Handy War Guide for My Company

The first part of Captain Hanguillart's little book "Petit Guide pratique de Guerre pour ma compagnie" has been incorporated in the new manuals of instruction published for the young recruits of the French army by the official military publishing house "Librairie Militaire Berger-Levrault," the editors of the "Annuaire officiel de l'Armée."[A]

Its special value comes from the fact that it was written at the front and is wholly based on the orders which Captain Hanguillart drew up for the instruction of his own company and tested repeatedly through actual experience.

Thus its very omissions are significant.

The text as it stands represents essentials.

Its every paragraph is a unit of tried advice.

It embodies the practical data that has secured results.

It sums up the cautions that have saved lives.

In the second part, Captain Hanguillart has merely reproduced the French Infantry Combat principles long published in the official manual for the instruction of platoon leaders.

In presenting this little work, no claim is made that it is adequate to the complete instruction of company commanders.

Captain Hanguillart's book should be carefully compared with these. But because of its peculiar origin it has for the officer a value not possessed by other books on this subject.

It gives what a company commander actually found essential.

Furthermore, it corresponds to the booklets published in France which are placed in the hands of every recruit.

Every officer should have full knowledge of his specialty, but every private should understand the essential concerns of his officers so as to appreciate orders the more readily.

The army of democracy should be an intelligent thinking army.

Such little books have helped to give the French poilu his famed self-reliance and resourcefulness.

It is the hope of the publishers that this translation may help to do the same for his American comrades.

The publishers also believe that the book offers just the information needed by civilians to follow intelligently reports of military operations and of life at the front.

The editor has felt it his duty in rearranging the loose notes of Captain Hanguillart to respect scrupulously the text, though, at times, the best way to do so was through a free translation.

The paragraphs have been numbered and questions and diagrams added to facilitate assimilation.

Cambridge, Mass.

The battalions of a Brigade occupying a given sector of the front are billeted when out of the trenches, in the villages closest to their sector. Cf. appendix.

When their turn comes to relieve the battalions in the trenches, the officers in charge should have the following instructions carried out:

Trench warfare, the inevitable form of modern warfare, is a continuous series of outpost duty. Hence it is based wholly on eternal vigilance. The patrols correspond to the scouts; the listening posts to the sentinels; the firing trench to the outguards; the cover trench to the supports. The safety of the sector depends entirely on the vigilance of the advanced elements and the rapidity with which supports and the reserves can be summoned.

Watching is thus the fundamental duty in trench warfare.

The following points should be kept in mind:

There must be as many sentinels in each section as is necessary to cover completely the sector to be watched, no more, no less, each sentinel being given the exact limits (such as tree, copse, post, etc.) at each end of the line he should watch.

The men on duty should have bayonets fixed as, in case of a possible surprise, they are needed for defense. Otherwise too, fixing bayonets would be an indication to the enemy of an impending raid.

When the terrain opposite is open country, the necessary observation may be done by the smallest possible number of men. Fire only, if any of the enemy are sighted. Then, have two rounds fired, then three. But keep fire under strict control. (If enemy continues to approach. Cf. par. 52 ff.)

When the terrain is covered (high brush wood, copses, trees, etc.) a sharpshooter in each section should fire occasionally into the trees, etc., which may be observation or sharpshooters' posts but this should not be overdone.

Post double sentinels in each section, each man watching in turn, the other resting but within call.

They should refrain from making the least noise so as to hear and not be heard.

There should be no firing when the enemy fires since when the enemy fires, he does not advance.

They should keep a sharp lookout but listen even more attentively.

Sentinels in the listening posts should listen especially for the noise of crushed branches, stirring leaves, slight noise of arms or utensils.

If enemy is detected, these sentinels should hasten back to fire trench to give the alarm quietly so that the enemy may be surprised.

They should fire only if they are themselves caught unawares.

Listening posts should not be too numerous, about two per battalion.

If there are no listening posts, patrols should be sent out to favorable spots especially at sundown and before sunrise.

If the night is clear and the terrain is open, proceed as during the day: If the enemy is sighted or heard, fire in short volleys. In case of doubt throw grenades with the first volley.

Otherwise, absolute silence should be observed. No firing whatever.

If the night is dark, to avoid surprise, keep up firing: One man per section should fire in turn, from time to time varying the direction.

If digging by the enemy is reported, cease firing. Have it located, throw bombs followed by volleys. Notify sappers for counter mining.

If enemy fires, note where light appears.

Locate sharpshooters in advantageous posts behind the trenches (trees, etc.). Have them fire into the enemy's listening posts and into the enemy's trench, especially wherever light appears. These posts should not be occupied during the day.

Send out patrols, stationary or mobile.

The aim: to supplement the work of the listening posts and of the sentinels through more forward observation. To discover the movements and the operations of the enemy. To locate his emplacements.

To keep in close touch with the enemy so as to take advantage of his possible weaknesses: lack of watchfulness, of ammunition, of sufficient troops. To verify, repair and complete advance defences. To get the exact range of enemy's positions. To bring back prisoners.

Patrols should be on duty through the night but be specially watchful before sunrise.

N. C. O. and men should be assigned to patrol duty by roster or as volunteers. In the former case, if there is reason to think that a patrol has not done its best to secure information, the same men should be sent out again.

Neighboring companies should be notified of the departure, route and probable time of return of patrols. If several patrols are sent out at the same time they should know one another's itinerary.

The men (3 to 5 commanded by N. C. O.) should carry no impediments and their dress should not interfere with ease of movements: sweaters should be worn instead of overcoats. The woolen cap or comforter should be worn as they cover most of the face. Slits should be cut for the ears that hearing be not interfered with. The helmet should always be worn over comforter. Also dark gloves to hide the hands. No equipment save the rifle, the bayonet fixed or carried in the hand, (no bayonet scabbard), a few hand grenades.

Patrols should crawl forward or advance by short dashes, silently, stop often and for long periods, listen intently.

If the enemy sends up lighting rockets (flares) or fires volleys, lie flat on the ground until he stops.

If a small hostile patrol approaches, do the same, throw a stone or two so as to turn its attention away and take advantage of this to surprise it. If men of enemy's patrol give the alarm, kill them—lie flat on ground during enemy's volleys which will follow. Then strip bodies of distinctive uniform badges, and search for papers, etc. Otherwise bring men back as prisoners.

Patrols should exercise initiative, take advantage of circumstances, in devising ways of bringing back the greatest possible amount of useful information.

One of the chief aims of patrolling is to bring back prisoners from whom information may be gathered.

The General Staff is interested to know the nationality, the division, the age, etc. of prisoners captured in a given sector.

But these are of little value to the battalion or company commander. Hence, when possible, they should ask the prisoners questions more pertinent to the organization of the enemy sector opposite:

How strongly are your various lines held?

Where are the C. O. Post and the officers' dugouts?

When and by what routes are the reliefs made, how often and on what days and at what time. Ask the same questions for the fatigues.

At what time are rations brought or served?

What is the actual muster of the company?

How many regular army officers, how many reserve officers? What do the men think of their officers?

How many advanced posts? How many men in each, by day and by night? Do they have grenades and how are they relieved?

How many men are sent out on patrol, how often, at what time, by what route coming and going? How are they dressed and armed? What are their instructions?

What does the enemy know about our own patrols?

Are snipers placed in trees during the day and at night? If so, what trees are used. What parts of our sectors can they see?

Are they planning any raids? Do they anticipate raids by us?

What work are they carrying on during the day and at night?

Have they any idea of our own activities?

What is the nature and the location of their accessory defences?

What is the location of their machine guns, trench mortars?

Have they any asphyxiating gas or liquid fire apparatus?

Have they abundant supplies of hand grenades, etc., etc.

Any devices which lead the enemy to waste ammunition or to expose themselves is a clear gain.

Many may be readily devised and officers and men should be encouraged to do so. The following have often proved successful:

Remain absolutely quiescent during several days. This may lead the enemy to send out patrols or raiding parties which may be the more surely destroyed. They should be allowed to approach to the wire entanglements before a shot is fired.

On dark nights, have all firing stop. Throw stones by hand or with slings, a dozen at a time toward the enemy's trench. This will lead him to fire repeated volleys and waste ammunition in his fear of an attack, especially if the trenches are in wooded terrain and there are leaves on the ground. Repeat several times during the night.

Patrols may also tie strings to the enemy's barb wire. On dark nights pulling on the string may lead the enemy to fire.

Decoys may be arranged in trees or stuck up momentarily over the parapet. They will draw the enemy's fire.

If the enemy's trenches are near enough for the sound to carry, whistles may be blown all along the line before a volley. They may be blown again after the command to omit the volley. The enemy may continue to fire indefinitely.

Let the aim of all these devices be to make the enemy waste ammunition and to save your own. On the other hand, the enemy is likely to attempt like ruses and many others which are not permissible such as the use of white flags or raising hands to indicate pretended surrender.

A legitimate ruse, of which the enemy is fond and which should be guarded against, consists in their firing blank cartridges to mask an advance of their men. It is clear that men do not advance while bullets are fired from their own trenches. Nor does one fire in retaliation until the enemy's fire ceases. A little attention will be sufficient to spoil this plan as, when only blank cartridges are fired, no bullets will whiz by. As long as the enemy fires blank cartridges, withhold your own fire, be on guard against the appearance of patrols and be ready to receive them when they draw near.

In case the enemy sends up flares, patrols should lie flat and motionless till after the volley which often follows. The sentinels in the fire trench should note spot where flare was sent up and abstain from firing unless enemy is sighted out of his trenches.

If a machine gun opens fire from the trench opposite, try to locate it through the light and sound at night, through sound and actual sight during the day.

Fire a converging volley of two rounds in its direction, and repeat, but not over six rounds if unsuccessful.

At the same time let trench mortars fire bombs in the same direction.

If enemy's artillery fires upon trenches (Cf. par. 69 ff.)

As has been stated (par. 15 and 22) in case enemy patrols approach, volleys of two, then of three rounds should be fired. Keep cool. Do not fire prematurely.

The firing should be done over the parapet and not through the loopholes.

If the sentinels report that an attack is developing, every one on duty takes his post.

Flares are sent up from each section.

Trench mortars fire bombs with the first volley.

If the attack materializes, repeat volleys and trench mortar discharge and open fire with the machine guns.

(On dark nights, in covered terrain, the machine guns should be fired with the first volley.)

Hand grenades should be thrown as soon as the enemy is within 30 yards.

The grenadiers of the odd number squads should aim to throw their grenades upon the assailants while those of the even number squads should try to establish a barrage by throwing behind the assailants.

The trench mortars are aimed at the enemy's trench.

The machine guns fire directly at the assailants, with slight differences in height of aim, (knee high, waist high, etc.) according to the directions previously given to each man.

Carefully keep fire rifle under control and avoid wasting ammunition.

Never fire without aiming. If the ground ahead is flat, aim waist-high; if it slopes down, aim close to the soil; if it slopes up, aim at height of chest.

If some of the enemy reach the trench, dispose of them with the bayonet.

Cease firing and abstain from further firing as soon as the attack is repulsed.

It should follow immediately upon the successful repulse of the attack.

It should be developed in the following formation:

1st. Grenadiers armed only with a bayonet, a bowie knife, a revolver and a full stock of grenades. With them a few men with pliers for wire cutting.

2nd. Next a skirmish line of riflemen with a full supply of ammunition.

3rd. Lastly, a line of men with entrenching tools.[B]

Proceed by short leaps making use of available protection and crawl flat on the ground in approaching the enemy's trench.

After the defenders in the fire trench are killed, jump in, throw bombs into the dugouts, pursue the enemy into the support and communication trenches.

Let then the engineers block up to the right and left the captured trench and organize it rapidly against the enemy, making it face about (through changing the parados into a parapet). The enemy is pursued as far as possible and kept away while fatigue parties from the rear bring up all necessary ammunition, sand bags, barbed wire, etc., carrying back all the captured enemy material. Other fatigue parties start at once to connect the former fire trench with the captured trench by communication trenches.

Whether preliminary to, in connection with, or independent of an infantry attack, the enemy may make use of his artillery.

This bombardment may be directed against the fire trench or back of the fire-trench.

Leave in the fire trench the necessary sentinels.

Station all the other men in the shelters of the support trench, or along the communication trench, if there are no shelters, but fully equipped and ready to jump to their places in the fire trench as soon as the enemy's artillery fire will stop or lengthen to allow his infantry to advance.

All through the bombardment, the sentinels should fire at all objects in the distance which may be used as observation posts. The machine guns should cooperate with a slow sweeping fire.

All should stand to in the fire trench watching for a possible infantry attack and for a possible shortening of the enemy's bombardment. If it occurs, proceed as in Case I.

Fire against possible observation posts as in Case I.

Whatever trench artillery appliances are provided, bomb-throwers, trench mortars, catapults, etc., they should never be used hap-hazard, but always with great deliberation and forethought.

Have a distinct end in view and watch for the best opportunity to attain it.

Such definite aims may be: to interfere with a relief, a fatigue, a trench construction or repair, to destroy accessory defences, etc.

Let the mortars, etc., be kept loaded and trained on the target selected, ready to be fired instantly. The crews should be near at hand and a sentinel posted to watch for a favorable opportunity.

Until this opportunity occurs, do not fire.

Several emplacements should be provided so that mortars, etc., may be removed as soon as they have obtained desired results or been located by the enemy.

The trench mortar commander should make it his business to study carefully all possibilities for effective emplacements and should inspire his men to be alert and quick to improve opportunities.

The machine guns should likewise be handled as a mobile weapon and not be used merely from elaborate carefully concealed emplacements commanding otherwise uncovered ground or enfilading communication trenches, etc.[C]

Hand grenades may be listed as trench artillery. The temptation is to use them too freely. Like other ammunition they should never be wasted and always used with a definite aim.

Should be permanent so that it may cooperate whether to repulse an enemy's attack, to silence his artillery, to damage his defences or to prepare and protect an attack or a counter attack.

To avoid a waste of ammunition, and attain the desired result as well as to prevent the artillery fire from falling short upon one's own trenches, artillery observation posts should be provided in the fire trench or at one of the outposts.

In case artillery fire does fall short upon one's own trenches, communicate at once with artillery commander and proceed as when bombarded by enemy. (Cf. 69 ff.)

Special caution should be exercised in the case of a raid against the enemy's trench. Make sure that the artillery preparation has secured the desired result. Synchronize carefully the infantry advance and the lengthening of the artillery fire.

Throughout the stay in the trenches, the various fatigues should be assigned by roster and carried out according to schedule. The following schedule has been found practical:

Have trenches cleaned of all rubbish, latrines disinfected, drinking water supplied.

All cartridge shells, broken tools, etc. should be collected.

A list of the supplies and ammunition needed should be drawn up.

Full report should be brought to the company commander, covering the work of the patrols and of the fatigue parties, and giving full details of all that has happened during the night.

Also the list of casualties in the last twelve hours with full names and nature of wound if possible.

The arms and complete equipment of the wounded should be sent out with them. The arms and equipment of the killed should be sent to the battalion commander. Their personal effects; money, papers, letters, etc., should be carefully collected, listed, and sent to the sergeant-major.

The men able to walk are taken to the doctor's dugout by an N.C.O.

Assign night patrols from roster. Point out itinerary while light permits. Have neighbouring sectors advised of same.

Inspection of sentinels in fire trench. Inspection of ammunition supplies.

Have all the tools and supplies collected and list drawn up ready to hand over to successor against receipt for same.

Inspect equipment of men that they may be taken out completely.

Check up exact itinerary of relief in and out.

Have rifles inspected and emptied.

Give strict orders for silence.

Follow same marching order as when coming in.

Have officer march in rear.

Have the roll called and sent to the officer of the day.

Have rifles inspected.

Have all arms cleaned and oiled.

Have broken arms turned in and others issued.

Inspect shoes, clothes, equipment, tools, and replace when needed.

Have special inspection of gas-masks and replace if needed.

Have underwear washed, and personal cleanliness attended to, baths, hair-cuts, etc.

Have premises kept clean and latrines disinfected daily.

While in rest billets: Have all specialists' instruction continued: sharpshooters, bomb-throwers, signallers, etc.

Should be given special attention.

and marching give the men needed exercise.

should also be provided: in the form of games, contests, entertainments, etc. They help to keep the men "fit."

The company commander should make it is his constant concern that his men be kept at the highest possible point of efficiency.

The following questions are topical. Supplements to the answers found in this book should be looked for in the larger works referred to in the preface.

1.—What inspections should be made on the day before the relief?

2.—State orders to be issued one hour before departure.

3.—What may be the marching orders, on the way to the trenches?

4.—Describe precautions to be taken against enemy's fire, against aeroplanes.

5.—What other precautions should be taken?

6.—What should the company commander attend to on reaching the trenches?

7.—What possible improvements of trenches are obviously called for?

8.—What special attention should be given the parapet?

9.—Give rules for drainage and sanitation.

10.—What precautions may be taken against capture of fire-trench?

11.—What does trench warfare correspond to in open warfare?

12.—What does the safety of a sector depend on?

13.—What is the fundamental duty in trench warfare?

14.—What rule determines the number of men to be posted in the fire-trench?

15.—Sum up their orders about firing before open terrain, before covered terrain.

16.—What is meant by double sentinels?

17.—Why is listening attentively even more important than keeping a sharp look out?

18.—Why should the sentinels refrain from answering the enemy's fire?

19.—What is expected of the men in the listening posts?

20.—When should the sentinels fire on a clear night? When, on a dark night?

21.—What should the sentinels do, if they hear the enemy's digging?

22.—When and where are sharpshooters posted and what is their duty?

23.—What information may patrols bring back?

24.—When should patrols be sent out and how should they be assigned?

25.—What should the sentinels along a sector know about the patrols, and the several possible patrols know about one another?

26.—Describe dress and equipment of men on patrols.

27.—Describe their method of advance.

28.—What should they do on encountering a hostile patrol?

29.—What should be the motto of men on patrol?

30.—What are some of the most useful informations about the enemy, you should try to obtain?

31.—What motto should you have about ammunition?

32.—Describe several ways of leading enemy to waste ammunition.

33.—What is the distinction between legitimate and illegitimate ruses?

34.—On what principle is the enemy's ruse of the use of blank cartridges based?

35.—How may this ruse be foiled?

36.—What should the sentinels, and what should the men on patrol do, when the enemy sends up flares?

37.—How should the enemy's machine gun fire be answered?

An Enemy's Attack.

38.—Describe procedure when enemy's patrols are sighted by sentinels and when an attack develops.

39.—When are the trench mortars and the machine guns fired?

40.—How are hand grenades thrown?

41.—Where should the rifle fire be aimed?

42.—When are bayonets used?

43.—Is it sufficient to repulse an attack?

44.—What formation should be adopted for the counter attack?

45.—How is the advance made and the counter attack carried out?

46.—Describe what is meant by organization of a newly conquered trench.

47.—What should be done, if the enemy bombards the fire-trench?

48.—What should the sentinels do?

49.—What should be done if the bombardment is back of the fire-trench?

50.—What general rule applies to the use of all trench artillery?

51.—What are its ordinary objectives?

52.—How are trench mortars handled?

53.—What is meant by calling trench-artillery mobile weapons?

54.—Give a general caution for the use of all ammunition.

55.—What is essential to secure effective artillery fire?

56.—What should be done if one's own artillery fire falls short upon one's own trenches?

57.—How is coordination between artillery and infantry secured in case of a raid?

58.—What are the principal items of the morning schedule, of the afternoon schedule?

59.—Describe the preparations for leaving the trenches.

60.—What orders are given at the time of relief?

61.—What is done before the men are dismissed to their billets?

62.—How should the days in rest billets be utilized?

63.—Describe a typical day in the trenches.

64.—Describe a typical day in rest billets.

65.—What should be the supreme aim alike of men and officers?

It is improbable that in this war trench warfare will definitely give place on all sectors of the front to open warfare.

But the tactics that have forced several retirements will force others.

If sufficient troops are available, tried and fit and resolute, with the necessary quantities of ammunition and improved artillery, we shall see German arrogance and brutality in victory become again cringing fear and demoralization in defeat; the experience of the Marne will be repeated and the invaders will be driven out of the territory they swarmed over through treacherous breaking of treaties.

That day the infantry will come again unto its own and its dash and resolution will insure victory.

To achieve it, it must be a well trained infantry, in the old sense of the word. Officers, non-commissioned officers and men must have a thorough and practical knowledge of Infantry Combat Principles.

These should be practiced in the intervals of trench service when the battalion is in rest billets.

Their theory should be thoroughly mastered by all on whom may devolve responsibility.

We shall study here the two principal phases of the combat: the approach and the attack, from the point of view of the company commander.

We shall also consider the Combat from the standpoint of the Defense.

In the attack, the infantry can proceed only straight ahead. Under infantry fire all maneuvering is impossible. Therefore by "approach" is meant all maneuvering preparatory to the attack: It brings the troops directly in front of and as near as possible to the objective.

The company commander will receive his orders from the battalion commander.

In the meanwhile let the lieutenants:

The company commander having received his orders from the battalion commander, will then call his subordinates and issue his own orders accordingly, including the formation to be adopted.

He will make sure that there are combat patrols on the exposed flank or flanks and to the front and rear if need be.

It is well to have combat patrols detach automatically. It may be understood, once for all, that, without further orders, the first squad will cover in front, the second to the right, the third to the left, the fourth to the rear, whenever needed. Still, the officer in charge should make sure that this arrangement is carried out.

A combat patrol, if not a full advance guard, will thus always precede a unit and be the first to take contact with the enemy.

The officers serve as guides to their units, until deployment, a mounted officer in liaison with the advance guard or advanced combat patrol checking up the itinerary.

The advance of a company into an engagement is conducted in close order, preferably columns of squads, until possible observation by the enemy or encountering of hostile fire makes it advisable to deploy.

Deployment should not be premature and should always follow upon the conditions arising during the progress of the advance.

About two or three miles from the positions liable to be occupied by the enemy's field artillery, precautions should be taken against the possibility of its opening fire.

Deployments should be adopted best suited to escape observation:

March in single or double file, the whole section[D] keeping closed up so as to diminish the number of files seen from the front.

Avoid especially the center of roads as they show white, utilize on the contrary the spaces between cultivated fields of different colors, make use of all possible cover, trees, shrubs, ditches, embankments. Always walk in the shade when possible. If hostile aeroplanes are flying low, halt and lie down on left side, hiding face in elbow.

A registering fire is easily recognized as the German artillery registers either with a single percussion shell at a time, or with two time-shells at three seconds interval.

In the German field gun, the setting of the angle of sight[E] and of the elevation[F] involves two operations.

Therefore infantry under registering fire should oblique forward rapidly.

The zone has necessarily been previously registered. Such a zone is easily recognized by the presence of shell holes.

It should be avoided and the advance made on its outskirts.

If this cannot be done and the fire for effect materializes five cases are to be distinguished as the shells may be:

The area of burst is about 250 to 300 yards in length and 30 yards in width, half the bullets falling on the first 50 yards of the beaten zone.

Advance in line of section, in single or double file keeping as closed up as possible with 30 yards intervals between sections.

The second line should be 250 to 300 yards behind the first.

Much less dangerous than when bursting at right height as initial speed of bullets is spent. Same formation as for Case 1.

The area of burst is opposite to that of shrapnel: short depth, large width, only 7 to 10 yards depths as opposed to 60 to 100 yards in width.

Advance in line of section, single or double file, keeping as closed up as possible with 60 to 100 yards intervals between sections.

The second line may be 15 yards behind the first.

The depth of the area of burst is longer than when shells burst at the right height; therefore widen interval between the lines.

The radius of the explosion is only about 25 yards but the local effect is intense and the displacement is effective in more than double the radius.

Advance in line of section in double file, keeping as closed up as possible, with about 100 yards intervals between sections.

The second line may be about 50 yards behind the first.

Do not stop in a zone under fire for effect as lying down only provides a larger target. If absolutely obliged to stop, remain standing and packed together like sardines, maintaining above formations and intervals. It is useless to run, but, as much as possible, advance steadily.

As may appear from the study of the above the following formation and intervals will afford the best protection against all types and combinations of types of shells, as a shell will never affect more than one section.

Advance in lines of sections in double file, keeping as closed up as possible, with 85 to 110 yards intervals[G] between sections.

The second line should be 250 to 300 yards behind the first.

They should be used to advance or halt only if they are of considerable size. Then, they hide movements and provide some shelter from fire. On the contrary, when they are small, they are to be avoided as they draw artillery fire and do not offer sufficient protection.

When advancing in woods, special care should be taken to keep all fractions connected.

To exit from wood, take all necessary dispositions under cover so that, on the signal of the commander, all fractions may be ready to spring out together. They should continue to advance forward, as rapidly as possible, to avoid the enemy's likely shelling of the outskirts.

If the exit cannot be made by all fractions at one time, the elements of the second line should avoid coming out at the same point as those of the first line.

Let the line of sections assemble at top of crest, crouching carefully below the sky line. Then, upon concerted signal, all should leap quickly across and down the descending slope, making as extended bounds as possible.

This makes crossing fairly safe as even the infantry will have to modify both its elevation and angle of sight for every new position of this quickly moving target.

During the whole "approach" watch should be kept for possible cavalry patrols. The elements acting as advance guard and flank guards or as combat patrols have as part of their special mission to keep the cavalry away from the main body.

To repulse cavalry, the infantry must be able to face quickly toward the charging horsemen and furnish a heavy fire.

If cavalry patrols are expected ahead, deployment as skirmishers will secure this, if on the flanks, deploy in columns of squads marching in double file. A formation in echelon is effective at all times.

If cavalry appears, stop, face the charge quickly, fix bayonets and fire at will, the section leaders controlling the fire.

If surprised, deploy quickly and lie down.

The standard objective of a battalion is a maximum front of 550 yards.

On nearing the objective the battalion commander reconnoiters rapidly to determine the number of companies to put in the front line and the part of the objective to be assigned to each.

Mounted officers now send back their horses to reserve battalion.

The battalion commander assigns to each company its part of the objective and the position from which it is to start the attack.

The orders are given verbally by the battalion commander to the captains and by the captains to the company usually through the platoon leaders as the company is not in close order.

As soon as the zone swept by the infantry fire of the enemy is reached (about 1000 yards) deployment as skirmishers becomes imperative.

Keep on advancing toward positions for the attack by fractions, varying method according to the terrain; short rushes, crawling, making use of all possible cover.

The battalion commander and the captains march with the supports, the battalion commander controlling the despatch of reinforcements. As soon as the supports are all sent forward they march with the fraction nearest the enemy.

A connecting file (runner) accompanies the battalion commander and each of the captains.

It is determined by the casualties.

It is given by the captains; (only in case of extreme emergency by a subaltern.)

The section leaders, under the direction of the captain; control the fire: classes of firing, volley firing, firing at will; the target (the nearest hostile troops within the sector of the objective being the usual target); the range, the opening and cessation of fire in volley fire.

The section leaders are helped in their observation of the fire effect by observers standing besides them. The fire is usually directed independently by section or half section.

In principle, the corporals do not take part in the fire but verify the range and direction of the fire of their respective squads.

To advance the firing line in attack, all means are good: by section, half-section, squad, the only condition being that it be by commanded fractions.

As men fall, the rest close in toward the section leader, the sections rectifying intervals on the sections furthest advanced (the captain is with this section, all sections being now in line.)

The several companies rectify intervals in the same way on the furthest advanced company (the battalion commander being with this company).

Every propitious occasion to advance should be seized at once by the various elements of the line: greater effectiveness of the neighboring section's fire, slackening fire of the enemy, effects of artillery, etc.

The movement forward of each fraction of the line should be protected by the fire of the neighboring fraction.

The fraction leader, after each rush forward, should give time to the men to get back their breath so that they may fire with careful aim.

The captain should be kept informed by a conventional signal as to the need of ammunition, etc.

Use them judiciously but boldly. They should advance as first units.

Strive to keep abreast or ahead of the most advanced elements especially on the flanks.

Try to have them reach the objective with the firing line and contribute to the pursuit.

The sections kept in support are at the disposition of the captain.

Under the command of the section leader, they advance, in double file, at proper intervals or deployed, according to their proximity to the enemy and according to the terrain (covered or uncovered).

They should be about 250 yards behind the firing line to whose movements they conform.

The section leaders keep in sight of the captain and upon his signaled command advance into the firing line either to fill up a gap or to reinforce a section.

They advance as far as possible ahead of the line.

They come up with a rush and shout to rehearten the line.

They are kept out of range of the enemy's fire upon the firing line but near enough to interfere as soon as called upon.

The captains keep in touch with the battalion commander.

These companies advance into the fire zone with the necessary precautions, either by fractions or entire, taking advantage of favorable conditions: inefficiency of the enemy's fire, effectiveness of the firing line, etc.

The charge is the final aim of the whole attack. Its success means the defeat of the enemy.

It should not be launched too soon.

The order may come directly from the commander of the attacking line or be solicited by any of his subordinates.

Fix bayonets, advance, stop to fire, advance again, but always so as to arrive on the enemy's position without being out of breath.

It should be vigorously pressed.

In the meanwhile the conquered position should be organized.

In the attack of a wood, the first objective should be the outskirts. Concentrate the first effort on the salients.

As soon as the wood is penetrated, advance quickly forward, utilizing all roads, paths and trails. The company advances by sections or half sections, in single or double file, preceded by strong patrols.

Every effort should be made to close in with the bayonet.

The companies or fractions on the flank strive to outflank the enemy so as to attack him on the flank or from behind.

The companies or fractions in the center try to get across the wood as quickly as possible, or, at least, to reach a clearing.

In the attack of a village, the first objective should be the nearest outskirt.

Consolidate this first position as soon as conquered. Signal to the artillery to lengthen the range.

Then try to gain as rapidly as possible the opposite end.

The flanking units endeavor to encircle the objective.

If the defense has been strongly organized inside the village, fight forward step by step. Blow up the obstacles with explosives.

Have artillery bring up a few guns within close range.

If it is defended in front, try to advance rapidly by one or both flanks, small fractions only attacking on the valley bottom, while the greater part of the attacking force progresses on the heights on either side, the flanks striving to keep forward so as to reach the other end before the defenders and encircle them.

If the defile is defended at the farther end, as in the case of a bridge, echelon units (properly covered) for heavy concentrated fire from the bank held and cross the bridge on the run and in small groups.

They must be confined to simple movements over easy ground.

They must be carefully prepared secretly beforehand in every detail. The orders must include detailed particulars on the role of each unit or fraction of units, precise data on the rallying points and on the signals to be used.

For many reasons, chief among which is the difficulty of handling large units at night and maintaining contact, small units should be used.

The fire of the adversary being negligible at night, there is seldom any advantage in putting more than a battalion in line against a given objective, the quality, discipline and cohesion of the troops making up for the number.

Before beginning the approach, carefully secure all arms and utensils so as to prevent noise. Fix bayonets.

Walk in double files on sides of roads, never in the center. Otherwise as long as practicable, in columns of squads.

Commands are to be transmitted in a low voice by connecting files.

Keep absolute silence. Forbid all lights. No smoking allowed.

The itinerary should be reconnoitered beforehand, if possible, and index stakes planted; otherwise an officer should precede with a luminous compass and men to plant the stakes.

Do not answer the enemy's fire until the charge.

Success depends above all on the rapidity and continuity of the advance. Get there as quickly as possible.

The commander should distribute his command so as to provide a defense of the outskirts, an interior defense and reserves for a counter attack.

The outskirts defense troops should organize their positions and remain hidden near the combat emplacements until the attack is announced as impending by their sentinels.

The interior defense troops should organize their positions (abatis, barb-wire) on the edges of clearings and other open spaces so as to secure convergent fire.

The counter-attack reserves should be placed in the rear and on the outside of the flank best suited for launching a counter attack. They should proceed to organize the ground so as to prevent the enemy from issuing from the wood, and should strive to keep on.

The same as for the defense of a wood.

The outskirts defense organization should include trenches and accessory defences before all the exits. These should be strongly barricaded.

The interior defense should be organized about the houses most strongly built and least visible to the enemy's artillery. It should include hidden communications between these strong points, thus facilitating a prolonged defense.

The streets should be barricaded and loopholes provided in the walls of the houses. Precautions should be taken against fire: pails of water, boxes of sand provided in the houses.

If the aim is to keep the exits open so as to permit the advance of troops, the defense should be organized at some distance in front of the defile: far enough to permit the unimpeded progress of the advance.

If the aim is to keep the exits open so as to cover the retreat of troops, the roads at the bottom of the defile should be left free and the defense troops so placed as to draw the enemy's fire on other points.

If the aim is to block the defile, the defense should be organized in the interior of the defile on both sides of the place of greatest width, so as to secure convergence of fire. Echelon detachments all along the defile to act as a rear guard in case a retreat is necessary. Keep the flanks well protected.

Attack should be guarded against by accumulating obstacles and the defense further prepared by previous reconnoitering of the best ground for counter-attacks.

The enemy's charge should be met with a violent fire at the shortest possible range, followed immediately by counter-attacks with the bayonet, especially on the flanks.

Indicate the objective very definitely including the position to be reached but not gone beyond.

Its direction should not interfere with the fire of neighboring troops.

The Counter Attack should be prepared cautiously and the itinerary carefully, even if rapidly, reconnoitered. (This may have been done as part of the preparation of the defense. It should be done with special care if the counter-attack is to take place at night.)

It may be decided upon independently of the incidents of the defense or to take advantage of the mistakes or weakness of the adversary.

The most favorable moment is when the enemy is within a short distance and its artillery consequently obliged to stop or to lengthen its fire.

It should be launched suddenly so as to surprise the enemy and pushed vigorously, the fire being increased to great intensity along the whole front.

Rapidity and continuity of advance is essential.

Its culmination is the bayonet charge against the prescribed definite objective.

Hold this objective once conquered but do not go beyond.

Let the motto be always, but here especially: "DASH UNDER DISCIPLINE."

The following questions cover the principles of combat in open warfare. These principles have been supplemented rather than changed in the light of experience since 1914. In their original form, as given in this book, they still may be considered as fundamental. Compare them carefully with the treatment of the same topics in the larger works recommended. The questions are shaped to cover the topics supplemented.

1.—What is the difference between "trench warfare" and "open warfare"?

2.—What is meant by the "combat"?

3.—What are the two phases of the combat?

4.—What is the distinction between "the approach" and the "attack"?

5.—Why is maneuvering impossible under infantry fire?

6.—What is the purpose of the approach?

7.—How are orders issued?

8.—How is liaison secured?

9.—What were the original functions of combat patrols?

10.—When should close order be abandoned for deployment?

11.—At what distance from the enemy does deployment become imperative?

12.—What is the last formation to escape direct observation?

13.—What precautions may be taken against aeroplane observations?

14.—What is the difference between a registering fire and fire for effect?

15.—How may the German registering fire be recognized?

16.—What precaution may be taken against it and why is it effective?

17.—What preliminaries are necessary to open fire for effect?

18.—What is an easy way to recognize whether fire for effect may be expected?

19.—What five cases of fire may be distinguished?

20.—What is the burst area of a shrapnel shell?

21.—What is the safest protective formation against shrapnel?

22.—What is the difference between a shrapnel shell, a time-fuse high explosive shell and a percussion high explosive shell?

23.—What is the burst area of a time-fuse high explosive shell?

24.—What is the safest protective formation against it?

25.—What is the burst area of percussion high explosive shells, and what precautions can be taken against them?

26.—What is the safest protective formation against all types of shells?

27.—What objections may it be open to?

28.—What is the safest way and direction to go when under artillery fire?

29.—Why should small woods be avoided?

30.—In large woods, what precautions must be taken to secure a steady advance?

31.—How should the exit from a wood be made?

32.—Describe method of crossing a crest.

33.—What are good protective formations against cavalry and how is it repulsed?

34.—What elements have the mission to deal with cavalry patrols?

35.—What is meant by "the objective" in attack?

36.—What is the distinction between determining the objective and the position from which to start the attack?

37.—What is the distinction between "the approach" and getting into position for the attack?

38.—At what distance from the enemy does deployment as skirmishers become imperative?

39.—Describe method of advance toward positions for the attack.

40.—Where should the officers be during this advance?

41.—How is liaison (communication) secured between the various commands?

42.—What is meant by the fire attack?

44.—How is the time to fire determined?

45.—How are fire control and fire effect secured?

46.—How is the firing line advanced?

47.—How is it rectified?

48.—Why should care be taken not to have men out of breath?

49.—How should machine guns be made to contribute to the approach, the fire attack, the charge?

50.—How far should the company supports be from the firing line?

51.—Who commands them?

52.—How is the firing line reinforced?

53.—Describe the company supports going into the line to fill up a gap, to reinforce a section.

54.—Describe position and behavior of companies in support.

55.—What is the final stage of the whole attack?

56.—Who orders the charge and how is it made?

57.—What is the difference between the charge and the pursuit?

58.—What should be done with a newly conquered position?

59.—What is the first objective in attacking a wood?

60.—How does the aim of the troops on the wings differ from that of those in the center?

62.—Distinguish the different objectives in the attack of a village.

63.—Describe the attack to proceed through a defile in which the enemy is located.

64.—Describe the attack of a bridge.

65.—Why should night attacks be of limited scope?

66.—What special precautions should be taken?

67.—What is the largest unit advisable?

68.—How is surprise secured?

69.—Describe the methods of reconnaissance, advance and liaison for a night attack.

70.—Should the enemy's fire be answered in a night attack?

71.—What does the success of a night attack chiefly depend on?

72.—How should troops be distributed for the defense of woods and what is the function of each?

73.—Describe the distribution of troops for the defense of a village.

74.—How should the outskirts defense be organized?

75.—Describe the interior defense.

76.—How can a defile be kept open for an advance?

77.—How can a defile be safeguarded for a retreat?

78.—Give necessary orders for the blocking of a defile.

79.—Why should reconnoitering for counter attacks always be part of the organization for defense.

80.—Describe repulse of a night attack.

81.—Is an attack ever advisable without previous reconnaissance?

82.—Explain the importance of understanding the exact objective in a counterattack.

83.—What is the best time to launch a counter attack?

84.—What precautions must be taken to secure the success of a counter attack?

85.—What is a good motto under all conditions, but especially in the attack?

The following may be considered a standard scheme of distribution of troops, for trench warfare, in a fully developed trench system.

An infantry division is composed of two brigades, each brigade of two regiments, each regiment of three battalions. Each brigade thus has six battalions, each battalion numbering 1026 officers and men, normally divided into four companies.

One battalion occupies about 1000 yards in ordinary trench warfare. As reliefs must be frequent, three battalions of each brigade will be on duty, while the other three are in rest-billets, at least two miles back of the trenches.

Two of the battalions on duty occupy the trenches, the third is stationed about a mile back, in reserve.

A brigade can therefore hold about 2000 yards of trenches: two battalions in front line trenches, one battalion in reserve, and three battalions in rest billets.

Hence a division (two brigades) will hold a front of about 4000 yards.

Within each 1000 yards front, the distribution may be as follows:

Three platoons of Companies A, B, and C occupy the dugouts of the cover trench and of the support trench and post sentinels by roster in the fire trench.

Platoon No. 4 of each company occupy the dugouts of the reserve trench, together with the entire Company D.

Platoons and companies then relieve one another according to roster, a platoon of each company and an entire company, in turn, enjoying comparative rest in the reserve trench even during the stay of the battalion in the trenches.

The following is a description of the back areas of a divisional sector in which there has been no great changes since 1915. There are still several hundred miles of such sectors.

The line at the top marks the beginning of the trench-system described in Plate I. being the entrance to the communication trenches.

Road a, b, with the river c, d, run at the bottom of a small valley surrounded by hills of about 80 ft. elevation. A branch of the river runs from c. to e. and a railroad beside it, along road h, i, and crossing road j, k. A good size village is at D, a smaller one at C, hamlets at A and B. The latter are about one mile back of the trenches, village C. about two miles and village D. between three and four.

Hamlets A and B have probably been heavily bombarded at the time line was established and have been evacuated by the civilians. Village C. has received shells, but, if there has been no big attack in the sector, is in fair shape and some of the inhabitants remain. Village D. may also have suffered from shells but probably most of the inhabitants remain. Such villages may be clusters of farms or of cottages, depending upon the region. If village is made up of cottages, farm houses will be found along the roads at frequent intervals. The fields are likely to be under cultivation almost as far as road k, l.

Villages A, B, C are used to billet the battalion in reserve of each brigade. Village D. and the nearest villages further back are used as rest-billets by the battalions of the brigades who will relieve those in the trenches.

Near or in villages A, B and C or near hill E and G are located the transports of the infantry battalions in the trenches. Supplies are sent daily to the trenches from this headquarters of the quartermaster and transport officer.

Somewhere along road k, l, or about hills E and G are hidden in gun pits the batteries of field artillery attached to the division. The men live in dugouts alongside. The camps for the horses, wagons and supply headquarters of these batteries are hidden in the woods or on the further slopes of hills E, F, G.

In village D are very likely located the Brigades' headquarters and such services as the Field Ambulance and the Divisional Supply Departments. The Y. M. C. A. recreation centers, divisional theatre, football fields, army canteens etc., are also located in village D or just back of it. If the houses in the villages do not provide enough billets, huts and tents are erected. Otherwise the officers are billeted in the houses of the inhabitants and the men in the barns.

The Divisional Headquarters, the Ammunition Column, the Artillery Brigade Headquarters, the Engineers, the Ammunition Dumps, etc., are strung out in the villages and along the roads just back of village D. The heavier artillery is also posted back of this line.

In sectors that have been the scenes of offensives the several elements remain in the same relation, but as the villages have been obliterated, shelters must be provided. [The Editor.]

PLATE I—DIVISION FRONT—4000 yards (Trench System)

PLATE II—DIVISION FRONT (Back Areas)