., animal avis, avis (-ium), f., bird (aviation) caedēs, caedīs (-ium), f., slaughter calcar, calcāris (-ium), n., spur cīvis, cīvis (-ium), m. and f., citizen (civic) cliēns, clientis (-ium), m., retainer, dependent (client) fīnis, fīnis (-ium), m., end, limit (final); plur., country, territory hostis, hostis (-ium), m. and f., enemy in war (hostile). Distinguish from inimīcus, which means a personal enemy

ignis, ignis (-ium), m., fire (ignite) īnsigne, īnsignis (-ium), n. decoration, badge (ensign) mare, maris (-ium2), n., sea (marine) nāvis, nāvis (-ium), f., ship (naval); nāvis longa, man-of-war turris, turris (-ium), f., tower (turret) urbs, urbis (-ium), f., city (suburb). An urbs is larger than an oppidum.

LESSON XLIV, § 249

arbor, arboris, f., tree (arbor) collis, collis (-ium), m., hill dēns, dentis (-ium), m., tooth (dentist) fōns, fontis (-ium), m.. fountain, spring; source iter, itineris, n., march, journey, route (itinerary) mēnsis, mēnsis (-ium), m., month moenia, -ium, n., plur., walls, fortifications. Cf. mūrus

mōns, montis (-ium), m., mountain; summus mōns, top of the mountain numquam, adv., never pōns, pontis, m., bridge (pontoon) sanguis, sanguinis, m., blood (sanguinary) summus, -a, -um, highest, greatest (summit) trāns, prep, with acc., across (transatlantic) vīs (vīs), gen. plur. virium, f. strength, force, violence (vim)

LESSON XLV, § 258

ācer, ācris, ācre, sharp, keen, eager (acrid) brevis, breve, short, brief difficilis, difficile, difficult facilis, facile, facile, easy fortis, forte, brave (fortitude) gravis, grave, heavy, severe, serious (grave)	omnis, omne, every, all (omnibus) pār, gen. paris, equal (par) paucī, -ae, -a, few, only a few (paucity) secundus, -a, -um, second; favorable, opposite of adversus signum, -ī, n., signal, sign, standard vēlōx, gen. vēlōcis, swift (velocity)
conlocō, conlocāre, conlocāvī, conlocātus, arrange, station, place (collocation) dēmōnstrō, dēmōnstrāre, dēmōnstrāvī, dēmōnstrātus, point out, explain (demonstrate) mandō, mandāre, mandāvī, mandātus, commit, intrust (mandate)

LESSON XLVI, § 261

adventus, -ūs, m., approach, arrival (advent) ante, prep, with acc., before (ante-date) cornū, -ūs, n., horn, wing of an army (cornucopia); ā dextrō cornū, on the right wing; ā sinistrō cornū, on the left wing equitātus, -ūs, m., cavalry exercitus, -ūs, m., army	impetus, -ūs, m., attack (impetus); impetum facere in, with acc., to make an attack on lacus, -ūs, dat. and abl. plur. lacubus, m., lake manus, -ūs, f., hand; band, force (manual) portus, -ūs, m., harbor (port) post, prep, with acc., behind, after (post-mortem)
cremō, cremāre, cremāvī, cremātus, burn (cremate) exerceō, exercēre, exercuī, exercitus, practice, drill, train (exercise)

LESSON XLVII, § 270

Athēnae, -ārum, f., plur., Athens Corinthus, -ī, f., Corinth domus, -ūs, locative domī, f., house, home (dome). Cf. domicilium Genāva, -ae, f., Geneva Pompēii, -ōrum, m., plur., Pompeii, a city in Campania. See map	propter, prep. with acc., on account of, because of rūs, rūris, in the plur. only nom. and acc. rūra, n., country (rustic) tergum, tergī, n., back; ā tergō, behind, in the rear vulnus, vulneris, n., wound (vulnerable)
committō, committere, commīsī, commissus, intrust, commit; proelium committere, join battle convocō, convocāre, convocāvī, convocātus, call together, summon (convoke) timeō, timēre, timuī, ——, fear; be afraid (timid) vertō, vertere, vertī, versus, turn, change (convert); terga vertere, to turn the backs, hence to retreat

LESSON XLVIII, § 276

aciēs, -ēī, f., line of battle aestās, aestātis, f., summer annus, -ī, m., year (annual) diēs, diēī, m., day (diary) fidēs, fideī, no plur., f., faith, trust; promise, word; protection; in fidem venīre, to come under the protection fluctus, -ūs, m. wave, billow (fluctuate) hiems, hiemis, f., winter hōra, -ae, f., hour

lūx, lūcis, f., light (lucid); prīma lux, daybreak merīdiēs, acc. -em, abl. -ē, no plur., m., midday (meridian) nox, noctis (-ium), f., night (nocturnal) prīmus, -a, -um, first (prime) rēs, reī, f., thing, matter (real); rēs gestae, deeds, exploits (lit. things performed); rēs adversae, adversity; rēs secundae, prosperity spēs, speī, f., hope

LESSON XLIX, § 283

amīcitia, -ae, f., friendship (amicable) itaque, conj., and so, therefore, accordingly littera, -ae, f., a letter of the alphabet; plur., a letter, an epistle metus, metūs, m., fear nihil, indeclinable, n., nothing (nihilist)	nūntius, nūntī, m., messenger. Cf. nūntiō pāx, pācis, f., peace (pacify) rēgnum, -ī, n., reign, sovereignty, kingdom supplicum, suppli´cī, n., punishment; supplicum sūmere dē, with abl., inflict punishment on; supplicum dare, suffer punishment. Cf. poena
placeō, placēre, placuī, placitus, be pleasing to, please, with dative. Cf. § 154 sūmō, sūmere, sūmpsī, sūmptus, take up, assume sustineō, sustinēre, sustinuī, sustentus, sustain

LESSON L, § 288

corpus, corporis, n., body (corporal) dēnsus, -a, -um, dense īdem, e´adem, idem, demonstrative pronoun, the same (identity) ipse, ipsa, ipsum, intensive pronoun, self; even, very mīrus, -a, -um, wonderful, marvelous (miracle)	ōlim, adv., formerly, once upon a time pars, partis (-ium), f., part, region, direction quoque, adv., also. Stands after the word which it emphasizes sōl, sōlis, m., sun (solar) vērus, -a, -um, true, real (verity)
dēbeō, dēbēre, dēbuī, dēbitus, owe, ought (debt) ēripiō, ēripere, ēripuī, ēreptus, snatch from

LESSON LI, § 294

hic, haec, hoc, demonstrative pronoun, this (of mine); he, she, it ille, illa, illud, demonstrative pronoun that (yonder); he, she, it invīsus, -a, -um, hateful, detested, with dative Cf. § 143 iste, ista, istud, demonstrative pronoun, that (of yours); he, she, it lībertās, -ātis, f., liberty modus, -ī, m., measure; manner, way, mode

nōmen, nōminis, n., name (nominate) oculus, -ī, m., eye (oculist) prīstinus, -a, -um, former, old-time (pristine) pūblicus, -a, -um, public, belonging to the state; rēs pūblica, reī pūblicae, f., the commonwealth, the state, the republic vestīgium, vestī´gī, n., footprint, track; trace, vestige vōx, vōcis, f., voice

LESSON LII, § 298

incolumis, -e, unharmed nē ... quidem, adv., not even. The emphatic word stands between nē and quidem nisi, conj., unless, if ... not paene, adv., almost (pen-insula)	satis, adv., enough, sufficiently (satisfaction) tantus, -a, -um, so great vērō, adv., truly, indeed, in fact. As a conj. but, however, usually stands second, never first.
dēcidō, dēcidere, dēcidī, ——, fall down (deciduous) dēsiliō, dēsilīre, dēsiluī, dēsultus, leap down, dismount maneō, manēre, mānsī, mānsūrus, remain trādūcō, trādūcere, trādūxī, trāductus, lead across

LESSON LIII, § 306

aquila, -ae, f., eagle (aquiline) audāx, gen. audācis, adj., bold, audacious celer, celeris, celere, swift, quick (celerity). Cf. vēlōx explōratōr, -ōris, m., scout, spy (explorer) ingēns, gen. ingentis, adj., huge, vast medius, -a, -um, middle, middle part of (medium)	mēns, mentis (-ium), f., mind (mental). Cf. animus opportūnus, -a, -um, opportune quam, adv., than. With the superlative quam gives the force of as possible, as quam audācissimī virī, men as bold as possible recens, gen. recentis, adj., recent tam, adv., so. Always with an adjective or adverb, while ita is generally used with a verb
quaerō, quaerere, quaesīvī, quaesītus, ask, inquire, seek (question). Cf. petō

LESSON LIV, § 310

alacer, alacris, alacre, eager, spirited, excited (alacrity) celeritās, -ātis, f., speed (celerity) clāmor, clāmōris, m., shout, clamor lēnis, lēne, mild, gentle (lenient) mulier, muli´eris, f., woman multitūdō, multitūdinis, f., multitude nēmŏ, dat. nēminī, acc. nēminem (gen. nūllīus, abl. nūllō, from nūllus), no plur., m. and f., no one	nōbilis, nōbile, well known, noble noctū, adv. (an old abl.), by night (nocturnal) statim, adv., immediately, at once subitō, adv., suddenly tardus, -a, -um, slow (tardy)
cupiō, cupere, cupīvī, cupītus, desire, wish (cupidity)

LESSON LV, § 314

aedificium, aedifi´cī, n., building, dwelling (edifice) imperium, impe´rī, n., command, chief power; empire mors, mortis (-ium), f., death (mortal)

reliquus, -a, -um, remaining, rest of. As a noun, m. and n. plur., the rest (relic) scelus, sceleris, n., crime servitūs, -ūtis, f., slavery (servitude) vallēs, vallis (-ium), f., valley

abdō, abdere, abdidī, abditus, hide contendō, contendere, contendī, contentus, strain, struggle; hasten (contend) occīdō, occīdere, occīdī, occīsus, cut down, kill. Cf. necō, interficiō perterreō, perterrēre, perterruī, perterritus, terrify, frighten recipiō, recipere, recēpī, receptus, receive, recover; sē recipere, betake one’s self, withdraw, retreat trādō, trādere, trādidī, trāditus, give over, surrender, deliver (traitor)

LESSON LVI, § 318

aditus, -ūs, m., approach, access; entrance cīvitās, cīvitātis, f., citizenship; body of citizens, state (city) inter, prep, with acc., between, among (interstate commerce)	nam, conj., for obses, obsidis, m. and f., hostage paulō, adv. (abl. n. of paulus), by a little, somewhat
incolō, incolere, incoluī, ——, transitive, inhabit; intransitive, dwell. Cf. habitō, vīvō relinquō, relinquere, relīquī, relictus, leave, abandon (relinquish) statuō, statuere, statuī, statūtus, fix, decide (statute), usually with infin.

LESSON LVII, § 326

aequus, -a, -um, even, level; equal cohors, cohortis (-ium), f., cohort, a tenth part of a legion, about 360 men currō, currere, cucurrī, cursus, run (course) difficultās, -ātis, f., difficulty fossa, -ae, f., ditch (fosse)	gēns, gentis (-ium), f., race, tribe, nation (Gentile) negōtium, negōtī, n., business, affair, matter (negotiate) regiō, -ōnis, f., region, district rūmor, rūmōris, m., rumor, report. Cf. fāma simul atque, conj., as soon as
suscipiō, suscipere, suscēpī, susceptus, undertake trahō, trahere, trāxī, trāctus, drag, draw (ex-tract) valeō, valēre, valuī, valitūrus, be strong; plūrimum valēre, to be most powerful, have great influence (value). Cf. validus

LESSON LVIII, § 332

commeātus, -ūs, m.. provisions lātitūdō, -inis, f., width (latitude) longitūdō, -inis, f., length (longitude) magnitūdō, -inis, f., size, magnitude

mercātor, mercātōris, m., trader, merchant mūnītiō, -ōnis, f., fortification (munition) spatium, spatī, n., room, space, distance; time

cognōscō, cognōscere, cognōvī, cognitus, learn; in the perfect tenses, know (re-cognize) cōgō, cōgere, coēgī, coāctus, collect; compel (cogent) dēfendō, dēfendere, dēfendī, dēfēnsus, defend incendō, incendere, incendī, incēnsus, set fire to, burn (incendiary). Cf. cremō obtineō, obtinēre, obtinuī, obtentus, possess, occupy, hold (obtain) perveniō, pervenīre, pervēnī, perventus, come through, arrive

LESSON LIX, § 337

agmen, agminis, n., line of march, column; prīmum agmen, the van; novissimum agmen, the rear atque, ac, conj., and; atque is used before vowels and consonants, ac before consonants only. Cf. et and -que concilium, conci´lī, n., council, assembly	Helvētiī, -ōrum, m., the Helvetii, a Gallic tribe passus, passūs, m., a pace, five Roman feet; mīlle passuum, a thousand (of) paces, a Roman mile quā dē causā, for this reason, for what reason vāllum, -ī, n., earth-works, rampart
cadō, cadere, cecidī, cāsūrus, fall (decadence) dēdō, dēdere, dēdidī, dēditus, surrender, give up; with a reflexive pronoun, surrender one’s self, submit, with the dative of the indirect object premō, premere, pressī, pressus, press hard, harass vexō, vexāre, vexāvī, vexātus, annoy, ravage (vex)

LESSON LX, § 341

aut, conj., or; aut ... aut, either ... or causā, abl. of causa, for the sake of, because of. Always stands after the gen. which modifies it ferē, adv., nearly, almost

opīniō, -ōnis, f., opinion, supposition, expectation rēs frūmentāria, reī frūmentāriae, f. (lit. the grain affair), grain supply timor, -ōris, m., fear. Cf. timeō undique, adv., from all sides

cōnor, cōnārī, cōnātus sum, attempt, try ēgredior, ēgredī, ēgressus sum, move out, disembark; prōgredior, move forward, advance (egress, progress) moror, morārī, morātus sum, delay orior, orirī, ortus sum, arise, spring; begin; be born (from) (origin) proficīscor, proficīscī, profectus sum, set out revertor, revertī, reversus sum, return (revert). The forms of this verb are usually active, and not deponent, in the perfect system. Perf. act., revertī sequor, sequī, secūtus sum, follow (sequence). Note the following compounds of sequor and the force of the different prefixes: cōnsequor (follow with), overtake; īnsequor (follow against), pursue; subsequor (follow under), follow close after

Translations inclosed within parentheses are not to be used as such; they are inserted to show etymological meanings.

 A   B   C   D   E   F   G   H   I   L   M   N   O   P   Q   R   S   T   U   V 

A
ā or ab, prep. with abl. from, by, off. Translated on in ā dextrō cornū, on the right wing; ā fronte, on the front or in front; ā dextrā, on the right; ā latere, on the side; etc. ab-dō, -ere, -didī, -ditus, hide, conceal ab-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus, lead off, lead away abs-cīdō, -ere, -cīdī,-cīsus [ab(s), off, + caedō, cut], cut off ab-sum, -esse, āfuī, āfutūrus, be away, be absent, be distant, be off; with ā or ab and abl., § 501.32 ac, conj., see atque ac-cipiō, -ere, -cēpī, -ceptus [ad, to, + capiō, take], receive, accept ācer, ācris, ācre, adj. sharp; figuratively, keen, active, eager (§ 471) acerbus, -a, -um, adj. bitter, sour aciēs, -ēī, f. [ācer, sharp], edge; line of battle ācriter, adv. [ācer, sharp], compared ācrius, ācerrimē, sharply, fiercely ad, prep. with acc. to, towards, near. With the gerund or gerundive, to, for ad-aequō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, make equal, make level with ad-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus, lead to; move, induce ad-eō, -īre, -iī, -itus, go to, approach, draw near, visit, with acc. (§ 413) ad-ferō, ad-ferre, at-tulī, ad-lātus, bring, convey; report, announce; render, give (§ 426) ad-ficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectus [ad, to, + faciō, do], affect, visit adflīctātus, -a, -um, adj. [part. of adflīctō, shatter], shattered ad-flīgō, -ere, -flīxī, -flīctus, dash upon, strike upon; harass, distress ad-hibeō, -ēre, -uī, -itus [ad, to, + habeō, hold], apply, employ, use ad-hūc, adv. hitherto, as yet, thus far aditus, -ūs, m. [adeō, approach], approach, access; entrance. Cf. adventus ad-ligō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, bind to, fasten ad-loquor, -loquī, -locūtus sum, dep. verb [ad, to, + loquor, speak], speak to, address, with acc. ad-ministrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, manage, direct admīrātiō, -ōnis, f. [admīror, wonder at], admiration, astonishment ad-moveō, -ēre, -mōvī, -mōtus, move to; apply, employ ad-propinquō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, come near, approach, with dat. ad-sum, -esse, -fuī, -futūres, be present; assist; with dat., § 426 adulēscēns, -entis, m. and f. [part. of adolēscō, grow], a youth, young man, young person adventus, -ūs, m. [ad, to, + veniō, come], approach, arrival (§ 466) adversus, -a, -um, adj. [part. of advertō, turn to], turned towards, facing; contrary, adverse. rēs adversae, adversity aedificium, aedifi´cī, n. [aedificō, build], building, edifice aedificō, -āre, -āvi, -ātus [aedēs, house, + faciō, make], build aeger, aegra, aegrum, adj. sick, feeble aequālis, -e, adj. equal, like. As a noun, aequālis, -is, m. or f. one of the same age aequus, -a, -um, adj. even, level; equal Aesōpus, -ī, m. Æsop, a writer of fables aestās, -ātis, f. summer, initā aestāte, at the beginning of summer aetās, -ātis, f. age Aethiopia, -ae, f. Ethiopia, a country in Africa Āfrica, -ae, f. Africa Āfricānus, -a, -um, adj. of Africa. A name given to Scipio for his victories in Africa ager, agrī, m. field, farm, land (§ 462. c) agger, -eris, m. mound agmen, -inis, n. [agō, drive], an army on the march, column. prīmum agmen, the van agō, -ere, ēgī, āctus, drive, lead; do, perform. vītam agere, pass life agricola, -ae, m. [ager, field, + colō, cultivate], farmer agrī cultūra, -ae, f. agriculture āla, -ae, f. wing alacer, -cris, -cre, adj. active, eager. Cf. ācer alacritās, -ātis, f. [alacer, active], eagerness, alacrity alacriter, adv. [alacer, active], comp alacrius, alacerrimē, actively, eagerly albus, -a, -um, adj., white alcēs, -is, f. elk Alcmēna, -ae, f. Alcme´na, the mother of Hercules aliquis (-quī), -qua, -quid (-quod), indef. pron. some one, some (§ 487) alius, -a, -ud (gen. -īus, dat. -ī), adj. another, other. alius ... alius, one ... another. aliī ... aliī, some ... others (§ 110) Alpēs, -ium, f. plur. the Alps alter, -era, -erum (gen. -īus, dat. -ī), adj. the one, the other (of two). alter ... alter, the one ... the other (§ 110)	altitūdō, -inis, f. [altus, high], height altus, -a, -um, adj. high, tall, deep Amāzonēs, -um, f. plur. Amazons, a fabled tribe of warlike women ambō, -ae, -ō, adj. (decl. like duo), both amīcē, adv. [amīcus, friendly], superl. amīcissimē, in a friendly manner amiciō, -īre, ——, -ictus [am-, about, + iaciō, throw], throw around, wrap about, clothe amīcitia, -ae, f. [amīcus, friend], friendship amīcus, -a, -um, adj. [amō, love], friendly. As a noun, amīcus, -ī, m. friend ā-mittō, -ere, -mīsī, -missus, send away; lose amō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, love, like, be fond of (§ 488) amphitheātrum, -ī, n. amphitheater amplus, -a, -um, adj. large, ample; honorable, noble an, conj. or, introducing the second part of a double question ancilla, -ae, f. maidservant ancora, -ae, f. anchor Andromeda, -ae, f. Androm´eda, daughter of Cepheus and wife of Perseus angulus, -ī, m. angle, corner anim-advertō, -ere, -tī, -sus [animus, mind, + advertō, turn to], turn the mind to, notice animal, -ālis, n. [anima, breath], animal (§ 465. b) animōsus, -a, -um, adj. spirited animus, -ī, m. [anima, breath], mind, heart; spirit, courage, feeling; in this sense often plural annus, -i, m. year ante, prep, with acc. before anteā, adv. [ante], before, formerly antīquus, -a, -um, adj. [ante, before], former, ancient, old aper, aprī, m. wild boar Apollō, -inis, m. Apollo, son of Jupiter and Latona, brother of Diana ap-pāreō, -ēre, -uī, —— [ad + pāreō, appear], appear ap-pellō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, call by name, name. Cf. nōminō, vocō Appius, -a, -um, adj. Appian ap-plicō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, apply, direct, turn apud, prep, with acc. among; at, at the house of aqua, -ae, f. water aquila, -ae, f. eagle āra, -ae, f. altar arbitror, -ārī, -ātus sum, think, suppose (§ 420. c). Cf. exīstimō, putō arbor, -oris, f. tree (§ 247. 1. a) Arcadia, -ae, f. Arcadia, a district in southern Greece ārdeō, -ēre, ārsī, ārsūrus, be on fire, blaze, burn arduus, -a, -um, adj. steep Arīcia, -ae, f. Aricia, a town on the Appian Way, near Rome ariēs, -etis, m. battering-ram (p. 221) arma, -ōrum, n. plur. arms, weapons. Cf. tēlum armātus, -a, -um, adj. [armō, arm], armed, equipped arō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, plow, till ars, artis, f. art, skill articulus, -ī, m. joint ascrībō, -ere, -scrīpsī, -scrīptus [ad, in addition, + scrībō, write], enroll, enlist Āsia, -ae, f. Asia, i.e. Asia Minor at, conj. but. Cf. autem, sed Athēnae, -ārum, f. plur. Athens Atlās, -antis, m. Atlas, a Titan who was said to hold up the sky at-que, ac, conj. and, and also, and what is more. atque may be used before either vowels or consonants, ac before consonants only attentus, -a, -um, adj. [part. of attendō, direct (the mind) toward], attentive, intent on, careful at-tonitus, -a, -um, adj. thunderstruck, astounded audācia, -ae, f. [audāx, bold], boldness, audacity audācter, adv. [audāx, bold], compared audācius, audācissimē, boldly audāx, -ācis, adj. bold, daring audeō, -ēre, ausus sum, dare audiō, -īre, -īvī or -īī, -ītus, hear, listen to (§§ 420.d; 491) Augēās, -ae, m. Auge´as, a king whose stables Hercules cleaned aura, -ae, f. air, breeze aurātus, -a, -um, adj. [aurum, gold], adorned with gold aureus, -a, -um, adj. [aurum, gold], golden aurum, -ī, n. gold aut, conj. or. aut ... aut, either ... or autem, conj., usually second, never first, in the clause, but, moreover, however, now. Cf. at, sed auxilium, auxi´lī, n. help, aid, assistance; plur. auxiliaries ā-vertō, -ere, -tī, -sus, turn away, turn aside avis, -is, f. bird (§ 243. 1)
B
ballista, -ae, f. ballista, an engine for hurling missiles (p. 220) balteus, -ī, m. belt, sword belt barbarus, -ī, m. barbarian, savage bellum, -ī, n. war. bellum īnferre, with dat. make war upon bene, adv. [for bonē, from bonus], compared melius, optimē, well benignē, adv. [benignus, kind], compared benignius, benignissimē, kindly benignus, -a, -um, adj. good-natured, kind, often used with dat. bīnī, -ae, -a, distributive numeral adj. two each, two at a time (§ 334)	bis, adv. twice bonus, -a, -um, adj. compared melior, optimus, good, kind (§ 469. a) bōs, bovis (gen. plur. boum or bovum, dat. and abl. plur. bōbus or būbus), m. and f. ox, cow bracchium, bracchī, n. arm brevis, -e, adj. short Brundisium, -ī, n. Brundisium, a seaport in southern Italy. See map bulla, -ae, f. bulla, a locket made of small concave plates of gold fastened by a spring (p. 212)
C
C. abbreviation for Gāius, Eng. Caius cadō, -ere, ce´cidī, cāsūrus, fall caedēs, -is, f. [caedō, cut], (a cutting down), slaughter, carnage (§ 465. a) caelum, -ī, n. sky, heavens Caesar, -aris, m. Cæsar, the famous general, statesman, and writer calamitās, -ātis, f. loss, calamity, defeat, disaster calcar, -āris, n. spur (§ 465. b) Campānia, -ae, f. Campania., a district of central Italy. See map Campānus, -a, -um, adj. of Campania campus, -ī, m. plain, field, esp. the Campus Martius, along the Tiber just outside the walls of Rome canis, -is, m. and f. dog canō, -ere, ce´cinī, ——, sing cantō, -āre, -āvi, -ātus [canō, sing], sing Capēnus, -a, -um, adj. of Capena, esp. the Porta Cape´na, the gate at Rome leading to the Appian Way capiō, -ere, cēpī, captus, take, seize, capture (§ 492) Capitōlīnus, -a, -um, adj. belonging to the Capitol, Capitoline Capitōlium, Capitō´lī, n. [caput, head], the Capitol, the hill at Rome on which stood the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus and the citadel capsa, -ae, f. box for books captīvus, -ī, m. [capiō, take], captive Capua, -ae, f. Capua, a large city of Campania. See map caput, -itis, n. head (§ 464. 2. b) carcer, -eris, m. prison, jail carrus, -ī, m. cart, wagon cārus, -a, -um, adj. dear; precious casa, -ae, f. hut, cottage castellum, -ī, n. [dim. of castrum, fort], redoubt, fort castrum, -ī, n. fort. Usually in the plural, castra, -ōrum, a military camp. castra pōnere, to pitch camp cāsus, -us, m. [cadō, fall], chance; misfortune, loss catapulta, -ae, f. catapult, an engine for hurling stones catēna, -ae, f. chain caupōna, -ae, f. inn causa, -ae, f. cause, reason, quā dē causā, for this reason cēdō, -ere, cessī, cessūrus, give way, retire celer, -eris, -ere, adj. swift, fleet celeritās, -ātis, f. [celer, swift], swiftness, speed celeriter, adv. [celer, swift], compared celerius, celerrimē, swiftly cēna, -ae, f. dinner centum, indecl. numeral adj. hundred centuriō, -ōnis, m. centurion, captain Cēpheus (dissyl.), -eī (acc. Cēphea), m. Cepheus, a king of Ethiopia and father of Andromeda Cerberus, -ī, m. Cerberus, the fabled three-headed dog that guarded the entrance to Hades certāmen, -inis, n. [certō, struggle], struggle, contest, rivalry certē, adv. [certus, sure], compared certius, certissimē, surely, certainly certus, -a, -um, adj. fixed, certain, sure. aliquem certiōrem facere (to make some one more certain), to inform some one cervus, -ī, m. stag, deer cessō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, delay, cease cibāria, -ōrum, n. plur. food, provisions cibus, -ī, m. food, victuals Cimbrī, -ōrum, m. plur. the Cimbri Cimbricus, -a, -um, adj. Cimbrian cīnctus, -a, -um, adj. [part. of cingō, surround], girt, surrounded cingō, -ere, cīnxī, cīnctus, gird, surround circiter, adv. about circum, prep, with acc. around circum´-dō, -dare, -dedī, -datus, place around, surround, inclose circum´-eō, -īre, -iī, -itus, go around circum-sistō, -ere, circum´stetī, ——, stand around, surround circum-veniō, -īre, -vēnī, -ventus (come around), surround citerior, -ius, adj. in comp., superl. citimus, hither, nearer (§ 475) cīvīlis, -e, adj. [cīvis], civil cīvis, -is, m. and f. citizen (§ 243. 1) cīvitās, -ātis, f. [cīvis, citizen], (body of citizens), state; citizenship clāmor, -ōris, m. shout, cry clārus, -a, -um, adj. clear; famous, renowned; bright, shining classis, -is, f. fleet claudō, -ere, -sī, -sus, shut, close clavus, -ī, m. stripe cliēns, -entis, m. dependent, retainer, client (§ 465. a) Cocles, -itis, m. (blind in one eye), Cocles, the surname of Horatius co-gnōscō, -ere, -gnōvī, -gnītus, learn, know, understand. Cf. sciō (§ 420. b) cōgō, -ere, coēgī, coāctus [co(m)-, together, + agō, drive], (drive together), collect; compel, drive cohors, cohortis, f. cohort, the tenth part of a legion, about 360 men collis, -is, m. hill, in summō colle, on top of the hill (§ 247. 2. a) collum, -ī, n. neck colō, -ere, coluī, cultus, cultivate, till; honor, worship; devote one’s self to columna, -ae, f. column, pillar com- (col-, con-, cor-, co-), a prefix, together, with, or intensifying the meaning of the root word coma, -ae, f. hair comes, -itis, m. and f. [com-, together, + eō, go], companion, comrade comitātus, -ūs, m. [comitor, accompany], escort, company comitor, -ārī, -ātus sum, dep. verb [comes, companion], accompany com-meātus, -ūs, m. supplies com-minus, adv. [com-, together, + manus, hand], hand to hand com-mittō, -ere, -mīsī, -missus, join together; commit, intrust. proelium committere, join battle. sē committere with dat, trust one’s self to commodē, adv. [commodus, fit], compared commodius, commodissimē, conveniently, fitly commodus, -a, -um, adj. suitable, fit com-mōtus, -a, -um, adj. [part. of commoveō, move], aroused, moved com-parō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [com-, intensive, + parō, prepare], prepare; provide, get com-pleō, -ēre, -plēvī, -plētus [com-, intensive, + pleō, fill], fill up complexus, -ūs, m. embrace	com-primō, -ere, -pressī, -pressus [com-, together, + premō, press], press together, grasp, seize con-cidō, -ere, -cidī, —— [com-, intensive, + cadō, fall], fall down concilium, conci´lī, n. meeting, council con-clūdō, -ere, -clūsī, -clūsus [com-, intensive, + claudō, close], shut up, close; end, finish con-currō, -ere, -currī, -cursus [com-, together, + currō, run], run together; rally, gather condiciō, -ōnis, f. [com-, together, + dicō, talk], agreement, condition, terms con-dōnō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, pardon con-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus, hire cōn-ferō, -ferre, -tulī, -lātus, bring together. sē cōnferre, betake one’s self cōn-fertus, -a, -um, adj. crowded, thick cōnfestim, adv. immediately cōn-ficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectus [com-, completely, + faciō, do], make, complete, accomplish, finish cōn-fīrmō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, make firm, establish, strengthen, affirm, assert cōn-fluō, -ere, -flūxī, ——, flow together cōn-fugiō, -ere, -fūgī, -fugitūrus, flee for refuge, flee con-iciō, -ere, -iēcī, -iectus [com-, intensive, + iaciō, throw], hurl con-iungō, -ere, -iūnxī, -iūnctus [com-, together, + iungō, join], join together, unite con-iūrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [com-, together, + iūrō, swear], unite by oath, conspire con-locō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [com-, together, + locō, place], arrange, place, station conloquium, conlo´quī, n. [com-, together, + loquor, speak], conversation, conference cōnor, -ārī, -ātus sum, dep. verb, endeavor, attempt, try cōn-scendō, -ere, -scendī, -scēnsus [com-, intensive, + scandō, climb], climb up, ascend. nāvem cōnscendere, embark, go on board cōn-scrībō, -ere, -scrīpsī, -scrīptus [com-, together, + scrībō, write], (write together), enroll, enlist cōn-secrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [com-, intensive, + sacrō, consecrate], consecrate, devote cōn-sequor, -sequī, -secūtus sum, dep. verb [com-, intensive, + sequor, follow], pursue; overtake; win cōn-servō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [com-, intensive, + servō, save], preserve, save cōnsilium, cōnsi´lī, n. plan, purpose, design; wisdom cōn-sistō, -ere, -stitī, -stitus [com-, intensive, + sistō, cause to stand], stand firmly, halt, take one’s stand cōn-spiciō, -ere, -spēxī, -spectus [com-, intensive, + spiciō, spy], look at attentively, perceive, see cōnstantia, -ae, f. firmness, steadiness, perseverance cōn-stituō, -ere, -uī, -ūtus [com-, intensive, + statuō, set], establish, determine, resolve cōn-stō, -āre, -stitī, -stātūrus [com-, together, + stō, stand], agree; be certain ; consist of cōnsul, -ulis, m. consul (§ 464. 2. a) cōn-sūmō, -ere, -sūmpsī, -sūmptus [com-, intensive, + sumō, take], consume, use up con-tendō, -ere, -dī, -tus, strain; hasten; fight, contend, struggle con-tineō, -ēre, -uī, -tentus [com-, together, + teneō, hold], hold together, hem in, contain; restrain contrā, prep, with acc. against, contrary to con-trahō, -ere, -trāxī, -trāctus [com-, together, + trahō, draw], draw together; of sails, shorten, furl contrōversia, -ae, f. dispute, quarrel con-veniō, -īre, -vēnī, -ventus [com-, together, + veniō, come], come together, meet, assemble con-vertō, -ere, -vertī, -versus [com-, intensive, + vertō, turn], turn con-vocō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [com-, together, + vocō, call], call together co-orior, -īrī, -ortus sum, dep. verb [com-, intensive, + orior, rise], rise, break forth cōpia, -ae, f. [com-, intensive, + ops, wealth], abundance, wealth, plenty. Plur. cōpiae, -ārum, troops coquō, -ere, coxī, coctus, cook Corinthus, -ī, f. Corinth, the famous city on the Isthmus of Corinth Cornēlia, -ae, f. Cornelia, daughter of Scipio and mother of the Gracchi Cornēlius, Cornē´lī, m. Cornelius, a Roman name cornū, -ūs, n. horn; wing of an army, ā dextrō cornū, on the right wing (§ 466) corōna, -ae, f. garland, wreath; crown corōnātus, -a, -um, adj. crowned corpus, -oris, n. body cor-ripiō, -ere, -uī, -reptus [com-, intensive, + rapiō, seize], seize, grasp cotīdiānus, -a, -um, adj. daily cotīdiē, adv. daily crēber, -bra, -brum, adj. thick, crowded, numerous, frequent crēdō, -ere, -dīdī, -ditus, trust, believe, with dat. (§ 501.14) cremō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, burn creō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, make; elect, appoint Creōn, -ontis, m. Creon, a king of Corinth crēscō, -ere, crēvī, crētus, rise, grow, increase Crēta, -ae, f. Crete, a large island in the Mediterranean Crētaeus, -a, -um, adj. Cretan crūs, crūris, n. leg crūstulum, -ī, n. pastry, cake cubīle, -is, n. bed cultūra, -ae, f. culture, cultivation cum, conj. with the indic. or subjv. when; since; although (§ 501.46) cum, prep, with abl. with (§ 209) cupidē, adv. [cupidus, desirous], compared cupidius, cupidissimē, eagerly cupiditās, -ātis, f. [cupidus, desirous], desire, longing cupiō, -ere, -īvī or -iī, -ītus, desire, wish. Cf. volō cūr, adv. why, wherefore cūra, -ae, f. care, pains; anxiety cūria, -ae, f. senate house cūrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [cūra, care], care for, attend to, look after currō, -ere, cucurrī, cursus, run currus, -ūs, m. chariot cursus, -ūs, m. course custōdiō, -īre, -īvī, -ītus [custōs, guard], guard, watch
D
Daedalus, -ī, m. Dæd´alus, the supposed inventor of the first flying machine Dāvus, -ī, m. Davus, name of a slave dē, prep, with abl. down from, from; concerning, about, for (§ 209). quā dē causā, for this reason, wherefore dea, -ae, f. goddess (§ 461. a) dēbeō, -ēre, -uī, -itus [dē, from, + habeō, hold], owe, ought, should decem, indecl. numeral adj. ten dē-cernō, -ere, -crēvī, -crētus [dē, from, + cernō, separate], decide, decree dē-cidō, -ere, -cidī, —— [dē, down, + cadō, fall], fall down decimus, -a, -um, numeral adj. tenth dēclīvis, -e, adj. sloping downward dē-dō, -ere, -didī, -ditus, give up, surrender, sē dēdere, surrender one’s self dē-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus [dē, down, + dūcō, lead], lead down, escort dē-fendō, -ere, -dī, -fēnsus, ward off, repel, defend dē-ferō, -ferre, -tulī, -lātus [dē, down, + ferō, bring], bring down; report, announce (§ 426) dē-fessus, -a, -um, adj. tired out, weary dē-ficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectus [dē, from, + faciō, make], fail, be wanting; revolt from dē-fīgō, -ere, -fīxī, -fīxus [dē, down, + fīgō, fasten], fasten, fix dē-iciō, -ere, -iēcī, -iectus [dē, down, + iaciō, hurl], hurl down; bring down, kill de-inde, adv. (from thence), then, in the next place dēlectō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, delight dēleō, -ēre, -ēvī, -ētus, blot out, destroy dēlīberō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, weigh, deliberate, ponder dē-ligō, -ere, -lēgī, -lēctus [dē, from, + legō, gather], choose, select Delphicus, -a, -um, adj. Delphic dēmissus, -a, -um [part. of dēmittō, send down], downcast, humble dē-mōnstrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [dē, out, + mōnstrō, point], point out, show dēmum, adv. at last, not till then. tum dēmum, then at last dēnique, adv. at last, finally. Cf. postrēmō dēns, dentis, m. tooth (§ 247. 2. a) dēnsus, -a, -um, adj. dense, thick dē-pendeō, -ēre, ——, —— [dē, down, + pendeō, hang], hang from, hang down dē-plōrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [dē, intensive, + plōrō, wail], bewail, deplore dē-pōnō, -ere, -posuī, -positus [dē, down, + pōnō, put], put down dē-scendō, -ere, -dī, -scēnsus [dē, down, + scandō, climb], climb down, descend dē-scrībō, -ere, -scrīpsī, -scrīptus [dē, down, + scrībō, write], write down dēsīderō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, long for dē-siliō, -īre, -uī, -sultus [dē, down, + saliō, leap], leap down dē-spērō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [dē, away from, + spērō, hope], despair dē-spiciō, -ere, -spēxi, -spectus [dē, down], look down upon, despise dē-sum, -esse, -fuī, -futūrus [dē, away from, + sum, be], be wanting, lack, with dat. (§ 426) deus, -ī, m. god (§ 468) dē-volvō, -ere, -volvī, -volūtus [dē, down, + volvō, roll], roll down dē-vorō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [dē, down, + vorō, swallow], devour dexter, -tra, -trum (-tera, -terum), adj. to the right, right. ā dextrō cornū, on the right wing Diāna, -ae, f. Diana, goddess of the moon and twin sister of Apollo	dīcō, -ere, dīxī, dictus (imv. dīc), say, speak, tell. Usually introduces indirect discourse (§ 420. a) dictātor, -ōris, m. [dictō, dictate], dictator, a chief magistrate with unlimited power diēs, -ēi or diē, m., sometimes f. in sing., day (§ 467) dif-ferō, -ferre, distulī, dīlātus [dis-, apart, + ferō, carry], carry apart; differ. differre inter sē, differ from each other dif-ficilis, -e, adj. [dis-, not, + facilis, easy], hard, difficult (§ 307) difficultās, -ātis, f. [difficilis, hard], difficulty dīligenter, adv. [dīligēns, careful], compared dīligentius, dīligentissimē, industriously, diligently dīligentia, -ae, f. [dīligēns, careful], industry, diligence dī-micō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, fight, struggle dī-mittō, -ere, -mīsī, -missus [dī-, off, + mittō, send], send away, dismiss, disband. dīmittere animum in, direct one’s mind to, apply one’s self to Diomēdēs, -is, m. Dī-o-mē´dēs, a name dis-, dī-, a prefix expressing separation, off, apart, in different directions. Often negatives the meaning dis-cēdō, -ere, -cessī, -cessus [dis-, apart, + cēdō, go], depart from, leave, withdraw, go away dis-cernō, -ere, -crēvī, -crētus [dis-, apart, + cernō, sift], separate; distinguish disciplīna, -ae, f. instruction, training, discipline discipulus, -ī, m. [discō, learn], pupil, disciple discō, -ere, didicī, ——, learn dis-cutiō, -ere, -cussī, -cussus [dis-, apart, + quatiō, shake], shatter, dash to pieces dis-pōnō, -ere, -posuī, -positus [dis-, apart, + pōnō, put], put here and there, arrange, station dis-similis, -e, adj. [dis-, apart, + similis, like], unlike, dissimilar (§ 307) dis-tribuō, -ere, -uī, -ūtus, divide, distribute diū, adv., compared diūtius, diūtissimē, for a long time, long (§ 477) dō, dare, dedī, datus, give. in fugam dare, put to flight. alicui negōtium dare, employ some one doceō, -ēre, -uī, -tus, teach, show doctrīna, -ae, f. [doctor, teacher], teaching, learning, wisdom dolor, -ōris, m. pain, sorrow domesticus, -a, -um, adj. [domus, house], of the house, domestic domicilium, domici´lī, n. dwelling; house, abode. Cf. domus domina, -ae, f. mistress (of the house), lady (§ 461) dominus, -ī, m. master (of the house), owner, ruler (§ 462) domus, -ūs, f. house, home. domī, locative, at home (§ 468) dormiō, -īre, -īvī, -ītus, sleep dracō, -ōnis, m. serpent, dragon dubitō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, hesitate dubius, -a, -um, adj. [duo, two], (moving two ways), doubtful, dubious du-centī, -ae, -a, numeral adj. two hundred dūcō, -ere, dūxī, ductus (imv. dūc), lead, conduct dum, conj. while, as long as duo, duae, duo, numeral adj. two (§ 479) duo-decim, indecl. numeral adj. twelve dūrus, -a, -um, adj. hard, tough; harsh, pitiless, bitter dux, ducis, m. and f. [cf. dūcō, lead], leader, commander
E
ē or ex, prep, with abl. out of, from, off, of (§ 209) eburneus, -a, -um, adj. of ivory ecce, adv. see! behold! there! here! ē-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus [ē, out, + dūcō, lead], lead out, draw out ef-ficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectus [ex, thoroughly, + faciō, do], work out; make, cause ef-fugiō, -ere, -fūgī, -fugitūrus [ex, from, + fugiō, flee], escape egeō, -ēre, -uī, ——, be in need of, lack, with abl. (§ 501.32) ego, pers. pron. I; plur. nōs, we (§ 480) ē-gredior, -ī, ēgressus sum, dep. verb [ē, out of, + gradior, go], go out, go forth. ē nāvī ēgredī, disembark ē-iciō, -ere, -iēcī, -iectus [ē, forth, + iaciō, hurl], hurl forth, expel elementum, -ī, n., in plur. first principles, rudiments elephantus, -ī, m. elephant Ēlis, Ēlidis, f. E´lis, a district of southern Greece emō, -ere, ēmī, ēmptus, buy, purchase enim, conj., never standing first, for, in fact, indeed. Cf. nam Ennius, Ennī, m. Ennius, the father of Roman poetry, born 239 B.C. eō, īre, iī (īvī), itūrus, go (§ 499) eō, adv. to that place, thither Ēpīrus, -ī, f. Epi´rus, a district in the north of Greece eques, -itis, m. [equus, horse], horseman, cavalryman equitātus, -ūs, m. [equitō, ride], cavalry equus, -ī, m. horse ē-rigō, -ere, -rēxī, -rēctus [ē, out, + regō, make straight], raise up ē-ripiō, -ere, -uī, -reptus [ē, out of, + rapiō, seize], seize, rescue ē-rumpō, -ere, -rūpī, -ruptus [ē, forth, + rumpō, break], burst forth ēruptiō, -ōnis, f. sally Erymanthius, -a, -um, adj. Erymanthian, of Erymanthus, a district in southern Greece et, conj. and, also. et ... et, both ... and. Cf. atque, ac, -que etiam, adv. (rarely conj.) [et, also, + iam, now], yet, still; also, besides. Cf. quoque. nōn sōlum ... sed etiam, not only ... but also	Etrūscī, -ōrum, m. the Etruscans, the people of Etruria. See map of Italy Eurōpa, -ae, f. Europe Eurystheus, -ī, m. Eurys´theus, a king of Tiryns, a city in southern Greece ē-vādō, -ere, -vāsī, -vāsus [ē, out, + vādō, go], go forth, escape ex, see ē exanimātus, -a, -um [part. of exanimō, put out of breath (anima)], adj. out of breath, tired; lifeless ex-cipiō, -ere, -cēpī, -ceptus [ex, out, + capiō, take], welcome, receive exemplum, -ī, n. example, model ex-eō,-īre,-iī,-itūrus [ex, out, + eō, go], go out, go forth (§ 413) ex-erceō, -ēre, -uī, -itus [ex, out, + arceō, shut], (shut out), employ, train, exercise, use exercitus, -us, m. [exerceō, train], army ex-īstimō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [ex, out, + aestimō, reckon], estimate; think, judge (§ 420. c). Cf. arbitror, putō ex-orior, -īrī, -ortus sum, dep. verb [ex, forth, + orior, rise], come forth, rise expedītus, -a, -um, adj. without baggage ex-pellō, -ere, -pulī, -pulsus [ex, out, + pellō, drive], drive out ex-piō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [ex, intensive, + pīo, atone for], make amends for, atone for explōrātor, -ōris, m. [explōrō, investigate], spy, scout explōrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, examine, explore ex-pugnō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [ex, out, + pugnō, fight], take by storm, capture exsilium, exsi´lī, n. [exsul, exile], banishment, exile ex-spectō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [ex, out, + spectō, look], expect, wait ex-struō, -ere, -strūxī, -strūctus [ex, out, + struō, build], build up, erect exterus, -a, -um, adj., compared exterior, extrēmus or extimus, outside, outer (§ 312) extrā, prep, with acc. beyond, outside of ex-trahō, -ere, -trāxī, -trāctus [ex, out, + trahō, drag], drag out, pull forth extrēmus, -a, -um, adj., superl. of exterus, utmost, farthest (§ 312)
F
fābula, -ae, f. story, tale, fable facile, adv. [facilis, easy], compared facilius, facillimē, easily (§ 322) facilis, -e, adj. [cf. faciō, make], easy, without difficulty (§ 307) faciō, -ere, fēcī, factus (imv. fac), make, do; cause, bring about. impetum facere in, make an attack upon. proelium facere, fight a battle. iter facere, make a march or journey. aliquem certiōrem facere, inform some one. facere verba prō, speak in behalf of. Passive fīō, fierī, factus sum, be done, happen. certior fierī, be informed fallō, -ere, fefellī, falsus, trip, betray, deceive fāma, -ae, f. report, rumor; renown, fame, reputation famēs, -is (abl. famē), f. hunger familia, -ae, f. servants, slaves; household, family fascēs, -ium (plur. of fascis), f. fasces (p. 225) fastīgium, fastī´gī, n. top; slope, descent fātum, -ī, n. fate, destiny faucēs, -ium, f. plur. jaws, throat faveō, -ēre, fāvī, fautūrus, be favorable to, favor, with dat. (§ 501.14) fēlīx, -īcis, adj. happy, lucky fēmina, -ae, f. woman. Cf. mulier fera, -ae, f. [ferus, wild], wild beast ferāx, -ācis, adj. fertile ferē, adv. about, nearly, almost ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus, bear. graviter or molestē ferre, be annoyed (§ 498) ferreus, -a, -um, adj. [ferrum, iron], made of iron fidēlis, -e, adj. [fidēs, trust], faithful, true fidēs, fideī or fidē, trust, faith; promise, word; protection. in fidem venīre, come under the protection. in fidē manēre, remain loyal fīlia, -ae (dat. and abl. plur. fīliābus), f. daughter (§ 461. a) fīlius, fīlī (voc. sing, fīlī), m. son fīnis, -is, m. boundary, limit, end; in plur. territory, country (§ 243. 1) fīnitimus, -a, -um, adj. [fīnis, boundary], adjoining, neighboring. Plur. fīnitimī, -ōrum, m. neighbors	fīō, fierī, factus sum, used as passive of faciō. See faciō (§ 500) flamma, -ae, f. fire, flame flōs, flōris, m. flower fluctus, -ūs, m. [of. fluō, flow], flood, wave, billow flūmen, -inis, n. [cf. fluō, flow], river (§ 464. 2. b) fluō, -ere, flūxī, fluxus, flow fluvius, fluvī, m. [cf. fluō, flow], river fodiō, -ere, fōdī, fossus, dig fōns, fontis, m. fountain (§ 247. 2. a) fōrma, -ae, f. form, shape, appearance; beauty Formiae, -ārum, f. Formiae, a town of Latium on the Appian Way. See map forte, adv. [abl. of fors, chance], by chance fortis, -e, adj. strong; fearless, brave fortiter, adv. [fortis, strong], compared fortius, fortissimē, strongly; bravely fortūna, -ae, f. [fors, chance], chance, fate, fortune forum, -ī, n. market place, esp. the Forum Rōmānum, where the life of Rome centered Forum Appī, Forum of Appius, a town in Latium on the Appian Way fossa, -ae, f. [cf. fodiō, dig], ditch fragor, -ōris, m. [cf. frangō, break], crash, noise frangō, -ere, frēgī, frāctus, break frāter, -tris, m. brother fremitus, -ūs, m. loud noise frequentō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, attend frētus, -a, -um, adj. supported, trusting. Usually with abl. of means frōns, frontis, f. front, ā fronte, in front frūctus, -ūs, m. fruit frūmentārius, -a, -um, adj. pertaining to grain. rēs frūmentāria, grain supplies frūmentum, -ī, n. grain frūstrā, adv. in vain, vainly fuga, -ae, f. [cf. fugiō, flee], flight. in fugam dare, put to flight fugiō, -ere, fūgī, fugitūrus, flee, run; avoid, shun fūmō, -are, ——, ——, smoke fūnis, -is, m. rope furor, -ōris, m. [furō, rage], madness. in furōrem incīdere, go mad
G
Gāius, Gāī, m. Gaius, a Roman name, abbreviated C., English form Caius Galba, -ae, m. Galba, a Roman name galea, -ae, f. helmet Gallia, -ae, f. Gaul, the country comprising what is now Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and France Gallicus, -a, -um, adj. Gallic gallīna, -ae, f. hen, chicken Gallus, -ī, m. a Gaul gaudium, gaudī, n. joy Genāva, -ae, f. Geneva, a city in Switzerland gēns, gentis, f. [cf. gignō, beget], race, family; people, nation, tribe genus, -eris, n. kind, variety Germānia, -ae, f. Germany Germānus, -ī, m. a German gerō, -ere, gessī, gestus, carry, wear; wage. bellum gerere, wage war. rēs gestae, exploits. bene gerere, carry on successfully	gladiātōrius, -a, -um, adj. gladiatorial gladius, gladī, m. sword glōria, -ae, f. glory, fame Gracchus, -ī, m. Gracchus, name of a famous Roman family gracilis, -e, adj. slender (§ 307) Graeca, -ōrum, n. plur. Greek writings, Greek literature Graecē, adv. in Greek Graecia, -ae, f. Greece grammaticus, -ī, m. grammarian grātia, -ae, f. thanks, gratitude grātus, -a, -um, adj. acceptable, pleasing. Often with dat. (§ 501.16) gravis, -ē, adj. heavy; disagreeable; serious, dangerous; earnest, weighty graviter, adv. [gravis, heavy], compared gravius, gravissimē, heavily; greatly, seriously. graviter ferre, bear ill, take to heart gubernātor, -ōris, m. [gubernō, pilot], pilot
H
habēna, -ae, f. halter, rein. habeō, -ēre, -uī, -itus, have, hold; regard, consider, deem habitō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [cf. habeō, have], dwell, abide, inhabit. Cf. incolō, vīvō hāc-tenus, adv. thus far Helvētiī, -ōrum, m. the Helvetii, a Gallic tribe Herculēs, -is, m. Hercules, son of Jupiter and Alcmena, and god of strength Hesperidēs, -um, f. the Hesperides, daughters of Hesperus, who kept the garden of the golden apples hic, haec, hoc, demonstrative adj. and pron. this (of mine); as pers. pron. he, she, it (§ 481) hīc, adv. here hiems, -emis, f. winter hīnc, adv. [hīc, here], from here, hence Hippolytē, -ēs, f. Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons	ho-diē, adv. [modified form of hōc diē, on this day], to-day homō, -inis, m. and f. (human being), man, person honestus, -a, -um, adv. [honor, honor], respected, honorable honor, -ōris, m. honor hōra, -ae, f. hour Horātius, Horā´tī, m. Horatius, a Roman name horribilis, -e, adj. terrible, horrible hortor, -āri, -ātus sum, dep. verb, urge, incite, exhort, encourage (§ 493) hortus, -ī, m. garden hospitium, hospi´tī, n. [hospes, host], hospitality hostis, -is, m. and f. enemy, foe (§ 465. a) humilis, -e, adj. low, humble (§ 307) Hydra, -ae, f. the Hydra, a mythical water snake slain by Hercules
I
iaciō, -ere, iēcī, iactus, throw, hurl iam, adv. now, already. nec iam, and no longer Iāniculum, -ī, n. the Janiculum, one of the hills of Rome iānua, -ae, f. door ibi, adv. there, in that place Īcarus, -ī, m. Ic´arus, the son of Dædalus ictus, -ūs, m. [cf. īcō, strike], blow īdem, e´adem, idem, demonstrative pron. [is + dem], same (§ 481) idōneus, -a, -um, adj. suitable, fit igitur, conj., seldom the first word, therefore, then. Cf. itaque ignis, -is, m. fire (§§ 243.1; 247.2.a; 465.1) ignōtus, -a, -um, adj. [in-, not, + (g)notus, known], unknown, strange ille, illa, illud, demonstrative adj. and pron. that (yonder); as pers. pron. he, she, it (§ 481) illīc, adv. [cf. ille], yonder, there im-mittō, -ere, -mīsī, -missus [in, against, + mittō, send], send against; let in immolō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [in, upon, + mola, meal], sprinkle with sacrificial meal; offer, sacrifice im-mortālis, -e, adj. [in-, not, + mortalis, mortal], immortal im-mortālitās, -ātis, f. [immortālis, immortal], immortality im-parātus, -a, -um, adj. [in-, not, + parātus, prepared], unprepared impedīmentum, -ī, n. [impediō, hinder], hindrance; in plur. baggage impedītus, -a, -um, adj. [part. of impediō, hinder], hindered, burdened im-pellō, -ere, -pulī, -pulsus [in, against, + pellō, strike], strike against; impel, drive, propel imperātor, -ōris, m. [imperō, command], general imperium, impe´rī, n. [imperō, command], command, order; realm, empire; power, authority imperō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, command, order. Usually with dat. and an object clause of purpose (§ 501.41). With acc. object, levy, impose impetus, -ūs, m. attack, impetum facere in, make an attack upon im-pōnō, -ere, -posui, -positus [in, upon, + pōnō, place], place upon; impose, assign in, prep, with acc. into, to, against, at, upon, towards; with abl. in, on. in reliquum tempus, for the future in-, inseparable prefix. With nouns and adjectives often with a negative force, like English un-, in- in-cautus, -a, -um, adj. [in-, not, + cautus, careful], off one’s guard incendium, incendī, n. flame, fire. Cf. ignis, flamma in-cendō, -ere, -dī, -cēnsus, set fire to, burn in-cidō, -ere, -cidī, ——, [in, in, on, + cadō, fall], fall in, fall on; happen. in furōrem incidere, go mad in-cipiō, -ere, -cēpi, -ceptus [in, on, + capiō, take], begin in-cognitus, -a, -um, adj. [in-, not, + cognitus, known], unknown in-colō, -ere, -uī, ——, [in, in, + colō, dwell], inhabit; live incolumis, -e, adj. sound, safe, uninjured, imharmed in-crēdibilis, -e, adj. [in-, not, + crēdibilis, to be believed], incredible inde, from that place, thence induō, -ere, -uī, -ūtus, put on indūtus, -a, -um, adj. [part. of induō, put on], clothed in-eō, -īre, -iī, -itus [in, into, + eō, go], go into; enter upon, begin, with acc. (§ 413) īn-fāns, -fantis, adj. [in-, not, + *fāns, speaking], not speaking. As a noun, m. and f. infant īn-fēlīx, -īcis, adj. [in-, not, + fēlīx, happy], unhappy, unlucky īnfēnsus, -a, -um, adj. hostile īn´-ferō, īnfer´re, in´tulī, inlā´tus [in, against, + ferō, bear], bring against or upon, inflict, with acc. and dat. (§ 501.15). bellum īnferre, with dat., make war upon īnferus, -a, -um, adj. low, below (§ 312). īn-fīnītus, -a, -um, adj. [in-, not, + fīnītus, bounded], boundless, endless īn-fīrmus, -a, -um, adj. [in-, not, + fīrmus, strong], weak, infirm ingenium, inge´ni, n. talent, ability ingēns, -entis, adj. vast, huge, enormous, large. Cf. magnus	in-gredior, -gredī, -gressus sum [in, in, + gradior, walk], advance, enter inimīcus, -a, -um, adj. [in-, not, + amīcus, friendly], hostile. As a noun, inimīcus, -ī, m. enemy, foe. Cf. hostis initium, ini´tī, entrance, beginning initus, -a, -um, part. of ineō. initā aestāte, at the beginning of summer iniūria, -ae, f. [in, against, + iūs, law], injustice, wrong, injury. alicui iniūriās īnferre, inflict wrongs upon some one inopia, -ae, f. [inops, needy], want, need, lack in-opīnāns, -antis, adj. [in-, not, + opīnāns, thinking], not expecting, taken by surprise inquit, said he, said she. Regularly inserted in a direct quotation in-rigō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, irrigate, water in-rumpō, -ere, -rūpī, -ruptus [in, into, + rumpō, break], burst in, break in in-ruō, -ere, -ruī,—— [in, in, + ruō, rush], rush in īn-sequor, -sequī, -secūtus sum, dep. verb [in, on, + sequor, follow], follow on, pursue īn-signe, -is, n. badge, decoration (§ 465. b) īnsignis, -e, adj. remarkable, noted īnstāns, -antis, adj. [part. of īnsto, be at hand], present, immediate īn-stō, -āre, -stitī, -statūrus [in, upon, + stō, stand], stand upon; be at hand; pursue, press on īnstrūmentum, -ī, n. instrument īn-struō, -ere, -strūxī, -strūctus [in, on, + struō, build], draw up īnsula, -ae, f. island integer, -gra, -grum, untouched, whole; fresh, new intellegō, -ere, -lēxī, -lēctus [inter, between, +legō, choose], perceive, understand (§ 420. d) intentō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, aim; threaten inter, prep. with acc. between, among; during, while (§ 340) interfectus, -a, -um, adj. [part. of inter-ficiō, kill], slain, dead inter-ficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectus [inter, between, + faciō, make], put out of the way, kill. Cf. necō, occīdō, trucīdō interim, adv. meanwhile interior, -ius, adj. interior, inner (§ 315) inter-mittō, -ere, -mīsī, -missus, leave off, suspend interpres, -etis, m. and f. interpreter inter-rogō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, question inter-sum, -esse, -fuī, -futūrus [inter, between, +sum, be], be present, take part in, with dat. (§ 501.15) inter-vāllum, -ī, n. interval, distance intrā, adv. and prep. with acc. within, in intrō, -āre, -āvi, -ātus, go into, enter in-veniō, -īre, -vēnī, -ventus [in, upon, +veniō, come], find invīsus, -a, -um, adj. [part. of invideō, envy], hated, detested Iolāus, -ī, m. I-o-lā´us, a friend of Hercules ipse, -a, -um, intensive pron. that very, this very; self, himself, herself, itself, (§ 481) īra, -ae, f. wrath, anger īrātus, -a, -um, adj. [part. of īrāscor, be angry], angered, enraged is, ea, id, demonstrative adj. and pron. this, that; he, she, it (§ 481) iste, -a, -ud, demonstrative adj. and pron. that (of yours), he, she, it (§ 481) ita, adv. so, thus. Cf. sīc and tam Italia, -ae, f. Italy ita-que, conj. and so, therefore item, adv. also iter, itineris, n. journey, march, route; way, passage (§§ 247.1.a; 468). iter dare, give a right of way, allow to pass. iter facere, march (see p. 159) iubeō, -ēre, iussī, iussus, order, command. Usually with the infin. and subj. acc. (§ 213) iūdex, -icis, m. and f. judge (§ 464. 1) iūdicō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [iūdex, judge], judge, decide (§ 420. c) Iūlia, -ae, Julia, a Roman name Iūlius, Iūlī, m. Julius, a Roman name iungō, -ēre, iūnxī, iūnctus, join; yoke, harness Iūnō, -ōnis, f. Juno, the queen of the gods and wife of Jupiter Iuppiter, Iovis, m. Jupiter, the supreme god iūrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, swear, take an oath iussus, -a, -um, part. of iubeō, ordered
L
L., abbreviation for Lūcius labefactus, -a, -um, adj. [part. of labefaciō, cause to shake], shaken, weakened, ready to fall Labiēnus, -ī, m. La-bi-e´nus, one of Cæsar’s lieutenants labor, -ōris, m. labor, toil labōrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [labor, labor], labor; suffer, be hard pressed lacrima, -ae, f. tear lacus, -ūs (dat. and abl. plur. lacubus), m. lake laetē, adv. [laetus, glad], compared laetius, laetissimē, gladly laetitia, -ae, f. [laetus, glad], joy laetus, -a, -um, adj. glad, joyful lapis, -idis, m. stone (§§ 247.2.a; 464.1) Lār, Laris, m.; plur. Larēs, -um (rarely -ium), the Lares or household, gods lātē, adv. [lātus, wide], compared lātius, lātissimē, widely Latinē, adv. in Latin. Latīnē loquī, to speak Latin lātitūdō, -inis, f. [lātus, wide], width Lātōna, -ae, f. Latona, mother of Apollo and Diana latus, -a, -um, adj. wide lātus, -eris, n. side, flank. ab utrōque latere, on each side laudō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [laus, praise], praise laurea, -ae, f. laurel laureātus, -a, -um, adj. crowned with laurel laus, laudis, f. praise lectulus, -ī, m. couch, bed lēgātus, -ī, m. ambassador; lieutenant legiō, -ōnis, f. [cf. legō, gather], (body of soldiers), legion, about 3600 men (§ 464. 2. a) legiōnārius, -a, -um, adj. legionary. Plur. legiōnariī, -ōrum, m. the soldiers of the legion legō, -ere, lēgī, lēctus, read lēnis, -e, adj. gentle, smooth, mild lēniter, adv. [lēnis, gentle], compared lēnius, lēnissimē, gently	Lentulus, -i, m. Lentulus, a Roman family name leō, -ōnis, m. lion Lernaeus, -a, -um, adj. Lernæean, of Lerna, in southern Greece Lesbia, -ae, f. Lesbia, a girl’s name levis, -e, adj. light lēx, lēgis, f. measure, law libenter, adv. [libēns, willing], compared libentius, libentissimē, willingly, gladly līber, -era, -erum, adj. free (§ 469. b) līberī, -ōrum, m. [līber, free], children līberō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [līber, free], set free, release, liberate lībertās, -ātis, f. [līber, free], freedom, liberty līctor, -ōris, m. lictor (p. 225) līmus, -ī, m. mud littera, -ae, f. a letter of the alphabet; in plur. a letter, epistle lītus, -oris, n. seashore, beach locus, -ī, m. (plur. locī and loca, m. and n.), place, spot longē, adv. [longus, long], comp. longius, longissimē, a long way off; by far longinquus, -a, -um, adj. [longus, long], distant, remote longitūdō, -inis, f. [longus, long], length longus, -a, -um, adj. long loquor, loqui, locūtus sum, dep. verb, talk, speak lōrīca, -ae, f. [lōrum, thong], coat of mail, corselet lūdō, -ere, lūsī, lūsus, play lūdus, -ī, m. play; school, the elementary grades. Cf. schola lūna, -ae, f. moon lūx, lūcis, f. (no gen. plur.), light. prīma lūx, daybreak Lȳdia, -ae, f. Lydia, a girl’s name
M
M., abbreviation for Mārcus magicus, -a, -um, adj. magic magis, adv. in comp. degree [magnus, great], more, in a higher degree (§ 323) magister, -trī, m. master, commander; teacher magistrātus, -ūs, m. [magister, master], magistracy; magistrate magnitūdō, -inis, f. [magnus, great], greatness, size magnopere, adv. [abl. of magnum opus], compared magis, maximē, greatly, exceedingly (§ 323) magnus, -a, -um, adj., compared maior, maximus, great, large; strong, loud (§ 311) maior, maius, -ōris, adj., comp. of magnus, greater, larger (§ 311) maiōrēs, -um, m. plur. of maior, ancestors mālō, mālle, māluī, —— [magis, more, + volō, wish], wish more, prefer (§ 497) malus, -a, -um, adj., compared peior, pessimus, bad, evil (§ 311) mandō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [manus, hand, + dō, put], (put in hand), intrust; order, command maneō, -ēre, mānsī, mānsūrus, stay, remain, abide Mānlius, Mānlī, m. Manlius, a Roman name mānsuētus, -a, -um, adj. [part. of mānsuēscō, tame], tamed manus, -ūs, f. hand; force, band Mārcus, -ī, m. Marcus, Mark, a Roman first name mare, -is, n. (no gen. plur.), sea. mare tenēre, be out to sea margō, -inis, m. edge, border marītus, -ī, m. husband Marius, Marī, m. Marius, a Roman name, esp. C. Marius, the general Mārtius, -a, -um, adj. of Mars, esp. the Campus Martius māter, -tris, f. mother mātrimōnium, mātrimō´nī, n. marriage. in mātrimōnium dūcere, marry mātūrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, hasten. Cf. contendō, properō mātūrus, -a, -um, adj. ripe, mature maximē, adv. in superl. degree [maximus, greatest], compared magnopere, magis, maximē, especially, very much (§ 323) maximus, -a, -um, adj., superl. of magnus, greatest, extreme (§ 311) medius, -a, -um, adj. middle part; middle, intervening melior, -ius, -ōris, adj., comp. of bonus, better (§ 311) melius, adv. in comp. degree, compared bene, melius, optimē, better (§ 323) memoria, -ae, f. [memor, mindful], memory. memoriā tenēre, remember mēns, mentis, f. mind. Cf. animus mēnsis, -is, m. month (§ 247. 2. a) mercātor, -ōris, m. [mercor, trade], trader, merchant merīdiānus, -a, -um, adj. [merīdiēs, noon], of midday merīdiēs, —— (acc. -em, abl. -ē), m. [medius, mid, + diēs, day], noon metus, -ūs, m. fear, dread meus, -a, -um, possessive adj. and pron. my, mine (§ 98)	mīles, -itis, m. soldier (§ 464. 1) mīlitāris, -e, adj. [mīles, soldier], military. rēs mīlitāris, science of war mīlitō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [mīles, soldier], serve as a soldier mīlle, plur. mīlia, -ium, numeral adj. and subst. thousand (§ 479) minimē, adv. in superl. degree, compared parum, minus, minimē, least, very little; by no means (§ 323) minimus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree, compared parvus, minor, minimus, least, smallest (§ 311) minor, minus, -ōris, adj. in comp. degree, compared parvus, minor, minimus, smaller, less (§ 311) Mīnōs, -ōis, m. Minos, a king of Crete minus, adv. in comp. degree, compared parum, minus, minimē, less (§ 323) Minyae, -ārum, m. the Minyae, a people of Greece mīrābilis, -e, adj. [mīror, wonder at], wonderful, marvelous mīror, -ārī, -ātus sum, dep. verb [mīrus, wonderful], wonder, marvel, admire mīrus, -a, -um, adj. wonderful Mīsēnum, -ī, Mise´num, a promontory and harbor on the coast of Campania. See map miser, -era, -erum, adj. wretched, unhappy, miserable missus, -a, -um, part. of mittō, sent mittō, -ere, mīsī, missus, send modicus, -a, -um [modus, measure], modest, ordinary modo, adv. [abl. of modus, measure, with shortened o], only, merely, just now. modo ... modo, now ... now, sometimes ... sometimes modus, -ī, m. measure; manner, way; kind moenia, -ium, n. plur. [cf. mūniō, fortify], walls, ramparts molestē, adv. [molestus, troublesome], compared molestius, molestissimē, annoyingly. molestē ferre, to be annoyed molestus, -a, -um, troublesome, annoying, unpleasant (§ 501.16) moneō, -ēre, -uī, -itus, remind, advise, warn (§ 489) mōns, montis, m. mountain (§ 247. 2. a) mōnstrum, -ī, n. monster mora, -ae, f. delay moror, -ārī, -ātus sum, dep. verb [mora, delay], delay, linger; impede mors, mortis, f. [cf. morior, die], death mōs, mōris, m. custom, habit mōtus, -ūs, m. [cf. moveō, move], motion, movement. terrae mōtus, earthquake moveō, -ēre, mōvī, mōtus, move mox, adv. soon, presently mulier, -eris, f. woman multitūdō, -inis, f. [multus, much], multitude multum (multō), adv. [multus, much], compared plūs, plūrimum, much (§ 477) multus, -a, -um, adj., compared plūs, plūrimus, much; plur. many (§ 311) mūniō, -īre, -īvī or -iī, -ītus, fortify, defend mūnītiō, -ōnis, f. [mūniō, fortify], defense, fortification mūrus, -ī, m. wall. Cf. moenia mūsica, -ae, f. music
N
nam, conj. for. Cf. enim nam-que, conj., a strengthened nam, introducing a reason or explanation, for, and in fact; seeing that nārrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, tell, relate nāscor, nāscī, nātus sum, dep. verb, be born, spring from nātūra, -ae, f. nature nātus, part. of nāscor nauta, -ae, m. [for nāvita, from nāvis, ship], sailor nāvālis, -e, adj. [nāvis, ship], naval nāvigium, nāvi´gī, n. ship, boat nāvigō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [nāvis, ship, + agō, drive], sail, cruise nāvis, -is (abl. -ī or -e), f. ship (§ 243. 1). nāvem cōnscendere, embark, go on board. nāvem solvere, set sail. nāvis longa, man-of-war nē, conj. and adv. in order that not, that (with verbs of fearing), lest; not. nē ... quidem, not even -ne, interrog. adv., enclitic (see §§ 16, 210). Cf. nōnne and num nec or neque, conj. [nē, not, + que, and], and not, nor. nec ... nec or neque ... neque, neither ... nor necessārius, -a, -um, adj. needful, necessary necō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [cf. nex, death], kill. Cf. interficiō, occīdō, trucīdō negō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, deny, say not (§ 420. a) negōtium, negō´tī, n. [nec, not, + ōtium, ease], business, affair, matter. alicui negōtium dare, to employ some one Nemaeus, -a, -um, adj. Neme´an, of Neme´a, in southern Greece nēmŏ, dat. nēminī (gen. nūllīus, abl. nūllō, supplied from nūllus), m. and f. [nē, not, + homō, man], (not a man), no one, nobody Neptūnus, -ī, m. Neptune, god of the sea, brother of Jupiter neque, see nec neuter, -tra, -trum (gen. -trīus, dat. -trī), adj. neither (of two) (§ 108) nē-ve, conj. adv. and not, and that not, and lest nihil, n. indecl. [nē, not, + hīlum, a whit], nothing. nihil posse, to have no power nihilum, -ī, n., see nihil	Niobē, -ēs, f. Ni´obe, the queen of Thebes whose children were destroyed by Apollo and Diana nisi, conj. [nē, not, + sī, if], if not, unless, except nōbilis, -e, adj. well known; noble noceō, -ēre, -uī, -itūrus [cf. necō, kill], hurt, injure, with dat. (§ 501.14) noctū, abl. used as adv. [cf. nox, night], at night, by night Nōla, -ae, f. Nola, a town in central Campania. See map nōlō, nōlle, nōluī, —— [ne, not, + volō, wish], not to wish, be unwilling (§ 497) nōmen, -inis, n. [cf. nōscō, know], (means of knowing), name nōminō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [nōmen, name], name, call. Cf. appellō, vocō nōn, adv. [nē, not, + ūnum, one], not. nōn sōlum ... sed etiam, not only ... but also nōn-dum, adv. not yet nōn-ne, interrog. adv. suggesting an affirmative answer, not? (§ 210). Cf. -ne and num nōs, pers. pron. we (see ego) (§ 480) noster, -tra, -trum, possessive adj. and pron. our, ours. Plur. nostrī, -ōrum, m. our men (§ 98) novem, indecl. numeral adj. nine novus, -a, -um, adj. new. novae rēs, a revolution nox, noctis, f. night, multā nocte, late at night nūllus, -a, -um (gen. -īus, dat. -ī) adj. [nē, not, + ūllus, any], not any, none, no (§ 108) num, interrog. adv. suggesting a negative answer (§ 210). Cf. -ne and nōnne. In indir. questions, whether numerus, -ī, m. number numquam, adv. [nē, not, + umquam, ever], never nunc, adv. now. Cf. iam nūntiō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [nūntius, messenger], report, announce (§ 420. a) nūntius, nūntī, m. messenger nūper, adv. recently, lately, just now nympha, -ae, f. nymph
O
ob, prep. with acc. on account of. In compounds it often means in front of, against, or it is intensive. quam ob rem, for this reason (§ 340) obses, -idis, m. and f. hostage ob-sideō,-ēre,-sēdī, -sessus [ob, against, + sedeō, sit], besiege obtineō, -ēre, -uī, -tentus [ob, against, + teneō, hold], possess, occupy, hold occāsiō, -ōnis, f. favorable opportunity, favorable moment occāsus, -ūs, m. going down, setting occīdō, -ere, -cīdī, -cīsus [ob, down, + caedō, strike], strike down; cut down, kill. Cf. interficiō, necō occupō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [ob, completely, + capiō, take], seize, take possession of, occupy. Cf. rapio oc-currō, -ere, -currī, -cursus [ob, against + currō, run], run towards; meet, with dat. (§ 426) ōceanus, -ī, m. the ocean octō, indecl. numeral adj. eight oculus, -ī, m. eye officium, offi´cī, n. duty ōlim, adv. formerly, once upon a time ōmen, -inis, n. sign, token, omen ō-mittō, -ere, -mīsī, -missus [ob, over, past, + mittō, send], let go, omit. consilium omittere, give up a plan omnīnō, adv. [omnis, all], altogether, wholly, entirely omnis, -e, adj. all, every. Cf. tōtus onerāria, -ae, f. [onus, load], with nāvis expressed or understood, merchant vessel, transport onus, -eris, n. load, burden	opīniō, -ōnis, f. [opīnor, suppose], opinion, supposition, expectation oppidānus, -ī, m. [oppidum, town], townsman oppidum, -ī, n. town, stronghold opportūnus, -a, -um, adj. suitable, opportune, favorable op-primō, -ere, -pressī, -pressus [ob, against, + premō, press], (press against), crush; surprise oppugnātiō, -ōnis, f. storming, assault oppugnō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [ob, against, + pugnō fight], fight against, assault, storm, assail optimē, adv. in superl. degree, compared bene, melius, optimē, very well, best of all (§ 323) optimus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree, compared bonus, melior, optimus, best, most excellent (§ 311) opus, -eris, n. work, labor, task (§ 464. 2. b) ōrāculum, -ī, n. [ōrō, speak], oracle ōrātor, -ōris, m. [ōrō, speak], orator orbis, -is, m. ring, circle. orbis terrārum, the earth, world orbita, -ae, f. [orbis, wheel], rut Orcus, -ī, m. Orcus, the lower world ōrdō, -inis, m. row, order, rank (§ 247. 2. a) orīgo, -inis, f. [orior, rise], source, origin orior, -īrī, ortus sum, dep. verb, arise, rise, begin; spring, be born ōrnāmentum, -ī, n. [ōrnō, fit out], ornament, jewel ōrnātus, -a, -um, adj. [part. of ōrnō, fit out] fitted out; adorned ōrnō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, fit out, adorn
P
P., abbreviation for Pūblius paene, adv. nearly, almost palūdāmentum, -ī, n. military cloak palūs, -ūdis, f. swamp, marsh pānis, -is, m. bread pār, paris, adj. equal (§ 471. III) parātus, -a, -um, adj. [part. of parō, prepare], prepared, ready parcō, -ere, peper´cī (parsī), parsūrus, spare, with dat. (§ 501.14) pāreō, -ēre, -uī, ——, obey, with dat. (§ 501 .14) parō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, prepare for, prepare; provide, procure pars, partis, f. part, share; side, direction parum, adv., compared minus, minimē, too little, not enough (§ 323) parvus, -a, -um, adj., compared minor, minimus, small, little (§ 311) passus, -ūs, m. step, pace. mīlle passuum, thousand paces, mile (§ 331. b) pateō, -ēre, patuī, ——, lie open, be open; stretch, extend pater, -tris, m. father (§ 464. 2. a) patior, -ī, passus sum, dep. verb, bear, suffer, allow, permit patria, -ae, f. [cf. pater, father], fatherland, (one’s) country paucus, -a, -um, adj. (generally plur.), few, only a few paulisper, adv. for a little while paulō, adv. by a little, little paulum adv. a little, somewhat pāx, pācis, f. (no gen. plur.), peace pecūnia, -ae, f. [pecus, cattle], money pedes, -itis, m. [pēs, foot], foot soldier pedester, -tris, -tre, adj. [pēs, foot], on foot; by land peior, peius, -ōris, adj. in comp. degree, compared malus, peior, pessimus, worse (§ 311) pellis, -is, f. skin, hide penna, -ae, f. feather per, prep. with acc. through, by means of, on account of. In composition it often has the force of thoroughly, completely, very (§ 340) percussus, -a, -um, adj. [part. of percutiō, strike through], pierced per-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus [per, through, + dūcō, lead], lead through. fossam perdūcere, to construct a ditch per-exiguus, -a, -um, adj. [per, very, + exiguus, small], very small, very short perfidus, -a, -um, adj. faithless, treacherous, false per-fringō, -ere, -frēgī, -frāctus [per, through, frangō, break], shatter pergō, -ere, perrēxī, perrēctus [per, through, + regō, conduct], go on, proceed, hasten perīculum, -ī, n. trial, test; danger peristȳlum, -ī, n. peristyle, an open court with columns around it perītus, -a, -um, adj. skillful perpetuus, -a, -um, adj. perpetual Perseus, -eī, Perseus, a Greek hero, son of Jupiter and Danaë persōna, -ae, f. part, character, person per-suādeō, -ēre, -suāsī, -suāsus [per, thoroughly, + suādeō, persuade], persuade, advise, with dat. (§ 501.14), often with an object clause of purpose (§ 501.41) per-terreō, -ēre, -uī, -itus [per, thoroughly, + terreō, frighten], thoroughly terrify, alarm per-veniō, -īre, -vēnī, -ventus [per, through, + veniō, come], arrive, reach, come to pēs, pedis, m. foot. pedem referre, retreat (§ 247. 2. a) pessimus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree, compared malus, peior, pessimus, worst (§ 311) petō, -ere, -īvī or -iī, -ītus, strive for, seek, beg, ask; make for, travel to. Cf. postulō, quaerō, rogō Pharsālus, -ī, f. Pharsa´lus or Pharsa´lia, a town in Thessaly, near which Cassar defeated Pompey, 48 B.C. philosophia, -ae, f. philosophy philosophus, -ī, m. philosopher pictus, -a, -um, adj. [part. of pingō, paint], colored, variegated pīlum, -ī, n. spear, javelin (§ 462. b) piscīna, -ae, f. [piscis, fish], fish pond piscis, -is, m. fish pīstor, -ōris, m. baker placeō. -ēre, -uī, -itus, please, be pleasing, with dat. (§ 501.14) plānitiēs, -ēī, f. [plānus, level], plain plānus, -a, -um, adj. level, flat plēnus, -a, -um, full plūrimum, adv. in superl. degree, compared multum, plūs, plūrimum, very much. plūrimum valēre, be most influential (§ 322) plūrimus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree, compared multus, plūs, plūrimus, most, very many (§ 311) plūs, plūris, adj. in comp. degree, compared multus, plūs, plūrimus; sing. n. as substantive, more; plur. more, several (§ 311) pluteus, -ī, m. shield, parapet poena, -ae, f. punishment, penalty poēta, -ae, m. poet pompa, -ae, f. procession Pompēiī, -ōrum, m. Pompeii, a city of Campania. See map Pompēius, Pompē´ī, m. Pompey, a Roman name pōmum, -ī, n. apple pōnō, -ere, posuī, positus, put, place. castra pōnere, pitch camp pōns, pontis, m. bridge (§ 247. 2. a) popīna, -ae, f. restaurant populus, -ī, m. people Porsena, -ae, m. Porsena, king of Etruria, a district of Italy. See map porta, -ae, f. gate, door portō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, bear, carry portus, -ūs, m. [cf. porta, gate], harbor possideō, -ēre, -sēdī, -sessus, have, own, possess possum, posse, potuī, ——, irreg. verb [potis, able, + sum, I am], be able, can (§ 495). nihil posse, have no power post, prep, with acc. after, behind (§ 340) posteā, adv. [post, after, + eā, this], afterwards	(posterus), -a, -um, adj., compared posterior, postrēmus or postumus, following, next (§ 312) postquam, conj. after, as soon as postrēmō, adv. [abl. of postrēmus, last], at last, finally. Cf. dēmum, dēnique (§ 322) postrīdiē, adv. [posterō, next, + diē, day], on the next day postulō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, ask, demand, require. Cf. petō, quaerō, rogō potentia, -ae, f. [potēns, able], might, power, force prae-beō, -ēre, -uī, -itus [prae, forth, + habeō, hold], offer, give praeda, -ae, f. booty, spoil, plunder prae-dīcō, -ere, -dīxī, -dictus [prae, before, + dīcō, tell], foretell, predict prae-ficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectus [prae, before, + faciō, make], place in command, with acc. and dat. (§ 501.15) prae-mittō, -ere, -mīsī, -missus [prae, forward, + mittō, send], send forward praemium, praemī, n. reward, prize praeruptus, -a, -um [part. of prae-rumpō, break off], broken off, steep praesēns, -entis, adj. present, immediate praesertim, adv. especially, chiefly praesidium, praesi´di, n. guard, garrison, protection prae-stō, -āre, -stitī, -stitus [prae, before, + sto, stand], (stand before), excel, surpass, with dat. (§ 501.15); show, exhibit prae-sum, -esse, -fuī, -futūrus [prae, before, + sum, be], be over, be in command of, with dat. (§ 501.15) praeter, prep, with acc. beyond, contrary to (§ 340) praetereā, adv. [praeter, besides, + eā, this], in addition, besides, moreover praetextus, -a, -um, adj. bordered, edged praetōrium, praetō´rī, n. prætorium prandium, prandī, n. luncheon premō, -ere, pressī, pressus, press hard, compress; crowd, drive, harass (prex, precis), f. prayer prīmō, adv. [prīmus, first], at first, in the beginning (§ 322) prīmum, adv. [prīmus, first], first. quam primum, as soon as possible prīmus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree, compared prior, prīmus, first (§ 315) prīnceps, -cipis, m. [prīmus, first, + capiō, take], (taking the first place), chief, leader (§ 464. 1) prior, prius, -ōris, adj. in comp. degree, superl., prīmus, former (§ 315) prīstinus, -a, -um, adj. former, previous prō, prep, with abl. before; for, for the sake of, in behalf of; instead of, as (§ 209). In composition, forth, forward prō-cēdō, -ere, -cussī, -cessūrus [prō, forward, + cēdō, go], go forward, proceed procul, adv. far, afar off prō-currō, -ere, -currī (-cucurrī), -cur-sus [prō, forward, + currō, run], run forward proelium, proeli, n. battle, combat. proelium committere, join battle. proelium facere, fight a battle profectiō, -ōnis, f. departure proficīscor, -ī, -fectus sum, dep. verb, set out, march. Cf. ēgredior, exeō prō-gredior, -ī, -gressus sum, dep. verb [prō, forth, + gradior, go], go forth, proceed, advance. Cf. pergō, prōcēdō prōgressus, see prōgredior prohibeō, -ēre, -uī, -itus [prō, forth, away from, + habeō, hold], keep away from, hinder, prevent prō-moveō, -ēre, -mōvī, -mōtus [prō, forward, + moveō, move], move forward, advance prō-nūntiō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [prō, forth, + nūntiō, announce], proclaim, declare prope, adv., compared propius, proxi-mē, nearly. Prep, with acc. near prō-pellō, -ere, -pulī, -pulsus [prō, forth, + pellō, drive], drive forth; move, impel properō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [properus, quick], go quickly, hasten. Cf. contendō, maturō propinquus, -a, -um, adj. [prope, near], near, neighboring propior, -ius, -ōris, adj. in comp. degree, superl., proximus, nearer (§ 315) propius, adv. in comp. degree, compared prope, propius, proximē, nearer (§ 323) propter, prep. with acc. on account of, because of (§ 340) prō-scrībō, -ere, -scrīpsī, -scriptus [prō, forth, + scribō, write], proclaim, publish. Cf. prōnūntiō prō-sequor, -sequī, -secūtus sum, dep. verb [prō, forth, + sequor, follow], escort, attend prō-sum, prōdesse, prōfuī, prōfutūrus [prō, for, + sum, be], be useful, benefit, with dat. (§§ 496; 501.15) prō-tegō, -ere, -tēx=i], -tēctus [prō, in front, + tegō, cover], cover in front, protect prōvincia, -ae, f. territory, province proximē, adv. in superl. degree, compared prope, propius, proximē, nearest, next; last, most recently (§ 323) proximus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree, compared propior, proximus, nearest, next (§ 315) pūblicus, -a, -um, adj. [populus,people], of the people, public, res pūblica, the commonwealth puella, -ae, f. [diminutive of puer, boy], girl, maiden puer, -eri, m. boy; slave (§ 462. c) pugna, -ae, f -fight, battle. Cf. proelium pugnō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [pugna, battle], fight. Cf. contendō, dīmicō pulcher, -chra, -chrum, adj. beautiful, pretty (§§ 469.b; 304) Pullō, -ōnis, m. Pullo, a centurion pulsō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, strike, beat puppis, -is (acc. -im, abl. -ī), f. stern of a ship, deck pūrē, adv. [pūrus, pure], comp. pūrius, purely pūrgō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, cleanse, clean purpureus, -a, -um, adj. purple, dark red putō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, reckon, think (§ 420,c). Cf. arbitror, exīstimō Pȳthia, -ae, f. Pythia, the inspired priestess of Apollo at Delphi
Q
quā dē causā, for this reason, wherefore quā rē, therefore, for this reason quaerō, -ere, -sīvī, -sītus, seek, ask, inquire. Cf. petō, postulō, rogō quālis, -e, interrog. pronom. adj. of what sort, what kind of. talis ... qualis, such ... as quam, adv. how; after a comparative, than ; with a superlative, translated as ... as possible, quam prīmum, as soon as possible quantus, -a, -um, adj. [quam, how], how great, how much, tantus ... quantus, as great as quārtus, -a, -um, numeral adj. [quattuor, four], fourth quattuor, indecl. numeral adj. four quattuor-decim, indecl. numeral adj. fourteen -que, conj., enclitic, and (§ 16). Cf. ac, atque, et quī, quae, quod, rel. pron. and adj. who, which, what, that (§ 482) quia, conj. because. Cf. quod quīdam, quaedam, quiddam (quoddam), indef. pron. and adj. a certain one, a certain, a (§ 485). quidem, adv. to be sure, certainly, indeed, nē ... quidem, not even quiēs, -ētis, f. rest, repose quiētus, -a, -um, adj. quiet, restful	quīndecim, indecl. numeral adj. fifteen quīngentī, -ae, -a, numeral adj. five hundred quīnque, indecl. numeral adj. five quīntus, -a, -um, numeral adj. fifth quis (quī), quae, quid (quod), interrog. pron. and adj. who? what? which? (§ 483). quis (quī), qua (quae), quid (quod), indef. pron. and adj., used after sī, nisi, nē, num, any one, anything, some one, something, any, some (§ 484). quisquam, quicquam or quidquam (no fem. or plur.), indef. pron. any one (at all), anything (at all) (§ 486). quisque, quaeque, quidque (quodque), indef. pron. and adj. each, each one, every (§ 484). quō, interrog. and rel. adv. whither, where quō, conj. in order to, that, with comp. degree (§ 350). quod, conj. because, in that. Cf. quia quoque, conj., following an emphatic word, also, too. Cf. etiam quot-annīs, adv. [quot, how many + annus, year], every year, yearly quotiēns, interrog. and rel. adv. how often? as often as
R
rādīx, -īcis, f. root; foot rapiō, -ere, -uī, -tus, seize, snatch rārō, adv. [rārus, rare], rarely rārus, -a, -um, adj. rare re- or red-, an inseparable prefix, again, back, anew, in return rebelliō, -ōnis, f. renewal of war, rebellion recēns, -entis, adj. recent re-cipiō, -ere, -cēpī, -ceptus [re-, back, + capiō, take], take back, receive. sē recipere, withdraw, retreat re-clīnātus, -a, -um, part. of reclīnō, leaning back re-creātus, -a, -um, part. of recreō, refreshed rēctus, -a, -um, adj. [part. of regō, keep straight], straight, direct re-cūsō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, refuse red-āctus, -a, -um, part. of redigō, reduced, subdued red-eō, -īre, -iī, -itus [red-, back, + eō, go], go back, return (§ 413). Cf. revertō reditus, -ūs, m. [cf. redeō, return], return, going back re-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus [re-, back, + dūcō, lead], lead back re-ferō, -ferre, rettulī, -lātus [re-, back, + ferō, bear], bear back; report. pedem referre, withdraw, retreat re-ficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectus [re-, again, + faciō, make], make again, repair. sē reficere, refresh one’s self rēgīna, -ae, f. [rēx, king], queen regiō, -ōnis, f. region, district rēgnum, -ī, n. sovereignty; kingdom regō, -ere, rēxī, rēctus [cf. rēx, king], govern, rule (§ 490) re-iciō, -ere, -iēcī, -iectus [re-, back, + iaciō, hurl], hurl back; throw away re-linquō, -ere, -līquī, -lictus [re-, behind, + linquō, leave], leave behind, leave, abandon reliquus, -a, -um, adj. [cf. relinquō, leave], left over, remaining. As a noun, plur. the rest remōtus, -a, -um, adj. [part. of re-moveō, remove], remote, distant re-moveō, -ēre, -mōvī, -motus [re-, back, + moveō, move], remove rēmus, -ī, m. oar	re-periō, -īre, repperī, repertus, find re-portō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [re-, back, + portō, carry], carry back, bring back, win, gain rēs, reī, f. thing, business, matter, deed, event, circumstance (§ 467). quam ob rem, for this reason. rēs adversae, adversity. rēs frūmentāria, grain supplies. rēs gestae, exploits. rēs militāris, science of war. rēs pūblica, the commonwealth. rēs secundae, prosperity re-scindō, -ere, -scidī, -scissus [re-, back, + scindō, cut], cut off, cut down re-sistō, -ere, -stitī, —— [re-, back, + sistō, cause to stand], oppose, resist, with dat. (§ 501.14) re-spondeō, -ēre, -spondī, -spōnsus [re-, in return, + spondeō, promise], answer, reply (§ 420. a) re-vertō, -ere, -ī, ——, or dep. verb re-vertor, -ī, -sus sum [re-, back, + vertō, turn], turn back, return. Usually active in the perf. system re-vinciō, -īre, -vīnxī, -vīnctus [re-, back, + vinciō, bind], fasten rēx, rēgis, m. [cf. regō, rule], king Rhēnus, -ī, m. the Rhine, a river of Germany rīpa, -ae, f. bank rogō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, ask. Cf. petō, postulō, quaerō Rōma, -ae, f. Rome. See map Rōmānus, -a, -um, adj. [Rōma, Rome], Roman, follows its noun. As a noun, m. and f. a Roman rosa, -ae, f. rose rōstrum, -ī, n. beak of a ship. In plur., the rostra, the speaker’s stand in the Roman Forum rota, -ae, f. wheel Rubicō, -ōnis, m. the Rubicon, a river in northern Italy. See map rūmor, -ōris, m. report, rumor rūrsus, adv. [for reversus, turned back], again, in turn rūs, rūris (locative abl. rūrī, no gen., dat., or abl. plur.), n. the country (§ 501. 36. 1). Cf. ager, patria, terra
S
Sabīnus, -a, -um, adj. Sabine. As a noun, m. and f. a Sabine. The Sabines were an ancient people of central Italy. See map sacrum, -ī, n. [sacer, consecrated], something consecrated, sacrifice; usually in plur., religious rites saepe, adv., compared saepius, saepissimē, often, frequently saevus, -a, -um, adj. cruel, savage sagitta, -ae, f. arrow saliō, -īre, -uī, saltus, jump salūs, -ūtis, f. safety; health. salūtem dīcere, send greetings salūtō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [salūs, health], greet, salute salvē, imv. of salveō, hail, greetings sanguis, -inis, m. blood (§ 247. 2. a] sānitās, -ātis, f. [sānus, sound], health, sanity sapiēns, -entis, adj. [part. of sapiō, be wise], wise, sensible satis, adv. and indecl. noun, enough, sufficient, sufficiently saxum, -ī, n. rock, stone scelus, -eris, n. crime, sin scēptrum, -ī, n. scepter schola, -ae, f. school, the higher grades. Cf. lūdus scientia, -ae, f. [sciēns, knowing], skill, knowledge, science scindō, -ere, scidī, scissus, cut, tear sciō, -īre, -īvī, -ītus, know (§ 420. b). Cf. cognōscō scrībō, -ere, scrīpsī, scrīptus, write scūtum, -ī, n. shield, buckler sē, see suī sēcum = sē + cum secundus, -a, -um, adj. [sequor, follow], following, next, second; favorable, successful. rēs secundae, prosperity sed, conj. but, on the contrary. nōn sōlum ... sed etiam, not only ... but also sēdecim, indecl. numeral adj. sixteen sedeō, -ēre, sēdī, sessus, sit semper, adv. always, forever senātus, -ūs, m. [cf. senex, old], council of elders, senate sentiō, -īre, sēnsī, sēnsus, feel, know, perceive (§ 420. d). Cf. intellegō, videō septem, indecl. numeral adj. seven septimus, -a, -um, numeral adj. seventh sequor, -ī, secūtus sum, dep. verb, follow (§ 493) serpēns, -entis, f. [serpō, crawl], serpent, snake sertae, -ārum, f. plur. wreaths, garlands servitūs, -ūtis, f. [servus, slave], slavery, servitude servō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, save, rescue, keep servus, -ī, m. slave sēsē, emphatic for sē sex, indecl. numeral adj. six Sextus, -ī, m. Sextus, a Roman first name sī, conj. if sīc, adv. thus, in this way. Cf. ita, tam Sicilia, -ae, f. Sicily. See map sīc-ut, just as, as if signifer, -erī, m. [signum, standard, + ferō, bear], standard bearer (p. 224) signum, -ī, n. ensign, standard; signal silva, -ae, f. wood, forest similis, -e, adj., compared similior, simillimus, like, similar (§ 307) simul, adv. at the same time simul ac or simul atque, conj. as soon as sine, prep. with abl. without (§ 209) singulī, -ae, -a, distributive numeral adj. one at a time, single (§ 334) sinister, -tra, -trum, adj. left Sinuessa, -ae, f. Sinues´sa, a town in Campania. See map sitis, -is (acc. -im, abl. -ī, no plur.), f. thirst situs, -a, -um, adj. [part. of sinō, set], situated, placed, lying socius, socī, m. comrade, ally sōl, sōlis (no gen. plur.), m. sun soleō, -ēre, solitus sum, semi-dep. verb, be wont, be accustomed sollicitus, -a, -um, adj. disturbed, anxious sōlum, adv. [sōlus, alone], alone, only. nōn sōlum ... sed etiam, not only ... but also sōlus, -a, -um (gen. -īus, dat. -ī), adj. alone, only (§ 108) solvō, -ere, solvī, solūtus, loosen, unbind. nāvem solvere, set sail	somnus, -ī, m. sleep soror, -ōris, f. sister spatium, spatī, n. space, distance; time; opportunity spectāculum, -ī, n. [spectō, look at], show, spectacle spectō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, look at, witness spērō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [spēs, hope], hope, expect (§ 420. c) spēs, speī, f. hope (§ 273. 2) splendidē, adv. [splendidus], compared splendidius, splendidissimē, splendidly, handsomely splendidus, -a, -um, adj. brilliant, gorgeous, splendid Stabiānus, -a, -um, Stabian stabulum, -ī, n. [cf. stō, stand], standing place, stable, stall statim, adv. [cf. stō, stand], on the spot, at once, instantly statua, -ae, f. [sistō, place, set], statue statuō, -ere, -uī, -ūtus [status, station], decide, determine stilus, -ī, m. iron pencil, style (p. 210) stō, -āre, stetī, status, stand strātus, -a, -um, adj. [part. of sternō, spread], paved (of streets) strepitus, -ūs, m. [strepō, make a noise], noise, din stringō, -ere, strīnxī, strictus, bind tight; draw, unsheathe studeō, -ēre, -uī, ——, give attention to, be eager, with dat. (§ 501.14) studium, studī, n. [cf. studeō, be eager for], eagerness, desire, zeal, devotion stultus, -a, -um, adj. foolish, stupid Stymphālis, -idis, adj. f. Stymphalian, of Stympha´lus, a lake in southern Greece Stymphālus, -ī, m. Stympha´lus, a district of southern Greece with a town, mountain, and lake, all of the same name suādeō, -ēre, -sī, -sus, advise, recommend, with subjv. of purpose (§ 501.41) sub, prep, with acc. and abl. under, below, up to; at or to the foot of sub-igō, -ere, -ēgī, -āctus [sub, under, + agō, drive], subdue, reduce subitō, adv. [subitus, sudden], suddenly sub-sequor, -ī, -secūtus sum, dep. verb [sub, below, + sequor, follow], follow close after, follow up suc-cēdō, -ere, -cessī, -cessus [sub, below, + cēdō, go], follow, succeed suī, reflexive pron. of himself (herself, itself, themselves) (§ 480). sēcum = sē + cum. sēsē, emphatic form of sē sum, esse, fuī, futūrus, irreg. verb, be; exist (§ 494) summus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree, compared superus, superior, suprēmus or summus (§ 312), supreme, highest; best, greatest. in summō colle, on the top of the hill sūmō, -ere, sūmpsī, sūmptus, take up; assume, put on. sūmere supplicium dē, inflict punishment on super, prep. with acc. and abl. over, above superbia, -ae, f. [superbus, proud], pride, arrogance superbus, -a, -um, adj. proud, haughty superior, comp. of superus superō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [superus, above], go over; subdue, overcome; surpass, excel super-sum, -esse, -fuī, ——, be over, survive, with dat. (§ 501.15) superus, -a, -um, adj., compared superior, suprēmus or summus, above, upper (§ 312) supplicium, suppli´cī, n. [supplex, kneeling in entreaty], punishment, torture. supplicium sūmere dē, inflict punishment on. supplicium dare, suffer punishment surgō, -ere, surrēxī, —— [sub, from below, + regō, straighten], rise sus-cipiō, -ere, -cēpī, -ceptus [sub, under, + capiō, take], undertake, assume, begin suspicor, -ārī, -ātus sum, dep. verb, suspect, surmise, suppose sus-tineō, -ēre, -tinuī, -tentus [sub, under, + teneō, hold], hold up, bear, sustain, withstand suus, -a, -um, reflexive possessive adj. and pron., his, her, hers, its, their, theirs (§ 98)
T
T., abbreviation of Titus taberna, -ae, f. shop, stall tabula, -ae, f. tablet for writing tālis, -e, adj. such. tālis ... quālis, such ... as tam, adv. so, such. Cf. ita, sīc tamen, adv. yet, however, nevertheless tandem, adv. at length, finally tangō, -ere, tetigī, tāctus, touch tantum, adv. [tantus], only tantus, -a, -um, adj. so great, such. tantus ... quantus, as large as tardus, -a, -um, adj. slow, late; lazy Tarpēia, -ae, f. Tarpeia (pronounced Tar-pē´ya), the maiden who opened the citadel to the Sabines Tarquinius, Tarqui´nī, Tarquin, a Roman king. With the surname Superbus, Tarquin the Proud Tarracīna, -ae, f. Tarraci´na, a town in Latium. See map taurus, -ī, m. bull tēctus, -a, -um, adj. [part. of tegō, cover], covered, protected tēlum, -ī, n. weapon temerē, adv. rashly, heedlessly tempestās, -ātis, f. [tempus, time] storm, tempest templum, -ī, n. temple, shrine tempto, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, try, test; make trial of, attempt tempus, -oris, n. time (§ 464. 2. b). in reliquum tempus, for the future teneō, -ēre, tenuī, ——, hold, keep tergum, -ī, n. back, ā tergō, on the rear, tergum vertere, retreat, flee ternī, -ae, -a, distributive numeral adj. three each, by threes (§ 334) terra, -ae, f. earth, ground, land. orbis terrārum, the whole world terror, -ōris, m. [cf. terreō, frighten], dread, alarm, terror tertius, -a, -um, numeral adj. third Teutonēs, -um, m. the Teutons theātrum, -ī, n. theater Thēbae, -ārum, f. Thebes, a city of Greece Thēbānī, -ōrum, m. Thebans, the people of Thebes thermae, -ārum, f. plur. baths Thessalia, -ae, f. Thessaly, a district of northern Greece Thrācia, -ae, f. Thrace, a district north of Greece Tiberius, Tibe´rī, m. Tiberius, a Roman first name tībīcen, -īnis, m. [cf. tībia, pipe], piper, flute player	timeō, -ēre, -uī, ——, fear, be afraid of. Cf. vereor timor, -ōris, m. [cf. timeō, fear], fear, dread, alarm. Cf. metus Tīryns, Tīrynthis, f. Ti´ryns, an ancient town in southern Greece, where Hercules served Eurystheus toga, -ae, f. [cf. tegō, cover], toga tormentum, -ī, n. engine of war totiēns, adv. so often, so many times tōtus, -a, -um, (gen. -īus, dat. -ī), adj. all, the whole, entire (§ 108) trā-dō, -ere, -didī, -ditus [trāns, across, + dō, deliver], give up, hand over, surrender, betray trā-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus [trāns, across, + dūcō, lead], lead across trahō, -ere, trāxī, trāctus, draw, pull, drag. multum trahere, protract, prolong much trā-iciō, -ere, -iēcī, -iectus [trāns, across, + iaciō, hurl], throw across; transfix trā-nō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [trāns, across, + nō, swim], swim across trāns, prep. with acc. across, over (§ 340) trāns-eō, -īre, -iī, -itus [trāns, across, + eō, go], go across, cross (§ 413) trāns-fīgō, -ere, -fīxī, -fīxus [trāns, through, + fīgō, drive], transfix trānsitus, —— (acc. -um, abl. -ū), m. [cf. trānseō, cross over], passage across trēs, tria, numeral adj. three (§ 479) trīduum, trīduī, n. [trēs, three, + diēs, days], three days’ time, three days trīgintā, indecl. numeral adj. thirty triplex, -icis, adj. threefold, triple trīstis, -e, adj. sad; severe, terrible trīstitia, -ae, f. [trīstis, sad], sadness, sorrow triumphō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [triumphus, triumph], celebrate a triumph triumphus, -ī, m. triumphal procession, triumph. triumphum agere, celebrate a triumph trucīdō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, cut to pieces, slaughter. Cf. interficiō, necō, occīdō tū, tuī (plur. vōs), pers. pron. thou, you (§ 480) tuba, -ae, f. trumpet Tullia, -ae, f. Tullia, a Roman name tum, adv. then, at that time turris, -is, f. tower (§ 465. 2) tūtus, -a, -um, adj. safe tuus, -a, -um, possessive adj. and pron. your, yours (§ 98)
U
ubi, rel. and interrog. adv. where, when ūllus, -a, -um (gen. -īus, dat. -ī), adj. any (§ 108) ulterior, -ius, -ōris, adj. in comp. degree, superl. ultimus, farther, more remote (§ 315) ultimus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree (see ulterior), farthest (§ 315) umbra, -ae, f. shade umerus, -ī, m. shoulder umquam, adv. ever, at any time ūnā, adv. [ūnus, one], in the same place, at the same time ūndecimus, -a, -um, numeral adj. [ūnus, one, + decimus, tenth], eleventh undique, adv. from every quarter, on all sides, everywhere ūnus, -a, -um (gen. -īus, dat. -ī), numeral adj. one; alone (§ 108)	urbs, -is, f. city (§ 465. a) urgeō, -ēre, ursī, ——, press upon, crowd, hem in ūrus, -ī, m. wild ox, urus ūsque, adv. all the way, even ūsus, -ūs, m. use, advantage ut, conj. with the subjv. that, in order that, that not (with verbs of fearing), so that, to (§ 350. 1) uter, -tra, -trum (gen. -īus, dat. -ī), interrog. pron. which of two? which? (§ 108) uterque, utraque, utrumque, indef. pron. each of two, each, both. ab utrāque parte, on both sides ūtilis, -e, adj. [ūtor, use], useful utrimque, adv. [uterque, each of two], on each side, on either hand ūva, -ae, f. grape, bunch of grapes uxor, -ōris, f. wife
V
vāgīna, -ae, sheath, scabbard vagor, -ārī, -ātus sum, dep. verb, wander valeō, -ēre, -uī, -itūrus, be powerful, be well; in the imperative as a greeting, farewell. plūrimum valēre, have the most power valētūdō, -inis, f. [valeō, be well], health validus, -a, -um, adj. [cf. valeō, be strong], strong, able, well vallēs, -is, f. valley vāllum, -ī, n. rampart, earthworks varius, -a, -um, adj. bright-colored vāstō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [vāstus, empty], (make empty), devastate, lay waste vectīgal, -ālis, n. tax, tribute vehementer, adv. [vehemēns, eager], compared vehementius, vehementissimē, eagerly, vehemently vehō, -ere, vexī, vectus, convey, carry. In the passive often in the sense of ride, sail vel, conj. or. vel ... vel, either ... or. Cf. aut vēlōcitās, -ātis, f. [vēlōx, swift], swiftness vēlōx, -ōcis, adj. swift, fleet vēlum, -ī, n. sail vēndō, -ere, vēndidī, vēnditus, sell veniō, -īre, vēnī, ventus, come, go ventus, -ī, m. wind verbum, -ī, n. word. verba facere prō, speak in behalf of vereor, -ērī, -itus sum, dep. verb, fear; reverence, respect (§ 493). Cf. timeō Vergilius, Vergi´lī, m. Vergil, the poet vergō, -ere, ——, ——, turn, lie vērō, adv. [vērus, true], in truth, surely; conj. but, however. tum vērō, then you may be sure, introducing the climax of a story vertō, -ere, -tī, -sus, turn, change. tergum vertere, retreat, flee vērus, -a, -um, true, actual vesper, -erī, m. evening vester, -tra, -trum, possessive adj. and pron. your, yours (§ 98) vestīgium, vestī´gī, n. [cf. vestīgō, track], footstep, track, trace vestīmentum, -ī, n. [vestis, clothing], garment vestiō, -īre, -īvī, -ītus [vestis, clothing], clothe, dress vestis, -is, f. clothing, attire, garment, robe vestītus, -a, -um, adj. [part. of vestiō, clothe], clothed Vesuvius, Vesu´vi, m. Vesuvius, the volcano near Pompeii. See map	veterānus, -a, -um, adj. old, veteran vetō, -āre, -uī, -itus, forbid, prohibit vexō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, trouble, annoy via, -ae, f. way, road, street; way, manner. Cf. iter viātor, -ōris, m. [via], traveler victor, -ōris, m. [vincō, conquer], conqueror, victor. In apposition, with adj. force victorious victōria, -ae, f. [victor, victor], victory vīcus, -ī, m. village videō, -ēre, vīdī, vīsus, see, perceive. Pass. be seen; seem (§ 420. d) vigilia, -ae, f. [vigil awake], watch. dē tertia vigilia, about the third watch vīgintī, indecl. numeral adj. twenty vīlicus, -ī, m. [vīlla, farm], steward, overseer of a farm vīlla, -ae, f. farm, villa vinciō, -īre, vīnxī, vīnctus, bind, tie, fetter vincō, -ere, vīcī, victus, conquer, defeat, overcome. Cf. subigō, superō vīnea, -ae, f. shed (p. 219) vīnum, -ī, n. wine violenter, adv. [violentus, violent], compared violentius, violentissimē, violently, furiously vir, virī, m. man, husband; hero (§ 462. c) virīlis, -e, adj. [vir, man], manly virtūs, -ūtis, f. [vir, man], manliness; courage, valor; virtue (§ 464. 1) vīs, (vīs), f. strength, power, might, violence (§ 468) vīta, -ae, f. [cf. vīvō, live], life, vītam agere, spend or pass life vīto, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, shun, avoid vīvō, -ere, vīxī, ——, live. Cf. habitō, incolō vīvus, -a, -um, adj. [cf. vīvō, live], alive, living vix, adv. scarcely, hardly vocō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus, call, summon, invite. Cf. appellō, nōminō volō, -āre, -āvī, -ātūrus, fly volō, velle, voluī, ——, irreg. verb, will, be willing; wish (§ 497). Cf. cupio volūmen, -inis, n. roll, book Vorēnus, -ī, m. Vore´nus, a centurion vōs, pers. pron.; you (see tū) (§ 480) vōtum, -ī, n. [neut. part. of voveō, vow], vow, pledge, prayer vōx, vōcis, f. [cf. vocō, call], voice, cry; word vulnerō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [vulnus, wound], wound, hurt vulnus, -eris, n. wound, injury vulpēs, -īs, f. fox

EQUES ROMANUS

This vocabulary contains only the words used in the English-Latin exercises. For details not given here, reference may be made to the Latin-English vocabulary. The figures 1, 2, 3, 4, after verbs indicate the conjugation.

 A   B   C   D   E   F   G   H   I   J   K   L   M   N   O   P   Q   R   S   T   U   V   W   Y   Z 

A
a, an, commonly not translated able (be), possum, posse, potuī, ——(§ 495) abode, domicilium, domici´lī, n. about (adv.), circiter about (prep.), dē, with abl. about to, expressed by fut. act. part. abundance, cōpia, -ae, f. across, trāns, with acc. active, ācer, ācris, ācre advance, prōgredior, 3 advantage, ūsus, -ūs, m. advise, moneō, 2 after (conj.), postquam; often expressed by the perf. part. after (prep.), post, with acc. against, in, contrā, with acc. aid, auxilium, auxi´lī, n. all, omnis, -e; tōtus, -a, -um (§ 108) allow, patior, 3 ally, socius, socī, m. almost, paene; ferē alone, ūnus, -a, -um; sōlus, -a, -um (§ 108) already, iam also, quoque always, semper ambassador, lēgātus, -ī, m. among, apud, with acc. ancient, antīquus, -a, -um and, et; atque (ac); -que and so, itaque Andromeda, Andromeda, -ae, f. angry, īrātus, -a, um animal, animal, -ālis, n.	announce, nūntiō, 1 annoying, molestus, -a, -um another, alius, -a, -ud (§ 109) any, ūllus, -a, -um (§ 108) any one, anything, quisquam, quicquam or quidquam (§ 486) appearance, fōrma, -ae, f. appoint, creō, 1 approach, adpropinquō, 1, with dat. are, used as auxiliary, not translated; as a copula, sum (§ 494) arise, orior, 4 arm, bracchium, bracchī, n. armed, armātus, -a, -um arms, arma, -ōrum, n. plur. army, exercitus, -ūs, m. around, circum, with acc. arrival, adventus, -us, m. arrow, sagitta, -ae, f. art of war, rēs mīlitāris as possible, expressed by quam and superl.. ask, petō, 3; quaerō, 3; rogō, 1 assail, oppugnō, 1 at, in, with acc. or abl.; with names of towns, locative case or abl. without a preposition (§ 268); time when, abl. at once, statim at the beginning of summer, initā aestāte Athens, Athēnae, -ārum, f. attack, impetus, -us, m. attempt, cōnor, 1; temptō, 1 away from, ā or ab, with abl.
B
bad, malus, -a, -um baggage, impedīmenta, -ōrum, n. plur. bank, rīpa, -ae, f. barbarians, barbarī, -ōrum, m. plur. battle, proelium, proelī, n.; pugna, -ae. f. be, sum (§ 494) be absent, be far, absum (§ 494) be afraid, timeō, 2; vereor, 2 be away, absum (§ 494) be in command of, praesum, with dat. (§§ 494, 426) be informed, certior fīō be off, be distant, absum (§ 494) be without, egeō, with abl. (§ 180) beast (wild), fera, -ae, f. beautiful, pulcher, -chra, -chrum because, quia; quod because of, propter, with acc.; or abl. of cause before, heretofore (adv.), anteā before (prep.), ante, with acc.; prō, with abl. begin, incipiō, 3 believe, crēdō, 3, with dat. (§ 153) belong to, predicate genitive (§ 409) best, optimus, superl. of bonus betray, trādō, 3 better, melior, comp. of bonus between, inter, with acc.	billow, fluctus, -us, m. bird, avis, -is, f. (§ 243. 1) blood, sanguis, -inis, m. body, corpus, -oris. n. bold, audāx, -ācis; fortis, -e boldly, audācter; fortiter boldness, audācia, -ae, f. booty, praeda, -ae, f. both, each (of two), uterque, utraque, utrumque both ... and, et ... et boy, puer, -erī, m. brave, fortis, -e bravely, fortiter bridge, pōns, pontis, m. bright, clārus, -a, -um bring back, reportō, 1 bring upon, īnferō, -ferre, -tulī, -lātus, with acc. and dat. (§ 426) brother, frāter, -tris, m. building, aedificium, aedifi´cī. n. burn, cremō, 1; incendō, 3 business, negōtium, negō´tī, n. but, however, autem, sed by, ā, ab, with abl.; denoting means, abl. alone; sometimes implied in a participle by night, noctū
C
Cæsar, Caesar, -aris, m. calamity, calamitās, -ātis, f. call, vocō, 1; appellō, 1; nōminō, 1 call together, convocō, 1 camp, castra, -ōrum, n. plur. can, could, possum, posse, potuī, —— (§ 495) capture, capiō, 3; occupō, 1 care, cūra, -ae, f. care for, cūrō, 1 careful, attentus, -a, -um carefulness, dīligentia, -ae, f. carry, ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus (§ 498); portō, 1 carry on, gerō, 3 cart, carrus, -ī, m. cause, causa, -ae, f. cavalry, equitātus, -ūs, m. cease, cessō, 1 Cepheus, Cēpheus, -ī, m. certain (a), quīdam, quaedam, quoddam (quiddam) (§ 485) chicken, gallīna, -ae, f. chief, prīnceps, -cipis, m. children, līberī, -ōrum, m. plur. choose, dēligō, 3 choose, elect, creō, 1	citizen, cīvis, -is, m. and f. (§ 243. 1) city, urbs, urbis, f. clear, clārus, -a, -um cohort, cohors, -rtis, f. come, veniō, 4 command, imperō, 1, with dat. (§ 45); iubeō, 2; praesum, with dat. (§ 426) commit, committō, 3 commonwealth, rēs pūblica, reī pūblicae concerning, dē, with abl. conquer, superō, 1; vincō, 3 construct (a ditch), perdūcō, 3 consul, cōnsul, -ulis, m. contrary to, contrā, with acc. Corinth, Corinthus, -ī, f. Cornelia, Cornēlia, -ae, f. Cornelius, Cornēlius, Cornē´li, m. corselet, lōrīca, -ae, f. cottage, casa, -ae, f. country, as distinguished from the city, rūs, rūris, n.; as territory, fīnēs, -ium, m., plur. of fīnis courage, virtūs, -ūtis, f. crime, scelus, -eris, n. cross, trānseō, 4 (§ 499) crown, corōna, -ae, f.
D
daily, cotīdiē danger, perīculum, -ī, n. daughter, fīlia, -ae, f. (§ 67) day, diēs, -ēī, m. daybreak, prīma lūx dear, cārus, -a, -um death, mors, mortis, f. deed, rēs, reī, f. deep, altus, -a, -um defeat, calamitās, -ātis, f. defend, dēfendō, 3 delay (Noun), mora, -ae, f. delay (verb), moror, 1 demand, postulō, 1 dense, dēnsus, -a, -um depart, discēdō, 3; exeō, 4; proficīscor, 3 dependent, cliēns, -entis, m. design, cōnsilium, consi´lī n. desire, cupiō, 3 destroy, dēleō, 2	Diana, Diāna, -ae, f. differ, differō, differre, distulī, dīlātus (§ 498) different, dissimilis, -e difficult, difficilis, -e difficulty, difficultās, -ātis, f. diligence, dīligentia, -ae, f. dinner, cēna, -ae, f. disaster, calamitās, -ātis, f. distant (be), absum, -esse, āfuī, āfutūrus (§ 494) ditch, fossa, -ae, f. do, agō, 3; faciō, 3; when used as auxiliary, not translated down from, dē, with abl. drag, trahō, 3 drive, agō, 3 dwell, habitō, 1; incolō, 3; vīvō, 3 dwelling, aedificium, aedifi´cī, n.
E
each, quisque, quaeque, quidque (quodque) (§ 484) each of two, uterque, utraque, utrumque each other, inter with acc. of a reflexive eager, ācer, ācris, ācre; alacer, alacris, alacre eager (be), studeō, 2 eagerness, studium, studī, n. eagle, aquila, -ae, f. easily, facile easy, facilis, -e	either ... or, aut ... aut empire, imperium, impe´rī, n. employ, negōtium dō encourage, hortor, 1 enemy, hostis, -is, m. and f.; inimīcus, -ī, m. enough, satis entire, tōtus, -a, -um (§ 108) expectation, opīniō, -ōnis, f. eye, oculus, -ī, m.
F
faithless, perfidus, -a, -um famous, clārus, -a, -um far, longē farmer, agricola, -ae, m. farther, ulterior, -ius father, pater, patris, m. fatherland, patria, -ae, f. favor, faveō, 2 favorable, idōneus, -a,-um; secundus, -a, -um fear, metus, -ūs, m.; timor, -ōris, m. fear, be afraid, timeō, 2 few, paucī, -ae, -a field, ager, agrī, m. fifteen, quīndecim fight, contendō, 3; pugnō, 1 find, reperiō, 4 finish, cōnficiō, 3 fire, ignis, -is, m. (§ 243. 1) firmness, cōnstantia, -ae, f. first, prīmus, -a, -um flee, fugiō, 3 flight, fuga, -ae, f. fly, volō, 1 foe, see enemy follow close after, subsequor, 3 food, cibus, -ī, m. foot, pēs, pedis, m.	foot-soldier, pedes, -itis, m. for (conj.), enim, nam for (prep.), sign of dat.; dē, prō, with abl.; to express purpose, ad, with gerundive; implied in acc. of time and of extent of space for a long time, diū forbid, vetō, 1 forces, cōpiae, -ārum, f., plur. of cōpia forest, silva, -ae, f. fort, castellum, -ī, n.; castrum, -ī, n. fortification, mūnitiō, -ōnis, f. fortify, mūniō, 4 fortune, fortūna, -ae, f. fourth, quārtus, -a, -um free, līber, -era, -erum free, liberate, līberō, 1 frequent, crēber, -bra, -brum friend, amīcus, -ī, m. friendly (adj.), amīcus, -a, -um friendly (adv.), amīcē friendship, amīcitia, -ae, f. frighten, perterreō, 2 from, ā or ab, dē, ē, ex, with abl. Often expressed by the separative ablative without a prep. from each other, inter, with acc. of a reflexive pron. full, plēnus, -a, -um
G
Galba, Galba, -ae, m. garland, corōna, -ae, f. garrison, praesidium, praesi´dī, n. gate, porta, -ae, f. Gaul, Gallia, -ae, f. Gaul (a), Gallus, -ī, m. general, imperātor, -ōris, m. Geneva, Genāva, -ae, f. gentle, lēnis, -e German, Germānus, -a, -um Germans (the), Germānī, -ōrum, m. plur. Germany, Germānia, -ae, f. get (dinner), parō, 1 girl, puella, -ae, f.	give, dō, dare, dedī, datus give over, surrender, dēdō, 3; trādō, 3 give up, omittō, 3 go, eō, 4 (§ 499) go forth, prōgredior, 3 god, deus, -ī, m. (§ 468) goddess, dea, -ae, f. (§ 67) gold, aurum, -ī, n. good, bonus, -a, -um grain, frūmentum, -ī, n. grain supply, rēs frūmentāria great, ingēns, -entis; magnus, -a, -um greatest, maximus, -a, -um; summus, -a, -um guard, praesidium, praesi´dī, n.
H
hand, manus, -ūs, f. happy, laetus, -a, -um harbor, portus, -ūs, m. hasten, contendō, 3; mātūrō, 1; properō, 1 hateful, invīsus, -a, -um haughty, superbus, -a, -um have, habeō, 2 have no power, nihil possum he, is; hic; iste; ille; or not expressed head, caput, -itis, n. hear, audiō heart, animus, -ī, m. heavy, gravis, -e Helvetii (the), Helvētiī, -ōrum, m. plur. hem in, contineō, 2 hen, gallīna, -ae, f. her, eius; huius; istīus; illīus; reflexive, suus, -a, -um (§ 116) hide, abdō, 3	high, altus, -a, -um highest, summus, -a, -um hill, collis, -is, m. himself, suī. See self hindrance, impedīmentum, -ī, n. his, eius; huius; istīus; illīus; reflexive, suus, -a, -um (§ 116) hither, citerior, -ius (§ 315) hold, teneō, 2 home, domus, -ūs, f. (§ 468). at home, domī (§ 267) hope (Noun), spēs, speī, f. hope (verb), spērō, 1 horse, equus, -ī, m. horseman, eques, -itis, m. hostage, obses, -idis, m. and f. hostile, inimīcus, -a, -um hour, hōra, -ae, f. house, domicilium, domici´lī, n.; domus, -ūs, f. (§ 468) hurl, iaciō, 3
I
I, ego (§ 280); or not expressed if, sī. if not, nisi ill, aeger, -gra, -grum immediately, statim in (of place), in, with abl.; (of time or of specification) abl. without prep. in order that, ut, with subjv.; in order that not, lest, nē, with subjv. in vain, frūstrā industry, dīligentia, -ae, f. inflict injuries upon, iniūriās īnferō with dat. (§ 426) inflict punishment on, supplicium sūmō de inform some one, aliquem certiōrem faciō	injure, noceō, 2, with dat. (§ 153) injury, iniūria, -ae, f. into, in, with acc. intrust, committō, 3; mandō, 1 invite, vocō, 1 is, used as auxiliary, not translated; as a copula, sum (§ 494) island, īnsula, -ae, f. it, is; hie; iste; ille; or not expressed Italy, Italia, -ae, f. its, eius; huius; istīus; illīus; reflexive, suus, -a, -um (§ 116) itself, suī. See self
J
join battle, proelium committō journey, iter, itineris, n. (§ 468) judge (Noun), iūdex, -icis, m.	judge (verb), iūdicō, 1 Julia, Iūlia, -ae, f. just now, nūper
K
keep, contineō, 2; prohibeo, 2; teneō, 2 keep on doing something, expressed by the impf. indic. kill, interficiō, 3; necō, 1 ; occīdō, 3	king, rēx, rēgis, m. kingdom, rēgnum, -ī, n. know, cognōscō, 3, in perf.; sciō, 4
L
labor (Noun), labor, -ōris, m. labor (verb), labōrō, 1 lack (Noun), inopia, -ae, f. lack (verb), egeō, 2, with abl. (§ 180) lady, domina, -ae, f. lake, lacus, -ūs, m. (§ 260. 2) land, terra, -ae, f. language, lingua, -ae, f. large, ingēns, -entis ; magnus, -a, -um larger, maior, maius lately, nūper Latona, Lātōna, -ae, f. law, lēx, lēgis, f. lay waste, vāstō, 1 lead, dūco, 3 leader, dux, ducis, m. and f. learn, know, cognōscō, 3 leave, depart from, discēdō, 3 leave behind, abandon, relinquō, 3	left, sinister, -tra, -trum legion, legiō, -ōnis, f. legionaries, legiōnāriī, -ōrum, m. plur. length, longitūdō, -inis, f. lest, nē, with subjv. letter (of the alphabet), littera, -ae, f; (an epistle) litterae, -ārum, f. plur. lieutenant, lēgātus, -ī, m. light, lūx, lūcis, f. like (adj.), similis, -e like, love, amō, 1 line of battle, aciēs, aciēī, f. little, parvus, -a, -um live, habitō, 1; incolō, 3; vīvō, 3 long, longus, -a, -um long, for a long time, diū long for, dēsīderō, 1 look after, cūrō, 1 love, amō, 1
M
maid, maid servant, ancilla, -ae,f. make, faciō, 3 make war upon, bellum īnferō with dat. (§ 426) man, homō, -inis, m. and f.; vir, virī, m. man-of-war, nāvis longa many, multī, -ae, -a, plur. of multus march, iter, itineris, n. (§ 468) Mark, Mārcus, -ī, m. marriage, mātrimōnium, mātrimō´nī, n. master, dominus, -ī, m.; magīster, -trī, m. matter, negōtium, negō´tī, n.; rēs, reī, f. means, by means of, the abl. messenger, nūntius, nūntī, m. midnight, media nox mile, mīlle passuum (§ 331. b) miles, mīlia passuum mind, animus, -ī, m.; mēns, mentis, f.	mine, meus, -a, -um mistress, domina, -ae, f. money, pecūnia, -ae, f. monster, mōnstrum, -ī, n. month, mēnsis, -is, m. moon, lūna, -ae, f. more (adj.), plūs, plūris (§ 313); or a comparative. Adverb, magis most (adj.), plūrimus, -a, -um; superl. degree. Adverb, maximē; plūrimum mother, māter, mātris, f. mountain, mōns, montis, m. move, moveō, 2 moved, commōtus, -a, -um much (by), multō multitude, multitūdō, -inis. f. my, meus, -a, -um myself, mē, reflexive. See self
N
name, nōmen, -inis, n. nation, gēns, gentis, f. near, propinquus, -a, -um nearest, proximus, -a, -um nearly, ferē neighbor, fīnitimus, -ī, in. neighboring, fīinitimus, -a, -um neither, neque or nec; neither ... nor, neque (nec) ... neque (nec) never, numquam nevertheless, tamen new, novus, -a, -um next day, postrīdiē eius diēī next to, proximus, -a, -um	night, nox, noctis, f. nine, novem no, minimē; or repeat verb with a negative (§ 210) no, none, nūllus, -a, -um (§ 109) no one, nēmō, nūllīus nor, neque or nec not, nōn not even, nē ... quidem not only ... but also, nōn sōlum ... sed etiam nothing, nihil or nihilum, -ī, n. now, nunc number, numerus, -ī, m.
O
obey, pāreō, 2, with dat. (§ 153) of, sign of gen.; dē, with abl.; out of, ē or ex, with abl. often, saepe on (of place), in, with abl.; (of time) abl. without prep. on account of, propter, with acc.; or abl. of cause. on all sides, undique once (upon a time), ōlim one, ūnus, -a, -um (§ 108) one ... another, alius ... alius (§ 110) only (adv.), sōlum; tantum	opportune, opportunus, -a, -um opposite, adversus, -a, -um oracle, ōrāculum, -ī, n. orator, ōrātor, -ōris, m. order, imperō, 1; iubeō, 2 ornament, ōrnāmentum, -ī, n. other, alius, -a, -ud (§ 109) others (the), reliquī, -ōrum, m. plur. ought, dēbeō, 2 our, noster, -tra, -trum ourselves, nōs, as reflexive object. See self overcome, superō, 1 ; vincō, 3 own (his, her, its, their), suus, -a, -um
P
part, pars, partis, f. peace, pāx, pācis, f. people, populus, -ī, m. Perseus, Perseus, -ī, m. persuade, persuādeō, 2, with dat. (§ 153) pitch camp, castra pōnō place (Noun), locus, -ī, m. place, arrange, conlocō, 1 place, put, pōnō, 3 place in command, praeficiō, 3, with acc. and dat. (§ 426) plan (a), cōnsilium, cōnsi´lī, n. please, placeō, 2, with dat. (§ 154) pleasing, grātus, -a, -um plow, arō, 1 Pompeii, Pompēiī, -ōrum, m. plur.	possible (as), expressed by quam and superl. powerful (be), valeō, 2 praise, laudō, 1 prefer, mālō, mālle, māluī, —— (§ 497) prepare for, parō, 1, with acc. press hard, premō, 3 protection, fidēs, fideī, f. province, prōvincia, -ae, f. public, pūblicus, -a, -um Publius, Pūblius, Pūblī, m. punishment, poena, -ae, f.; supplicium, suppli´cī, n. purpose, for the purpose of, ut, quī, or quō, with subjv.; ad, with gerund or gerundive; causā, following the genitive of a gerund or gerundive pursue, īnsequor, 3
Q
queen, rēgīna, -ae, f. quickly, celeriter	quite, expressed by the comp. degree
R
rampart, vāllum, -ī, n. rear, novissimum agmen reason, causa, -ae, f. receive, accipiō, 3; excipiō, 3 recent, recēns, -entis recently, nūper redoubt, castellum, -ī, n. refuse, recūsō, 1 remain, maneō, 2 remaining, reliquus, -a, -um reply, respondeō, 2 report (Noun), fama, -ae, f.; rūmor, -ōris, m. report (verb), adferō; dēferō; referō (§ 498) republic, rēs pūblica require, postulō, 1 resist, resistō, 3, with dat. (§ 154)	rest (the), reliquī, -ōrum, m. plur. restrain, contineō, 2 retainer, cliēns, -entis, m. retreat, pedem referō; terga vertō return, redeō, 4; revertor, 3 revolution, rēs novae Rhine, Rhēnus, -ī, m. right, dexter, -tra, -trum river, flūmen, -inis, n.; fluvius, fluvī, m. road, via, -ae, f. Roman, Rōmānus, -a, -um Rome, Rōma, -ae, f. row, ōrdō, -inis, m. rule, regō, 3 rumor, fāma, -ae, f.; rūmor, -ōris, m. run, currō, 3
S
sacrifice, sacrum, -ī, n. safety, salūs, -ūtis, f. sail, nāvigō, 1 sailor, nauta, -ae, m. sake, for the sake of, causā, following a gen. same, īdem, eadem, idem (§ 287) savages, barbarī, -ōrum, m. plur. save, servō, 1 say, dīcō, 3 school, lūdus, -ī, m.; schola, -ae, f. scout, explōrātor, -ōris, m. sea, mare, -is, n. second, secundus, -a, -um see, videō, 2 seek, petō, 3 seem, videor, 2, passive of videō seize, occupō, 1; rapiō, 3 self, ipse, -a, -um (§ 286); suī (§ 281) send, mittō, 3 set fire to, incendō, 3 set out, proficīscor, 3 seven, septem Sextus, Sextus, -ī, m. she, ea; haec; ista; illa (§ 115); or not expressed ship, nāvis, -is, f. (§ 243. 1) short, brevis, -e shout, clāmor, -ōris, m. show, dēmōnstrō, 1 Sicily, Sicilia, -ae, f. sick, aeger, -gra, -grum side, latus, -eris, n. siege, obsidiō, -ōnis, f. since, cum, with subjv. (§ 396); the abl. abs. (§ 381) sing, canō, 3; cantō, 1 sister, soror, -ōris, f. sit, sedeō, 2 size, magnitūdō, -inis, f. skillful, perītus, -a, -um slave, servus, -ī, m. slavery, servitiūs, -ūtis, f. slow, tardus, -a, -um	small, parvus, -a, -um snatch, rapiō, 3 so, ita; sīc; tam so great, tantus, -a, -um so that, ut; so that not, ut nōn soldier, mīles, -itis, m. some, often not expressed; quis (quī), qua (quae), quid (quod); aliquī, aliqua, aliquod some one, quis; aliquis (§ 487) some ... others, aliī ... aliī (§ 110) something, quid; aliquid (§ 487) son, fīlius, fīlī, m. soon, mox space, spatium, spatī, n. spear, pīlum, -ī, n. spirited, ācer, ācris, ācre; alacer, alacris, alacre spring, fōns, fontis, m. spur, calcar, -āris, n. stand, stō, 1 state, cīvitās, -ātis, f. station, conlocō, 1 steadiness, cōnstantia, -ae, f. stone, lapis, -idis, m. storm, oppugnō, 1 story, fābula, -ae, f. street, via, -ae, f. strength, vīs, (vīs), f. strong, fortis, -e; validus, -a, -um sturdy, validus, -a, -um such, tālis, -e suddenly, subitō suffer punishment, supplicium dō sufficiently, satis suitable, idōneus, -a, -um summer, aestās, -ātis, f. sun, sōl, sōlis, m. supplies, commeātus, -ūs, m. surrender, trādō, 3 suspect, suspicor, 1 swift, celer, -eris, -ere; vēlōx, -ōcis sword, gladius, gladī, m.
T
take, capture, capiō, 3 take part in, intersum, -esse, -fuī, -futūrus, with dat. (§ 426) take possession of, occupō, 1 tall, altus, -a, -um task, opus, operis, n. teach, doceō, 2 teacher, magister, -trī, m. tear (Noun), lacrima, -ae, f. tell, dīcō, 3; nārrō, 1 ten, decem terrified, perterritus, -a, -um terrify, perterreō, 2 than, quam that (conj. after verbs of saying and the like), not expressed that (pron.), is; iste; ille that, in order that, in purpose clauses, ut; after verbs of fearing, nē (§§ 349, 366, 372) that not, lest, in purpose clauses, nē; after verbs of fearing, ut (§§ 349, 366, 372) the, not expressed their, gen. plur. of is; reflexive, suus, -a, -um (§ 116) their own, suus, -a, -um (§ 116) then, at that time, tum then, in the next place, deinde, tum there, as expletive, not expressed there, in that place, ibi therefore, itaque they, iī; hī; istī; illī; or not expressed	think, arbitror, 1; exīstimō, 1; putō, 1 third, tertius, -a, -um this, hic, haec, hoc; is, ea, id though, cum. with subjv. (§ 396) thousand, mīlle (§ 479) three, trēs, tria (§ 479) through, per, with acc. thy, tuus, -a, -um time, tempus, -oris, n. to, sign of dat.; ad, in, with acc.; expressing purpose, ut, quī, with subjv.; ad, with gerund or gerundive to each other, inter, with acc. of a reflexive pron. to-day, hodiē tooth, dēns, dentis, m. top of, summus, -a, -um tower, turris, -is, f. (§ 243. 2) town, oppidum, -ī, n. townsman, oppidānus, -ī, m. trace, vestīgium, vestī´gī, n. trader, mercātor, -ōris, m. train, exerceō, 2 tree, arbor, -oris, f. tribe, gēns, gentis, f. troops, cōpiae, -ārum, f. plur. true, vērus, -a, -um trumpet, tuba, -ae, f. try, cōnor, 1; temptō, 1 twelve, duodecim two, duo, duae, duo (§ 479)
U
under, sub, with acc. or abl. undertake, suscipiō, 3 unharmed, incolumis, -e unless, nisi	unlike, dissimilis, -e unwilling (be), nōlō, nōlle, nōluī, —— (§ 497) up to, sub, with acc. us, nōs, acc. plur. of ego
V
very, superl. degree; maximē; ipse, -a, -um (§ 285) victor, victor, -ōris, m. victory, victōria, -ae, f. village, vīcus, -ī, m.	violence, vīs, (vīs), f. violently, vehementer voice, vōx, vōcis, f.
W
wage, gerō, 3 wagon, carrus. -ī, m. wall, mūrus, -ī, m. want, inopia, -ae, f. war, bellum, -ī, n. watch, vigilia, -ae, f. water, aqua, -ae, f. wave, fluctus, -ūs, m. way, iter, itineris, n. (§ 468); via, -ae, f. way, manner, modus, -ī, m. we, nōs, plur. of ego; or not expressed weak, īnfīrmus, -a, -um weapons, arma, -ōrum, n. plur.; tēla, -ōrum, n. plur. wear, gerō, 3 weary, dēfessus, -a, -um what, quis (quī), quae, quid (quod) (§ 483) when, ubi; cum (§ 396); often expressed by a participle where, ubi which, quī, quae, quod (§ 482); which of two, uter, utra, utrum (§ 108) while, expressed by a participle whither, quō who (rel.), quī, quae (§ 482); (interrog.) quis (§ 483) whole, tōtus, -a, -um (§ 108) whose, cuius; quōrum, quārum, quōrum, gen. of quī, quae, quod, rel.; or of quis, quid, interrog. why, cūr	wicked, malus, -a, -um wide, lātus, -a, -um width, lātitūdō, -inis, f. wild beast, fera, -ae, f. willing (be), volō, velle, voluī, —— (§ 497) win (a victory), reportō, 1 wind, ventus, -ī, m. wine, vīnum, -ī, n. wing, cornū, -ūs, n. winter, hiems, -emis, f. wisdom, cōnsilium, consi´lī, n. wish, cupiō, 3; volō, velle, voluī, —— (§ 497); wish not, nōlō, nōlle, nōluī, —— (§ 497) with, cum, with abl.; sometimes abl. alone withdraw, sē recipere without, sine, with abl. woman, fēmina, -ae, f.; mulier, -eris, f. wonderful, mīrus, -a, -um word, verbum, -ī, n. work, labor, -ōris, m.; opus, -eris, n. worse, peior, peius, comp. of malus worst, pessimus, -a, -um, superl. of malus wound (Noun), vulnus, -eris, n. wound (verb), vulnerō, 1 wreath, corōna, -ae, f. wretched, miser, -era, -erum wrong, iniūria, -ae, f.
Y
year, annus, -ī, m. yes, certē; ita; vērō; or, more usually, repeat the verb (§ 210) yonder (that), ille, -a, -ud	you, sing. tū; plur. vōs (§ 480); or not expressed your, sing. tuus, -a, -um; plur. vester, -tra, -trum (§ 98. b)
Z
zeal, studium, studī, n.

The numbers in all cases refer to sections.

ā-declension of nouns, 57, 461 ā-verbs, conjugation of, 488 ablative case, 48, 50 absolute, 381 after a comparative, 309 of accompaniment, 104 of agent, 181 of cause, 102 of description, 444, 445 of manner, 105 of means or instrument, 103 of measure of difference, 317 of place from which, 179 of place where, 265 of separation, 180 of specification, 398 of time, 275 accent, 14-16 accompaniment abl. of, 104 accusative case, 33 as subject of the infinitive, 214 object, 37 of duration and extent, 336 of place to which, 263, 266 predicate, 392 with prepositions, 340	adjectives, 54, 55 agreement, 65 comparison regular, 301 by adverbs, 302 irregular, 307, 311, 312, 315 declension of comparatives, 303 of first and second declensions, 83, 93, 469 of third declension, 250-257, 471 with the dative, 143 adverbs, 319 comparison, 320, 323 formation regular, 320, 321 irregular, 322, 323 agent expressed by the abl. with ā or ab, 181 agreement of adjectives, 65, 215. a of appositives, 81 of predicate nouns, 76 of relative pronouns, 224 of verbs, 28 aliquis, 487 alius, 108, 110, 470 alphabet, 1-3 alter, 108, 110 antepenult, 9. 3 accent of, 15 apposition, 80, 81 article not used in Latin, 22. a
base, 58
cardinal numerals, 327-329, 478 case, 32. 2 causal clauses with cum, 395, 396 cause, expressed by the abl., 102 characteristic subjv. of, 389, 390 comparative declension of, 303 comparison abl. of, 309 degrees of, 300 of adjectives, 300-315 irregular, 311-315, 473, 475 of adverbs regular, 320-476 irregular, 323, 477 positive wanting, 315 six adjectives in -lis, 307	complementary infinitive, 215 compound verbs with the dative, 425, 426 concessive clauses with cum, 395, 396 conjugation stems, 184 conjugations the four regular, 126, 488-491 irregular, 494-500 consonants, 2 copula, 21 cum conjunction, 395 cum preposition, 209
dative case, 43 of indirect object, 44, 45 of purpose, or end for which, 437 with adjectives, 143 with compound verbs, 426 with special verbs, 153 dea declension of, 67 declension, 23, 32 degree of difference expressed by the abl., 317 demonstrative adjectives and pronouns, 112-115, 290-292, 481 deponent verbs, 338, 339, 493 descriptive ablative and genitive, 441-445	descriptive relative clause with the subjv., 389, 390 deus declension of, 468 difference, measure of, 316, 317 diphthongs, 6 direct statements, 414 distributive numerals, 327. 3, 334 domī locative, 267 domus declension of, 468 duo declension of, 479 duration of time, expressed by the acc., 336
ē-declension of nouns, 272, 273, 467 ē-verbs, conjugation of, 489 ĕ-verbs, conjugation of, 490 ego declension of, 280, 480	enclitics, 16 eō conjugation of, 499 extent of space expressed by the acc., 336
fearing subjv. after verbs of, 370-372 ferō conjugation of, 498 fifth or ē-declension, 272, 273, 467 fīlia declension of, 67 fīlius declension of, 87-89 finite verb defined, 173 fīō conjugation of, 500	first conjugation, 488 first or ā-declension, 57, 461 fourth conjugation, 491 fourth or u-declension, 259, 260, 466 from how expressed, 178-181 future participle formation of, 374. c future perfect formation of active, 187. 3 passive, 202 future tense formation of, 137, 156
gender in English and in Latin, 60 in the first declension, 61 in the second declension, 72 in the third declension, 247 in the fourth declension, 260 in the fifth declension, 272 general observations on declension, 74	genitive case English equivalents of, 33 of description, 443, 445 of nouns in -ius and -ium, 87 partitive, 331 possessive, 38, 409 gerund a verbal noun, 402, 403 gerundive a verbal adjective, 404 with ad to express purpose, 407
hic declension and use of, 290, 291	how to read Latin, 17
i consonant, 3 i-stems of nouns, 231, 241-244 ī-verbs conjugation of, 491 īdem declension of, 287, 481 iēns declension of, 472 ille declension and use of, 290-293, 481 imperative formation of, 161, 175 irregular, 161. 2 in commands, 161 imperfect indicative, formation and use of, 133, 134, 165. 1 imperfect subjunctive, 354 indefinite pronouns and adjectives, 296, 297, 484-487 independent clauses, 219 indirect object, 44, 45 indirect questions, 430-432 indirect statements, 414-419 infinitive as object, 213 as subject, 216 complementary, 215 definition of, 173 does not express purpose, 352 formation of, 126, 174, 205, 206 in indirect statements, 415-410 used as in English, 213-216	inflection defined, 23 instrument abl. of, 100. b, 103 intensive pronoun ipse, declension and use of, 285, 286, 481 interrogative pronouns and adjectives, 225-227, 483 intransitive verbs, defined, 20. a with the dative, 153 iō-verbs of the third conj., 492 ipse declension and use of, 285, 481 irregular adjectives, 108 irregular comparison of adjectives, 307 311, 312 of adverbs, 323 irregular nouns, 67, 246, 468 irregular verbs, 494-500 is declension and use of, 113-116 iste declension and use of, 290, 292, 481 iter declension of, 468
Latin word order, 68	locative case, 267
magis and maximē comparison by, 302 mālō conjugation of, 4.97 manner abl. of, 105 means abl. of, 103	measure of difference abl. of, 316, 317 mīlle, declension of, 479 construction with, 331. a,b moods, defined, 121
-ne, enclitic in questions, 210 nē, conj., that not, lest with negative clauses of purpose, 350.II with verbs of fearing, 370 nine irregular adjectives, 108-110 nōlō conjugation of, 497 nominative case, 35, 36 nōnne in questions, 210	nōs declension of, 280, 480 Nouns, 19. 2 first declension, 57, 461 second declension, 71-74,87-92,462 third declension, 230-247, 463-465 fourth declension, 259, 260, 466 fifth declension, 272, 273, 467 num, in questions, 210 number, 24 numerals, 327-334, 478, 479
o-declension of nouns, 71-74, 87-92, 462 object, 20 direct, 37 indirect, 44, 45	order of words, 68 ordinal numerals, 327. 2, 478
participial stem, 201. 2 participles, defined, 203 agreement of, 204 formation, of present, 374. b of perfect, 201 of future, 374. c,d of deponent verbs, 375 tenses of, 376 translated by a clause, 377 partitive genitive, 330, 331 passive voice defined, 163 formation of, 164, 202 penult, 9. 3 accent of, 15 perfect indicative formation, in the active, 185, 186 in the passive, 202 meaning of, 190 definite, 190 indefinite, 190 distinguished from the imperfect, 190 perfect infinitive active, 195 passive, 205 perfect passive participle, 201 perfect stem, 185 perfect subjunctive active, 361 passive, 362 person, 122 personal endings active, 122 passive, 164 personal pronouns, 280, 480 place where, whither, whence, 263-265 names of towns and domus and rūs, 266-268 pluperfect indicative active, 187. 2 passive, 202	pluperfect subjunctive active, 361 passive, 363 plūs declension of, 313 possessive pronouns, 97, 98 possum conjugation of, 495 predicate defined, 19 predicate adjective defined, 55 predicate noun, 75, 76 prepositions with the abl., 209 with the acc., 340 present indicative, 128, 130, 147 present stem, 126. a present subjunctive, 344 primary tenses, 356 principal parts, 183 pronouns classification of, 278 defined, 19. 2. a demonstrative, 481 indefinite, 297, 484-487 intensive, 285, 286, 481 interrogative, 483 personal, 480 possessive, 97, 98 reflexive, 281 relative, 220, 221 pronunciation, 4-7 prōsum conjugation of, 496 purpose dative of, 436, 437 expressed by the gerund or gerundive with ad, 407 not expressed by the infinitive, 352 subjunctive of, 348-350, 365-367
quality gen. or abl. of, 441-445 quam with a comparative, 308 quantity, 11-13 questions direct, 210 indirect, 430-432 quī declension and use of, 220,221, 482	quīdam declension of, 485 quis declension and use of, 225-227, 483 quisquam declension of, 486 quisque declension of, 484
reflexive pronouns, 281 relative clauses of characteristic or description, 389, 390 relative clauses of purpose, 348, 349 relative pronouns, 220, 221	result clauses, 384-387 reviews, 502-528 rūs constructions of, 266
sē distinguished from ipse, 285. a second conjugation, 489 second or o-declension, 71-93, 462 sentences simple, complex, compound, 219 separation abl. of, 180 separative ablative, 178-181 sequence of tenses, 356-358 space extent of, expressed by the acc., 336 specification abl. of, 398 stems of nouns, 230 of verbs, 184 subject defined, 19. 2 of the infinitive, 213, 214 subjunctive formation of the present, 344 of the imperfect, 354 of the perfect, 361, 362 of the pluperfect, 361. c, 363	subjunctive constructions characteristic or description, 389, 390 indirect questions, 430-432 purpose, 349, 366, 372 result, 385, 386 time, cause, or concession, with cum, 395, 396 subjunctive ideas, 346 subjunctive tenses, 342, 343 subordinate clauses, 219 suī declension of, 281, 480 sum conjugation of, 494 suus use of, 98. c, 116 syllables, 8 division of, 9 quantity of, 13 syntax rules of, 501
temporal clauses with cum, 395, 396 tense defined, 120 tense signs imperfect, 133 future, 137, 156 pluperfect active, 187. 2 future perfect active, 187. 3 tenses primary and secondary, 356 sequence of, 357, 358 third conjugation, 490, 492 third declension of nouns classes, 231, 463 consonant stems, 232-238, 464 gender, 247 i-stems, 241-244, 465 irregular nouns, 246	time abl. of, 275 time acc. of, 336 towns rules for names of, 266, 267, 268 transitive verb, 20. a trēs declension of, 479 tū declension of, 280, 480 tuus compared with vester, 98. b
u-declension of nouns, 259, 260, 466	ultima, 9. 3
verbs agreement of, 28 conjugation of, 126, 488-491 deponent, 338, 339, 493 irregular, 494-500 personal endings of, 122, 164 principal parts of, 183 vester compared with tuus, 98. b vīs declension of, 468 vocabularies English-Latin, pp. 332-343 Latin-English, pp. 299-331 special, pp. 283-298	vocative case, 56. a of nouns in -us of the second declension, 73. b of proper nouns in -ius and of fīlius, 88 voice defined, 163 volō conjugation of, 497 vōs declension of, 280, 480 vowels sounds of, 5, 6 quantity of, 12

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