Printed by the Blessed Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith.
1632
BY PERMISSION OF THE SUPERIORS.
It may be published if it please the Most Reverend Father,
Master of the Holy Apostolic Palace.
For the Archbishop of Umbria. The Vicar General.
Brother Nicolaus Riccardius, Master of the Holy Apostolic Palace,
Order of Preachers.
With Some Advice on the Correct Pronunciation
of the Japanese Language
Long ago, at the beginning of the establishment of our orthodox faith
in the Japanese kingdom, a grammar of this language was made by Father
Ioannus Rodriguez of the Society of Jesus.[42] However, since things rarely turn out
perfect at first attempt, and, because of the passing years that have
made it difficult to find a copy of this grammar; I thought that it would
honor God and the ministers who preach the faith (which cannot be taught
without the use of language) if I were to select examples (and there are
many) that are useful to this language, neglect those not accepted by the
experts of the language, add, with the help of God (who gives words to
the evangelists), the words that I have learned from experience,
practice, and continuous reading, and by such means offer up a handbook
of the Japanese language in which I would bring together in a brief span
these examples with those precepts which the preachers (for whom I began
this work) need to learn of the Japanese language. This is done because
examples are necessary with the rules and precepts so that it is possible
to demonstrate the rule which has just been explained. Not only have
these examples been selected for the greater help and enjoyment of the
students, but also their explanation has been added in Latin (which is
the language most common to theologians); thus the teacher will have very
little left to be desired. Even if all the elements included in this
grammar, as in the dictionary (which with the help of God I plan to
publish shortly),[43] are
polished enough and sure enough to be used with trust; I would still want
them to be submitted to the judgement of the reader so that the preaching
of the faith, carried on with a more correct language, may become more
fruitful.
When two vowels follow each other in any Japanese word, they are not
pronounced as in the Latin word valeo or in the Spanish,
vaca, but each is pronounced independently; v, a;
v, o; v, i.
The letter s is pronounced as sç; e.g., susumuru,
sçusçumuru.
The letter j is pronounced smoothly (blande), as in the
Portuguese joaõ and judeo.
The letter x is also pronounced smoothly, as in the Portuguese
(4
queixumes.
When there is the sign ˆ over the letter o it is
pronounced ou with the lips almost closed and the mouth partly
closed; e.g., buppô.
When there is the sign ˇ or ´ over the letter o it is
pronounced with the mouth open as if there were two letters, oo;
e.g., tenxó or gacuxǒ.[44]
If the signs we have just shown are over the letter u, it is
pronounced long as if there were two letters, uu; e.g.,
taifú or aiaǔ.
When the sign ˜ is over the vowel, the sign should be pronounced
like an n, not strongly but swiftly (cursim) and softly
(leniter); e.g., vãga.[45]
Qe and Qi are written without u, because when
u follows q or c both letters are pronounced as a
sinalepha;[46] e.g.,
quódai or quainin.
When u follows g and immediately after the u is
the letter e or i, it should be pronounced as in the
Spanish word guenin; but if the letter e or i
follows g immediately without the u, it should be
pronounced as in the Italian word giorno; e.g., xitãgi.
The letter z is pronounced with the same strength as in the
Spanish word zumbar; e.g., mizu.
But if there are two zz then they are pronounced more strongly;
e.g., mizzu.
When there are two tt, xx, zz, qq,
cq, ij, or pp[47] it is important to persist in order to
obtain perfect pronunciation and the exact value of the word; for
mizu means 'honey' and mizzu means 'water.' Therefore, if
the words are said with the same strength or the same gentleness they can
mean either 'water' or 'honey.'
When ch comes before a vowel it is pronounced as in the Spanish
chimera; e.g., fochó.
But if nh comes before a vowel it is pronounced as in the
Spanish maña; e.g., nhuva.
The letter f is pronounced in various regions of Japan as it is
in Latin. In others it is pronounced as if it were an imperfect h.
For both pronunciations the lips and the mouth should be nearly, but not
completely, closed.
When tç is in a word (and it appears quite frequently) the
student should pray that God have mercy on his pronunciation because the
word is very difficult, and its pronunciation is not to be found (5 in any other language. It
is not truly pronounced tç, nor as s, nor as c
alone, but rather by striking the tongue violently against the teeth in
order to pronounce both t and ç, but with more ç
than t seeming to be sounded; e.g., tçutçumu.
The letter r is said smoothly and softly everywhere it is
found, either at the beginning or in the middle of a word; e.g.,
ranguió, or cutabiruru.
Ya, ye, yo, and yu are pronounced as in
Spanish.[48]
When words ending in i or u are pronounced by the
Japanese, the last letter is almost not heard by the student. For
instance, if he hears gozaru he will think he hears gozar,
if he hears fitotçu he will believe he hears only fitotç,
and when he hears axi no fara he will perceive only ax no
fara.
When a word ending in a vowel is followed immediately by a consonant,
particularly b or s,[49] between that vowel and consonant is
pronounced the letter n, not perfectly, but softly; e.g., sonõ
gotoqu.
I have given special care to the accenting of words.[50] This has been done so that the signs
that have been placed correctly over the accented letter will allow the
listener to understand the meaning of the words and the sentences of the
speaker. For instance, qèixèi has the accent on both èè;
fìbicàxi has it on the first i and on the a.[51] This same arrangement
will be respected in the dictionary, with the accent being written with
the same degree of correctness as is able to be achieved with great
attention. If at times I have made mistakes, I am prepared to correct
them immediately. Concerning what has been explained too briefly or left
out of this grammar and the dictionary, learned people will be able to do
that when they add a third dictionary and a third grammar, since it is
easy to supply this material. Because I wish neither to be criticized by
the Head of our Order (pater familias) and the Lord our God, nor
do I wish this knowledge to be wrapped up in a handkerchief;[52] I want by these two works
to help and to cooperate in the salvation of the Japanese not only by
preaching but also by offering to the preachers, if I can, the tools of
the language and chiefly the method by which they might better learn the
Japanese language, a task made very difficult by the persecutions in
Japan. Farewell, Reader, and be of good cheer. Madrid, 30 August
1631.
(6
In This Grammar We Have for the Most Part Observed the Arrangement Which Antonius Nebrissensis and Others Have Followed in Latin for the Treatment of Sentences, Namely Nouns, Pronouns, Etc.
The Noun—Its Declension and Its Gender
In the Japanese language there are no case declensions as there are in
Latin; but there are certain particles, which when suffixed to nouns,
determine the differences between the cases for both common and proper
nouns. The particles which form the nominative are five; va,
ga, cara, no, and iori. The particle
va is used when we want to give a sort of reduplicative[53] and specific turn to the
person or thing that is signified by such a noun. It indicates either the
first, second, or third person; e.g., Vatacuxi va mairanu 'I, or
those related to me, will not come.' The particle no is suffixed
to the second and third person, especially if they are inferior in rank
or in a sentence where there is a relative construction which does not
indicate a transitive action; e.g., sonata no móxita coto 'that
which you said.' The particle no is also used when some indefinite
form is used; e.g., iie no aru ca miió [... miio] 'see if
there are houses.' The particle ga is used usually for the first
and third persons of inferior status as well as for the second person
when he is the most lowly or is to be humiliated; e.g., Pedro ga
qita 'Peter came.' This particle is also used to indicate something
indefinite, as has been said of the particle no; e.g., coco ni
va iie ga nai ca? 'aren't the houses here?' It is also used in
sentences that have a relative construction which does not indicate a
transitive action. If the reference is to something of inferior or humble
status the particle ga is also used; e.g., soregaxi ga caita
fumi 'the letter which I wrote,' sochi ga iúta coto 'what you
said.' The particles cara and iori are used to form the
nominative case when the sentence shows a
transitive action, especially if the sentence contains a relative
construction; e.g., Deus iori cudasareta gracia 'the mercy which
God gave,' tono cara core vo vôxe tçuqerareta 'the Lord taught
this.' Sometimes the words are in the nominative case without any
particle; e.g., Pedro Ioaõ vo iobareta 'Peter called (7 John.' There are two
particles for the genitive; i.e., no and ga. The particle
no is used for all persons of superior rank; e.g., Padre no võ
qiru mono 'the priest's clothes, or habit.' The particle ga is
used for people of inferior rank; e.g., Pedro ga fumi 'Peter's
letter,' sochi ga mono 'your thing,' are ga cane 'your
money,' tono va iocu ga fucai fito gia 'the Lord is of great
cupidity, that is to say he is very eager.' Sometimes the particle
to is suffixed to the genitive; e.g., Pedro no to degozaru
'it belongs to Peter.' But since this is not a perfect way of speaking,
it is better not to use it. I have cited it so that if you hear it you
will understand. When two nouns are joined to form a single word, the one
which is like an adjective does not require the genitive particle; e.g.,
cocuxu 'the Lord of the kingdom.' According to the ordinary rule
we should say cocu no xu. This way of forming the genitive is very
common in Japanese; e.g., Maria coto 'Mary's thing.'
Two particles form the dative; i.e., ni and ie. For
example, Pedro ni móxita 'I told Peter,' Padre ie ague
maraxita 'I gave, or offered, it to the priest.'
There are five particles which form the accusative case; i.e.,
vo, voba, va, ie, and ga. The first,
vo, is the most used; e.g., Pedro vo iobe 'call Peter.'
Va is used when one wishes to express in particular a noun in the
accusative; e.g., niffon guchi va xiranu[54] 'I don't know Japanese.' The ending
voba is the same as vo va, changing the second v to
b they use it as va; e.g., fune voba nori sutete; cane
bacari tori maraxita 'abandoning ship, I took only money, or gold,
with me.' Ie is used to indicate the place to which one goes;
e.g., Roma ie mairó 'I go to Rome.' Ga is used for nouns
which indicate non-living or humble things; e.g., are ie gozare, mono
ga móxitai 'go there! I have something to tell you.' The accusative
is also formed without any particle, as has been shown in the
example second before last, where the second accusative is without a
particle.
The vocative is formed with the particle icani. It is not
suffixed to words as are the other particles but it is prefixed instead;
e.g., icani qimi core vo goronjerarei 'look at this, My Lord.'[55] Usually, however, the
vocative is formed without any particle; e.g., Padre sama (8 qicaxerareio
'listen, Reverend Father.'
There are three particles for the ablative; i.e., iori,
cara, and ni. The third indicates the place in which; e.g.,
iglesia ni gozaru 'he is in church.' Sometimes ni is used
after no; e.g., sonata no ni xi aru ca? 'are you going to
make it yours, or take it for yours?' But this seems much more a dative
than an ablative. The particles cara and iori are more
common in the formation of the ablative; e.g., Madrid cara maitta
'I came from Madrid,' Pedro iori corosareta 'he was killed by
Peter.'
There are four particles used to form the plural. They are placed
immediately after the noun they pluralize and before the particles which
indicate case. These four particles are tachi, xu,
domo, and ra. The first, tachi, forms the plural of
those noble things which one wishes to honor; e.g., tono tachi
'lords.' The particle xu forms the plural for noble things but not
those of the highest rank; e.g., samurai xu 'nobles
(nobiles), but not lords (domini).' The particle
domo is suffixed to words which indicate humble things, either
abstract, animate, or inanimate; e.g., fiacuxó domo 'farmer,'
ixi domo 'stones,' mma domo 'horses.' The particle
ra forms the plural of nouns which indicate very low things which
are to be despised; e.g., Iudeo ra 'Jews.'[56] The case particles which are required
by the sentence are placed after the pluralizing particles; e.g., tono
tachi no coto domo vo varú iú na 'don't speak badly about the Lords'
affairs.'
There are some words that are plural in themselves; e.g., tomo
gara means 'men,' Nan ban mono 'European things,' Nan ban
mono vo fomuru na 'don't praise European things.'
The particle icani, which as has been indicated above forms the
vocative, is not placed after but always before the pronouns which are
made plural, while the particles which
form the plural are placed after; e.g., icani Padre tachi vo qiqi
nasare io 'listen to the priests.'
But two of the four particles which form the plural, domo and
ra, are with certain words singular. Varera and
midomo mean 'I.' Sometimes both are found together in the
singular; e.g., midomora 'I,' midomora ga 'my, or mine.'
The particles domo and ra are also (9 suffixed to the singular
when one wishes to humiliate the thing mentioned; e.g., hara domo ga
itai 'I have a stomach ache,' asu domo va aru mai 'tomorrow
will not come,' asu ra va naró mode 'tomorrow will perhaps not
come.'
The particle va is suffixed to singular and plural nouns which
already have a particle; e.g., coco ie va mairanu 'he will not
come here,' coco cara va denu 'he did not go out from here,'
coco ni va aru mai 'he will not enter here.' Sometimes va
replaces the particles of the declension; e.g., fune de saie ióió
tçuita ni, cachi va nacanaca naru mai (119v) 'I arrived with such
difficulty by ship: I would undoubtedly never have arrived had I come by
foot, or on foot.'[57] The
particle va here replaces cara.
Japanese does not have the genders feminine, masculine, and neuter as
Latin does. There are, however, certain nouns which are feminine or
masculine because of their meaning. Other nouns are common to both these
genders. For things which do not have a proper gender vo is placed
before masculine nouns and me before feminine; e.g., voivo
means 'male fish' and meivo 'female fish,' vojica means
'roe-buck,' melica [mejica] 'roe-doe,'[58] coma means 'horse,'
zoiacu 'mare,' xô means 'male hawk,' dai 'female
hawk,' cotoi means 'bull,' meuxi 'cow,' votoco means
'man,' vonago, nhóbó, or vonna 'woman.' All these
words are placed in the dictionary as they come to mind.
The nominal adjectives have no gender or declension but make use of
the same particles as the nouns. There are however many and diverse
adjectives. Certain ones end in ai others in oi, ei,
ui and ij. There are other, more proper adjectives, which
are formed by adding no to nouns. When the first five types of
adjectives are placed before nouns they are then properly adjectives and
do not in any way alter the composition of the sentence. But when
they are placed after nouns they become more like verbs and are in fact
conjugated like them; e.g., tacai iama 'a high mountain,'
xiguei ideiri 'frequent comings and goings,' caxicoi (10 fito 'a wise
man,' cavaij mono 'a wretched thing,' aiaui coto 'a
dangerous thing,' umare tçuqi no cuchi 'one's natural, or mother
tongue.' There are also adjectives ending in na which, when they
are placed before nouns, do not alter the construction; e.g., qirei na
coto 'a clean thing.' All the adjectives, except those ending in
no, change their form in some way when they occur before verbs.
Those that end in ai change to ó; e.g., cono iama va
tacó gozaru 'this mountain is lofty.' Those ending in ei
change to eô; e.g., cono iama va xigueô gozaru 'these
mountains are dense.' Those ending in oi change to ô; e.g.,
caxicô gozaru 'he is wise.' Those ending in ui change to
ú; e.g., xei no ficú gozaru 'he is small in stature.' Those
ending in ii [ij] change to iú; e.g., caiú
gozaru 'it itches.'[59]
Among those adjectives ending in ij there are many which come from
verbs; e.g., nozomi,u means 'to wish,' and from it comes
nozomaxij 'which is to be wished for.' Other adjectives come from
nouns; e.g., varambe means 'a child, or infant,' and from this
comes varamberaxij which means 'childish.' Other examples may be
found in the dictionary.
Adjectives which end in na change the na to ni
when they are placed before verbs; e.g., fuxin ni zonzuru 'I think
it doubtful.' The adjectives that end in no sometimes change the
no to na; e.g., bechi no fito changes to bechi na
fito 'a different man.' Sometimes when it is followed by a verb the
na changes to a ni; e.g., bechi ni gozaru 'it is
different.' However, the meaning remains the same whether the word ends
in na or no; e.g., bechi no fito no cuhi cara qiita
[... cuchi ...] is the same as bechi na fito no cuchi cara
qiita 'I heard it from the mouth of a different person.'[60] The only difference in
these forms is that when the word ends in no no change occurs as a
consequence of what follows. But, as has been said, those adjectives that
end in na change to ni when they come before a verb. If a
substantive verb follows an adjective, it is an elegant statement; e.g.,
cono iami va tacó gozaru 'this mountain is high.' But if this kind
of verb does not follow, the sense is not altered since
the adjective is used as a substantive verb. But this is not used before
superiors. To them we will not say cono iama va tacai but rather
cono iama va tacó gozaru. The same is true for the other
adjectives.
Adjectives usually end in i but infrequently these adjectives
change to xi or to qu. Ioi, which means 'good,'
changes to ioqu, or ioxi; e.g., ioqu dancó xite,
which has the meaning of 'offering good (11 council.'[61] There are innumerable nouns which become
adjectives if na is suffixed to them; e.g., afo means
'ignorance' and from it comes the word afo na which means
'ignorant,' jiiu means 'liberty' and jiiu na means 'which
is free.' Other examples are offered by the dictionary.
There are certain abstract nouns which become adjectives when they
precede a vocable (vocabulis) with the meaning of 'man'; e.g.,
jifi means 'pity,' but when the word jin is placed after
it, it becomes jifijin 'a pitiable person.' Fin means
'poverty,' but when the word nin is suffixed to it, it becomes
finnin 'a poor person.' In the same way, when one suffixes
ja to fin, it makes finja, which also means 'a poor
person.' The word ban means 'watch,' but if the word ja is
added to it, it becomes banja 'a careful person.' Many other
examples can be found in the dictionary.
There are in Japanese certain words which are borrowed from Chinese,
called cobita[62] or
coie, and are written together to form by their union a noun and
an adjective. Thus, ten mean 'heaven,' xu means 'lord,' and
tenxu means 'lord of heaven.'
The preterit of verbs (which will be taken up in their place) seem to
have the same strength and meaning as adjectives when they are used
before nouns; e.g., iogoreta te 'dirty hands,' where
iogoreta is the preterit of the verb iogore,uru 'I became
dirty.' Caita qió means 'a written book' and caita is the
preterit of the verb caqi,u I write.' The abstract
(abstracta), or root from which the verb is formed, is itself a
noun which signifies the action of the verb in the abstract; e.g., facari means 'measure,' and it
comes from the verb facari,u 'I measure' while fajime means
'beginning,' and comes from the verb fajime,uru 'I begin.' Others
will be found in the dictionary. The prepositional particle mono,
when placed before an abstract or verbal noun, forms a noun which
indicates the subject who does the action; e.g., mono before
caqi makes monocaqi 'one who writes.' This same particle
when placed after a root forms a noun which indicates the effect of an
action; e.g., caqimono 'a writing.'
The particle goto placed after these same roots forms a noun
(12 which means a
thing which is worthy of the action indicated by the verb; e.g.,
mi is the root of the verb mi,uru 'I see,' and
migoto is 'a visible thing, or a thing worthy of being seen'; while
qiqi is the root of the verb qiqi,u 'I hear,' and
qiqigoto means 'a thing which can be heard, or is worthy of being
heard.'
If we place certain substantive nouns after certain of the verbal
nouns about which we have been speaking, there is formed a noun which has
the meaning of the action; e.g., foxi is the root of the verb
foxi,u 'to dry under the sun'; but, if ivo 'fish' is placed
after it, the meaning of the expression foxiivo becomes 'fish
dried in the sun.'
When the particle dógu 'instrument' is placed after the root of
a verb it forms a noun meaning the cause or instrument of the action
indicated by the verb; e.g., varaidógu 'the cause, or instrument
of ridicule,' caqidógu 'a writing instrument, or an instrument for
writing.'
The particle me when suffixed to a verb forms a noun which
indicates the terminus of the action; e.g., avaxe is the root of
the verb avaxe,uru 'to unite or join two things,' and
avaxeme means 'junction.' The same is true of other forms.
An abstract noun can be formed from those adjectives ending in
i if the i is changed to sa; e.g., nagai
means 'is long,' and nagasa means 'length.' The adjectives ending
in na change the na to sa in order to form abstract
nouns; e.g., aqiraca na which means 'clear' will become
aqiracasa 'clarity.'
Sometimes from two nouns taken together, often with a change in the
first or last letter, there is formed a third noun, which is
quasi-descriptive (quasi connotativus), almost like an adjective
or noun with a genitive; e.g., from qi 'wood' and
fotoqe 'idol' there results qibotoqe 'wooden idol,' with
the f changed to p [b]. But if the prefixed noun
ends in e, this e is changed to a in the attributive
of the compound; e.g., tçumasaqi 'the tip of the nail,'
canacugui 'iron nails.' A word which is placed second in these
compounds may change its first letter; if it is f it becomes
b or p, if it is s it becomes z, if it is
c it becomes g, if it is tç it becomes zz, if
it is x it becomes j; e.g., caribune, buppô,
(13
nigorizaqe, soragoto, qizzumari, and
sorajeimon. See the dictionary.
Pronouns
In the Japanese language there are no derivative pronouns, such as
meus,a,um, etc.; but the primitive pronouns, such as mei, tui, etc., are
used. These primitive forms do not have declensions for case, but rather
use the particles which are common to both nouns and pronouns.
Certain particles (about which we will speak later) when added to a
word indicate honor and thereby form a pronoun or substitute for it in
such circumstances as pronouns would normally be used. Thus, if I say
von fumi, when speaking to someone else, it is immediately
understood that I am speaking about his letter and not mine; for if I
were speaking about mine I would not say von fumi but only
fumi, since the particle von, which indicates honor,
signifies 'your letter.' This is also true for such particles as
mi which also attributes honor to the noun to which it is
joined.
First Person Pronouns—Ego, etc.[63]
There are eight particles which signify 'I, mine, to me, etc.' They
are vatacuxi, soregaxi, vare, mi,
varera, midomo, midomora, vare.[64] The first four indicate a
degree of superiority on the part of those who use them. The others are
more humble. Women use three other particles mizzucara,
varava, and vagami which are not used by men. The people in
the countryside use two others, vara [vora] and
vorara, while priests when speaking of themselves use
gusô, that is to say 'I, a worthless man of the cloth,' and old
men when speaking of themselves use guró, 'I, a worthless and
despicable old man.' The king (rex) says chin or
maru which means 'I, the King.' (14
To form the plural of these pronouns the pluralizing particles
domo or ra are added; e.g., midomo ga maitta toqi
'when we went.' To indicate the difference between the cases, the endings
about which we have spoken are suffixed.
Second Person Pronouns—Tu, tui, tibi, etc.[65]
There are many particles that form the second person pronoun. They are
differentiated to indicate those persons deserving no honor and respect,
those deserving some, moderate, great, or maximal honor and respect. In
speaking to inferiors there are three particles used for 'you';
vare, vonore, and sochi. If me or mega
is added as in vareme or varemega it means we very much
despise the person being spoken to. If we speak to people who are on our
own level, or just a little inferior, we use one of the three particles
sonata, sonofǒ, or varesama. If we speak to a
superior person, or someone on an equal level but with whom we must speak
elegantly, we use one of the seven particles conata, qixo,
qifó, gofen, qiden, conatasama, and
sonatasama. When speaking to persons of high rank, if we place the
name of their office before sama, it serves as a pronoun; e.g.,
Padresama gozare 'will the Father come.'
Conata, cochi, and conofǒ mean 'I, mine,'
but in the distributive sense of 'from me, or what concerns me.' In the
same way sochi, sonofó, and sonata mean 'you, from
you, or what concerns you.'
The plurals are formed by adding the particles listed above to the
pronouns according to the different degrees of honor. Vonore domo,
varera, and sochira mean 'you' when speaking to inferiors.
Vare tachi and sonata domo mean 'you' with persons of the
same rank. Qifó tachi, vocatagata, and vono vono
mean 'you' to persons requiring honor. The declension of these honorable
expressions follows the declension (15 of common particles.
Third Person Pronouns—Ille, illa, illud[66]
The two particles care care and are are mean 'this
(ille, illa, illud)' when speaking of inferior things.[67] There are four particles;
aitçu, aitçume, areme, and caitçume which
mean 'this' when one wants to show disrespect for the things being spoken
about. This idea is emphasized if one adds ga to those forms that
end in me; e.g., aitçuga and aitçumega 'this humble
man.' Cono means 'this (hic, haec, hoc),' sono means
'that (iste, ista, istud),' and ano means 'that (ille,
illa, illud).' These words require a noun after them; e.g., cono
fito 'this man' with cono mono having the same meaning but not
being an honorific expression. Sono coto means 'that thing,'
ano fito 'that person,' conata or conofó 'here,'
sonata or sonofó 'there,' and anofó 'there, yonder.'
Core means 'this (hic),' sore 'that (istud),'
and are 'that (illud).' These forms are in the neuter
gender and are not followed by nouns. Their plurals are corera,
sorera, and arera, while the others follow the common
rules. Cano means 'that which we have mentioned'; e.g., cano
fito 'that person.' The pronoun 'a certain (quidam)' is made
with the particle aru; e.g., aru fito 'a certain person,'
aru tocoro ni 'in a certain place.'
The pronoun 'each (unusquisque)' is formed with the particles
men men and sore sore.
The pronoun 'each and every (universi & singuli)' is formed
with tare mo mina.
The pronoun 'anyone (quicumque)' is formed with tare nite
mo, tare nite mo are, and tare nari tomo.
The particle tare mo, when placed before a negative, forms the
pronoun 'no one, or nobody'; e.g., tare mo mairananda 'nobody
went.' The particle nani taru coto nari tomo means 'whatever
happens, or whichever thing happens.' The particle mei mei means
'to each, or everyone in particular.'
The particle goto makes the distributive pronoun meaning
'every.' This form is used after vocables which are proper to the
Japanese language; i.e., iomi. The same results are achieved by
placing the (16
particle mai before vocables which come from the Chinese language;
i.e., coie. For example, fi means
'day,' and figoto ni means 'daily.' Nen is a Japanese
borrowing from a Chinese word meaning 'year,' and mainen means
'every year, or all year.' The same result is obtained by the repetition
of the noun; e.g., fito means 'person,' and fitibito means
'all the people, or many people,' fi means 'day,' and fibi
ni means 'all of the days, or every day.'
The indefinite pronoun 'some (aliqui)' is formed with
niiotte; e.g., toqi niiotte 'some times,' fito
niiotte 'some men.'
The pronoun 'the same (idem)' is formed with vonaji;
e.g., vonaji tocoro cara 'from the same place.' The particle
dôjen means the same thing but in the neuter ; e.g., dôjen
degozaru 'it is the same.' This word is used in reply to some one who
has congratulated you, etc.
The pronoun 'himself (ipse)' is formed with the particles
nuxi, sono mi, and vaga. The particle vareto
mi forms the pronoun 'himself (ipsemet)'; e.g., vareto mi
ni ata vo nasu (96) 'he brings harm to himself,' mi vo vasurete;
ta vo tasuquru 'he forgets himself and saves others.' The particle
vatacuxi means 'a thing which belongs to oneself (re
propria)'; e.g., vatacuxi no coto 'ones own thing,'
vatacuxi ni ivareta 'he spoke for himself.'
The pronoun 'somebody (aliquis)' is made with the particles
tare zo and taso; e.g., tare zo maittaraba 'if
somebody were to come,' taso sacana ga aru ca tói ni iqe [...
toi ...] 'let someone go and ask if there is food.'
The neuter pronoun 'something (aliquid)' is formed with the
particles nan zo and nanica; e.g., nan zo ga araba
cuvózu 'I would eat if there were something,' ima faia te ga jiiú
ni gozaru fodo ni nanica caqi maraxô 'I would write something if I
were to have my hands free, or untied.'
The interrogative 'who (quis)' is translated with the three
particles tare, taga, and taso. The particles
taga or tare no form the genitive; e.g., taga mono
ca 'whose thing is this.' When someone comes to the door and knocks,
he says mono mó.[68]
To this one responds taso, taga, or tare 'who is
it?' Nani means 'what (quid)'; e.g., nani vo suru
(17 ca or
nani goto vo suru ca? 'what are you doing?' nani ni sore vo
totte iqu ca? 'for what reason do you bring this to me?'
Relative Pronouns
The relative pronoun is formed by placing the noun, in connection with
which there is a relative (relativum), after the verb; e.g.,
ten ni maximasu varera ga von voia 'Our Father who is in Heaven,'
deta tocoro va 'the place from which he came out,' te ni sumi
no tçuita fito (88) 'a man to whose hands ink is adhering.' If the
sentence (oratio) requires a nominative before the verb it must be
formed with one of the particles which indicate the nominative;
ga, no, or iori. For example, vatacuxi ga caita
fumi 'the letter which I wrote,' conata no vôxerareta coto
'the thing which Your Lordship says.' The third particle, iori, is
used when there is movement in the sentence; e.g., Deus iori ataie
cudasareta gracia 'the grace which God provided, or gave,' ano
tocoro ni amata no qió atta vo torareta (87v.) 'he brought what many
books there were in that place.' When two sentences containing a relation
come together the first is placed second by general rule,[69] and the second uses either a past,
present, or future particle according to what is required by the sense of
the sentence; e.g., qesa Oracio vo móxita qió ga tçucuie no uie ni aru
vo motte coi 'bring the book which is on the desk (sedila) at
which I said my prayers this morning.' In this sentence qió ga,
which is the first relative, comes after the verb móxita; and the
vo which stands for the second relative comes after the verb
aru. When we want to be more specific about that of which we are
speaking we place the particle tocoro no between the thing itself
and the verb; e.g., vare to dôxin xita tocoro no mono domo va mina
buguen ni natta 'all those who agreed with me became rich.' Sometimes
the relative, because of the difficulty in understanding it, is expressed
by expositions (per exponentes). Thus, in place of ima
corosareta Pedro no co va sonata no chijn gia which means 'the son of
Peter who has just been killed was your friend,' we say ima Pedro
corosareta sono co va sonata no chijn de gozaru.
Sometimes they join two particles, as determined by the case, and form
a kind of relative pronoun which is placed before the relative; e.g.,
sono tocoro de no dancó 'the consultation at that place,' (18 Marsella ie no
fune 'the ship to Marseille,' maire to no móxi goto dearu [
... gia] 'it is said that I should go.'
Mairu mai to no dancó ni qivamatta 'it was resolved that he not
go,' maitte nochi no dancó 'the consultation he arrived after,'
varambe cara no catagui 'a custom from youth,' xô tame no
chôgui gia (22) 'this is the plan (ars) according to which it
will be done,' anofito no vo toró 'I shall take what belongs to
that man.' This ends the note on relative pronouns.
The Formation of the Verb and Its Conjugation[70]
The verbs in Japanese have no number or person. These distinctions are
indicated instead by the particles used in the formation of the plurals
and in the declensions. There are three affirmative conjugations and the
same number of negative.
The root (radix) of the verb does not by itself indicate tense.
For this reason it is necessary to conjugate the verb in order to show
the tenses.
All the verbs of the first conjugation[71] end in e. Those ending in
gi or ji, together with xi and maraxi,
although they end in i, are also in the first conjugation. If the
root ends in de or gi, the present form is made by changing
them to zzuru; e.g., fagi forms its present in
fazzuru and means 'to blush,' de becomes zzuru and
means 'to leave.' If the root ends in je or ji it changes
in the present to zuru; e.g., maje:mazuru 'to mix,'
anji:anzuru 'to consider.' If they end in xe they change to
suru; e.g., avaxe:avasuru 'to join.' Xi and
maraxi, which (as we have said) are in the first conjugation,[72] change xi to
suru; e.g., xi:suru 'to do,' maraxi:marasuru which
also means 'to do.' If the root ends in te it changes to
tçuru; e.g., sodate:sodatçuru 'to nourish, or support.' The
remaining roots which end in e change, in their separate ways, the
e to uru; e.g., ague:aguru 'to offer,'
nigue:niguru 'to run away.'
There are certain verbal preterits which have present tense meanings.
They are those which are passive in form but active in (19 meaning; e.g.,
cocoroieta 'to understand,' qicoieta 'to hear,'
voboieta 'to remember,' qiqiieta 'to understand,'
zonjita 'to know,' and there may be many others. The
verbs which follow belong to the first conjugation even though their
roots do not end as previously stated.[73] If the present tense of these forms
does not change the i to uru they are exceptional; e.g.,
abi,uru 'to wash oneself,' fotobi,uru 'to become soft,'
focorobi,uru 'to become unstitched,' cabi [cabi,uru]
'to be moldy,'[74]
sabi [sabi,uru] 'to rust,' deqi [deqi,uru]
'to be finished, or ended,' cuchi:cutçuru 'to rot,'
michi:mitçuru 'to be filled in by the sea,' ini,uru 'to
leave,' nobi:nobiru or noburu 'to be spread out,'
tçuqi,uru 'to be used,' vori:uru 'to descend from above,'
xij:xijru[75] 'to
invite to dine, by compulsion,' ni:niru 'to resemble,'
mochij:mochiiuru 'to evaluate,' ni:niru 'to cook,'
mi:miru 'to look at,' cori,uru 'to correct,'
vochi:votçuru 'to fall,' i:iru 'to exist, or be present,'
fugui,uru 'to pass, as time passes,' vabi,uru 'to beg for
mercy,' carabi,uru 'to become dry,' iqi:iquru 'to live,'
fi:firu 'to become dry,' qi:quru 'to come,' qi:qiru
'to dress oneself,' voqi,uru 'to get out of bed.' The following
four verbs have irregular, as well as regular, present tenses;[76] ataie has
atóru 'to give,' vaqimaie has vaqimǒru 'to
discriminate,' tonaie has tonóru 'to bless,' sonaie
has sonóru 'to place in a high position.'
The Preterit, Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfect
In Japanese there is no imperfect. In its place the perfect is used.
The perfect is formed in two ways. The first is by suffixing ta to
the root of a verb ; e.g., agueta is the preterit of the verb
ague,uru 'to offer.' The second is by suffixing te to the
root and to that adding gozari,u or ari,u which is then
conjugated in the present or the preterit of the second conjugation;
e.g., aguete gozaru or aguete gozatta, or aguete aru
or aguete atta 'offered, or had offered.' If the particle
fáia [faia] is placed before the verb the expression is
strengthened; e.g., (20 fáia aguete gozatta [faia
...] 'I had already offered it.' When the verb ari,u is suffixed
to the perfect it is not as elegant a way of speaking as when
gozari,u is used. Therefore when speaking one must be careful
about what one says, or in front of whom one speaks, so as to give each
person the honor he deserves.
The Future of the First Conjugation
If the root of the verb ends in te this syllable is changed to
teô or chô to form the future; e.g., tate,uru will
become tateô or tachô 'I shall build.'[77] If the root ends in ji the
future is formed by changing ji to jô; e.g., xenji
becomes xenjô 'I shall prepare, or brew, the medicine.' If the
root ends in xe [xi] it changes to xô; e.g.,
xi becomes xô, and maraxi becomes maraxô 'I
shall do.' If it ends in ie it is changed to io
[iô]; e.g., voxiie becomes voxiio [vaxiiô] 'I
shall teach.' The remaining roots ending in e suffix the particles
ô, ôzu, or ôzuru; e.g., agueô,
agueôzu, or agueôzuru 'I shall offer.' These endings are
used for the first conjugation[78] even when the roots end in i;
e.g., deqiôzu 'I shall be finished.'
The future is also formed by taking the syllable nu from the
negative present (see below) and putting in its place the particle
baia. Thus, by taking nu away from aguenu and
putting in its place baia, we obtain aguebaia 'I will
offer.' For minu if you take away the nu and put in its
place baia it will become mibaia 'I will see, or
behold.'
The future perfect is formed by suffixing the particles te
arózu or tarózu to the root; e.g., aguete arózu or
aguetarózu 'I shall already have offered.' The same results are
obtained if faia is placed before the simple future; e.g., faia
agueôzu.
(21
The Imperative of the First Conjugation
The imperative of the first conjugation is formed with the root of the
verb alone, or with the addition of the particle io; e.g.,
ague or ague io 'offer!'[79] The future of the imperative is the
future absolute agueô or agueôzu. This is a more elegant
and polite way of speaking than giving a command with the regular
imperative. The imperative is also formed by taking the nu from
the negative present (see below) and putting in its place
the particle sai. Thus, if one takes the nu from
aguenu and replaces it with sai it becomes ague sai
which means 'offer!' If the particle tai is placed after the root
there is formed a kind of future or optative by which the wish of the
speaker is expressed. It is therefore an elegant imperative; thus
mizzu fitotçu nomitai 'I would like to have a drink of water' is
the same as 'give me some water to drink.' When a relative [clause]
concerns a precept, rule, admonition, or prohibition the imperative is
expressed word for word in whatever the conjugation, affirmative or
negative; e.g., Christiani naru na to no xógun no fatto ga aru
[Christian ni ...] 'it is the law of the Shōgan
(imperator) that no one should become a Christian,' Padre core
vo coxiraie io to voxerareta niiotte [... vôxerareta ...]
'because the Priest told me to do it.'
The Optative of the First Conjugation
The optative, both present and future, is the present tense of the
imperative with the particles negavacu va or avare placed
before it and the particles gana or caxi placed after it.
Sometimes it is formed by adding the particle gana without any
prefix; e.g., negavacu va ague io caxi? or avare aguei
gana[80] 'would that
you were to offer?' avare icanaru tengu, bangue mono nari tomo vare vo
totte, fiie no iama ni noboxe io caxi! (15v)[81] 'Oh! if there were some one, either
devil or soothsayer, who could make me ascend the mountain called Hie.'
The particle gana when it is placed after a noun indicates a wish
for the thing specified by the noun; e.g., saqe gana 'oh! sake';
and if (22 one is
asked if he would like something to drink, the answer is nani gana
'would that I had some.'
The perfect of the optative is the second form of the future followed
by the particle mono vo!; e.g., niqueozu mono vo!
[nigueôzu ...] 'would that I had fled!' The same is achieved by
niguetaraba iocaró mono vo. Sometimes they say only niguetaró
va or niguete aró ni va iocaró mono vo.
The Subjunctive of the First Affirmative Conjugation
The present tense of the subjunctive is formed by changing the
u in which the present indicative ends to eba; e.g.,
aguru becomes agureba 'since I offer.' It is also formed
from the present by adding ni, de, vo, or va
to the particle tocoro according to the case requirements of the
verb that follows, with the first verb being controlled by the noun;
e.g., aru toqi Pedro chinsui xite iraruru tocoro ie fito ga qite
(16v)[82] 'since a certain
man came to the place where Peter was when he was drunk,' nhóbó ni
tachi vacarete iru tocoro ni (16v)[83] 'since they were separated and
divorced,' có aru tocoro ni 'since things are this way,' ioso
ie zzuru tocoro va fito ni corosareta (16v)[84] 'when he went outside, he was killed by
someone,' go misa vo asobaruru tocoro vo uchi coroita (121)[85] 'he killed him while he
was celebrating mass.' This is a general rule which applies to all
conjugations.
The perfect and the pluperfect of the subjunctive are formed from
these same tenses in the indicative with the addition of the particle
reba; e.g., agueta reba 'since he had offered.' It is also
formed by taking away gozaru from the preterit pluperfect and
putting in its place atta reba or atta; but, when
atta is used, the particles ni, vo, va, or
ie must be added according to the requirements of the following
verb, just as with tocoro in the present tenses; e.g., aguete
atta reba or aguete atta ni, vo, va, or
ie 'since I had already offered it.'
The future of the subjunctive is formed by adding the particle
toqi to the future indicative; e.g., agueô toqi 'since he
would offer it later.'
The pluperfect subjunctive, with all the expressions (vox)
which signify that which comes after a completed action, is formed by
(23 placing
cara, nochi, or igo after the pluperfect indicative,
minus gozaru; e.g., aguete cara, nochi, or
igo, mairó 'I shall leave after he has offered it.' This is like
aguetaró toki mairó 'I shall leave after he has already offered
it.' Agueôzuru ni or agueôzuru tocoro ni means 'since he
was already prepared to offer it.' Agueôzuru coto no saqi ni means
'a little while before he offered it.'
The present tense of the permissive subjunctive is formed in two ways.
The first is by changing the u of the present indicative to
edomo; e.g., aguredomo 'although I could offer it.'
The preterit of the permissive subjunctive is formed by adding
redomo to the preterit indicative; e.g., agueta redomo
'although he had offered it.' The future permissive is formed by adding
redomo to the second form of the future indicative; e.g.,
agueôzu redomo 'although he would be able to offer it.' The second
form of the permissive subjunctive is formed by adding the particle
tomo to the present indicative; e.g., aguru tomo 'although
he could offer it.' The particles mamaio or madeio may also
be added to the present tense; e.g., sore vo voxiiuru mamaio or
sore vo voxiiuru madeio 'although he could teach this.'
The preterit of the second permissive is formed by suffixing
ritomo to the preterit indicative; e.g., agueta ritomo
'although he had offered it.' The same meaning is achieved by adding the
particles mamaio or madeio to the preterit indicative;
e.g., agueta mamaio or agueta madeio; or by adding
tote to the preterit subjunctive; e.g., aguetareba
tote.
The future permissive is formed by adding tomo to the second
form of the future indicative; e.g., agueozu tomo [agueôzu
tomo 'although he would offer it']. It is also formed by adding
mamaio or madeio to the same future form. If the particle
tatoi is placed before the forms of the permissive subjunctive
great strength is added to the sentence; e.g., tatoi vôxeraruru
tomo 'even though you may state this.' The same meaning is obtained
by removing the verbs gozaru or aru from the pluperfect
indicative and replacing it with the particle mo; e.g., aguete
mo 'although he may offer it.' The same mo when placed after
the present indicative gives the same meaning; e.g., doco de qiqi
marasuru mo, sono sata va mósanu 'although he hears that everywhere,
he does not pay any attention.' The same meaning is obtained by the
sentences ague mo xeio caxi?, aguete mo xô madeio, and
nanto mo ague caxi? [... aguei caxi?][86] 'although he offers.' Aguru ni
saxerarei, (24
agueta ni saxerarei, or agueo ni saxerarei [agueô
...] have the meanings of 'although he could have offered, although he
could offer, or although he would offer'; or one might say 'let us offer'
or 'let us give.'
The Infinitive
The present infinitive is formed by adding coto or to to
the present indicative; e.g., aguru coto or aguru to 'to
offer.'
The preterit infinitive is formed by adding the same particles to the
preterit indicative; e.g., agueta coto or agueta to 'to
have offered.' The future infinitive is formed by adding the same
particles to the future indicative; e.g., agueô coto or agueô
to 'to be about to offer.' The same meaning is obtained by adding
ióni to the present, preterit, or future indicative; e.g., nai
nai guioi ni caqerareô ióni va vare mo zonzuru fitobito mo zonjita
(22v) 'I think and others believed me to have been favored by you with
many benefits,' qeccu vare ni voxiie marasuru ióni gozaru (117v)
'he is truly able to teach me,' agueta ióni gozaru 'he is said to
have offered it.'
To ask or answer a question the infinitive is often subordinate to the
verb which follows; e.g., nhóbógata ni vochita coto ga atta ca?
'did you fall into the sin of adultery with this woman? is this what
happened?' etc. All the tenses of the infinitive are used in the same
way.
Sometimes the preterit infinitive is replaced by the pluperfect with
gozaru or aru removed; e.g., Deus no minori vo firomete
iocaró 'it is good to spread the Gospel.' Sometimes the present or
preterit indicative plus ga replaces the present or preterit of
the infinitive; e.g., sore vo vôxeraruru ga varú gozaró 'it will
be bad to say that,' maitta ga maxi gia (21) 'it is better to have
come, or it was better to come.'
When the substantive verb follows the infinitive, the particle
coto is not required; e.g., cosacazzuqi de va saqe vo nomu
devanai (23) 'to drink sake from a small glass is not to drink sake,'
core coso caqu de gozare 'this we are able to say, or better,
write,' caqu de gozatte coso 'this is not the way for it to be
written,' sore va aguru devanai 'that is not to offer it.' Some of
these examples are taken from other (25 conjugations but the general rule applies
to all. The idea of the infinitive is also obtained by the
following means of expression; ague va, aguredomo 'although
I offered, or even if I made it so that it was offered.' Because this is
a general rule for all the conjugations, they also say qiqi va
tçucamatçure domo gatten xenu 'although I have listened, or done
everything necessary to hear; I still don't understand.' They also say
aguru vo motte 'by offering, or with the fact that he is to
offer,' aguru iori 'from the fact that he is to offer,' aguru
nitçuite 'about the fact that he is to offer.'
The gerund in Di is the present or future indicative followed
by the particle jibun, or less frequently some other particle
meaning 'time'; e.g., aguru jibun 'the time for offering,'
agueô ni qivamatta 'he made the decision that it be offered,'
niguru jibun gia 'it is time to flee,' corosareôzuru ni
aisadamatte arǒzu (13) 'it will have been decided that he will
be killed, or will have to be killed.'
The gerund in Do is formed in two ways. The first is by adding
the particles ni or tote to the present indicative; e.g.,
aguruni or agurutote iurusareta 'I was freed by it being
offered.' The second way is by removing the verb gozaru from the
pluperfect; e.g., aguete cutabireta 'I became tired by offering,
or raising up,' that is to say, 'from the action of presenting, or
raising up, I suffered the result of becoming tired.' There is also
another elegant, and frequently used, way to form the gerund in
Do. It is done by placing the root of the verb in front of another
verb making a compound; e.g., fiqi iosuru 'to approach, pulling.'
The roots which are used in this way do not change with respect to their
function. The gerund in Do is also used to express purpose
taixó to xite 'since he was a commander (dux), or was
fulfilling the function of a commander,' von rei to xite 'giving
thanks,' rǒtai nomi ni xite 'since he was an old man,'
tçucai xite ivaruru 'he said it as a messenger.'
The gerund in Dum is formed by adding the particles tame
or tote to the present or future indicative; e.g., aguru
tame or agueo tote [agueô tote] 'in order to offer.'
The same meaning is obtained by aguru ni fatto ga aru 'there is a
law about offering,' unless this should be considered a gerund in ni
[Di].
The supine in Tum is formed in two ways. The first is by adding
ni to the root. The second is by adding tameni to the
present indicative; e.g., tazzune ni maitta or
tazzunuru tameni maitta 'I came in order to obtain it.'
The supine in Tu is the root of the verb alone. To obtain the
same meaning they also use mósu ni voiobanu 'it is not necessary
to (26 speak.'
The present, preterit, and future participles are formed by adding the
particles fito or mono to the indicative. When fito
is used the result is a more honorable way of speaking; e.g., aguru
fito or aguru mono 'he who offers,' agueta fito 'he who
offered,' agueô mono 'he who will offer,' Buppôgacu suru
tomogara ni voite va (73v) 'as for those who devote themselves to the
study of the laws of idolatry,' von vo xiru vo fito to va iúzo; von vo
xiranu voba chicuxó to coso iie (96v). In this last sentence the
vo takes the place of the participle, and the sentence therefore
means 'those who know kindness (beneficia) are correctly called
men; those who do not know it are truly called beasts.' This is a general
rule for all the conjugations and therefore the example contains a verb
from the second conjugation. The participle is also made by adding
te ['hand'] to the root of the verb; e.g., aguete 'one who
offers.'
The First Negative Conjugation
The negative root is formed by adding zu to the affirmative
root; e.g., aguezu.
The present tense is formed with nu instead of zu; e.g.,
aguenu 'I do not offer.' This is a general rule no matter how the
root ends. The only exceptions are xi and maraxi which form
the negative present in xenu and maraxenu 'I do not do.'
The roots that end in ji change the ji to je and
then suffix the particle nu to the present; e.g., zonji in
the negative present becomes zonienu [zonjenu] 'I do not
know.' In some areas of Japan they form the negative by removing the
final u from the negative root and adding ari,u, which is
then conjugated according to the required tense; e.g., aguezaru 'I
do not offer,' aguezatta 'I did not offer,' aguezatta reba
'since I did not offer.' They also say aguezu xite 'by not
offering.'[87]
The negative of the preterit is formed in like manner by adding the
particle nanda instead of nu; e.g., aguenanda 'I did
not offer,' zonjenanda 'I did not know,' vorinanda 'I did
not descend.'
The pluperfect is formed by changing the last a of the preterit
to e and adding the verb gozaru in the present and
gozatta in the preterit; e.g., aguenande gozaru or
aguenande gozatta 'I have not offered.' It is also formed by
adding ide gozaru or ide gozatta instead of (27 nande gozaru;
e.g., agueide gozaru or agueide gozatta 'I had not
offered,' zonzeide gozaru [zonjeide ... ][88] 'I had not known,' vochiide
gozatta 'I had not fallen.'
The negative future is formed by adding mai or maji to
the affirmative root or the affirmative present tense; e.g., ague
mai or aguru maji 'you will not offer.'
The imperative is formed by placing na after the present
indicative; aguru na 'do not offer.'
It is also formed by placing na before the root and so
after it; e.g., na ague so 'do not offer.'
It is also formed by placing na after the root; e.g., ague
na 'do not offer,' mixe na 'do not show,' mesare na 'do
not do.' The roots which end in xi or ji, but are in the
first conjugation,[89]
change the i to e to form the negative imperative; e.g.,
sǒ xe na or só maraxe na 'do not do that,'
sǒ zonze na [só zonje na] 'do not think that.'
The optative is formed by placing negavacuva or avare
before the negative imperative and placing caxi or gana
after it; e.g., avare aguru na caxi 'oh! if only you would not
offer,' and negavacuva na ague so gana with the same meaning.
The preterit of the optative is formed by placing mono vo after
the negative future; e.g., aguru mai mono vo 'oh! if only you
would not have offered.'
The negative subjunctive is formed by changing the u which ends
the negative present to eba; e.g., agueneba 'since he did
not offer.'
The preterit of the subjunctive is formed by adding reba to the
negative preterit of the indicative; e.g., aguenanda reba 'since
he had not offered.'
The future of the subjunctive is formed by adding qereba to the
negative future; e.g., niguru mai qereba 'since he is not going to
escape.'
The permissive subjunctive is formed by adding domo to the
negative present after changing the final u of the verb to
e; e.g., aguenedomo 'although he cannot offer.' They also
say, and this usage is preferred, aguenaidemo or agueidemo
'even if he not offer.'[90]
The preterit of the permissive subjunctive is formed by placing
redomo after the negative preterit; e.g., aguenanda redomo
'although he had not offered.' Aguenaidemo or agueidemo
'although he would not be allowed to offer,' is also said.
The permissive future is formed by adding qeredomo to the
negative future; e.g., aguru mai qeredomo 'although he is not
going to be allowed to offer.' (28
Another way of forming the permissive subjunctive is to place the
particle tomo after the negative root; e.g., aguezu tomo
'although he is not going to be able to offer.' It is also formed by
placing tote after the [negative] present subjunctive; e.g.,
agueneba tote. A third way is to add mamaio or
madeio to the negative present; e.g., aguenu mamaio or
aguenu madeio 'although he cannot offer.'
The preterit is formed by placing ritomo after the negative
preterit; e.g., aguenanda ritomo 'although he had not offered.' It
is also formed by placing tote after the negative preterit of the
subjunctive; e.g., aguenanda reba tote, or better,
aguenaidemo or agueidemo 'although he does not offer, or
had not offered.'
The future is formed by placing tomo after the negative future;
e.g., aguemai tomo 'although he is not going to offer,'
vochiidemo 'although he will not fall.'
The present, preterit, and future infinitives are the present,
preterit, and future negative indicative present tenses followed by
coto or to; e.g., aguenu coto 'not to offer,'
aguenanda coto 'not to have offered,' aguru mai coto 'not
to be going to offer.'
Sometimes they use the negative present instead of the preterit in all
the conjugations; e.g., mi maraxenu 'I did not see.'
The negative gerund in Di is the same as the negative present
or future; e.g., aguenu or aguru mai 'of not offering.'
The gerund in Do is formed by placing ni after the
negative root or the negative present tense; e.g., aguezuni or
aguenuni 'by not offering.' The same meaning is obtained with
agueide, aguenaide or aguezu xite.
The gerund in Dum is formed by placing tote or
tame after the [negative] present or future of the indicative;
e.g., aguenu tame or aguru mai tote 'in order not to
offer.'
The present, preterit, and future participles are formed by adding
fito or mono to the negative of the present, preterit, and
future indicatives; e.g., aguenu fito 'he who is not offering,'
aguenanda mono 'he who did not offer,' aguru mai mono 'he
who will not offer,' aguenaide cara or agueide nochi 'after
he had not offered, after they did not offer, or after it was not
offered.'
(29
The Second Affirmative Conjugation
All the roots of the second conjugation end in i and form their
present tense by changing i to u; e.g., iomi:iomu 'I
read.' If the root ends in chi it changes its ending to tçu
e.g., machi:matçu 'I wait.' If the root ends in xi it
changes to su; e.g., coroxi:corosu 'I kill.'
For the preterit, if the root ends in ami it changes to
óda; e.g., cami:códa 'I ate, or chewed.' If it ends in
ebi or emi it changes to eôda; e.g.,
saqebi:saqeôda 'I am injured,' sonemi:soneoda
[soneôda] 'I envied, or I had envy.' If it ends in obi or
omi it changes to ôda; e.g., corobi:corôda 'he
fell,' comi:côda 'it enclosed itself.' If it ends in umi it
changes to únda [unda]; e.g., casumi:casunda 'it is
cloudy.' The same change is made for roots ending in imi; e.g.,
canaximi:canaxúnda [canaxunda] 'he became sad.' If it ends
in gui it changes to ida; e.g., fegui:feida 'it is
divided.' Xini,uru has the preterit xinda 'he is dead,' and
ini:uru has the preterit inda 'he left.' While in this
respect they [xini and ini] are in the second conjugation,
in the other tenses they are in the first. A root ending in chi or
ri changes in the preterit to tta; e.g., mochi:motçu
in the preterit becomes motta 'he received,' chiri,u:chitta
'it is scattered.' Those which end in xi or qi change to
ita; e.g., coroxi,u:coroita 'he killed,'
qiqi,u:qiita 'he heard,' xiqi,u:xiita 'he stretched it
out.'
The future is formed by changing the i in which the root ends
to ó, ǒzu, ózuru; e.g., iomó, iomǒzu, or
iomózuru 'you will read.' If the root ends in chi it
changes to tó; e.g., machi:mató 'I shall wait.' A root
ending in xi changes to só; e.g., móxi,u:mósó 'I
shall say, or speak.'
The imperative is formed by changing the i in which the root
ends to e; e.g., iomi:iome 'read! or may you read.' If the
root ends in chi it changes to te; e.g., machi:mate
'wait!' The imperative is also formed by changing the nu in which
the negative present ends to ai; if you remove the nu from
iomanu and replace it with ai it gives you yomai
'read!'[91] This is a
common rule for the third conjugation, but this imperative is used only
when addressing inferiors.
The future of the imperative is the future absolute; e.g., (30 iomó 'you will
read.' This is used when addressing very low people.
The remaining tenses of the optative, subjunctive, gerund, and
infinitive are formed in the same way and with the same particles as are
used for each in the first conjugation.
The Second Negative Conjugation
The root of the negative second conjugation is made by changing
i, in which the affirmative root ends, to azu; e.g.,
iomi:iomazu 'not reading.'
If the root ends in chi the present tense is formed by changing
it to tanu; e.g., machi:matanu 'I do not wait.' If it ends
in xi it changes to sanu; e.g., coroxi:corosanu 'I
do not kill.' If they end in any other way change i to anu;
e.g., corobi:corobanu 'I do not fall.'
The preterit is formed by changing the nu of the present tense
to nanda; e.g., corobanu:corobananda 'I did not fall,'
iomananda 'I did not read.' The other tenses are formed in the
same way as the negative first conjugation.
The Third Affirmative Conjugation
The roots of the third conjugation end in ai, oi, or
ui. Those ending in ai change to ó to form the
present; e.g., narai:naró 'I learn.' Those ending in oi
change to ô; e.g., vomoi:vomô 'I think.' Those ending in ui change to
ú; e.g., cui:cú 'I eat.'
The preterit is formed by adding ta to the present tense; e.g.,
naróta 'I learned,' vomôta 'I thought,' cúta 'I
ate.'
The pluperfect is formed by changing the final a of the
preterit to e and adding the verb gozaru in the present and
gozatta in the past, in the same way as we have described for the
first conjugation; e.g., naróte gozaru or narǒte
gozatta 'I have already learned.'
The future is formed by changing the final i of the root to
vó, vózu, or vózuru; e.g., naravó,
naravǒzu, or naravózuru 'I shall learn.' If the root
ends in oi it is changed to vô, vôzu, or
vôzuru [vǒ, vǒzu, (31 or
vǒzuru]; e.g., vomoi:vomouô, vomovozu, or
vomovôzuru [vomoi:vomovǒ, vomovǒzu, or
vomovǒzuru] 'I shall think.'[92]
The imperative is formed by placing e after the root; e.g.,
naraie 'learn!' toie 'ask!' cuie 'eat!'[93] It is also formed by
removing the syllable nu from the negative present tense and
replacing it with the letter i; e.g., naravai 'learn!'
tovai 'ask!' cuvai 'eat!' This form is used when addressing
inferiors, as are those of the other conjugations.
The Third Negative Conjugation
The root of the third negative conjugation is formed by changing the
i of the affirmative root to vazu; e.g., naravazu,
tovazu, and cuvazu. The present tense is formed by changing
the i to vanu; e.g., naravanu 'I do not learn,'
tovanu 'I do not ask,' cuvanu 'I do not eat.'
The preterit is formed by changing the i of the root to
vananda; e.g., naravananda 'I did not learn,'
tovananda 'I did not ask,' cuvananda 'I did not eat.'
The pluperfect is formed by changing the final a of the
preterit to e and adding the verb gozaru or gozatta;
e.g., cuvanande gozatta 'I had not eaten,' or
naravanande gozaru 'I had not learned.' The remaining forms are
like the other conjugations.[94]
If the substantive verb is placed after the gerund in Do for
all the affirmative and negative conjugations, it means that the action
signified by the gerund is or is not done; e.g., aguete aró 'it
will already be offered,' cono qió ga caite gozaranu 'this book is
not written,' agueide arózu 'he will not yet have offered.' The
substantive verbs are gozaru:gozaranu, voru:vori nai,
dea or gia:devanai, aru:aranu or gozaranu,
voru:voranu, and each of these verbs follows the general rules for
its conjugation.[95]
If the substantive verb from any of the conjugations is placed after
the infinitive form it means that whatever is signified by the infinitive
is, was, or will be; or the negative thereof; e.g., aguru coto aró
'it will be that he offers,' that is to say 'he will offer,' naróta
coto gozaru mai 'he will not learn.' All these substantive verbs are
conjugated in the second conjugation to which they belong by virtue of
the fact that their (32 roots end in i;
ari,u:gozari,u.
The Conjugation of the Negative Substantive Verb
The negative substantive verb is nai, gozanai, or
vori nai which means 'not to be.' Its root is naqu,
gozanaqu, or vori naqu.
The preterit is formed by changing the i in which the present
tense ends to c and then adding the preterit of ari,u which
is atta; e.g., nacatta or gozanacatta 'he was not.'
The other tenses are conjugated, as is ari,u, in the second
conjugation.
The imperative is nacare, nanaiso, or nai na 'be
not!'
The subjunctive is formed by changing the i of the present
tense to qereba; e.g., naqereba or gozanaqereba 'if
it be not.'
The permissive subjunctive is formed by changing the i of the
present to qeredomo; e.g., gozanaqeredomo 'although he is
not.'
The preterit of the subjunctive is formed by adding redomo to
the preterit of the indicative; e.g., nacatta redomo 'although he
was not.'
The substantive [verb] with the particle tomo is formed with
the root; e.g., naqu tomo 'even if it were not.' The gerund is
nó, nóte, naqu xite, or nacatte 'since it is
not.' The remaining are formed as above, with the verb ari,u
added, and are conjugated in the second conjugation.
Adjectives, when they do not precede verbs, are conjugated in the same
way as the negative substantive verb. The adjectives, which have been
said above to end in ai, ei, oi, ui, and
ij, form their roots by changing the final i to qu;
e.g., fucaqu is the root of 'deep,' ioqu the root of
'good,' xiguequ the root of 'dense,' varuqu the root of
'bad,' and vonajiqu the root of 'the same.'
The present tense is the form (vox) of the adjective itself;
e.g., ioi 'good,' fucai 'deep,' varui 'bad,'
vonaji 'the same.'[96]
The preterit is formed by changing the i of the adjective to
c or q and adding ari,u. This form is then
conjugated according to (33 the tense required by the sentence.
The permissive subjunctive with tomo is fucaqu tomo or
fucai tomo 'although deep.'
The gerund in Do is fucóte 'since it was deep,'
ióte 'since it was good,' canaxiúte [canaxúte][97] 'since it was sad,'
xingueote [xigeôte][98] 'since it was dense.' It also takes the
form of fucó xite, fucaqu xite, or fucacatte, or
again iô xite, ioqu xite, or iocatte.
The adjectives which end in na are not conjugated. There is,
however, a gerund in Do. For example, aqiracana has for its
gerund aqiracani xite 'since it was clear,' and with the same
meaning there is aqiraca de. Arisóna has arisǒni
xite 'since it became apparent, or easy to believe.' Ióna has
ióni as in ióni xite 'since it is in a good way, or since
it has a good manner.' Cava ga fucóte vatarananda 'because the
river was deep, I did not cross it,'
xebǒte irarenu 'since it was narrow, he was unable to
enter,' varúte cuvarenu 'it is inedible, or it cannot be eaten,
because it is bad.' The other tenses of the adjective, as has been said,
are formed with the verb ari,u and conjugated according to the
requirements of the sentence. The negative conjugation is also formed
with ari,u; e.g., if the root is fucacarazu the present
tense is fucacaranu 'it is not deep.' The preterit is
fucacarananda 'it was not, etc.'
The Conditional Particles[99]
There are five particles which make an utterance (oratio)
conditional; naraba, ni voite va, raba, va,
and ba. When the first two are placed after any verb, affirmative
or negative, present, preterit, or future, the result is that the verb
becomes conditional. For example; niguru naraba 'if you flee,'
iôda ni voite va 'if you had read,' naravó naraba 'if you
will learn,' cuvazu ni voite va[100] 'if you do not eat.' Sometimes
voi [voite] is removed from ni voite va; agueô ni
va 'if you would offer,' aguetaró ni va 'if you would have
offered.' Sometimes voite [voite va] is removed, leaving
only ni; e.g., mairó ni coso, nen goro ni
mǒsǒzure (19) 'if I go, or if I shall have gone, I will
tell him so in a friendly way,' xitaró ni coso, saisocu tçuqu maji
qere (19) 'if I (34 had done it, it would not have been done
with diligence and persuasion.'
The particle raba is placed after the preterit;[101] e.g., naróta
raba 'if I would have learned,' naravananda raba 'if I would
not have learned.'
The particle va is added to the negative roots of all three
conjugations; e.g., aguezu va 'if I not offer,' iomazu va
'if I not read,' naravazu va 'if I not learn,' naqu va 'if
it not be,' fucacarazu va 'if it be not deep.'
The particle ba has the same effect and is, like va,
joined to the root; aguezũba, iomazũba,
naravazũba.[102] If the particle ba replaces
the negative zu, an affirmative conditional is formed; e.g.,
agueba, 'if I offer,' iomaba 'if I read,' naravaba
'if I learn,' and iocaraba 'if it be good.' The particle va
is not only added to the negative roots of adjectives, but also to the
affirmative; e.g., fucaqu va 'if it be deep,' vonajiqu va
'if it be the same.' Sometimes they use this expression to give the idea
'if it be not too troublesome, will you do it.' They
also say aguemajiqu va 'if you would not offer.'
The particle ni voite va is joined to nouns in such a way as to
substitute for the substantive verb; e.g., jójó ni voite va uqe
toró (121v)[103] 'I
shall get it, if it be very good, or the best,' curuxicarazaru gui ni
voite va 'if it would not have been unpleasant, or if it had not been
an unpleasant thing.'
If the particle saie is placed in a clause (oratio) in
which there is already a conditional particle, it adds strength to the
meaning; e.g., fune saie mairu naraba 'if only a ship were to
come,' sonata saie vocutabire naku va (118) 'if he be not tired,'
or it might be said 'as for me, or as far as it depends upon me, I am not
tired.'
The particle saie alone sometimes forms a conditional; e.g.,
Niffon no xôcocu ni saie caióna coto gozaru fodo ni [Nifon
...] (118) 'if in the small kingdom of Japan things of this kind be
found, or exist,' that is to say 'how much more there will be in a large
one,' coco moto no tocai ni saie meivacu itasu ióni gozaru fodoni,
etc. (118) 'on the voyage here I suffered very much, and so ...,'
fito saie côquai suru mono vo iurusu ni ivan ia, Deus ni voite
voia? [... va?] (118v) 'if one forgives one who repents, how
much more will God,' core fodo xei vo iruru saie coto naricanuru ni;
ucato xite va, incadeca banji canavǒzo? [... icadeca
...] (119) 'if gathering all one's strength this can be done only with
difficulty, how could it be done if it were done without any strength?,'
core saie xinicui ni 'if this be difficult to do,' fune de saie
ioio tçuita (35
ni, cachi va nananaca naru mai [... nacanaca naru mai]
(119v) 'if I arrived by ship with such difficulties, without doubt I
could not have done it on foot.'
The Potential Verb[104]
The placing of the particle rǒ[105] after the present or future tense
makes a potential; e.g., aguru rǒ 'he perhaps offers,'
nigueozurǒ [nigueôzurǒ] 'he will perhaps
escape.'
The preterit is made by changing ta to tçu and adding
rǒ; e.g., aguetçurǒ 'he perhaps
offered.' But if it is added to the negative preterit, the da must
be changed to zzu; e.g., aguenanzzurǒ 'it has perhaps
not been offered, etc.'
The present potential is also formed by adding arǒzu
[mo arǒzu] or other future verbs to the infinitive; e.g.,
aguru coto mo arǒzu or ague mo xôzu 'he will perhaps
offer.'
The preterit is formed by adding this same future to the preterit
infinitive; e.g., agueta coto mo arǒzu 'he perhaps
offered.'
The future is agueô coto mo arǒzu 'he will perhaps
offer.' The negative is formed in the same way; e.g., aguenu,
aguenanda, or aguru mai coto mo arǒzu 'he perhaps
does not offer, he perhaps did not offer, or he will perhaps not offer.'
When we wish to say that something is perhaps the case we use mono
instead of coto; e.g., noxenanda mono de arózu 'they
perhaps did not place it aboard ship,' iqi chigǒta mono de
arǒzu 'they seem not to have met along the way,'
moreqicoieta mono de gozarǒ ca to zonzuru 'I believe it is
perhaps as it has been said.'
To express the meaning 'become' the verb nari,u is added to the
adjective and then conjugated according to the requirements of the
adjective taken adverbally; e.g., fucǒ naru 'it becomes
deep,' varǔ natta 'it became bad.' Also they say
fucǒ aru 'it is deep,' and sometimes fucǒ nai
'it is not deep.' They obtain this same meaning by conjugating nai
according to the tense required by the sentence. They also use
fucǒ nai coto mo arǒzu 'perhaps it will be that this
is not deep.' (36
The Conjugation of Irregular Verbs[106]
The verb qi,uru 'to come' has quru 'I come,' qita
'I came,' côzu 'I shall come,' coi or coio 'come!'
qitareba 'since he will have come, or would have come,'
qitaredomo 'although he came.' The negative root is côzu
[cozu] and the negative present is conu 'I do not come.'
Mede, which is the root of the verb meaning 'to enjoy,' has a
present in mezzuru and its gerund in Do is medete
'by enjoying.' Cui, which is the root of the verb meaning 'to be
mournful,' has its present in cuiuru. Its gerund in Do
is cuite 'by mourning,' its negative root is cuizu, and its
negative present is cuinu. Araie, which is the root of the
verb 'to be,'[107] has a
present in araiuru or arǒru 'it is.' Furi,
which is the root of the verb 'to become old,' has a preterit in
furita 'he became old,' and a gerund in Do which is
furite 'by becoming old.' Fe, the root of the verb meaning
'to cross over,' has a present in furu 'he crosses over,' and a
preterit in feta 'he crossed over.' Tari,u is a verb which
signifies that a thing is complete or entire. It has a present in
taru 'it is complete,' a preterit in tatta 'it was
complete,' and a future in tari maraxo [maraxô] 'it will be
complete.' Its negative root is tarazu, its negative present is
taranu, its preterit is tarananda 'it was not complete,'
its future is taru mai 'it will not be complete,' and its
imperfect subjunctive is taraneba 'since it has not been
completed.'
The [negative] permissive is taranedomo, the infinitive is
taranu coto, and the gerund in Do is taraide or
tarazu xite. The verb taxi:tasu, which means 'to complete,
or finish,' has a future in taxi maraxô 'I shall finish.'
Tasanu is the negative present. Tari [Tarai] is the
root of the verb tarǒ which has the meaning 'to be
completed.' In the negative the preterit is taravananda 'it was
not completed,' the subjunctive is taravaneba 'since it is not
completed,' the permissive is taravanedomo, the infinitive is
taravanu coto, and the gerund in Do is taravaide or
taravaxu xite [taravazu xite]. Vocotari is the root
of the verb vocotaru 'to be negligent.' It has an infinitive in
vocotaru coto, a negative root in vocotarazu, and a
negative present in voicotaranu [vocotaranu]. Voi is
the root of a verb which has a preterit in voita 'he was old.'
(37 Voitaru
has the same meaning. The negative present is voinu and the gerund
in Do is voite. Urei is the root of the verb 'to be
sad.' It has a present in ureô, an imperative in ure io
[ureie io][108] an
infinitive in ureoru coto [ureôru ...].[109] Its gerund in Do is
ureite. Tomi is the root of the verb tomu or
tomeru 'to become rich.' Its preterit is tonda, its gerund
in Do is tonde, and its negative root is tomazu.
Saiguiri,u means 'to go before, or anticipate.' Its preterit is
saiguitta and its gerund in Do is saiguitte.
The Aforementioned Verbs—Their Formation and Diversity[110]
In this language there are simple active, causative active, passive,
neutral, and impersonal verbs.[111] All are conjugated by the three
conjugations according to the way in which their roots terminate.
From certain adjectives come (procedo) certain verbs; e.g.,
from catai 'hard' comes catame,uru 'I make hard' which is
active, catamari,u 'I become hard' which is neutral,
catamerare,uru 'I am made hard' which is passive. From the
adjective canaxii 'sad' comes canaximi,u which means 'to be
sad.'
The causative verbs (verba faciendi facere) are formed with the
particles saxe or xe. The first is added to the roots of
verbs in the first conjugation,[112] while the second is [not] added to
the roots of the second and third conjugation, but rather to the negative
present after the nu has been removed; e.g., aguesaxe,uru
'I make him offer,' iomaxe,uru 'I make him read,'
naravaxe,uru 'I make him learn.' All of these forms are in the
first conjugation because the particles end in e. Sometimes, but
rarely, saxe follows verbs of the second and third conjugation,
but this is to make the verbs more elegant. It is used with the particle
rare to honor someone; e.g., iomasaxe rare,uru ['he makes
him read']. Padre va dojucu ni cathecismo vo naravasaxeraruru 'the
priest orders his servant to learn his cathecism,'[113] mono no fon vo fito ni (38 iomasaxeraruru
(162v.) 'he makes him read his book.'
The passive verbs (verba passiva) are made with the particles
rare and re. The particle rare is added to the
active verbs, according to the way explained before, after removing the
nu from the negative form; e.g., aguerare,uru 'I am offered
it,' iomare,uru 'I am read to,' naravare,uru 'I am taught.'
They use these passive forms to mean 'to be read to by someone,' or 'to
be, or not to be legible.' There are other passive forms which come from
neutral verbs or verbs which have neutral meanings. They are also formed
with the particles rare and re, but when they are so formed
they do not govern the cases common to the passive (for which
see below) but rather the cases of the verbs from which they come; e.g.,
from agari,u comes agarare,uru; and, since agari,u
'I ascend' requires the accusative, this verb also requires the
accusative. For example; cono iama ie agararenu (102) 'it is not
possible to climb this mountain, or this mountain is unable to be
climbed,' xiro cara derarenu (102) 'it is not possible to leave
the castle,' xebóte irarenu (102) 'it is not possible to penetrate
because it is too narrow, or confined,' cono michi va arucarenu
(102) 'it is not possible to walk this street,' natçu va coco ni irare
mai 'it will not be possible to live here during the summer,' cono
fude de va cacarenu (102) 'it cannot be written with this pen,'
fima ga nóte cacarenanda (102) 'it cannot be written because of
the lack of time,' cono bun ni coso cacaruru mono de gozare (69v)
'it will indeed be well written in this way,' axi ga itóte
arucarenu (102) 'it is impossible to walk because of painful feet.'
All of these passive verbs are of the first conjugation.[114] The neutral verbs (verba
neutra) are those which have a neutral meaning; i.e., being initiated
by oneself, and not by others. For example; ivo ga toruru 'the
fish are caught,' caje ga toruru 'the wind ceases,' ito ga
qiruru 'the string is cut,' ji ga iomuru (100) 'the letter
[Chinese character] is well read,' aqi,u 'I am uncovered.'
Qiri,u 'I cut' is active, qirare,uru is passive, and
qire,uru 'I am cut' is neutral. This last form is used when a
sword cuts well because it is sharp. Qiraxe,uru is a causative
verb which means 'I make someone cut.' Ague,uru means 'I raise,'
aguerare,uru 'I am raised' passively, aguesaxe,uru 'I make
someone raise,' agari,u 'I am raised' neutrally,
agarare,uru 'to be ascendable,' agaraxe,uru 'I cause
something to be raised, or I cause him or it to raise himself or itself.'
If to these verbs are added the particles which indicate honor (see
below) other combinations are made. The adjectives when they are
conjugated have a neutral meaning; e.g., fidarui 'I am thirsty,'
fucacatta 'it was deep.'
The impersonal verbs (verba impersonalia) do not name or refer
to a person; e.g., mi vo fatasu tomo itçuvari vo ivanu mono gia
(39 (69v) 'even if
one were to die, one should not tell a lie,' mono mo tabezu saqe mo
nomaide ichinichi fataraqu mono ca? (69v) 'is it possible to work all
day without eating anything or drinking any wine?', xujin no maie de sono ióna coto vo iú mono
ca? 'is it possible to speak this way in front of ones lord?'
Concerning the conjugations for these verbs they follow the rules
according to their roots.
The root of any verb of whatever conjugation can be taken from its
conjugation and changed to another conjugation by adding one of the
particles of honor (honor). The resulting form will belong to the
conjugation determined by the final letter of the particle. These
particles are: maraxi,uru, ari,u, saxerare,uru,
xerare,uru, nasare,uru, saxemaxi,u, tamai,ó,
rare and re.[115]
The particle maraxi does not add honor to that which is talked
about, but rather it is used to speak honorably to those in front of us.
For example; cui,u means 'I eat,'[116] but a servant in front of his master
will not say nezumi ga cúta 'the mice ate the cheese'; he will
rather say nezumi ga cui maraxita. By itself cui,u is in
the third conjugation because its root ends in ui, but if
maraxi is added it becomes a verb in the first conjugation. When
we refer to something about a people (natio) we do not show honor
to that word but only pay attention to the person we are speaking to by
adding maraxi or not. For example, if we are addressing an
inferior we say Nan ban jin va core vo cuvanu; but if we are
addressing a person of nobility we say Nan ban jin va core vo cui
maraxenu 'Europeans do not eat this.' When ari,u is added to
the root of any verb it attaches a middling (mediocris) degree of
honor; e.g., modori aró ca? 'are you going to come back?' If you
add vo in front of the verb it is honored moderately
(satis); e.g., vomodori aró ca? 'Your Lordship is going to
come back?' Tono sama vo xini atta toqi 'when the master died,'
Deus cono xecai vo gosacu atta 'God created the world.'[117] We use these particles
when we are speaking with honored persons whom we like and with whom we
are on friendly terms.
The particle nasare,uru gives the highest (supremus), or
moderately great (satis magnus) honor and is placed after the root
of the verb; e.g., Deus cono xecai vo gosacu nasareta 'God created
the world.'
The particles rare and re add a middling and not a great
amount of honor to the verbs to which they are
added. The particle rare is added mainly when we are talking about
someone who is absent. It is formed by taking the nu from the
negative present and replacing (40 it with this particle; e.g.,
aguerare,uru means 'I offer' when the person to whom the offering
is made requires a middling degree of honor and respect
(reverentia). This verb coincides letter for letter with the
passive but is distinguished from it by the cases which it governs. The
particle re is placed after verbs of the second and third
conjugation only; e.g., iomare,uru 'to read' and
naravare,uru 'to learn,' said of a person having a good
reputation. We speak in this way when speaking of those who are equal to
us and the servants of our lord, but not of other servants, or
nobles.
The particles saxemaxi and xemaxi give the same degree
of honor as ari,u and rare or re. These particles
are added to the root of a first conjugation verb,[118] or to the negative present from which
the nu has been removed; aguesaxemasu 'he offers.'
Maxi,u [Xemaxi,u] is added to the negative present of the
second and third conjugation verbs after taking away nu; e.g.,
iomaxemasu 'he reads,' and naravaxemasu 'he learns.'
The particles saxerare,uru and xerare,uru attribute
great honor. The first is added to the negative present of verbs in the
first conjugation[119]
after the nu is removed, and the second is added to the [other]
negatives in the same way; e.g., aguesaxeraruru 'I offer,'
iomaxeraruru 'I read,' naravaxeraruru 'I learn.' Because
these forms coincide letter for letter with the honorific causative, the
particle ari,u may be placed after the verb and the particle
vo may be placed before to avoid confusion; e.g., yomaxe
aru [vo iomaxe aru] 'I read' and naravaxe aru [vo
naravaxe aru] 'I learn.'
The passive verb, concerning which see below, also permits the
particle saxerare,uru; e.g., viamavaresaxeraruru (99v) 'I
am honored.'
The particle tamai,ó bestows the highest honor. We use it when
speaking of God, saints, kings, or generals. It is added to the roots of
verbs and conjugated in the third conjugation. It is placed after the
root of the passive form when referring to God; e.g., Deus filio,
umare tamǒ toqi 'when the son of
God was born,' Deus agamerare tamǒ 'God is honored.'
The particle tate matçuri,u makes the meaning of the verb to
which it is added humble. It is placed after the root of affirmative
verbs; e.g., Deus vo gotaixet ni zonji tate matçuru coto va ichi
sugureta jen gia 'to love God is the supreme virtue.' This particle
permits some degree of honor if re is added to it after the final
e [i] has been changed to a. Thus, when speaking of
the saints in respect to God, one says, (41 Sancto Domingo, Deus vo gotaixet ni
zonji tatematçurareta 'St. Dominic loved God.'
The particle maraxi [mairaxi][120] is able to elevate to honor the
particle rare; e.g., tono iori cono coto vo Padre ni
vataximairaxerareta 'the lord gave it to the priest.'
Certain Verbs Which of Themselves Indicate Honor[121]
Mesare,uru indicates any act which can be done, or which is
properly done by a noble person (persona nobilis). This includes
such things as eating, drinking, sailing, riding a horse, etc.
Vôxerare,uru means that a noble person speaks. Vomaraxi,uru
and vomaraxi ari,u mean that a noble person gives. Voxe,uru
[Vôxe,uru] and vôxe ari,u mean that a middling person
(persona mediocris) says or declares.
Verbs preceded by vôxe or mexi are given the same degree
of honor by either; e.g., vôxe tçuqerare,uru 'I declare,' mexi
tçucavare,uru 'I serve,' which have the same meanings as
tçuqerare,uru and tçucavare,uru. To call someone we use
coi with an inferior, with someone not quite as inferior we use
iorai, with someone a little better we use vaxei, while
vogiare is the superior way to call. Gozare, which means
that your Lordship should come, and gozarǒ in the future
tense are even more honorable ways to indicate the imperative. Voide
nasarei, voide nasareô, or voide nasarei caxi mean
'might your Lordship come,' or 'Oh! would that your Lordship come.'
Cudasare,uru means that a noble person gives. Tamavari,u
means that a noble person gives to an inferior. Tamóri,u means
that a middling person gives. Mizzu vo nomaxete tamǒre 'Give
me a drink of water.' Cudasare,uru and tamóri,u mean that
a humble person eats honoring his food. Coximexi,u and
qicoximexi,u mean that a noble person eats and hears.
Voboximexi,u and voboximesare,uru mean that a noble person
thinks. Saxerare,uru means that a noble person does.
Nasare,uru, asobaxi,u, and asobasare,iuru
[asobasare,uru] mean that a noble person does what is proper to
him such as hunting, writing, reading, or reciting. Ii,ú is used
when the person addressed is humbler than the person or thing spoken to;
(42 and mexi,u
[móxi,u] means the person or the thing spoken to is addressed with
honor. Therefore I would be incorrect were I to say mi ni móxe
'tell me!' I should rather say mi ni iie. I should not say tono
ni iie 'tell it to the lord,' but rather tono ni móxe.
Mairi,u means to go to a place to which honor should be shown;
e.g., iglesia ie maire 'go to church!' Cure,uru and
toraxe,uru mean to give in a way that humbles the person to whom
the thing is given. Cui,ú means 'to eat' without showing respect
(respectus); mexi,u also means 'to eat' but it is
cultivated (urbanum); e.g., in addressing those deserving respect
I will not say mexi vo cui maraxita but rather mexi vo tabe
maraxita 'I ate.' Mairi,u or vomairari,u [vomairi
ari,u] means that a middling person eats, while
agaraxerare,uru and voagari ari,u are nobler ways to say
this. Qiqi,u means to hear and uqetamavari,u and
uqetamóri,u mean to hear in a way which honors the person heard;
e.g., goiqen vo uqetamǒtta 'I heard your advice.' Móxi
ague,uru means to speak in a way which humbles oneself while
bestowing honor on the person being addressed. Móxi ire,uru means
to speak between equals (equales). Chómon xi,uru means to
listen to the word of God. Goranji,zuru or goranjerare,uru
is to look at a noble thing. Xi,uru means to do in common way,
itaxi,u means to do in a cultivated way, and tçucamatçuri,u
means to do in a humble way.
Cautionary Remarks on the Conjugations of the Verb[122]
The particle nama placed before any verb in any tense means
that the action has been done poorly or in an incomplete manner; e.g.,
nama aró 'I wash poorly,' nama iaqu 'I am incompletely
broiled.'
If the particles tçui, cai, uchi, faxe,
voi, ai, and tori[123] are placed in front of a verb they do
not change the meaning, but they add emphasis; e.g., uchi cobosu
has the same meaning as cobosu 'I pour,' faxe noboru is the
same as noboru 'I ascend,' voxi comi,u is the same as
comi,u 'I enclose,' ai cavari,u is the same as
cavari,u 'I am changed,' tçui mavari,u is the same as
mavari,u 'I go around,' and tori firogue,uru is the same as
firogue,uru 'I spread out.'
The particle qitte is the gerund in Do for the verb
qiri,u and when it is placed after the roots of certain verbs it
gives them great emphasis; e.g., tanomiqitte 'imploring with great
prayers,' vomoiqitte (43 'assuming a strong resolution.' The verbs
tanomiqiri,u and vomoiqiri,u are also used.
The particle ma, when placed in front of certain verbs and
nouns, gives them a stronger meaning; e.g., mamucai 'quite
present,' macuroi 'completely black.'
The particle, or better root of the verb, macari,u, when placed
before verbs of motion, makes the verbs modest and a bit more cultivated;
e.g., macari noboru 'I ascend,' macari cudari,u 'I
descend,' and macari i,iru 'I am present.'
The particle va placed after a sentence confirms what has been
said before, as one might boast of making a prediction; e.g., fune va
cuchinotçu ie iru va 'the ship calls at Kuchinotsu; and, if he says
so or not, I say so,' aru va 'see if it is not as I have
said.'
The particle aidani means 'between' in the sense of the time
consumed in performing an action; e.g., agura aidani [aguru
aidani] 'while offering,' iôda aidani 'while he read,'
naravózuru aidani 'while he will learn.'
The particle ga means 'but;' só iú ga; nanto aró ca?
'they say so, but will it be so?' or 'it may be so, but I don't know for
certain,' furi va furu mai ga, fune no dasu coto naró ca xiranu
'it's not raining any more, but I still don't know if it will be possible
to launch the boat or not,' sono qinpen ni va gozaru mai ga; doco cara
toraxeraruru zo? (20)[124] 'there are probably none in the
neighborhood, or in the surroundings, so from where can they be
gotten?'
The particle gotoqu is added to the present, preterit, and
future tenses meaning 'in the same way'; e.g., coxiraiuru gotoqu
'in the same way as you furnish or carry out,' qiita gotoqu 'as I
heard.' The form is sometimes ga gotoqu; e.g., móxita ga
gotoqu 'as he said,' caracavózu ga gotoqu 'as in jest I will
tease or laugh at.' This same meaning is obtained with iǒni;
Nifon no catagui vo xirareta iǒni, vôxeraruru (122v) 'he
speaks as one who knows the customs of Japan,'[125] mósu ióni 'as I say.' The
particle furi is also used for the same purpose; e.g., toza no
chijocu vo nogareôzuru tameni catana vo saita furi vo mixerareta
(123) 'he showed himself wearing his sword in order to avoid the danger
of infamy.' minu furi vo saxerareta (123) 'he made it known that
he did not see.'
The particle saie is used [with the negative] to mean 'not at
all'; e.g., mma saie nacatta (118)[126] 'there are not any horses at all,'
cotoba saie xiranu mono (118) 'he does not know how to speak at
all,' ji saie mixiranu mono 'he does not know any letters at all.'
This same particle is used for emphasis; e.g., qiden to saie
mǒxeba (119) 'it would (44 suffice if you were to say that you are,'
Padre no tçucavaruru to saie móxeba 'if only he had said that this
was useful to the priest,' or one might say 'it would suffice if,
etc.'
The particle qere is a confirmative particle which comes at the
end of a sentence with the meaning 'therefore'; e.g., maitta qere
'therefore he came,' sate só aru qere 'finally this is the
situation.'[127]
The particle coso is of great importance among the Japanese for
they use it first in an adversative sense (in sensu adversativo);
core coso ió gozare [... iô ...] 'he is truly good.'[128] If the sentence in
which this particle is found ends in a verb, that verb ends in e,
as in the example above. If the verb is in the preterit it ends in
re; e.g., yô coso gazattare! (117) 'you are welcome!
(bene veneris!).' The exceptions to this rule are when the
sentence does not end in a verb or an adjective; e.g., core coso xixó
yô [... io] (116) 'he is a true teacher,' when after the
particle coso there is in the sentence a gerund in e, a
permissive in tomo, or a potential preterit in tçuró or
zzuró;[129] e.g.,
vare coso iro iro xinro tçucamatçutte cutatireba toxiiórini nari
maraxita [... cutabireba toxiiorini ...] (117) 'suffering many
and various hardships, I became an old man,' vare coso corosaruru
tomo 'if I be killed,' fara coso tattçurǒ (117) 'he was
perchance quite angry,' sato chicaqereba coso fi ga miiure (116)
'the fire is already seen because the village is so near.' This [last]
sentence ends in e because it does not contain an exception to the
rule. Vóxerareta coto domo vo go côquai de coso gozarózure (97)
'without doubt you will do penance for what you have said,' catajiqe
nǒ coso gozare (97) 'I congratulate you very much and thank
you.' If someone says, 'Who did that?' the answer is Patre coso
[Padre coso] 'the Priest did.' If someone asks, 'is there anyone
who did that?' and if he does not hear, or does not understand the
answer, and asks again, the person who answered will say Juan coso
'I have already said it was John.'
When someone is careless about what was said, or when he has not heard
something and asks again, the answer is; e.g., tovoru na to iieba
'I have already told you not to pass through,' iome to iieba 'I
have already told you to read,' Padre coso to iieba 'I have
already told you that it is the Priest.'
Adding the particles maieni and saqini to the negative
present tense makes the construction affirmative; e.g., iglesia ie
mairanu maieni (141v) 'before he goes to church.' They are also added
to the affirmative future tense; e.g., mairǒzuru tote no
saqini 'a little before (45 I come.'
The particle tocoro signifies the time during which the action
indicated by the verb is done. It is placed after the verb; taburu
tocoro ni 'when I was eating,' tabeta tocoro ni 'after
dinner,' tabeôzuru tocoro ni or tabeôzuru ni 'when I will
be eating.' It also serves as a reduplicative particle which denotes a
reduplication to the degree possible; e.g., jesu christo humanidad no
von tocoro va (121v)[130] 'Jesus Christ in so far as he was a
man,' vonore ga foxxezaru tocoro vo fodocosu coto nacare (121) 'as
you do not want done to you, do not do to others,' fudai no tocoro vo
vo iurusu [... tocoro vo iurusu] (120v) 'I gave him his
freedom,' fito no acu no tocoro ni va dôxin xenu (121v) 'I do not
consent to the sins of man,' utagó tocoro mo nai (120v) 'there
remains no place to doubt, or for doubt,' nocoru tocoro mo nai 'it
does not remain any more,' tçuini, sono tocoro ie mairózu (121v)
'finally he will arrive at this place,' fumbet ni voiobanu tocoro
gia (121v) 'there are some things which are not understood, or to
which one's comprehension does not extend,' nani mo nai tocoro vo iô
qicoximexe (120v) 'will your Lordship kindly eat from this littleness
which is nothing.' From these examples it is possible to see the force of
this particle.
The particles tocoro, made, and made de gozaru
are often added to an utterance (cadentia). They do not have any
special meaning and are the same as coto de gozaru; e.g.,
naranu made or naranu coto de gozaru mean the same as
naranu 'it is not possible.' Guijet tçucamatçurǒ to
zonzuru coto va cacugo itasanu coto gia (10v) 'the breaking of this
friendship does not come to mind.' Here the itasanu coto gia is
the same as itasanu alone.
The particle madeio is used to confirm what has been said;
e.g., caita madeio 'that which I wrote, I wrote.'
The particle toqi when added to the present tense, forms a
preterit imperfect; e.g., jennin tachi va saigo ni voiobi tamó toqi va
buji ni gozatta 'when saints arrive at the time of their death, they
are peaceful and quiet.'
Changing the ta of the preterit to tçu and the da
of the negative to zzu[131] the meaning becomes 'I do it this way
and then that way'; e.g., mono vo caitçu, iôzzu, nando xite curasu
bacari gia 'I spend my life reading, writing and doing other things,'
tattçu itçu vocu iori zaxiqi ie ide zaxiqi iori vocu ie iri xitten
battǒ xeraruru (11v) 'standing and sitting, entering and
departing, he stands up and falls down.' The particle ri gives the
same meaning after the preterit; e.g., xeqen no mono va netari
voqitari nǒdari curasu bacari gia (11) 'men of the world spend
their lives sleeping, arising, and drinking,' mazzu (46 ite niva vo mo
facaxetari, cusa vo mo ficaxetari iroiro no xigoto vo ategǒte cosó
mairǒzure [... coso ...] (10v) 'I shall go and sweep out
the courtyard (atrium), pull up the weeds, and then having
dispensed with these things I shall go,' ima cono io fuqe iuqeba nome
ia, utaie ia fito bito motçu, utǒtçu sacamori suru (129) 'when
it already is late at night, urging themselves on to drink and
sing, the men enjoy themselves dancing and singing.'
The particle ie, which is the root of the verb ie iuru
[ie:uru][132] 'I
can,' signifies, when placed before negative verbs, that the action
expressed by the verb cannot be done; e.g., ie iomanu 'I cannot
read.' This particle is also placed after the infinitive; e.g., iomanu
coto vo ienu 'I cannot read.' Iomi va ieide, or iomi mo
ieide 'since I could not read, or not being able to read' is also
said. The infinitive sometimes acts as a substitute verb (suppositum
verbum); e.g., xinuru coto va vosoroxij 'it is terrible to
die.'
The particle tai 'I want' is added to the roots of verbs and
signifies the desire to do the thing indicated by the verb; e.g.,
mizzu vo nomi tai[133] 'I want to drink some water,'
mizzu vo nomi tó gozaru or mizzu vo nomi tó zonzuru, but
these last two forms are more noble. Here is an example of the noble form
in the negative, tǒ mo nai; e.g., mizzu vo nomi tǒ
mo nai 'I do not want to drink water,' and mizzu vo nomi tǒ
mo gozaranu. Mairu tó mo zonjenu means 'I do not want to go.'
When the particle tai is added to adjectives, or verbs indicating
a sensory act (actionem sensitiuam) in the first person,[134] the i is
changed to c; and the verb ari,u is added and conjugated in
the tense required by the sentence; e.g., cuitacatta 'I wanted to
eat.' If the verb is in the second or third person, the i is
changed to g and again the verb ari,u is added, or an
honorific particle depending upon what the person deserves, or without it
as an absolute form. But if the person is inferior, the i is
changed to c as said before.
The particle de sometimes gives a subjunctive sense when it is
added to nouns; e.g., varãbe de xinda 'he died a child, or when he
was a child,' vare ga buchófó de tofó mo gozanai (163v)[135] [... buchôfó
...] 'since I am clumsy and not careful, nothing will work out in a way
that will be harmonious.'
The particle ió 'way' is added to the roots of verbs and also
to the verbs themselves. When the root governs
the genitive, the verb governs the same case; e.g., cono qiǒ no
iomi ió va 'the way of (47 reading this book,' or cono qió vo iomu
iǒ va. In the first sentence qiǒ is in the
genitive with the particle no; in the second sentence it is in the
accusative with vo because yomu governs this case.
Tei signifies an extraordinary and marvelous way of doing
something; e.g., machicanuru tei vo goron jerarei (122)[136] 'might your Lordship
observe the way that they are expectant.' Also, arisama means
'way,' me mo aterarenu arisama gia 'it is a way, or a form
(figura), which is unable to be seen.'
Sama indicates the time of the action of the verb to which it
is added while governing the case required by the verb. It is added to
the root of the verb; e.g., saqe vo nomi sama ni (105) 'when he
actually drank the wine,' iado ie caieri sama ni (105) 'when he
returned home,' fune iori agari sama ni (105) 'when he actually
disembarked from the ship,' fune ni nori sama ni 'when he actually
boarded the ship.'
When there are in a sentence two verbs whose actions form a single
action, the first verb is put into the form of the gerund in Do;
e.g., mizzu vo motte coi 'bring some water, or come bringing
water,' fune vo voite coi 'bring the boat here, or come poling the
boat,' core vo totte iqe 'take this, or carry this and go.'
The gerund in Do when added to verbs of asking, giving, or
doing, means that one is asking to know or to acquire the thing which is
indicated by the verb to which it is added; e.g., nifon guchi vo
voxiiete cure io 'teach me Japanese,' sǒ voxerarete
cudasaruru na [sǒ vôxerarete ...] 'your Lordship ought
not say that,' Deus no coto vo catatte tamǒre 'do me the
favor of relating to me those things which pertain to God.'
The particle mo placed after the gerund in Do, whether
it ends in te or de, means 'although'; e.g., sǒ
mǒxite mo 'although you say so,' ica fodo susumete mo,
corobu mai 'no matter how much you try to persuade me, I will not
deny the faith.' They also use sǒ mǒxeba atte mo 'even
if you say that,' dǒxitemo cǒxitemo (134v) 'what ever
you do.'
If the particle coso (see above) is added to the affirmative
gerund in Do; and, if the sentence ends in this particle, the
sentence becomes negative; e.g., mite coso 'I did
not see anything,' atte coso 'there is no way.' But if the
sentence does not end in coso, it becomes affirmative (48 and emphatic; e.g.,
mite coso gozare (116) 'I certainly saw.' The verb ends in
e according to the rule explained above when the particle
coso was being discussed.
When the negative gerund in Do, which ends in e, is
followed by va, naranu, or canavanu it expresses
necessity or the impossibility of the contrary; e.g., mairaide
canavanu (106v)[137]
'it is necessary to go,' ivaide va no coto naredomo, nanto xô ca?
'and if the thing which is said to be necessary happens, what shall I
do?' xitagavaide naranu 'it is necessary to obey.' The same
meaning, but with less strength, is obtained with the future of the
affirmative or negative infinitive and the permissive subjunctive in
domo; e.g., mairǒ coto de gozatta redomo (18)[138] 'although I should
have gone,' mairu mai queredomo [... qeredomo] (18)[139] 'although I should not
be going,' mairǒ coto de gozanacatta redomo (18) 'although I
did not have to go.' They also use the negative gerund in Do to
obtain the meaning of 'if not'; e.g., òracio vo mǒsaide cú
na 'do not eat unless you have said your prayers.'
The gerund in e indicates an action already done; e.g., mexi
cúte coi 'come after eating!' cono qió ga caite gozaru 'this
book was written,' chichi ni fumi vo cacaide cuiaxiú gozaru [...
cuiaxú ...] 'I am ashamed that I did not send a letter to your
father,' cono qió ga caite gozaranu 'this book was not
written.'
The particle nagara, when added to the root of a verb, forms a
gerund in Do if it is followed by a verb indicating a repugnant or
contrary action; e.g., toganin Deus iori bacutai no go von, o
uqetatematçuri nagara; caietta somuqi tatematçuru [... go von vo
uqe ...][140]
'sinners receiving, or even if sinners receive, benefits from God, they
will offend him rather than be grateful,' Jesu Cristo Deus de gozari
nagara, fito ni taixite cruz ni cacaraxerareta 'while Jesus Christ
was a God, he was crucified for man.' Nagara is also added to
nouns; e.g., quantai nagara (136v) 'although there was some lack
of education,' sannin nagara (137) 'three at the same time, or
even if there are three' aqiraca nagara (136v)
'although he is famous.' In this instance aqiraca na loses its
na as do all the other adjectives that end in na.
The particle iasui is added to the roots of active and passive
verbs to form the supine in Tu; e.g., iomi iasui 'easy to
read,' corosare iasui 'easy to be killed.' The same thing is
achieved by the following way of speaking; iúte va vosoroxij 'it
is terrible to say,' mite va (49 fuxiguina 'it is admirable to see,'
iú vo mo vosoroxij 'it is terrible to say.'
First Section[141]
Adverbs are formed from adjectives ending in ai by changing the
ai to ó; e.g., fucó 'deeply,' for those ending in
oi by changing the oi to ô; e.g., caxico
[caxicô] 'wisely,' for those ending in ei by changing the
ei to eô; e.g., xigueo [xigueô] 'densely,'
for those ending in ui by changing the ui to ú;
e.g., aiǔ 'in danger,' and for those ending in ij by
changing the ij to iú; e.g., cavaiú 'unhappily.'
Adverbs of Place[142]
The interrogative pronouns are eight in number;
izzucu[?], izzucata[?],
donata[?], doco?, dochi?, dochira?,
dono tocoro[?], and dono fǒ?, and they signify
'which place?' To these adverbs are added the particles va,
no, ni, ie, vo, cara, and iori
according to the case required, such as 'from where,' 'whither,' 'through
which place,' 'in what place,' etc. Made can also be added to them
with the meaning of 'to the limit of which'; doco made ie iqó
ca[?] 'up to where will you go?' The interrogative particle,
ca? or zo[?], is added to these questions but it is
better to use zo rather than ca in sentences with an
interrogative particle; e.g., izzuru ie maitta zo 'where did you
go,' dono tocoro vo tovotta zo 'at which place did you cross,'
doco iori itta zo 'through where did he enter,' dochi cara qita
zo? 'from where did he come?', donata va Pedro no
iado zo[?] 'which is Peter's house?', doco ni voru
zo[?] 'where, or in what place is he?' One may respond in many
ways; cono tocoro, coto moto, [coco moto],
core, conata, cochi, cochira, coco,
cocora, cono cata, cono fǒ, which mean 'here
(hic)'; sono tocoro, soco moto, sore,
sonata, sochi, sochira, soco, socora,
sono cata, sono fǒ (50 which mean 'there (istic)'; ano
tocoro, asoco moto, are, anata, achi,
achira, asoco, asocora, ano cata,
anofó, which mean 'there (illic).' To these particles are
added the case particles. The interrogative adverbs with the case
particles and mo added mean 'everywhere,' 'through every place,'
or 'to every place,' e.g., dono tocoro ie mo tovorǒ 'I shall
go everywhere,' doco ni mo 'everywhere,' doco cara mo 'from
everywhere.' However, if, instead of mo, nari tomo is added
the meaning becomes 'any place,' in a distributive sense; e.g., doco
ie nari tomo mairǒ 'I shall go to each place individually.' The
same meaning is obtained by doco zo with the case particles placed
between the doco and the zo; e.g., doco ni zo aru fodo
ni 'if someone is any place.' Coco caxico means 'here and
there.' Doco mo caxico mo means 'the whole place.' The case
particles are placed before mo; e.g., doco ni mo caxico ni
mo 'in the whole place,' but after the adverb; e.g., coco caxico
ni 'here and there,' coco caxico ie doco, caxico iori
[coco caxico ie 'to here and there,' coco caxico iori 'from
here and there'], etc.[143]
The particle uie means 'above.' The genitive case is placed
before it; e.g., fandai no uie ni voqe 'place it on the table,'
cono uie va gozaru mai 'it will not be above this,' that is to say
'it will not be better than this,' sono uie ni 'about that,'
sono uie no sata vo catari are 'tell me about that,' core va
izzure iori mo uie de gozaru 'one will not discover anything better
than his,' that is to say 'this is the best.' Xita means 'below.'
It governs the genitive; e.g., fandai no xita ni voqe 'place it
under the table,' micotoba no xita iori (141v) 'when the king
finishes speaking,' voxita vo cudasarei (141v) 'would your
Lordship be so kind as to give to me that which remains of your
drink.'
The particle soba means 'side' and governs the genitive; e.g.,
fito no soba vo fanaruru 'he separates himself from the side of
another.'
The particle maie means 'before' and governs the genitive;
e.g., fito no maie vo tovoru 'I pass in front of someone else,'
cacugo no maie (141v) 'according to ones disposition,'
funbet no maie (141v) 'as I believe, or think, or according to the
sense (iuxta sensum).'
The particle mavari means 'around' and governs the genitive;
e.g., iglesia no mavari ni tçuchi vo nague sutçuru na 'do not put
earth around the church.'
The particle uchi means 'within,' and the noun which precedes
it must be in the genitive; e.g., iglesia no uchi 'in the church,'
ano fito va, fito no uchi de va nai 'that man is not among men,'
that is (51 to say
'he is not a man,' futacuchi cúta coto va, cúta uchi de va nai
(142v)[144] 'to eat two
mouthfuls is not to eat.'
The particle foca means 'outside,' and the genitive is placed
before it; e.g., igelsia no foca ni 'outside the church,' foca
ie iqe 'go out, or go outside.' Sometimes the genitive particle is
replaced by iori; e.g., Deus vonago ichinin iori foca tçucuri
tamavanu (142v)[145]
'God did not create but one woman,' that is to say 'he created just one,'
Tengu fito ni acu vo susumuru iori foca va, nai (142v) 'the Devil
does nothing if he is not persuaded by man to sin,' goxǒ vo
tasucaru tame baptismo vo sazzucaru iori foca bechi no michi ga nai
'there is no other way to save men than by baptism,' that is to say
'without baptism we cannot be saved.' Deus no gracia iori foca
'without the grace of God.'
The particle naca means 'in the middle.' It is used when the
material is either dense or defuse; e.g., qi no naca ni 'in the
wood,' fito no naca ni 'among the men.'
The particle nacaba means 'in the midst of things' when
referring to a sequence. It follows the genitive; e.g., dangui no
nacaba ni 'in the midst of the sermon,' sore vo qijte, nacaba va
vosore; nacaba va aqirete ita (145v) 'hearing that, he feared and was
afraid,' that is to say 'he spent most of his time being afraid.'
The particle ato means 'behind' and governs the genitive; e.g.,
sonata no ato cara mairǒ 'I shall come after you' that is to
say 'I shall follow you.'
The particle vaqi means 'near' and governs the genitive; e.g.,
Pedro no vaqi 'near Peter,' misa no vaqi 'the mass is
ended,' cono vaqi 'in the last few days.' All of these adverbs
require after them the cases that are required by the verb which
follows.
Adverbs of Interrogation and Response[146]
There are many ways to ask 'why?' or 'for what reason[?]'; e.g.,
najeni[?], najoni[?], nani xini?,
nani tote ca?, nani no iuie ni?, nanto xita coto
ni?, nani no xisai ni iotte?. The question 'how?' is said;
nanto xite?, nanto iǒ ni[?], icani to
xite? The answer is 'because' or 'for the reason that'; e.g., sono
iuie va, najeni to iúni. 'Because' is also said; tocoro
de, fodo ni, ni iotte, or sacai ni. The first
expresses (52 the
greatest degree of causality, the second not so much, and the third the
least.
Uie va means 'since (cum or si quidem)'; e.g.,
toganai uie va qizzucai ga nai (40v)[147] 'I am not afraid because I have no
fault.' The same meaning is achieved by the particle cara; e.g.,
caiǒ ni iro vo misuru cara va; cacusu coto va iranu 'since
you have thus shown your feelings (iro), you can't hide them.'
'Since (si quidem)' means approximately the same as toqi va
and xicaru toqi va. Sari nagara means 'but,' sari tote
va means 'until,' saru tote va means 'since the thing is this
way,' saru tote va, qicoienu coto gia 'since it is so, it is
unbearable.'
Adverbs of Time[148]
One asks 'when' with itçu or itçugoro. One asks 'from
what day' with icca saqi or icca maie, 'from what month'
with icutçuqi saqi, and 'from what year' with nannen maie.
Usually ni is added when it is required by the verb, and the
interrogatives ca or zo are always put at the end of the
sentence, with zo preferred.
One answers 'now' with ima or tada ima, and 'already'
with mǒ, e.g., mǒ iqe 'be already gone!'
'Sometimes' is said with toqi ni iotte or jibun ni iotte.
'Afterwards' is nochi. Sore cara or sore iori means
'after that,' core cara or core iori means 'after this,'
and are iori or are cara means 'after that.' 'Immediately'
is said with iagate. 'Afterwards' or 'again' is ima iori
nochi, ima iori xite va, or ima iori igo. 'This
morning' is said with qesa. Connichi or qio
[qiô] is 'today,' and asu or miônichi
[miónichi][149] is
'tomorrow.' 'Tomorrow morning' is asa, axitatô, or asatocu, and 'tomorrow night' is
mionia [miǒia]. 'Before' is ijen or saqi
ni. 'Yesterday' is qinô or sacujit. 'The day before
yesterday' is vototoi or futçuca saqi ni. 'Several days in
the past' is cono giǔ. Cono fodo and xenjit
have the same meaning, as does xendo. Condo means 'several
days in the future.' 'The day after tomorrow' is asatte or
miógonichi. 'Three days hence' is xiasatte or
miómiógonichi. Qiônen [Qionen] or cozo means
'last year.' 'This year' is cotoxi. 'Two years ago' is
vototoxi or votodoxi. 'Three years ago' is
sanuruvotodoxi [sannuru votodoxi].[150] 'Immediately' is tachimaqi
[tachimachi] (53 or socuij ni [socuji ni].
Sunavachi is also 'immediately.' Tanteqi is 'in a
moment.'
Itçumade? means 'until when?' Itçumademo means 'always.'
Itçu cara means 'after what time.' Itçu iori means 'from
what time.'
Adverbs of Negation[151]
Iia or iia [iia iia][152] means 'not.' Só devanai means
'it is not so.' Iccana or iccanagueni means 'by no means,'
iume iume means 'not even in a dream,' sarani,
ichiien, catçute, or catçute motte means 'in no
way,' and io, iomo, or iomo iomo means 'without
thinking'; e.g., catçute mairu mai 'in no way shall I come,'
iomo só va gozaru mai (117v) 'it will in no way come to mind why
it will be so.' When affirmative verbs are added to these adverbs they
become negative; e.g., iomo iomo to mǒxitareba vo mairi atta
(117v) 'although you said you would not go, you went,' io mairó
'in no way shall I go.'
Adverbs of Affirmation[153]
Nacanaca means 'it is so,' vó means 'so,' when one
agrees. Gueni or gueni gueni means 'it is thus'; e.g.,
gueni gueni só mo aró 'without doubt the situation is thus.'
Chódo means 'at all.' Saiǒni, sono bun,
sono gotoqu, sǒ de gozaru, sore sore,
massǒ gia, or xicato means 'it is so.' Mottomo
means that something is reasonably said. Guioi no gotoqu means 'as
your Lordship believes, or says.' Mochiron indicates that a thing
does not come in to doubt or discussion. Nacanaca naru coto de
gozaranu means 'truly it is not possible.' Nacanaca no coto
indicates a thing with which it is possible to agree. Macotoni
means 'truly,' as does xinjit or xinjitni. Xeimon
means 'I affirm by oath.' Isasaca or isasaca motte means
'not even a little,' and issai or ixxet means 'in no way,
or by no means,' and when these particles are added to the affirmative
they mean 'truly.'
(54
Comparative Adverbs[154]
Iori, iori mo, and iori mo navo mean 'more' in a
comparison. The person compared is in the nominative case and the person
to whom he is compared is in the ablative with one of the particles which
we have listed above; e.g., Pedro va juan iori mo gacuxó de gozaru
'Peter is wiser than John,' soco ie noboru iori va; mairanu ga maxi
gia 'it is better not to go than to climb up there.' Gotoqu,
mama, and iǒni are adverbs of similitude (adverbia
similitudinis) and require the genitive for the thing with which the
comparison is made. If the particle is preceded by a verb, no genitive is
required; e.g., no iama ie nari tomo qitai mama ni qite, nurureba,
nugui suteraruru (124v) 'if they were to go to the mountains or the
plains wearing such clothes as they want to wear, they will have to take
them off when they become wet on account of the water.' Vomô mama ni,
vomô gotoqu, and vomô iǒni, mean 'as I think,' cono
mi no mama ni 'according to his desires, or his pleasure.'
Fodo means 'to such a degree as (tantum),' or 'just as
(quasi)'; e.g., qifen ano fito fodo no gacuxó de gozaru[155] 'you are as wise as
he,' fara ga cudaru fodo ioi 'he will recover as soon as he has a
bowel movement,' michi vo aruqu fodo cutabiruru (123v) 'as I walk
so I get tired,' acai fodo ioi 'the redder the better,' xinuru
fodo no vazzurai de va nai 'this disease is not strong enough to
cause death,' fune ni mesaruru fodo naraba vare mo norózu (124)
'if Your Lordship would take up the task of boarding the ship, so shall
I,' tamexi mo nai fodo ni atta to mǒsu (124v) 'they say it
was as if it had never been,' voquru fodo araba sore ie
mairǒzu (124) 'if I am able to arrive at the state where I can
get up from bed, I shall come to you,' chicara no fodo vo mite
'seeing the degree of his strength,' fodo nó tçuita 'he arrived in
an instant,' core fodo 'as this,'
sore fodo 'as that,' are fodo 'as that,' vovoi fodo
'while more,' sucunai fodo 'while less.'
(55
Superlative Adverbs[156]
Uie means 'the highest'; e.g., christian no voxiie va izzure
iori mo uie de gozaru 'the doctrine and faith of Christianity are
supreme, or above all,' cono saqe no uie va nai 'there is no
better wine than that.' Ichi or daiichi means 'supreme, or
unique'; e.g., gacuxǒ no uchi ni Sancto Thomas daiichi de
gozatta 'among wise men Saint Thomas was the best,' core va are
iori uie 'this is superior to that.' The particle xita has the
opposite meaning of 'inferior, or the lowest'; e.g., xiqitai va anima
iori xita de gozaru (141) 'the body is inferior to the soul.'
Adverbs of Intensity and Exaggeration[157]
Ichidan, chicagoro, and iccǒ mean
'intensely (valde)'; e.g., chicagoro no vo cocoro gaqe de
gozaru 'this is the greatest care and diligence,' sore va icco
varui coto gia 'this is extremely bad.' Bexxite means
'chiefly,' tori vaqe means 'especially,' coto no foca means
'rarely, or extraordinarily,' icanimo means 'intensely,' and
amarini means 'too much.' As has been said, adverbs are formed
from adjectives according to the rules above, and these adverbs mean
adverbially what the adjectives mean adjectivally; e.g., fucai
means 'deep,' and fucó means 'deeply.' Icani mo xizzucani
means 'extremely quietly,' tani coto ni means 'extraordinarily,'
and xitatacani or guiósanni means 'in a way that is to be
feared' that is to say 'too much.' See the dictionary.[158]
Accumulative Adverbs[159]
Voxinabete means 'universally'; sôbet means 'generally,'
as do tçuneni and sojite [sôjite]; feijeini
means 'regularly'; and voioso, tabun, vocata,
ioppodoni mean 'for the most part,' and qeccu or
caiette (56
means 'after all.' Tennen means 'perhaps,' as do xijen and
icasama. Sadamete means 'probably,' canarazu means
'without doubt,' moxi xijien [moxi xijen] means 'perhaps,'
xǒtocu means 'naturally,' jinen means 'by
chance,' xidai vidai ni or jen jen ni means 'gradually,'
and vonozzucara means 'by oneself.'
Adverbs that Conclude and Claim Attention[160]
Ficqiǒ and tçuini mean 'finally, or in
conclusion.' Tçugǒ means 'in summary.' Nǒ
nǒ means 'is it not so?' e.g., nǒ nǒ icani
qicaxeruru ca? 'do you hear me then?' Moxi[161] means 'ho there (heus),' but
it is an elegant word; e.g., moxi Padre sama 'ho there, Reverend
Father.' Iare also means 'ho there,' but with inferiors; e.g.,
iare tarǒ quaja to iieba 'saying "Ho there,
Tarōkaja."' Iai means 'ho there' with very low people; e.g.,
iai sochi ga motta mono va nani zo? 'hey! what is it that you
bring?' Ia has the same meaning; e.g., ia vo tono bara domo va
nani vo savagu zo? (128) 'hey! you soldiers and good men, why do you
quarrel?' The particle ai has the same meaning but it is placed
after the sentence; e.g., izzure mo mina qiqe ai (129) 'hey! all
of you listen.'
The particles ca and zo, as has been said above, are
used as interrogatives. The particles ia and caia have the
same function but they are more humble; e.g., are va tare caia?
'who is he?', core ia[?] 'this?', io fuqete tare ca va
tazzuneô zo? (89v) 'when it becomes late at night, who will be able
to visit?', sore de arǒ ca to iú coto gia 'I said, "will it
be this?"'
No? asks for agreement; e.g., gozarǒ ca no? 'will
he come?'[162]
mairǒ to voxerareta no? [... vôxerareta no?] 'did he
say that he will come?' no Pedro dono? 'isn't that so, Peter?'
Na[?] means the same thing, but it is used with inferiors;
e.g., sǒ qiita na? 'didn't you hear so?' Sometimes, in a
sentence containing zo, baxi, which is a dubitive particle
(particula dubitandi), is placed; e.g., nanto xita xisai de
baxi gozaru zo? (122v)[163] 'for what reason did this happen?',
sate nanto iú voqiacu de baxi gozaru zo[?] (123) 'what is
the name of your guest?', goiô baxi gozaru ca? 'isn't there
something of use to you?'
Io and zo strengthen or give cadence to the sentence;
e.g., caita zo 'he truly wrote,' maitta io 'he
certainly came,' sono toqi vare (57 va ichi dan varui tçucai vo xiraruite
gozaru io [... siaruite ...] (95) 'at that time I was
following bad advice.' Bacari means 'only, or in only one way,'
sore ni caguitte means 'that only,' core ni caguirazu 'not
only this.' Bacari also means 'more or less'; e.g., fiacu
bacari 'there were a hundred,' fiacunin bacari corosareta
'about one hundred men were killed.' Nó, nóte, naqu
xite, and naqute mean 'without'; e.g., raxxi mo nó
'without reason or order,' cacugo nó 'without any
preparation.'
The adverbs of sound (adverbia sonus) are many and vary in
accordance with the way that the Japanese perceive the sound. The
particle to is added to them; e.g., va va to xite
'vociferously saying wa wa,' and if they add meqi,u, it
means to make even a louder noise; e.g., va meqi,u 'to shout
saying wa.'
The Case Prepositions[164]
Tame or ni means 'concerning';[165] e.g., sonata no tame 'for you
(tibi).' It governs the genitive which precedes it; nan no
tame 'for what,' nani ni naru ca? 'for what is it?', nani
ni xô ca? 'what do you do that for?', nani no iô ni tatçu ca?
(171v) 'for what is it needed, or useful?', maitte no iô va? (130)
'what's the use of going?'
Tai xite means 'on account of' or 'against'; e.g., tengu ni
tai xite teqito 'to fight against the devil, or resist him,' Deus
ni tai xite cuguio vo coraiuru 'I endure the pain (labor)
because of God.' Uie iori also means 'because'; e.g., von jifi
no uie iori (167) 'because of his mercy.'
Ni iotte signifies the reason for which; e.g., Deus iori
fito no jento acu ni iotte go fempô vo ataiesaxerareozu [...
ataiesaxerareôzu] (146v) 'God gives to man according to his
virtues and vices.' This form is derived from the verb iori,u.
Ni tçuite means 'around, or about' and is derived from the verb
tçuqi,u; e.g., core ni tçuite, core ni tçuqi, or
core ni tçuqete means 'about that.' Sono gui ni voite va
zonjenu (120) 'I do not know anything about this matter,' Vôxe va
mottomo naredomo vagami ni totte va canai gatai (120) 'Your Lordship
speaks well but what concerns me is that (58 it is difficult to do.' Dai quan ni
itatte va ichinin bacari sadame io (120)[166] 'decide that which concerns the
steward only.' Itatte and totte[167] are the gerunds of verbs just as the
preceding. They also say Padre coto va 'the things belonging to
the priest,' varera coto va 'about my things, or those things
which belong to me.' Xitagatte or xitagǒte means
'near' and is the gerund of the verb xitagari,u or
xitagai,ó. As with the other verbs it governs the dative case;
e.g., guioi ni xitagatte or xitagǒte 'according to
Your Lordship's understanding.' Xidai has the same meaning; e.g.,
conata xidai 'according to your wishes.' Sometimes it is added to
the roots of verbs; e.g., mairi xidai 'according to when he comes,
or according to his coming.'
Ni indicates the place in which. Ni voite has the same
meaning but indicates permanence; e.g., fatto va fuximi ni voite
vôxeidasareta 'he established the law while he was in Fushimi,'
Bungo funai ni itatte 'in the city of Funai in the kingdom of
Bungo,' iglesia ni uoru 'he is in church.'
De indicates the place of an action; e.g., michi de Pedro ni
vǒta 'I met Peter in the street.' The same particle de,
together with vo motte, indicate the instrument with which an
action is done; e.g., bo vo motte Pedro vo uchi coroita 'he killed
Peter with a stick,' Padre sama catarareta de navo qicoieta 'from
what the Reverend Father told me, it became easier to understand,'
necqi de xinda 'he died of a fever.'
Cara or iori indicate the place from which; e.g.,
iglesia cara 'from church.' They also say fune cara maitta
'he came by ship' and cachi cara maitta 'he came on foot.' Fune
de maitta is the same as fune cara maitta and fune ni notte
maitta. Fana cara me cara miguruxij mono gia 'it is unpleasant
to the nose and the eyes.' Iori indicates the place through which;
e.g., sama iori faitta 'he entered through the window.'
Tomo ni means 'at the same time'; e.g., sonata to tomo ni
mairǒzu I shall go at the same time as you,' mǒsu to
tomo ni 'at the same time as he spoke.'
Ie indicates the place to which; e.g., achi ie
mairǒ 'I shall go directly to court (curia),' miiaco
no cata ie noboru 'he went up to court' and also miiaco no
fǒ ie noboru. They also say miiaco no iori, miiaco
sama, or miiaco no gotoqu noboru, but this is not a good way
of speaking and is more characteristic of a rustic (rusticus).
De indicates the material from which; e.g., tçuchi de
cavara (59 vo
tçuquru 'to make bricks out of earth or mud,' nande core vo
tçuquru ca? 'from what is this made?'
Uie means 'concerning'; e.g., zuibun codomo no uie vo fito
ni mo naxi marasuru iǒni to cocoro gaqe marasuru 'with great
diligence I took care of my sons so as to make them men.' Sonata no
fiquan no vo saiban mesare io [... no uie vo ...] (141) 'take
care of your servants.'
Made means 'until'; asu made 'until morning,' inochi
vo uxinǒ made aru mai 'he will not lose his life, or he will
not arrive at the loss of his life,' sore made vomoi mo ioranu gui
gia 'it will not come to my mind,' cocoro zaxi areba canavanu made
mo xei vo iruru 'when something is wished for, one uses his strength
up to the point of impossibility,' mǒsu made mo nai 'it is
not necessary to say,' cono tocoro made maitta 'I came to this
place.'
Conjunction and Separation[168]
To means 'and'; e.g., Pedro to juan to Nagasaqi ie ita
'Peter and John went to Nagasaki,' core to, are to vo toru 'I take
this and that.' Mo has the same meaning; e.g., Pedro mo juan mo
Nagasaqi cara modotta 'Peter and John returned from Nagasaki,'
naqu mono mo ari, varó mono mo aru 'there are those who cry and
those who laugh. Mo is often placed before negative verbs; e.g.,
nanigoto mo gazaranu ca? 'is that not something new?'
Mata means 'and,' whether it is found between nouns or verbs.
Ca means 'or'; e.g., Pedro ca; juan ca coi to iie 'tell
Peter or John to come.' Arui va also means 'or'; e.g., arui va
Pedro, arui va juan 'either Peter or John,' arui va iomu, arui va
caqu 'I either read or write.' Moxi va means 'if in fact,' and
it is used in the middle of a sentence; e.g., moxi va cane ga nai
naraba 'if in fact you were to have no money.'
Mata va is used to bind the sentences more tightly together
(ad orationem contexturam). It means 'besides that, or besides';
e.g., (60 arui va
iamai ga vocoru ca, mata va isogui no fumi qitaru ca etc. [...
ca, etc.] (135) 'either some sickness occurs, or besides that some
urgent letter arrives.'
Xicareba means 'since things are this way,' sari nagara
means 'but,' sǒ aru tocoro de means 'since it is thus,'
saraba means 'since it is so,' and sareba sareba means
'since then.' Ca? means 'if'; e.g., maitta ca mi io 'see if
he came, or went,' maitta ca xiranu 'I don't know if he went.'
Iara means 'if,' but distributively (divisive); e.g.,
fito iara chicuxǒ iara xiranu 'I don't know if it's man or
beast,' nani iara to mǒxita 'I wonder what he said.'
Some disjunctive and emphatic particles are formed from nanica
and tocacu with the addition of other particles; e.g., nani ia
ca ia? 'which thing?' The same meaning is expressed by nani iara
ca iara? and nanto iara cato iara? Nanto xite, cato
xite means 'how,' nanto mo cato mo means 'in no way,' and
nani mo ca mo means 'nothing.' Nanigoto mo cagoto mo, mina
içtuvari naru zo [... itçuvari ...] 'when all is said and done
they are all lies.' Nani no ca no, and nanto xite, cato
xite are ways to excuse oneself. Nani no ca no to iúte means
'saying this and that.' Domo como means 'in whatever way it is,'
as does dǒ xite mo cǒ xite mo. Dǒ xite
cǒ xite means 'doing this and that differently.' Dǒ xô
cǒ xô means 'I shall do this and that.'
Tomo cacumo means 'all the same,' as do toni cacuni,
tonimo cacunimo, and totemo cacutemo. Core to ij; care
to ij means 'saying this and that, or making excuses.' Care
core means 'this and that,' coco caxico means 'here and there
(hic and illic).' Vomoxirô, vocaxu[169] [vomoxirovocaxǔ] is used
when accommodating oneself almost to flattery.
If the particle motte is added to the particles catçute,
isasaca, tomoni, nani, and nani nani iori
[... and nani iori] it adds strength and force; e.g., catçute
motte sǒ aru mai 'the situation will not be this way at
all.'
Interjections[170]
Sate, sate sate, [satemo,] and satemo
satemo are interjections of admiration; e.g., satemo Deus no
voqinaru vonjifi cana 'oh! great mercy of God!'
Avare is the interjection for pity; e.g., avare mutçucaxij
io no naca cana 'oh! world replete with misery!'
Ha![171] is the
interjection of penetence; e.g., ha faxi demo (61 vomoxiroi ga; tocoro
ni iote qicoie canuru [... ni iotte ...] (127v) 'ah, the
workmanship of the sound and the harmony of the singing is most graceful,
but it is not able to be heard well.'
Iara! is the interjection for joy and pain; e.g., iara iara
medeta ia (128) 'oh! how much I rejoice.' Ia is also used;
e.g., satemo iiaxii iatçubara ia (129)[172] 'oh! how vile and despicable,'
gongo dǒdan fuxigui na xisai cana (128v) 'oh! how rare and
ridiculous a reason.' Iei is the interjection of wonder; e.g.,
iei Padre sama cochi gozaru io 'oh! here is the Reverend
Father.'
Hat is the interjection that indicates that one is repentent;
e.g., Benqei core vo mite hat coto naxi to zonjite, sono mama niva ni
bǒ vo voraxi, etc. (127v) 'Benkei seeing this,' etc.[173]
The Syntax and the Cases that are Governed by the Verbs[174]
The nominative is placed at the beginning of the sentence and the verb
at the end: the remaining elements are placed according to the cadence
(cadentia) of the sentence; e.g., Pedro va Nagasaqi de xutrai
xita iqi iqi ni tçuite juan vo coroita 'Peter killed John because of
an argument that took place in Nagasaki.' In certain sentences of serious
import a substitute verb (verbum suppositum) is placed after the
verb, but this is rare; e.g., tare mo canavanu futari no qimi ni
tçucǒru coto va (84)[175] 'no one can serve two masters.' In
this sentence the substitute verb is tçucǒru coto va.
Core ni iote tanomi tatematçuru itçumo virgen [Core ni
iotte ...] (84) 'therefore I pray to the ever virgin [Mary].'
Clauses (orationes) in the absolute or permissive subjunctive,
infinitive, conditional, and causative are always placed before clauses
that are in the indicative or imperative, even if it does not make sense
in Latin or any other European language;
e.g., achi cara tomeraruru tomo; tomaru na 'do not stay, even if
they want you to remain,' sore vo qiitareba, fara vo tatete
modotta 'when he heard that, he came back very angry,' taxicani
uqetamotta ni iotte coso, móxi ague maraxitare 'I listened carefully,
and then I spoke,' faiǒ gozatta raba vo mexi vo xinjô mono
vo 'if you had come earlier, I would have offered you food.'
When there are two verbs in the same sentence, the first will (62 be in the gerund form
and the other will be in the tense that is required by the sense of the
sentence; e.g., core vo totte giqi ni mi ga comono ni vataxe 'take
this and give it to my servant at once.'
When there are two or more clauses which have the same subject or
tense, only the last verb will be in the tense that is required by the
sense of the sentence. The other verbs will be in the root form, while
still others will be in the gerund in e form; e.g., tovazunba
cotaiezu, voxe raba tçuxxinde qiqi [tovazũba ...
vôxe ... qiqe] (85v)[176] 'if they don't ask don't answer: if
they speak listen carefully,' Deus no vo coto vo macoto ni uqe, go
voqite mo camavaide, sono mama inferno ni vochita 'he did not believe
in God, and he did not respect His precepts; therefore, he fell into
Hell.'
Verbs are always placed in the third person to indicate honor. No one
honors himself except the king when he is speaking of himself; e.g.,
iorocobi ni voboximesu 'I am enjoying it very much.'
When there are many adjectives in a sentence, they will all be in the
adverbial form except the last; e.g., qe nangǒ, iro curô,
icanimo utçucuxij mono [qe nagǒ ...][177] 'a very beautiful person with long,
black hair.'
The particle to is placed before verbs of understanding,
believing, and hearing, takes the place of the verb 'to be,' and means
'that'; fito to zonjita 'I thought, or believed that he was a
man,' qixó vo jennin to vomovô ca? [qixo ...
vomovǒ ca?] 'shall I believe that you are a saint?' Amata
no fito xini no fonovo ni moiuru vo misaxerareô (20)[178] 'you will see many men
burning in the flames of indignation.' Here one has replaced to
with moiuru vo, which is a substitute verb. When mo is
added to to it strongly affirms what is said; e.g., mairó to
mo 'I shall certainly go, or I will be going.'
The particle to, in the first meaning, is sometimes replaced by
iǒni; e.g., agueta iǒni gozaru 'they say that
he offered it,' ica iǒna fito to va xiranu 'I did not know
what kind of a man he was.' Sometimes the substantive verb takes the
place of the particle to; e.g., mairó de gozatta 'he said
that he would come,' xô de va naqeredomo 'although I did not say
that I would do it.'
Qiuzo core vo mite, ima vo saigo no coto de areba (97)[179] 'seeing this, Kiso
believed that the hour of death was present, etc.' Here the substantive
verb replaces to and serves as an active verb governing the
accusative ima vo, which also replaces to. The particles
sǒna and guena mean 'it seems.' Sǒna is
added to the roots of verbs; e.g., deqi (63 sǒna 'it seems that it is
finished.' If a substantive verb is placed after this particle the
a is changed to i; e.g., deqi sǒni gozaru 'it
seems that he will finish,' deqi sǒni mo zonjenu 'I believe
that it will not be finished.'[180] Sǒna is also added to
adjectives in i, and when it is the i is lost; e.g., io
sǒna 'it seems good, or it seems that it is good,' xigue
sǒna 'it seems dense,' and aiau sǒna 'it seems
that I am in danger.' If this particle is added to adjectives in
na, the na is lost; e.g., aqiraca sǒna 'it
seems that it is clear.'
The particle guena is added to the nouns and verbs previously
formed; e.g., maitta guena 'I believe that he has come.' If a
substantive verb is added to this particle the a changes to
i; e.g., maitta gueni gozaru 'I believe that he has come.'
Sǒna means 'it seems,' and guena means 'I believe,'
but either of these forms may occasionally be used in any of the examples
given.
When a sentence has two preterits, the first may be in the preterit
and the second in the future; e.g., qesa cara sǒ vôxerareta raba
mo faia de maraxô 'If you would have said that this morning, I would
have already left.'
When reporting what someone else has said, it is said this way; Padre mósaruru va: iagate sonata ie
mairó to mǒsaruru 'the priest said that he was going to come.'
Sometimes when one is excusing himself he will use no in place of
to; e.g., asu no, raiguat no, nando to noburu na 'don't
spread around that it is tomorrow, next month, or whenever.'
When vo follows n it loses its v; e.g., go von
o uqetatematçutta 'I received benefits.'[181]
Adverbs are always placed before their verbs except for the adverbs of
time which are placed at the beginning of the sentence; e.g., sore vo
qijte iccó xicari maraxita 'hearing that he was very angry,' qiô
nen espana cara vatatta toqi [qio nen ...] 'when I sailed from
Spain last year.' Each verb requires before it a subject in the
nominative case, either expressed or understood; e.g., vare iqe or
iqe 'come!', where the vare is understood. In some
sentences this rule is not respected; e.g., xisai voba core ni mósare
maraxozu [... maraxôzu] 'he will explain, or give the reason
for this.' In the following case we do not see the nominative, but rather
are ni va, which is in the dative or ablative; are ni va, navo
voixri atta [... voxiri atta] 'he knows better.' In this
sentence the are ni va ought to be in the nominative. Cacaru vo
ni va cogane no cusari vo icusugi mo tçuqeta dógu de gozaru (138v)
'for a necklace (torques) he had a chain of gold with many
links.'
Core ni va gozonji aru mai 'Your Lordship does not know (64 about this.' Here the
core ni va replaces the accusative which is governed by
zonji,uru.
The impersonal verb or the infinitive requires a nominative before it;
e.g., Pedro va maitta to mósu 'they say that Peter came.'
The verb iri,u, which means 'to need,' governs two nominatives,
one for the thing and the other for the person in need; e.g., vatacuxi
va cono cane ga iru 'I need, or I have a necessity for this money.'
It also governs the dative for the person; e.g., sono tame ni va cane
ga iranu 'he does not need any gold, or money.'
The active verb requires the accusative before it; e.g., cane vo
motanu 'I have no money.'
Certain cobita or coie nouns, as we have said above, are
borrowed from Chinese and govern the same cases as the Japanese verbs to
which they correspond; e.g., niva vo qenbut
no aida ni mexi vo coxiraie io 'prepare the food while we visit the
garden.' The noun qenbut requires the accusative niva vo.
The same is true with fito ni guenzan suru (97) which is like
fito ni vó 'I meet the man.' The guenzan governs the dative
just as does the verb ai,ó.
When a borrowed word (vocabulum cobitum)[182] is a compound of two elements it is
possible to determine if it is a verb by seeing if the first part has the
meaning of a verb; e.g., jóten is a verb which means 'to ascend to
heaven' with the jǒ meaning to 'go up.' Tenjǒ
is a noun in which the jǒ is placed after the ten and
means 'heaven.'
The passive verb has the ablative for its agent (persona
agente); e.g., Pedro cara corosareta 'he was killed by Peter,'
but it is better that it govern the dative; e.g., Pedro ni
corosareta, or Pedro va nusubito ni cane vo torareta 'Peter
had his money stolen by thieves.'
There are also certain neutral verbs which govern the accusative as if
they were active verbs; e.g., xiqitai vo fanaruru 'to depart from
the body, or to die,' axi vo vazzuró 'to have a pain in the foot.'
This is also true for nigue,uru 'to escape,' nogare,uru 'to
evade,' de,uru 'to go out,' noqe,uru 'to retreat,'
tovori,u 'to go across,' nori,u 'to sail,' as in
caixǒ vo noru 'I sail the sea,' iuqi,u 'to walk,' as
in michi vo iuqu 'I walk the streets,' vovari,u 'to
finish,' mairi,u as in xogui vo mairu 'I play chess
(tabula laterucularia),' iorocobi,u as in cocoro vo
iorocobu 'I gladden the heart,' abi,uru, as in mizzu vo
abiru[183] 'I wash
myself with water, or I pour water on myself,' avaremi,u 'I am
sad,' (65
canaximi,u 'I am unhappy,' coie,uru 'to cross over,'
fabacari,u 'to be shy,' facarai,ǒ 'to take care of,'
faxiri,u 'to sail,' as in caixǒ, vo, faxiru
[caixǒ vo faxiru] 'I sail the sea,' fagi,zzuru 'to be
ashamed,' fedate,tçuru 'to separate,' fe,uru 'to spend,' as
in ficazu vo furu 'I spend many days,' [fumaie,uru 'to be
based on,' as in] dori vo fumaiuru 'to be based on reason, or to
have reason as a basis,' itami,u 'to be sick,' mavari,u 'to
go around,' as in cono cotovari vo móxi mavatta 'he goes around
and spreads the news here and there,' meguri,u has the same
meaning, nagusami,u 'to please,' as in cocoro vo nagusamu
'I make the heart happy,' naqi,u 'to weep,'
tasucari,u 'to be saved,' as in inochi vo tasucaru 'I am
saved from the dangers of life,' or goxǒ vo tasucaru 'to be
saved for a future life,' tachi,tçu 'to go away from,' as in
tocoro vo tatçu 'I go away from this place,' tomurai,ó 'to
make a funeral for the dead,' ucagai,ó 'to inquire with
hesitation,' voximi,u 'to value,' urami,u 'to enquire,'
xinobi,u 'to wait in hiding, almost insidiously,' as in fito no
me vo xinobu 'I am careful lest someone see me.'[184] A few of these verbs which require
the accusative of location admit to the use of the ablative with the
particles cara or iori; e.g., tocoro vo tatçu is the
same as tocoro iori tatçu 'I leave the place.'
There are some active verbs which require two accusative cases; e.g.,
fori,u, daxi,u, fanaxi,u, tate,tçuru. For
example, Pedro vo soco vo voi idaita 'they led Peter away from
that place.' It is possible that it governs the ablative of location;
e.g., Pedro vo soco cara voi daita [... voi idaita]. Some
take either the dative or the accusative; e.g., fito vo, or
fito ni fanare,uru 'to go away from the men,' Deus vo, or
Deus ni somuqi,u 'to offend God.' Verbs of this kind are generally
verbs of fearing, offending, or going away.[185]
Many verbs of helping, harming, damning, obeying, recognizing as
superior or inferior, being subjugated, being victorious, and similar
verbs govern the dative; e.g., chiie saicacu iǒni coieta 'he
is superior to others in wisdom and industry.'[186]
Verbs of giving, promising, and the like, govern the accusative for
the thing and the dative for the person; e.g., fito ni cane vo
cururu 'to give money to someone.'[187]
There are many verbs which permit before themselves the roots of other
verbs without change, letting the roots take on the function of an
infinitive; e.g., qiqi fajime,uru 'to begin to hear.' Some of
these verbs are: nare,uru 'to become accustomed,' tçuqe,uru
with the same (66
meaning, fate,tçuru 'to finish,' narai,ó 'to learn,'
some,uru 'to begin,' todoqe,uru 'to continue,'
ate,tçuru 'to direct,' atari,u 'to find by chance,'
vaqe,uru 'to divide,' cane,uru 'to be able to do with
difficulty,' soconai,ǒ 'to be wrong,' sumaxi,u 'to
finish,' sugoxi,u 'to exceed,' fague maxi,u 'to work much
and intensely,' aqi,u 'to become bored,' tai 'to want,' and
tǒ mo nai 'to not want.'[188] If the roots of verbs are placed
before certain adjectives ending in i, they form a kind of supine
in Tu; e.g., iomi iasui (92) 'easy to read (facile
lectu),' etc.
A numeral, if a substantive noun is placed after it, must be in the
genitive case; e.g., fitotçu no toga 'one sin.' The same is true
with the particle fodo when it means 'all'; e.g., aru fodo no
fito 'how so ever many.' The same is true with iori; e.g.,
Nanban iori no mono 'things from Europe.' But this is a relative
formation (relatiuum). The genitive is also required with nouns
that mean much or little; e.g., amata no fito 'many men.' These
nouns are; bechi 'other,' fon 'one's own,' cazucazu
'many,' sama zama 'many ways.' Iro iro 'much' is the same
as iorozzu and izzure. Issai means 'all,' as does
vono vono, cotogotoqu, and reqi reqi for a noble
person, igue 'that which follows,' nocori 'that which
remains,' itçumo 'always,' itçumo no coto 'that which
always is,' tçune 'usual,' ima 'now.' Isasaca means
'a little,' as does soto or sucoxi, xotocu
'natural,' sono foca 'others.'[189] These nouns are in the genitive if
they are followed by a substantive noun, but when they are not followed
by a noun they must be taken as adjectives. If they are followed by a
verb rather than a noun, they do not require the genitive; e.g.,
iorozzu dancǒ xite iocarǒ 'it will be good if you all
confer.'
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