Dictionary of Place-names

INTRODUCTION

Among the branches of human speculation that, in recent times, have walked out of the misty realm of conjecture into the firm land of science, and from the silent chamber of the student into the breezy fields of public life, there are few more interesting than Etymology. For as words are the common counters, or coins rather, with which we mark our points in all the business and all the sport of life, any man whose curiosity has not been blunted by familiarity, will naturally find a pleasure in understanding what the image and superscription on these markers mean; and amongst words there are none that so powerfully stimulate this curiosity as the names of persons and places. About these the intelligent interest of young persons is often prominently manifested; and it is a sad thing when parents or teachers, who should be in a position to gratify this interest, are obliged to waive an eager intelligence aside, and by repeated negations to repel the curiosity which they ought to have encouraged. Geography indeed, a subject full of interest to the young mind, has too often been taught in such a way as neither to delight the imagination with vivid pictures, nor to stimulate inquiry by a frequent reference to the history of names; and this is an evil which, if found to a certain extent in all countries, is particularly rank in Great Britain, where the language of the country is composed of fragments of half a dozen languages, which only the learned understand, and which, to the ear of the many, have no more significance than if they were Hebrew or Coptic. The composite structure of our English speech, in fact, tends to conceal from us the natural organism of language; so that in our case, it requires a special training to make us fully aware of the great truth announced by Horne Tooke, that “in language there is nothing arbitrary.” Nevertheless, the curiosity about the meaning of words, though seldom cherished, is not easily extinguished; and, in this age of locomotion, there are few scraps of information more grateful to the intelligent tourist than those which relate to the significance of topographical names. When, for instance, the London holiday-maker, in his trip to the West Highlands, setting foot in one of Mr. Hutchinson’s steamboats at Oban, on his way to the historic horrors of Glencoe, finds on his larboard side a long, low island, green and treeless, called Lismore, he will be pleased, no doubt, at first by simply hearing so euphonious a word in a language that he had been taught to believe was harsh and barbarous, but will be transported into an altogether different region of intelligent delight when he is made to understand that this island is wholly composed of a vein of limestone, found only here in the midst of a wide granitic region skirted with trap; that, by virtue of this limestone, the island, though treeless, is more fertile than the surrounding districts; and that for this reason it has received the Celtic designation of Liosmor, or the great garden. Connected with this etymology, not only is the topographical name made to speak reasonably to a reasonable being, but it contains in its bosom a geological fact, and an œconomical issue, bound together by a bond of association the most natural and the most permanent. The pleasant nature of the intelligence thus awakened leads us naturally to lament that, except to those who are born in Celtic districts and speak the Celtic language, the significance of so many of our most common topographical names in the most interesting districts is practically lost; and it deserves consideration whether, in our English and classical schools, so much at least of the original speech of the country should not be taught as would enable the intelligent student to know the meaning of the local names, to whose parrot-like repetition he must otherwise be condemned.

Some of the Celtic words habitually used in the designation of places—such as Ben, Glen, Strath, and Loch—have been incorporated into the common English tongue; and the addition to this stock is not very large, which would enable an intelligent traveller to hang the points of his picturesque tour on a philological peg that would most materially insure both their distinctness and their permanence. Nay, more; the germ of appreciation thus begotten might lead a sympathetic nature easily into some more serious occupation with the old language of our country; and this might lead to a discovery full of pleasant surprise, that in the domain of words, as of physical growth, the brown moors, when examined, often produce flowers of the most choice beauty with which the flush of the most cultivated gardens cannot compete, and that a venerable branch of the old Indo-European family of languages, generally ignored as rude and unlettered, is rich in a popular poetry, as fervid in passion, and as healthy in hue, as anything that Homer or Hesiod ever sang.

In the realm of etymology, as everybody now knows, before Bopp and Grimm, and other great scholars, laid the sure foundation of comparative philology on the principles of a philosophy, as all true philosophy is, at once inductive and deductive, the license of conjecture played a mad part—a part, it is only too evident, not yet fully played out—and specially raised such a glamour of illusion about topographical etymology, that the theme became disgusting to all sober-minded thinkers, or ludicrous, as the humour might be. We must, therefore, approach this subject with a more than common degree of caution, anxious rather to be instructed in what is solid, than to be amazed with what is ingenious. It shall be our endeavour to proceed step by step in this matter—patiently, as with the knowledge that our foot is on the brink of boggy ground, starting from obvious principles given by the constitution of the human mind, and confirmed by a large induction of unquestioned facts.

The most natural and obvious reason for naming a place so-and-so would be to express the nature of the situation by its most striking features, with the double view of impressing its character on the memory, and conveying to persons who had not seen it an idea of its peculiarity; i.e. the most obvious and natural topographical names are such as contain condensed descriptions or rude verbal pictures of the object. Thus the notion of the highest mountain in a district may be broadly conveyed by simply calling it the big mount, or, according to the order of words current in the Celtic languages, mount big; which is exactly what we find in Benmore, from mor, big, the name of several of the highest mountains in the Highlands of Scotland, specially of one in the south of Perthshire, near Killin, of another in Mull, the highest trap mountain in Scotland, and a third in Assynt. Again, to mark the very prominent feature of mountains elevated considerably above the normal height, that they are covered with snow all the year round, we find Lebanon, in the north of Palestine, named from the Hebrew leban, white; Mont Blanc, in Switzerland, in the same way from an old Teutonic word signifying the same thing, which found its way into Italian and the other Romanesque languages, fairly ousting the Latin albus; Olympus, from the Greek λάμπομαι, to shine; the Schneekoppe, in Silesia, from schnee, snow, and koppe, what we call kip in the Lowland topography of Scotland, i.e. a pointed hill, the same radically as the Latin caput, the head. In the same fashion one of the modern names of the ancient Mount Hermon is Jebel-eth-Thelj, the snowy mountain, just as the Himalayas receive their names from the Sanscrit haima = Greek χεîμα, winter.

The most obvious characteristic of any place, whether mountain or plain or valley, would be its shape and size, its relative situation high or low, behind or in the front, its colour, the kind of rock or soil of which it is composed, the climate which it enjoys, the vegetation in which it abounds, and the animals by which it is frequented. Let us take a few familiar examples of each of these cases; and, if we deal more largely in illustrations from the Scottish Highlands than from other parts of the world, it is for three sufficient reasons—because these regions are annually visited by the greatest number of tourists; because, from the general neglect of the Celtic languages, they stand most in need of interpretation; and because they are most familiar—not from book-knowledge only, but by actual inspection—to the present writer. In the matter of size, the tourist will find at Glenelg (from sealg, to hunt), in Inverness-shire, opposite Skye, where there are two well-preserved circular forts, the twin designations of Glenmore and Glenbeg; that is, Glenbig and Glenlittle—a contrast constantly occurring in the Highlands; the word beag, pronounced vulgarly in Argyleshire peek, signifying little, evidently the same as μικ in the Greek μικρός. As to relative situation, the root ard, in Latin arduus, frequently occurs; not, however, to express any very high mountain, but either a bluff fronting the sea, as in Ardnamorchuan (the rise of the great ocean, cuan, perhaps from ὼκεανός), or more frequently a slight elevation on the shore of a lake, what they call in England a rise, as in Ardlui, near the head of Loch Lomond, Ardvoirlich, and many others. The word lui, Gaelic laogh—the gh being silent, as in the English sigh—signifies a calf or a fawn, and gives name to the lofty mountain which the tourist sees on his right hand as he winds up where the railway is now being constructed from Dalmally to Tyndrum. Another frequent root to mark relative situation is CUL, behind, Latin culus, French cul, a word which gives name to a whole parish in Aberdeenshire, to the famous historical site of Culross, the reputed birthplace of St. Kentigern, and many others. This word means simply behind the headland, as does also Culchenzie (from ceann, the head), at the entrance to Loch Leven and Glencoe, which the tourist looks on with interest, as for two years the summer residence of the noble-minded Celtic evangelist Dr. Norman Macleod. But the most common root, marking relative situation, which the wanderer through Celtic countries encounters is inver, meaning below, or the bottom of a stream, of which aber is only a syncopated form, a variation which, small as it appears, has given rise to large controversy and no small shedding of ink among bellicose antiquarians. For it required only a superficial glance to observe that while Abers are scattered freely over Wales, they appear scantly in Scotland, and there with special prevalence only in the east and south-east of the Grampians—as in Aberdeen, Aberdour, Aberlemno in Fife, and others. On this the eager genius of archæological discovery, ever ready to poise a pyramid on its apex, forthwith raised the theory, that the district of Scotland where the Abers prevailed had been originally peopled by Celts of the Cymric or Welsh type, while the region of Invers marked out the ancient seats of the pure Caledonian Celts. But this theory, which gave great offence to some fervid Highlanders, so far as it stood on this argument, fell to the ground the moment that some more cool observer put his finger on half a dozen or a whole dozen of Invers, in perfect agreement hobnobbing with the Abers, not far south of Aberdeen; while, on the other hand, a zealous Highland colonel, now departed to a more peaceful sphere, pointed out several Abers straggling far west and north-west into the region of the Caledonian Canal and beyond it. But these slippery points are wisely avoided; and there can be no doubt, on the general principle, that relative situation has everywhere played a prominent part in the terminology of districts. Northumberland and Sutherland, and Cape Deas or Cape South, in Cantire, are familiar illustrations of this principle of nomenclature. In such cases the name, of course, always indicates by what parties it was imposed; Sutherland, or Southern-land, having received this appellation from the Orkney men, who lived to the north of the Pentland Firth.

The next element that claims mention is Colour. In this domain the most striking contrasts are black and white. In ancient Greece, a common name for rivers was Melas, or Black-water; one of which, that which flows into the Malaic Gulf, has translated itself into modern Greek as Mauro-nero, μαûρο in the popular dialect having supplanted the classical μἐλας; and νἐρο, as old, no doubt, as Nereus and the Nereids, having come into its pre-Homeric rights and driven out the usurping ὕδωρ. In the Scottish Highlands, dubh, black or dark, plays, as might be expected, a great figure in topographical nomenclature; of this let Benmuic Dubh, or the mount of the black sow, familiar to many a Braemar deer-stalker, serve as an example; while Cairngorm, the cradle of many a golden-gleaming gem, stands with its dark blue (gorm) cap immediately opposite, and recalls to the classical fancy its etymological congeners in the Cyanean rocks, so famous in early Greek fable. Of the contrasted epithet white, Leucadia (λευκός), where the poetess Sappho is famed to have made her erotic leap, is a familiar example. In the Highlands, ban (fair), or geal (white), is much less familiar in topographical nomenclature than dubh; Buidhe, on the other hand (yellow), corresponding to the ξανθός of the Greeks, is extremely common, as in Lochbuie at the south-east corner of Mull, one of the few remaining scattered links of the possessions of the Macleans, once so mighty and latterly so foolish, in those parts. Among other colours, glas (gray) is very common; so is dearg (red), from the colour of the rock, as in one of those splendid peaks that shoot up behind the slate quarries at the west end of Glencoe. Breac, also (spotted or brindled), is by no means uncommon, as in Ben Vrackie, prominent behind Pitlochrie, in Perthshire, in which word the initial b has been softened into a v by the law of aspiration peculiar to the Celtic languages.

There remain the two points of climate and vegetation, of which a few examples will suffice. In Sicily, the town of Selinus, whose magnificence remains preserved in indelible traces upon the soil, took its name from the wild parsley, σἐλινον, which grew plentifully on the ground, and which appears on the coins of the city. In the Scottish Highlands, no local name is more common than that which is familiarly known as the designation of one of the most genuine of the old Celtic chiefs, the head of the clan Macpherson—we mean the word Cluny (Gaelic cluain; possibly only a variety of grün, green), which signifies simply a green meadow, a vision often very delightful to a pedestrian after a long day’s tramp across brown brae and gray fell in those parts. The abundance of oak in ancient Celtic regions, where it is not so common now, is indicated by the frequency of the termination darach (from which Derry, in Ireland, is corrupted; Greek δρûς and δόρυ, as in the designation of one of the Campbells in Argyle, Auchin-darroch, i.e. oak-field. The pine, giubhas, appears in Kingussie, pine-end, in the midst of that breezy open space which spreads out to the north-west of the Braemar Grampians. In Beith and Aultbea (birch-brook) we have beath, Latin betula, a birch-tree; elm and ash are rare; heather, fraoch, especially in the designation of islands, as Eileanfraoch, in Loch Awe, and another in the Sound of Kerrera, close by Oban. Of climate we find traces in Auchnasheen (sian), on the open blasty road between Dingwall and Janetown, signifying the field of wind and rain; in Mealfourvonie, the broad hill of the frosty moor, composed of the three roots maol (broad and bald), fuar (cold), and mhonaid (upland); in Balfour (cold town), and in the remarkable mountain in Assynt called Canisp, which appears to be a corruption of Ceann-uisge, or Rainy-head.

Lastly, of animals: madadh, a fox, appears in Lochmaddy and Ardmaddy; coin, of a dog, in Achnachoin, or Dog’s-field, one of the three bloody spots that mark the butchery of the false Campbell in Glencoe; and, throwing our glance back two thousand years, in Cynoscephalæ, or the Dog’s-head, in Thessaly, where the sturdy Macedonian power at last bowed in submission before the proud swoop of the Roman eagles; the familiar cow (baa, Lat. bos) gives its name to that fair loch, which sleeps so quietly in the bosom of beautiful Mull; while the goat, famous also in the sad history of Athenian decline at Aigospotami, or the Goat’s-river, gives its name to the steepy heights of Ardgour (from gobhar, Lat. caper), a fragment of the old inheritance of the Macleans, which rise up before the traveller so majestically as he steams northward from Ballachulish to Fort William and Banavie.

In a country composed almost entirely of mountain ridges, with intervening hollows of various kinds, it is only natural that the variety in the scenery, produced by the various slopes and aspects of the elevated ground, should give rise to a descriptive nomenclature of corresponding variety. This is especially remarkable in Gaelic; and the tourist in the Scottish Highlands will not travel far without meeting, in addition to the Ben and Ard already mentioned, the following specific designations:—

In the Lowlands, pen, law, fell, bræ, hope, rise, edge, indicate similar varieties. Among these pen, as distinguished from the northern ben, evidently points to a Welsh original. Hope is a curious word, which a south-country gentleman once defined to me as “the point of the low land mounting the hill whence the top can be seen.” Of course, if this be true, it means an elevation not very far removed from the level ground, because, as every hill-climber knows, the top of a huge eminence ceases to be visible the moment you get beyond what the Greeks call the “fore-feet” of the mountain.

In the designation of the intervening hollows, or low land, the variety of expression is naturally less striking. Glen serves for almost all varieties of a narrow Highland valley. A very narrow rent or fissured gorge is called a glachd. The English word dale, in Gaelic dail, means in that language simply a field, or flat stretch of land at the bottom of the hills. It is to be noted, however, that this word is both Celtic and Teutonic; but, in topographical etymology, with a difference distinctly indicative of a twofold origin. In an inland locality where the Scandinavians never penetrated, Dal is always prefixed to the other element of the designation, as in Dalwhinnie, Dalnacardoch, and Dalnaspidal, the field of meeting, the field of the smithy, and the field of the hospital, all in succession within a short distance on the road between the Spey uplands and Blair Athol. On the other hand, a postfixed dale, as in Borrowdale, Easdale, and not a few others, indicates a Saxon or Norse origin. The word den or dean, as in the Dean Bridge, Edinburgh, and the Den Burn, Aberdeen, is Anglo-Saxon denn, and appears in the English Tenterden, and some others. Another Celtic name for field is ach, the Latin ag-er, which appears in a number of Highland places, as in Ach-na-cloiche (stone field), in Argyleshire. A hollow surrounded by mountains is called by the well-known name of LAGGAN, which is properly a diminutive from lag, in Greek λάκκος, in Latin lacus, a hollow filled with water, and in German a mere loch, or hole, into which a mouse might creep. A special kind of hollow, lying between the outstretched arms of a big Ben, and opening at one end into the vale below, is called in Gaelic coire, literally a cauldron—a word which the genius of Walter Scott has made a permanent possession of the English language. In England such mountain hollows are often denominated combs, as in Addiscombe, Ashcomb, a venerable old British word of uncorrupted Cornish descent, and which, so far as I know, does not appear in Scottish topography, unless it be in Cummertrees (on the shore, traigh), near Annan, and Cumbernauld; but this I am not able to verify by local knowledge. The word cumar appears in O’Reilly’s Irish dictionary as “the bed of a large river or a narrow sea, a hollow generally,” but seems quite obsolete in the spoken Gaelic of to-day. The termination holm is well-known both in English and Scotch names, and proclaims itself as characteristically Scandinavian, in the beautiful metropolis of the Swedes. In Gaelic districts a holm, that is, a low watery meadow, is generally called a lon, a word which has retained its place in Scotch as loan—Loaning, Loanhead, Loanend, and is fundamentally identical with the English lane and lawn. The varieties of sea-coast are expressed by the words traigh, cladach, camus, corran, wick, loch, rutha, ross, caolas, stron, salen, among which, in passing, we may specially note camus, from the root cam, Greek κάμπτω, to bend: hence Morecambe Bay, near Lancaster, signifies the great bend; corran, a scythe, evidently allied to the Latin curvus, and used in the Highlands to denote any crescent-shaped shore, as at Corranferry, Ardgour, in Lochfinne; wick, a familiar Scandinavian word signifying a bay, and which, with the Gaelic article prefixed, seems to have blundered itself into NIGG at Aberdeen, and near Fearn in Ross-shire; caolas, a strait, combining etymologically the very distant and very different localities of Calais and Ballachulish; stron or sron, a nose, which lends its name to a parish near the end of Loch Sunart, in Morvern, and thence to a famous mineral found in its vicinity; lastly, salen is nothing but salt, and appears in the south of Ireland and the north-west of Scotland, under the slightly varied forms of Kinsale and Kintail, both of which words signify the head of the salt water; for Irish and Gaelic are only one language with a slightly different spelling here and there, and a sprinkling of peculiar words now and then.

The only other features of natural scenery that play a noticeable part in topographical etymology are the rivers, lakes, wells, and waterfalls; and they need not detain us long. The Gaelic uisge, water, of which the Latin aqua is an abraded form, appears in the names of Scottish rivers as Esk, and of Welsh rivers as Usc. The familiar English Avon is the Gaelic amhainn, evidently softened down by aspiration from the Latin amnis. This avon often appears at the end of river names curtailed, as in Garonne, the rough river, from the Gaelic root garbh, rough. The Don, so common as a river name from the Black Sea to Aberdeen, means either the deep river or the brown river. A small river, brook in English, gives name to not a few places and persons. In the Scottish Highlands, and in those parts of the Lowlands originally inhabited by the Celtic race, the word alt performs the same functions. Loch, in Gaelic, answering to the English mere (Latin mare), appears most commonly in the Highlands, as Kinloch, i.e. the town or house at the head of the lake; and tobar, a well, frequently, as in Holywell, connected with a certain religious sanctity, appears in Tobermory, i.e. the well of the Virgin Mary, one of the most beautiful quiet bits of bay scenery in Great Britain. Of places named from waterfalls (eas, from esk), a significant element in Highland scenery, Inverness, and Moness near Aberfeldy, are the most notable, the one signifying “the town at the bottom of the river, which flows from the lake where there is the great waterfall,” i.e. Foyers; and the other, “the waterfall of the moorish uplands,” which every one understands who walks up to it.

So much for the features of unappropriated nature, stereotyped, as it were, at once and for ever, in the old names of local scenery. But as into a landscape an artist will inoculate his sentiment and symbolise his fancy, so on the face of the earth men are fond to stamp the trace of their habitation and their history. Under this influence the nomenclature of topography becomes at once changed from a picture of natural scenery to a record of human fortunes. And in this department it is plain that the less varied and striking the features of nature, the greater the necessity of marking places by the artificial differentiation produced by the presence of human dwellings. Hence, in the flat, monotonous plains of North Germany, the abundance of places ending in hausen and heim, which are only the Saxon forms of our English house and home. Of the termination hausen, Sachsenhausen, the home of the Saxons, and Frankenhausen, the home of the Franks, are amongst the most notable examples. Heim is pleasantly associated with refreshing draughts in Hochheim, i.e. high home, on the north bank of the Rhine a little below Mainz, whence a sharp, clear wine being imported, with the loss of the second syllable, and the transformation of ch into k, produced the familiar hock. This heim in a thousand places of England becomes ham, but in Scotland, where the Celtic element prevails, appears only rarely in the south-east and near the English border, as in Coldingham and Ednam—the birthplace of the poet Thomson—contracted from Edenham. Another root very widely expressive of human habitation, under the varying forms of beth, bo, and by, is scattered freely from the banks of Jordan to the islands of the Hebrides in the north-west of Scotland. First under this head we have the great army of Hebrew beths, not a few of which are familiar to our ear from the cherished teachings of early childhood, as—Bethabara, the house of the ferry; Bethany, the house of dates; Bethaven, the house of naughtiness; Bethcar, the house of lambs; Bethdagon, the house of the fish-god Dagon; Bethel, the house of God; Bethshemesh, the house of the sun (like the Greek Heliopolis); and a score of others. Bo is the strictly Danish form of the root, at least in the dictionary, where the verb boe, to dwell, also appears. Examples of this are found in Skibo, in Ross-shire, and Buness, at the extreme end of Unst, the seat of the Edmonstones, a family well known in the annals of Shetland literature; but more generally, in practice, it takes the softened form of by, as in hundreds of local designations in England, specially in Lincolnshire, where the Danes were for a long time at home. Near the English border, as in Lockerby, this same termination appears; otherwise in Scotland it is rare. In the Sclavonic towns of Mecklenburg and Prussia, it takes the form of bus, as in Pybus, while in Cornish it is bos, which is a later form of bod (German bude, English booth, Scotch bothy), which stands out prominently in Bodmin and other towns, not only in Cornwall, but in Wales. The termination bus appears likewise in not a few local designations in the island of Islay, where the Danes had many settlements. In Skye it appears as bost, as in Skeabost, one of the oldest seats of the Macdonalds. The other Saxon or Scandinavian terms frequently met with throughout England and in the north-east of Scotland are—ton, setter or ster, stead, stow, stoke, hay, park, worth, bury, thorp, toft, thwaite. In Germany, besides heim and hausen, as already mentioned, we have the English hay, under the form hagen, a fence; and thorp under the form dorf, a village; and worth under the forms worth and werth, which are merely variations of the Greek χόρτος, English yard, and the Sclavonic gard and gorod, and the Celtic garad, the familiar word in the Highlands for a stone wall or dyke. In Germany, also, weiler, from weilen, to dwell, and leben, to live, are thickly sprinkled; hof, also, is extremely common, signifying a court or yard—a suffix which the French, in that part of Germany which they stole from the Empire, turned into court or ville, as in Thionville from Diedenhofen.

So much for the Teutonic part of this branch of topographical designation. In the Highlands tigh and bail are the commonest words to denote a human dwelling, the one manifestly an aspirated form of the Latin tignum (Greek στἐγος, German dach), and the other as plainly identical with the πόλις which appears in Sebastopol, and not a few cities, both ancient and modern, where Greek influence or Greek affectation prevailed. With regard to bal, it is noticeable that in Ireland it generally takes the form of bally, which is the full form of the word in Gaelic also, baile, there being no final mute vowels in that language; but in composition for topographical use final e is dropped, as in Balmoral, the majestic town or house, from morail, magnificent, a very apt designation for a royal residence, by whatever prophetic charm it came to be so named before her present Majesty learned the healthy habit of breathing pure Highland air amid the fragrant birches and clear waters of Deeside. Tigh, though less common than bal, is not at all unfrequent in the mountains; and tourists in the West Highlands are sure to encounter two of the most notable between Loch Lomond and Oban. The first, Tyndrum, the house on the ridge, at the point where the ascent ceases as you cross from Killin to Dalmally; and the other Taynuilt, or the house of the brook, in Scotch burnhouse, beyond Ben Cruachan, where the road begins to wend through the rich old copsewood towards Oban. I remember also a curious instance of the word tigh in a local designation, half-way between Inveraray and Loch Awe. In that district a little farmhouse on the right of the road is called Tighnafead, i.e. whistle-house (fead, a whistle, Latin fides), which set my philological fancy immediately on the imagination that this exposed place was so called from some peculiar whistling of the blast down from the hills immediately behind; but such imaginations are very unsafe; for the fact turned out to be, if somewhat less poetical, certainly much more comfortable, that this house of call, in times within memory, stood at a greater distance from the road than it now does, which caused the traveller, when he came down the descent on a cold night, sharp-set for a glass of strong whisky, to make his presence and his wish known by a shrill whistle across the hollow.

So much for tigh. The only other remark that I would make here is, that the word clachan, so well known from Scott’s Clachan of Aberfoyle, does not properly mean a village, as Lowlanders are apt to imagine, but only a churchyard, or, by metonymy, a church—as the common phrase used by the natives, Di domhnaich dol do’n chlachan, “going to church on Sunday,” sufficiently proves—the word properly meaning only the stones in the churchyard, which mark the resting-place of the dead; and if the word is ever used for a village, it is only by transference to signify the village in which the parish church is, and the parish churchyard.

But it is not only the dwellings of men, but their actions, that make places interesting; and as the march of events in great historical movements generally follows the march of armies, it follows that camps and battle-fields and military settlements will naturally have left strong traces in the topography of every country where human beings dwell. And accordingly we find that the chester and the caster, added as a generic term to so many English towns, are simply the sites of ancient Roman castra or camps; while Cologne, on the Rhine, marks one of the most prosperous of their settlements in Germany. Curiously analogous to this is the Cöln, a well-known quarter of Berlin, on the Spree, where the German emperors first planted a Teutonic colony in the midst of a Sclavonic population. In the solemn march of Ossianic poetry, the word blar generally signifies a field of battle; but, as this word properly signifies only a large field or open space, we have no right to say that such names as Blair Athol and Blairgowrie have anything to do with the memory of sanguinary collisions. Alexandria, in Egypt, is one of the few remaining places of note that took their name from the brilliant Macedonian Helleniser of the East. Alexandria, in the vale of Leven, in Dumbartonshire, tells of the family of Smollett, well known in the annals of Scottish literary genius, and still, by their residence, adding a grace to one of the most beautiful districts of lake scenery in the world. Adrianople stereotypes the memory of one of the most notable of the Roman emperors, who deemed it his privilege and pleasure to visit the extremest limits of his vast dominions, and leave some beneficial traces of his kingship there. The name Petersburg, whose Teutonic character it is impossible to ignore, indicates the civilisation of a Sclavonic country by an emperor whose early training was received from a people of German blood and breed; while Constantinople recalls the momentous change which took place in the centre of gravity of the European world, when the declining empire of the Roman Cæsars was about to become Greek in its principal site, as it had long been in its dominant culture. The streets of great cities, as one may see prominently in Paris, in their designations often contain a register of the most striking events of their national history. Genuine names of streets in old cities are a historical growth and an anecdotal record, which only require the pen of a cunning writer to make them as attractive as a good novel. London, in this view, is particularly interesting; and Emerson, I recollect, in his book, How the Great City grew (London, 1862), tells an amusing story about the great fire in London, which certain pious persons observed to have commenced at a street called Pudding Lane, and ended at a place called Pye Corner, in memory of which they caused the figure of a fat boy to be put up at Smithfield, with the inscription on his stomach, “This boy is in memory put up for the late fire of London, occasioned by the sin of gluttony, 1666.” Many a dark and odorous close in Old Edinburgh also, to men who, like the late Robert Chambers, could read stones with knowing eyes, is eloquent with those tales of Celtic adventure and Saxon determination which make the history of Scotland so full of dramatic interest; while, on the other hand, the flunkeyism of the persons who, to tickle the lowest type of aristocratic snobbery, baptized certain streets of New Edinburgh with Buckingham Terrace, Belgrave Crescent, Grosvenor Street, and such like apish mimicry of metropolitan West Endism, stinks in the nostrils and requires no comment. But not only to grimy streets of reeking towns, but to the broad track of the march of the great lines of the earth’s surface, there is attached a nomenclature which tells the history of the adventurous captain, or the courageous commander, who first redeemed these regions from the dim limbo of the unknown, and brought them into the distinct arena of cognisable and manageable facts. In the frosty bounds of the far North-West, the names of Mackenzie, Maclintock, and Maclure proclaim the heroic daring that belongs so characteristically to the Celtic blood in Scotland. But it is in the moral triumphs of religion, which works by faith in what is noble, love of what is good, and reverence for what is great, that the influence of history over topographical nomenclature is most largely traced. In ancient Greece, the genial piety which worshipped its fairest Avatar in the favourite sun-god Apollo, stamped its devotion on the name of Apollonia, on the Ionian Sea, and other towns whose name was legion. In Cornwall, almost every parish is named after some saintly apostle, who, in days of savage wildness and wastefulness, had brought light and peace and humanity into these remote regions. In the Highlands of Scotland, the Kilbrides (kill from cella, a shrine), Kilmartins, Kilmarnocks, and Kilmallies everywhere attest the grateful piety of the forefathers of the Celtic race in days which, if more dark, were certainly not more cold than the times in which we now live. In the Orkneys the civilising influence of the clergy, or, in some cases, no doubt, their love for pious seclusion, is frequently marked by the Papas or priests’ islands. In Germany, Munich or Monacum, which shows a monk in its coat-of-arms, has retained to the present day the zeal for sacerdotal sanctitude from which it took its name; and the same must be said of Muenster, in Westphalia (from μοναστῆρι, in modern Greek a cathedral, English minster), the metropolis of Ultramontane polity and priestly pretension in Northern Germany.

But it is not only in commemorating, like coins, special historical events, that local names act as an important adjunct to written records; they give likewise the clue to great ethnological facts and movements of which written history preserves no trace. In this respect topographical etymology presents a striking analogy to geology; for, as the science of the constitution of the earth’s crust reveals a fossilised history of life in significant succession, long antecedent to the earliest action of the human mind on the objects of terrestrial nature, so the science of language to the practised eye discloses a succession of races in regions where no other sign of their existence remains. If it were doubted, for instance, whether at any period the Lowlands of Scotland had been possessed by a Celtic race, and asserted roundly that from the earliest times the plains had been inhabited by a people of Teutonic blood, and only the mountain district to the west and north-west was the stronghold of the Celt, the obvious names of not a few localities in the east and south-east of Scotland would present an impassable bar to the acceptance of any such dogma. One striking instance of this occurs in Haddingtonshire, where a parish is now called Garavalt—by the very same appellation as a well-known waterfall near Braemar, in the hunting forest of the late Prince Consort; and with the same propriety in both cases, for the word in Gaelic signifies a rough brook, and such a brook is the most striking characteristic of both districts. Cases of this kind clearly indicate the vanishing of an original Celtic people from districts now essentially Teutonic both in speech and character. The presence of a great Sclavonic people in Northern Germany, and of an extensive Sclavonic immigration into Greece in mediæval times, is attested with the amplest certitude in the same way. A regular fringe of Scandinavian names along the north and north-west coast of Scotland would, to the present hour, attest most indubitably the fact of a Norse dominion in those quarters operating for centuries, even had Haco and the battle of Largs been swept altogether from the record of history and from the living tradition of the people. To every man who has been in Norway, Laxfiord, in West Ross-shire, a stream well known to salmon-fishers, carries this Scandinavian story on its face; and no man who has walked the streets of Copenhagen will have any difficulty, when he sails into the beautiful bay of Portree, in knowing the meaning of the great cliff called the Storr, which he sees along the coast a little towards the north; for this means simply the great cliff, storr being the familiar Danish for great, as mor is the Gaelic. Ethnological maps may in this way be constructed exactly in the same fashion as geological; and the sketch of one such for Great Britain the reader will find in Mr. Taylor’s well-known work on Names and Places.

With regard to the law of succession in these ethnological strata, as indicated by topographical nomenclature, the following three propositions may be safely laid down:—1. The names of great objects of natural scenery, particularly of mountains and rivers, will generally be significant in the language of the people who were the original inhabitants of the country. 2. Names of places in the most open and accessible districts of a country will be older than similar names in parts which are more difficult of access; but—3, these very places being most exposed to foreign invasion, are apt to invite an adventurous enemy, whose settlement in the conquered country is generally accompanied with a partial, sometimes with a very considerable, change of local nomenclature.

In reference to this change of population, Mr. Taylor in one place uses the significant phrase, “The hills contain the ethnological sweepings of the plains.” Very true; but the effect of this on the ethnological character of the population of the places is various, and in the application requires much caution. It is right, for instance, to say generally that the Celtic language has everywhere in Europe retreated from the plains into the mountainous districts; but the people often still remain where the language has retreated, as the examination of any directory in many a district of Scotland, where only English is now spoken, will largely show. In Greece, in the same way, many districts present only Greek and Sclavonic names of places, where the population, within recent memory, is certainly Albanian. Inquiries of this nature always require no less caution than learning; otherwise, as Mr. Skene observes, what might have been, properly conducted, an all-important element in fixing the ethnology of any country, becomes, in rash hands and with hot heads, a delusion and a snare.[1]

But the science of language, when wisely conducted, not only presents an interesting analogy to geological stratification; it sometimes goes further, and bears direct witness to important geological changes as conclusive as any evidence derived from the existing conformation of the earth’s crust. How this comes to pass may easily be shown by a few familiar examples. The words wold and weald originally meant wood and forest, as the Anglo-Saxon Dictionary and the living use of the German language—wald—alike declare; but the wolds at present known in Yorkshire, Gloucestershire, and other parts of England, are generally bare and treeless, and in bad weather very cheerless places indeed. If, then, “there is nothing arbitrary in language,” and all local names tell an historical tale, it is certain that, at the time when those names were imposed, these same sites were part of an immense forest. The geologist, when, in the far-stretching bogs east of Glencoe, and near Kinloch Ewe, and in many other places of Scotland, he calls attention to the fact of layers of gigantic trees lying now deeply embedded under the peat, adduces an argument with regard to the primitive vegetation of our part of the world not a whit more convincing. The same fact of a lost vegetation is revealed in not a few places of England which end in the old word hurst, signifying a forest. Again, there is a large family of places in and about the Harz Mountains, in Germany, ending in ode, as Osterode, Hasselrode, Werningerode, and so forth. Now most of these places, as specially Hasselrode, are now remarkably free from those leagues of leafy luxuriance that give such a marked character to the scenery of that mountain district. It is certain, however, that they were at one time in the centre of an immense forest; for the word rode, radically the same as our rid, and perhaps the Welsh rhydd, Gaelic reidh, simply means “to make clear” or “clean,” and teaches that the forest in that part had been cleared for human habitation.

Once more: it is a well-known fact in geology that the border limit between sea and land is constantly changing, the briny element in some cliffy places, as to the north of Hull, systematically undermining the land, and stealing away the farmer’s acreage inch by inch and foot by foot; while in other places, from the conjoint action of river deposits and tidal currents, large tracts of what was once a sea-bottom are added to the land. The geological proof of this is open often to the most superficial observer; but the philological proof, when you once hold the key of it, is no less patent. In the Danish language—which is a sort of half-way house between high German and English—the word oe signifies an island. This oe, in the shape of ay, ea, ey, or y, appears everywhere on the British coast, particularly in the West Highlands, as in Colonsay, Torosay, Oransay, and in Orkney; and if there be any locality near the sea wearing this termination, not now surrounded by water, the conclusion is quite certain, on philological grounds, that it once was so. Here the London man will at once think on Bermondsey and Chelsea, and he will think rightly; but he must not be hasty to draw Stepney under the conditions of the same category, for the EY in that word, if I am rightly informed, is a corruption from hithe, a well-known Anglo-Saxon and good old English term signifying a haven; and generally, in all questions of topographical etymology, there is a risk of error where the old spelling of the word is not confronted with the form which, by the attritions and abrasions of time, it may have assumed.

These observations, which at the request of the author of the following pages I have hastily set down, will be sufficient to indicate the spirit in which the study of topographical etymology ought to be pursued. Of course, I have no share in the praise which belongs to the successful execution of so laborious an investigation; neither, on the other hand, can blame be attached to me for such occasional slips as the most careful writer may make in a matter where to err is easy, and where conjecture has so long been in the habit of usurping the place of science. But I can bear the most honest witness to the large research, sound judgment, and conscientious accuracy of the author; and feel happy to have my name, in a subsidiary way, connected with a work which, I am convinced, will prove an important addition to the furniture of our popular schools.

College, Edinburgh,

February 1875.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

A DICTIONARY OF PLACE-NAMES — A — B — C — D — E — F — G — H — I — J — K — L — M — N — O — P — Q — R — S — T — U — V — W — Y — Z

a possession;[2] e.g. Craika, Torfa, Ulpha; A (Scand.) also means an island—v. EA, p. 71.

a stream; from Old Norse â, Goth. aha, Old Ger. aha (water). The word, in various forms, occurs frequently in river names throughout Western Europe, especially in Germany and the Netherlands, and often takes the form of au or ach; e.g. the rivers Aa, Ach, Aach; Saltach (salt river); Wertach (a river with many islands)—v. WARID, etc.; Trupach (troubled stream); Weser, i.e. Wesar-aha (western stream); Lauter, i.e. Hlauter-aha (clear stream); Danube or Donau, i.e. Tuon-aha (thundering stream); Main, i.e. Magin-aha (great stream); Fisch-aha (fish stream); Schwarza (black stream); Zwiesel-au (the stream of the whirlpool); Erlach (alder-tree stream); Gron-aha (green stream); Dachau (the clayey stream); Fulda, i.e. Fold-aha (land stream); Rod-aha (reedy stream); Saale and Saala from salz (salt stream). The simple a or o, with a prefix expressive of the character of the stream, is the most frequent form of the word in Iceland and Scandinavia, and in the districts of Great Britain colonised by Norsemen or Danes; e.g. Laxa (salmon river); Hvita (white river); Brora (bridge river); Rotha (red river); Greta (weeping river); Storaa (great river); Thurso (Thor’s river), which gives its name to the town; Lossie, anc. Laxi-a (salmon river).

water; e.g. Doab (the district of two waters); Menab (the mouth of the water), on the Persian Gulf; Busheab or Khoshaub (good water), a river in Hindostan, also an island in the Persian Gulf; Neelab (blue water); Punjaub (the district of the five streams); Chinab or Chenaub R., said to be a corrupt. of its former name Chaudra Bhagee (the garden of the moon), so called from a small lake of that name from which it proceeds. Cognate with this root is the Gadhelic abh, in its forms of aw or ow. Thus in Scotland we have the River Awe and Loch Awe; in Ireland, Ow and Owbeg (little stream); Ow-nageerah (the stream of the sheep); Finnow (clear stream). Cognate with these root-words is the Lat. aqua and its derivations in the Romance languages, as well as ae or ea (A.S. water). Forsteman finds river names, allied to the foregoing, throughout Germany and France, in such forms as ap, op, ep, etc., as in the Oppa, Lennep, Barop, Biberaffa.

a dwelling or town, generally connected with the name of its founder; e.g. Hyderabad (the town of Hyder Ali, or of the Lion); Ahmedabad (of the Sultan Ahmed); Furrackabad (founded by Furrack the Fortunate); Agra or Akberabad (founded by Akber); Nujiabad (of Nujibah-Dowlah); Auringabad (founded by Aurungzebe); Jafferabad (the city of Jaffier); Jehanabad (of Shah Jehan); Jellabad (of Jellal, a chief); Moorshedabad (the town of Moorshed Khoolly-Khan); Moorabad (named after Morad, the son of Shah Jehan); Shahabad (of the Shah); Abbas-abad (founded by Abbas the Great); Dowladabad (the town of wealth); Hajiabad (of the pilgrim); Meschdabad (of the mosque); Islamabad (of the true faith); Allah-abad (of God); Secunderabad (named after Alexander the Great); Resoulabad (of the prophet); Asterabad (on the River Aster); Futteabad (the town of victory); Sadabad or Suffi-abad (the town of the sadi or suffi, i.e. the sage).

a confluence of waters; applied, in topography, to places at the conf. of streams, or at the embouchure of a river. The derivation of the term has been traced by some etymologists to the conjunction of ath (Gael.), a ford, and bior, water; by others to Cym.-Cel. at (at) and bior (water). This prefix is general in many of the counties of Scotland, throughout Wales, and, in a few instances, in Ireland, although in the latter country the synonyms inver and cumar are more frequent. Both words are found in the topography of the Picts, but the Scots of Argyleshire used only inver before they came from Ireland to settle in that district. The word aber seems to have become obsolete among them; and as there are no abers in Ayrshire, Renfrew, and Lanarkshire, the word had probably become obsolete before the kingdom of Strathclyde was formed. Dr. Joyce, in his Irish Names of Places, traces its use as prefix or affix to the Irish root abar (a mire), as in the little stream Abberachrinn (i.e. the river of the miry place of the tree). In Wales we find Aberconway, Aberfraw, Aberistwyth, Aberavon, Aberayron, Aberdare, Aberdaron, Abergavenny, at the embouchure of the Conway, Fraw, Istwyth, Avon, Aeron, Dar, Daron, Gavenny. Barmouth, corrupt. from Aber-Mowddy, a seaport in Merioneth, at the mouth of the R. Mowddy. Berriew, corrupt. from Aber-Rhiw (at the junction of the R. Rhiw with the Severn); Aberdaugledden, the Welsh name for Haverford-west, at the mouth of twin rivers resembling two swords (gledden), which unite at Milford Haven. It is called by the Welsh now Hwlford (the sailing road) because the tide comes up to the town. Aberhonddu, at the mouth of the R. Honddi or Honddu (the county town of Brecknock), and Aberdovey, at the embouchure of the R. Dovey in Wales. In Scotland, Aberbrothwick or Arbroath, Abercorn, anc. Aeber-curnig, Aberdour, Abergeldie, Abernethy, at the embouchure of the Brothock, Cornie, Dour, Geldie, and Nethy. Aberchirder is Abhir-chiar-dur (the conf. of the dark water); Abercrombie (the curved conf.); Aberfeldy, i.e. Abhir-feathaile (the smooth conf.); Aberfoyle (the conf. of the pool, phuill); Aberlemno (the conf. of the leaping water, leumnach); Arbirlot, anc. Aber-Elliot (at the mouth of the Elliot); Applecross for Abhir-croisan (the conf. of trouble); Old Aberdeen and New Aberdeen, at the mouths of the Don and Dee, Lat. Devana-castra; Fochabers (the plain, at the river mouth), Gael. faigh, a plain; Lochaber (at the mouth of the loch); Barmouth, in Wales, corrupt, of Aber-Mawdoch or Maw.

a river; e.g. Abi-shiran (sweet river); Abi-shur (salt river); Abi-gurm (warm river); Abi-gard (yellow river); Abi-kuren (the river of Cyrus); Ab-Allah (God’s river).

These and similar words, in the Romance languages, derived from the Heb. abba (father), were introduced into the languages of Europe in connection with the monastic system, and are attached to the names of places founded for monks, or belonging to church lands. Thus—Absberg (abbot’s hill); Apersdorf, for Abbatesdorf (abbot’s village); Absholz (abbot’s wood); Abtsroda (abbot’s clearing), in Germany; Appenzell, anc. Abbatiscella (abbot’s church), founded by the Abbot of St. Gall, A.D. 647; Abbeville (abbot’s dwelling), in France; Abbotsbury (the abbot’s fortified place), Dorset; Abbeydare (the abbey on the R. Dare in Hereford); Abbotshall, in Fife, so called from having been the occasional residence of the abbots of Dunfermline; Abdie (belonging to the abbey of Lindores); Abingdon, in Berks (abbot’s hill), Abington (with the same meaning), the name of two parishes in Cambridge and a village in Lanarkshire, and of two parishes in Ireland; Abbotsford (the ford of the Tweed in the abbey lands of Melrose); Abbotsrule (the abbey on the R. Rule in Roxburghshire); Abbeyfeale (on the R. Feale); Abbeyleix (the abbey of Lewy), an Irish chief Abbeygormacan (Irish mainister); Ua-g Cormacain (the abbey of the O’Cormacans); Abbeylara, i.e. Irish abbey, leath-rath (the abbey of the half-rath); Abbeyshrule, anc. Sruthair (the stream), named for a monastery founded by one of the O’Farells; Abbeystrowry (with the same meaning), in Ireland; Abbensee (the lake of the abbey), in Upper Austria; Newabbey, a Par in Kirkcudbright (named from an abbey founded in 1275 by Devorgilla, the mother of John Baliol); Badia-San-Salvatore (the abbey of the Holy Saviour); Badia-Torrita (the abbey with the little tower), in Italy; Appin, in Argyleshire, anc. Abbphon (abbot’s land), and Appin, in Dull, indicating probably the territory of a Celtic monastery.

a form of the Teut. aha (water), p. 1, as in Salzach (salt stream), but it is also a common affix to words in the Teut. and Cel. languages, by which a noun is formed into an adjective, signifying full of, or abounding in, equivalent to the Lat. terminations etum and iacum. Thus, in German topography, we find Lindach, Aichach, Aschach, Buchach, Tannich, Fichtig, i.e. abounding in lime, oak, ash, beech, fir, and pine wood; Affaltrach (in apple-trees); Erlicht (in alders); Heselicht (in hazels); Laubach (in leaves). In Ireland: Darach, Farnach (abounding in oaks and alders); Ounagh, in Sligo, and Onagh, in Wicklow (watery place), from the adjective Abhnach (abounding in streams). In the Sclav. languages, again, the affix zig has the same meaning, as in Leipzig (abounding in lime-trees).

a field, plain, or meadow; e.g. Aghinver (the field of the confluence); Aghindarragh (of the oak wood); Achonry, anc. Achadh-Chonaire (Conary’s field); Ardagh (high field); Aghabeg (little field); Aghaboy (yellow field); Aghamore (great field); Aghaboe (the cow’s field); Aghadown (of the fort); Aghadoe, i.e. Achadh-da-eo (of the two yew-trees). In Scotland: Auchclach, Auchinleck, Auchnacloich (the stony field); Achray (smooth field); Auchinleith (the physician’s field); Auchindoire (the field of the oak grove); Auchinfad (of the peats); Auchinrath (of the fort); Auchincruive (of the tree, craoibhe); Auchline (of the pool); Auchnacraig (of the rock); Auchindinny and Auchteany (the field of the fire)—teine, i.e. probably places where the Beltane fires were kindled.

the ash-tree; e.g. Ashton, Ashby, Askham (ash-tree dwelling); Ashrigg (the ash-tree ridge), in England. In Germany: Eschdorf, Eschweil, Eschweiller (ash-tree dwelling); Eschenbach (ash-tree brook); Eschwege (ash-tree road).

the aspen or poplar; e.g. Aspley, Aspden (poplar field or valley).

a fountain; e.g. Aenon (the fountains); Enshemish (the fountain of the sun); Engedi (of the goat); Enrogel (of the fuller’s field); Dothan (the two fountains); Aayn-el-kebira (the great fountain); Ain-halu (the sweet fountain); Aayn-taiba (the good fountain); Engannim (the fountain of the gardens); Enrimmon (of the pomegranates).

a place, a possession; e.g. Daviot, anc. Damh-aite (the place of the ox), in Aberdeenshire, and also in Inverness; Tynet, i.e. ait-an-taimhu (the place of the river), in Banffshire. In Ireland the word is used in combination with tigh (a house); e.g. Atty (the dwelling-place); Atty-Dermot (the dwelling of Dermot); Atti-duff (the dark dwelling); Oedt (the possession), a town in Prussia, on the Niers; Iberstolfs-eigen (the possession of Iberstolf); Iberstolfs-eigen, Smurses-eigen (i.e. the possession of Iberstolf and Smurse); Souder-eygen (south possession).

a headland; e.g. Aithsvoe (the bay of the headland); Aithsthing (the place of meeting on the headland); Eidfoss (the waterfall on the headland).

an oak; e.g. Acton, Acworth (oak town and manor); Oakley (oak meadow); Oakham (oak dwelling); Auckland (oakland); Acrise (oak ascent); Wokingham or Oakingham (the dwelling among oaks); Sevenoaks, anc. Seovanacca, named from some oak-trees which once occupied the eminence on which it stands, but Okehampton, in Devon, is on the R. Oke. In Germany and in Holland are Eichstadt, Eichdorf, Eikheim (oak dwelling); Ekholta (oak wood); Eichhalden (oak height); Eichstegen (oak path); Echehout, in Hainault (oak wood); Eykebusch (oak thicket).

white; e.g. Ak-tag, Ak-dagh (the white mountains); Ak-su (white river); Ak-hissar (white castle); Ak-serai (white palace); Ak-shehr (white dwelling); Ak-meschid (white mosque); Ak-kalat (white fortress).

e.g. Alkalat (the fortress); Almaden (the mine); Alcantara (the bridge); Alkasar (the palace); Almeida (the table); Almeria (the conspicuous); Almazen (the storehouse); Alcarria (the farm); Alcana (the exchange); Algezira (the island), anc. Mesopotamia (i.e. between the rivers); Algeciras (the islands), in Spain; Algarve (the west); Almansa (the plain); Almazara (the mill); Alhambra (the red); Alhucen (the beautiful); Alpuxarras (the grassy mountains).

old; e.g. Alton, Oldham, Althorpe, Alcaster, Aldwark (old dwelling, farm, camp, fortress); Audlem (old lyme or border); Audley (old field), in England. In Germany: Altenburg, Altendorf, Oldenburg (old dwelling); Altenmarkt (old market); Altmark (old boundary); Altstadt (old place); Altsattel (old seat); Altofen (old oven), so called from its warm baths; Oudenarde (old earth or land); Oudenbosch (old thicket); Oude-capel (old chapel).

a village; e.g. Aldea-del-Cano (the dog’s village); Aldea-vieya (old village); Aldea-el-Muro (the walled village); Aldea-del-Rio (of the river); Aldea Galliga (of the Gauls).

a height or cliff; e.g. Alltmaur (the great height); Builth, in Wales, i.e. Bu-allt (the steep place of the wild oxen). The Alts (heights or glen-sides), Monaghan; Altachullion (the cliff of the holly); Altavilla, i.e. Alt-a-bhile (the glen-side of the old tree); Altinure (the cliff of the yew-tree); Altanagh (abounding in cliffs); Altan (the little cliff).

a rock or cliff; e.g. the Alps; Albainn (the hilly or high land), the anc. name of Scotland; Albania, with the same meaning; Alpenach (the mountain stream), at the foot of Mount Pilate; Alva and Alvah (the rocky), parishes in Scotland; Cantal (the head of the rock), in France. In Ireland the word ail takes the form of oil, aspirated foyle or faill; e.g. Foilycleara (O’Clery’s cliff); Foilnaman (the cliff of the women): but while the aspirated form of ail is confined to the south, aill is found all over Ireland; Ayleacotty, i.e. Aill-a-choite (the cliff of the little boat); Ailla-gower (the goat’s cliff); Alleen (the diminutive) is found in Alleen-Hogan and Alleen-Ryan (Hogan’s and Ryan’s little cliff). When, however, foyle comes in as a termination, it is commonly derived from poll (a hole), as in Ballyfoyle and Ballyfoile (the town of the hole). The anc. name of Britain, Albion, has sometimes been traced to this root, but more generally to the white cliffs (Lat. albus) on the coast of Kent, as seen first by the Romans.

the alder-tree; e.g. Alr-holt, Aldershot (alder-tree wood); Alresford (Alderford); Alrewas (alder-tree pasture); Alderley (alder-tree meadow), in England; Aulney, Aulnoy, Aulnois, Aunay, Auneau (alder grove), in France.

a stream; e.g. the Alt, Aldan, Alta (river names); Alt-dowran (otter stream); Aultsigh (gliding stream); Alt-na-guish (the stream of the fir-trees); Aldivalloch, i.e. Allt-a-bhealaich (the stream of the pass); Alness, i.e. Allt-an-casa (of the cascade); Alltmore (great stream); Auldearn, i.e. Allt-fearn (alder-tree stream); Cumbernauld, corrupt. from Cumar-nan-alta (the confluence of the streams); Garavault in Aberdeenshire, Garvault in East Lothian, and Garvald in Dumfriesshire (rough stream); Altderg (red stream).

golden; e.g. the Altai, or golden mountains; Altanor (golden lake); Altan-su (golden river); Alta-Yeen (the golden mountains); Altun-tash (golden rock); Altun-kupri (golden bridge).

contrac. from Ger. an den (on the, or at the); e.g. Amberg (at the hill); Amdorf or Ambach, Amsteg, Amwalde (at the village, brook, path, wood).

a kind of grain; e.g. Amarbach, Amarthal, Amarwang, Amarveld (the brook, valley, strip of land, field where this grain grew).

a district under the government of an Amtman or bailiff; e.g. Amt-sluis (the sluice of the Ambacht); Amthof (the court of the Amtman); Graven-Ambacht (the duke’s district); Ambachtsbrug (the bridge of the Ambacht).

an Indo-Germanic word, signifying a river, allied to the Sansc. ambu (water). According to Forsteman (v. Deutsche Ortsnamen) the suffix r was added by most European nations before their separation from the Asiatic tribes, as appears in the Greek ombros and the Lat. imber (a shower). The word appears in the names of tribes and persons, as well as of places, on the European continent; e.g. the Ambrones (or dwellers by the water), and perhaps in Umbria; Amberloo and Amersfoort (the meadow and ford by the water), in Holland; and in such river names as the Ammer, Emmer, Emmerich, Ambra, etc.

a meadow or field; e.g. Rabenanger (the raven’s field); Kreutzanger (the field of the cross); Moosanger (mossy field); Wolfsanger (the wolf’s field, or of Wolf, a man’s name); Vogelsanger (the birds’ field); Angerhusen (the field houses); Angerbach (the field brook); Anger (the field), a town in Austria; Angerburg (the fortress in the field).

a creek or bay; e.g. Angra (a sea-port in the Azores); Angra-de-los-reyes (the king’s bay).

water; e.g. Aix, anc. Aquæ-Sextiæ (the warm springs, said to have been discovered and named by Sextus Calvenus, B.C. 123), in Provence; Aix, in Dauphiny, anc. Aquæ-Vocontiorum (the waters of the Vocontii); Aix-les-bains (the bath waters), in Savoy; Aachen or Aix-la-Chapelle, celebrated for its mineral springs, and for the chapel erected over the tomb of Charlemagne; Plombières, anc. Aquæ-plombariæ (waters impregnated with lead); Veraqua, in New Granada, corrupt. from Verdes-aguas (green waters); Aigue-perse (the bubbling water), in Auvergne; Aigue-vive (the spring of living water); Aigue-belle (beautiful water); Aigue-noire (black water, etc.), in France; Dax, celebrated for its saline springs, corrupt. from Civitas aquensis (the city of waters); Aigues-mortes (stagnant waters); Aguas-bellas (beautiful waters), Portugal; Aguas-calientes (warm waters), Mexico; Evaux, Evreux (on the waters), France; Evian, anc. Aquarum (the waters), Savoy; Entreves and Entraigues (between the waters), anc. Interaquæ; Yvoire, anc. Aquaria (the watery district), on Lake Geneva; Aas or Les Eaux (the waters), Basses Pyrénées; Nerac, anc. Aquæ Neriedum (the waters of the Nerii); Amboise and Amboyna (surrounded by waters); Bordeaux (the dwelling on the water), borda, Low Lat. (a dwelling); Vichy, anc. Aquæ calidæ (warm waters), on the Allier; Bex (upon the two waters), at the juncture of the Rhone and Avençon; Outre L’Eau (beyond the water); Acapulca, in Mexico, corrupt. from Portus aquæ pulchræ (the port of beautiful waters); Agoa-fria (cold water), Brazil; Aqui, in North Italy, celebrated for its baths; Acireale, anc. aguas calientes (the warm waters); Agoa-quente (hot spring), Brazil.

a frequent element in river names, with various and even opposite meanings. Some of the river names may have come from the Sansc. ara (swift, or the flowing), and in Tamil aar means simply a river. There is another Sanscrit word arb (to ravage or destroy), with which the Gadhelic words garw, garbh (rough) may be connected; and, on the other hand, there is the Welsh araf (gentle). According to the locality and the characteristics of the stream, one must judge to which of these roots its name may belong. There are, in England, the Aire, Arre, Arro, Arrow; in France, the Arve, Erve, Arveiron, etc.; in Switzerland and Germany, the Aar, Are; in Spain and Italy, the Arva, Arno; and in Scotland, the Ayr, Aray, Irvine, etc. Many of these names may signify simply flowing water (the river), while others beginning with the syllable ar may be referred to the adjectival forms, araf, arb, ara, or garbh, followed by another root-word for water, as in Arrow (the swift stream); Yarrow (the rough stream); ow (water); Arveiron (the furious stream); avon (water); Arar (the gentle stream), now the Saone.

a height, or, as an adjective, high; e.g. the Aird (the height) on the south coast of the island of Lewis, also in Inverness-shire; Aird Point in the island of Skye; Aird-dhu (the black height), a hill in Inverness-shire; the Airds (high lands in Argyleshire); Airdrie, Gael. Aird-righ (the king’s height), or, perhaps, Aird-reidh (the smooth height); Aird’s Moss (a muirland tract in Ayrshire); Ardbane (white height); Ardoch (high field); Ardclach (high stony ground); Ardach and Ardaghy (high field); Ardmore (great height); Ardeen and Arden (the little height); Ardglass (green height); Ardfert (the height of the grave or ditch, Irish fert); Ardrishaig (the height full of briers, driseach); Ardnamurchan (the height of the great headland, ceann, or of the great ocean, cuan); Ardgower (goat’s height); Ardtornish (the height of the cascade, cas and torr); Ardross (high point); Ardrossan (little high point); Ardchattan (St. Cathan’s height); Ardersier, Gael. Ard-ros-siar (the high western height); Ardlui (the height of the fawn, laoidh); Ardentinny (of the fire, teine); Ardboe (of the cow); Ardbraccan (of St. Brachan); Ardfinan (St. Finan’s height); Armagh, in Ireland, anc. Ardmacha (the height of Macha, the wife of one of the early Irish colonists); Arroquhar, in Dumbarton, i.e. Ardthir (the high land); Ardmeanach (the mossy height or the black isle); Ardgask (the hero’s height, Gael. gaisgeach, a hero); Ardnacrushy (of the cross); Ardtrea (St. Trea’s height); Ardnarea, i.e. Ard-na-riaghadh (the height of the executions, with reference to a dark tale of treachery and murder); Ardgay (windy height); Ardblair (high field); Ardwick (high town, a suburb of Manchester). The Lat. root arduus (high) is found in Ardea, in Italy; the Ardes (or heights), in Auvergne; Auvergne itself has been traced to Ar-fearann (high lands), but Cocheris, Au Noms de Lieu, gives its ancient name as Alverniacus (i.e. the domain of the Auvergni). Ardennes, Forest of (high-wooded valleys); Ardwick-le-street (the high town on the great Roman road), stratum. Ard, art, and artha are also Persian prefixes attached to the names of places and persons; e.g. Ardboodha (the high place of Buddha); Aravalli (the hill of strength); and such personal names as Artaxerxes, Artabanes, Artamenes. In some cases it may refer to the agricultural habits of the Indo-Germanic races (Lat. aro, Grk. αροω, Goth. arjan, Old High Ger. aran, Cel. ar (to plough), hence the Aryan tribes are those belonging to the dominant race—the aristocracy of landowners, as distinguished from the subject races—v. Taylor’s Names of Places.

a place, farm, dwelling; e.g. Heddern (hiding-place); Beddern (sleeping-place); Suthern (south place); Arne, a town in Yorkshire; Chiltern (chalk place); Whithorn, in Wigton, A.S. Whitern, Lat. Candida-casa (white house); Asperne (the place of poplar-trees); Femern (of cattle); Domern (of judgment); Thalern (valley dwelling); Mauthern (toll place); Bevern and Bevergern (the dwelling on the R. Bever); Aire, Lat. Area-Atrebatum (the dwelling of the Atrebates), on the Adour, in France; also Aire, on the Lys; Les Aires (the farms); Airon, etc., in France, Bavaria, Ger. Baiern (the dwelling of the Boii); Aros, Gael. (the dwelling), in Mull; Arosaig (corner dwelling), Argyle.

an eagle. This word is used in topography either with reference to the bird itself, or to a personal name derived from it; e.g. Arnfels (eagle’s rock); Arnberg, Arnstein, Arlberg (eagle mountain or rock); Arisdale (eagle valley, or the valley of a person called Arix); Arnau (eagle meadow); Arnecke (eagle corner); Arendal (eagle valley); Arenoe (eagle island); Eryri (the eagle mountain), the Welsh name for Snowdon.

a fortress; e.g. Arcé, anc. Arx, a town in Italy with a hill fortress called Rocca d’Arcé (the rock of the fortress); Arcis sur Aube (the fortress on the R. Aube), in France; Arcole and Arcola, in Lombardy and Sardinia; Saar-Louis, anc. Arx-Ludovici-Sarum (the fortress of Louis on the Saar), founded by Louis XIV., 1680; Arx-fontana or Fuentes (the fortress of the fountain), in Spain; Monaco, anc. Arx-Monæci (the fortress of the Monæci), on the Gulf of Genoa; Thours, anc. Tuedæ-Arx (the fortress on the R. Thouet), in France.

a hill ridge; e.g. Astadr (ridge dwelling); As and Aas, the names of several towns in Sweden and Norway; Aswick, Aastrap, Aasthorp (the village or farm on the ridge) in Shetland.

a rock; e.g. Astorga, in Spain, Lat. Asturica-Augusta (the great city on the rocky water, ura); Astiapa and Estepa (the dwelling at the foot of the rock), in Spain; Astulez and Astobeza, also in Spain; Asti, a district in Sardinia which was peopled by Iberians or Basques; Astura (the rocky river); Asturias (the country of the dwellers by that river); Ecija, in Spain, anc. Astigi (on the rock); Estepa and Estepona (rocky ground).

a ford. This root-word is more common in Ireland than in Scotland, and is cognate with the Lat. vadum, and the A.S. wath or wade; e.g. Athy, i.e. Ath-Ae (the ford of Ae, a Munster chief who was slain at the spot); Athmore (great ford); Athdare (the ford of oaks); Athenry (the king’s ford); Athlone, i.e. Ath Luaen (the ford of St. Luan); Athleague (stony ford); Athane (little ford); Aghanloo (Lewy’s little ford); the town of Trim is in Irish Athtruim (the ford of the elder trees); Agolagh, i.e. Athgoblach (the forked ford); Aboyne (the ford of the river), on the Dee in Aberdeenshire; Athgoe, i.e. Ath-goibhne (the ford of the smiths), in Dublin.

noble, or the nobles; e.g. Adelsdorf, Adelsheim, Adelshofen, Attelbury (the nobles’ dwelling); Athelney (the island of the nobles), in Somersetshire, formerly insulated by the rivers Tone and Parret; Addelsfors (the nobles’ waterfall); Adelsberg (the nobles’ hill); Adelsclag (the nobles’ wood-clearing); Adelsoe (the nobles’ island); Adelmanns-felden (the nobleman’s field).

a meadow, formed from aha (water), and frequently annexed to the name of a river; e.g. Aarau, Ilmenau, Rheinau, Wetterau, Oppenau, Muhrau (the meadow of the Aar, Ilmen, Rhine, Wetter, Oppa, Muhr); Frankenau (the Franks’ meadow); Lichtenau (the meadow of light); Reichenau (rich meadow); Schoenau (beautiful meadow); Greenau (green); Langenau (long); Weidenau (pasture-meadow); Rosenau (the meadow of roses); Lindau (of lime-trees); Herisau, Lat. Augia-dominus (the Lord’s meadow); Eu, anc. Augia (the meadow), in Normandy; Hanau (the enclosed meadow); Nassau (the moist meadow); Iglau (the meadow of the R. Igla, in Moravia); Troppau, in Silesia (the meadow of the R. Oppa).

the summit, or, as an adjective, upper; e.g. Auchtertyre, anc. Auchterardower (the summit on the water); Auchterarder (the upper high land); Auchterblair (upper field); Auchtercairn (upper rock); Auchtermuchty (the upper dwelling, tigh, of the wild boar, muc); Auchterau (the upper water); Auchtertool (the upper land on the R. Tiel), in Fife; Auchterless (the upper side, slios). In Ireland this word takes the form of Oughter; e.g. Oughterard (upper height); Oughter-lough (upper lake, in reference to Loch Erne); Balloughter (upper town); Lissoughter (upper fort); Killoughter (upper church). The Irish adjective uachdar is not unfrequently Anglicised water, as in Clowater in Carlow, i.e. Cloch-uachdar (upper stone or castle); Watree, in Kilkenny, i.e. Uachdaraighe (upper lands)—v. Joyce’s Irish Names of Places.

water, a river; e.g. the Avon, Aven, Aune, Auney, Inney, Ewenny, Aney, Eveny, river names in England, Wales, and Ireland; Avengorm (red river); Aven-banna (white river); Avenbui (yellow river); Avonmore (great river), in Ireland; the Seine, anc. Seimh-au (smooth river); the Mayenne or Meduana (probably the middle river, from Cel. meadhou). In France there are from this root—the Ain, Avenne, Vilaine, Vienne; the Abona, in Spain. In Scotland: the Almond or Awmon; Devon (deep river); Doon (dark river); Kelvin (woody river); Annan (quiet river); the Leith, Leithen, Lethen (the broad or the gray river); the Don, in Scotland and England (dark or brown river); Irvine and Earn (the west-flowing river); Anwoth, in Kirkcudbright, i.e. Avonwath (the course of the river); the Spey, speach-abhain (swift river); the Allan (beauteous river, aluinn); the Boyne, anc. Bouoninda (perhaps yellow river, buidhe). Many towns derive their names from their rivers, or from their vicinity to water: thus, Avignon and Verona (on the water); Amiens, the cap. of the Ambiani (dwellers on the water, i.e. of the Samara or Somme). Teramo, anc. Interamnia (between the rivers), and Terni, with the same meaning; Avenay, anc. Avenacum (on the river); Avesnes, celebrated for its mineral springs. But such names as Avenay, Avennes, etc., may have been derived in many cases from Lat. avena, Fr. avoine (oats)—v. Cocheris’s Noms de Lieu.

a prefix in Phœnician names, derived from the worship of the sun-god among that people; e.g. Baalath and Kirjath-Baal (the city of Baal); Baal-hazor (Baal’s village); BaalHermon (near Mount Hermon); Baal-Judah, etc., in Palestine. Sometimes, however, the word is used as synonymous with beth (a dwelling), as Baal-tamar and Baal-Meon (for Bethtamar and Beth Meon). But Baal-Perazim, we are told, means the place of breaches, and has no reference to the sun-god, Baalbec (the city of the sun), in Syria.

a gate or court; Babel and Babylon, according to the Arabic (the gate of God), or from a word signifying confusion, Gen. xi. 9; Baab (the gate), a town in Syria; El-Baab (the gate), in the Sahara; Bab-el-Mandeb, Strait of (the gate of tears), so called by the Arabs from its dangerous navigation; Bab-el-estrecho (the gate of the narrow passage), the Arabic name for the Strait of Gibraltar.

a brook; e.g. Snail-batch and Caldbeck (cold brook or swift brook); snell in A.S. and Old English means active, sharp, quick; and in Scotland, as applied to the weather, it means sharp or severely cold; Crumbeck (crooked brook); Lauterbach (clear brook); Skurbeck (dividing brook); Griesbach and Sandbach (sandy brook); Gronenbach (green brook); Over-beck (upper); Reichenbach (rich); Marbeck (boundary); Schoenbach (beautiful brook); Beckford (the brook ford); Bacheim and Beckum (the dwelling at the brook); Beckermet (the meeting of brooks); Bickerstith (the station at the brook); Laubach and Laybach (the warm brook); but Laubach may also mean rich in leaves—v. ACH. Bec in Normandy is named from a brook that flows into the Risle: Birkbeck in Westmoreland (the birch-tree brook); Ansbach or Anspach (at the stream in Bavaria); Schwalbach (the swallow’s brook), in Nassau; Houlbec, in Normandy, Holbeck, in Lincoln and in Denmark (the brook in the hollow); Fulbeck (Lincoln) and Foulbec, in Normandy (muddy brook).

a bath or mineral spring; e.g. Baden, anc. Thermæ-Austricæ (the Austrian warm springs); Baden-Baden, anc. Civitas Aquenses Aurelia (the watering-place of Aurelius); Baden-bei-Wien (the baths near Vienna); Baden-ober (the upper baths); Franzens-bad (the bath of the Franks); Carlsbad or Kaiser-bad (the bath-town of the Emperor Charles IV. of Bohemia); Marien-bad, Lat. Balneum Mariæ (the bath-town of the Virgin Mary); Wiesbaden, anc. Fontes-Mattiaci (the baths or springs of the Mattiaci, dwellers on the meadow)—v. WIESE; Badborn (bath well); Wildbad (wild bath, i.e. not prepared by art), in the Black Forest; Slangenbad (the bath of snakes), so called from the number of snakes found in the mineral springs; Badsdorf (bath village), Bohemia. The Celtic name of the English city Bath was Caer-badon, or Bathan-ceaster (bath city or fortress); the Anglo-Saxons made it Akeman-ceaster (the sick man’s camp), or Aquæ Sulis (dedicated to a British divinity, Sulis, identified with Minerva).

a garden; e.g. Bag, or Baug, in Hindostan. Bagdad superseded Seleucia, which, it is related, was reduced to such a state of ruin as to have nothing remaining on the spot where it stood formerly but the cell of the monk Dad; hence the name of the new city founded by the Caliph Almazar, A.D. 762. Baghdad, i.e. the garden of Dad, a monk who had his cell near the site of the city; Bala-Bagh (high garden), in Affghanistan; Karabagh (black garden), a district in Armenia, so called from its thick forests; Alum-bagh (the garden of the Lady Alum), in Hindostan; Baktschisarai (the palace of the garden), in Crimea.

from the Lat. balneum (a bath); e.g. Bagnacavallo (the horses’ bath); Bagna-di-aqua (water bath); Bagnazo, Bagnara, Bagnari, towns in Italy, celebrated for their baths. In France there are Bagnères-de-Bigorre (the baths of Bigorones, i.e. the dwellers between two heights); Bagnères-de-Luchon (the baths on the R. Luchon); Bains-les-du-mont-doré (the baths of the golden mount); with numerous names with similar meanings, such as Bagneux, Bagneaux, Bagnol, Bagnoles, Bagnolet, Bagnot, etc. In Italy: Bagnolina (the little bath); Bagni-di-Lucca, Bagni-di-Pisa (the baths of Lucca and Pisa).

a bay; e.g. Bahia or St. Salvador (the town of the Holy Saviour), on the bay, in Brazil; Bahia-blanca (white bay); Bahia-hermosa (beautiful); Bahia-honda (deep); Bahia-negra (black); Bahia-neuva (new bay); Bahia-de-Neustra-Senora (the bay of Our Lady); Bahia-Escosesa (Scottish bay), in Hayti; Bayonna, in Spain, and Bayonne, in France (the good bay), from a Basque word, signifying good; Baia (the town on the bay), in Naples; Bahia-de-todos los Santos (All Saints’ Bay), in Brazil.

a way or path; e.g. Winter-bahn (winter path); Langen-bahn (long path); Wild-bahn (wild or uncultivated path).

a sea, a lake, and sometimes a river; e.g. Bahar-el-Abiad (the white); Bahar-el-azrak (the blue river), forming together the Nile; Bahar-belame (waterless river), in Egypt; Baraach (the sea of wealth), in Hindostan; Bahari (the maritime district), Lower Egypt; Bahr-assal (salt lake), Africa; Bahrein (the two seas), a district in Arabia, between the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea; also a group of islands on the same coast.

originally merely a place, a home, then a fort, a town, allied to the Grk. polis. The word joined with the article an is found as ballin for baile-an; e.g. Ballinrobe (the town of the R. Robe); Balbriggan (Brecon’s town); Ballintra and Ballintrae, in Ireland, and Ballantrae, in Scotland (the dwelling on the strand); Ballinure (the town of the yew); Ballintubbert (the town of the well); Ballinakill (of the church or wood); Ballinahinch (of the island); Ballinamona (of the bog), in Ireland; Ballycastle (castle town); Ballymena (middle town); Ballymony (of the shrubbery); Balmagowan and Ballingown (of the smiths); Ballymore and Ballmore (great town); Nohoval, corrupt. from Nuachongbhail (new dwelling), localities in Ireland. In Scotland: Balvanie, anc. Bal-Beni-mor (the dwelling of Beyne, the great first Bishop of Mortlach), in Aberdeenshire; Balmoral (the majestic dwelling, morail); Ballater (the dwelling on the hill-slope, leitir); Balmerino (on the sea-shore, muir); Balachulish, Gael. Baile-na-caolish (the dwelling on the narrow strait); Baldernock, Gael. Baile-dair-cnoc (the dwelling at the oak hill); Balnacraig (dwelling of the rock); Balfour (cold dwelling); Balgay (windy dwelling, gaoth, wind); Balfron (of mourning, bhroin), so called, according to tradition, because a number of children had been devoured by wolves at the place; Balgreen (the sunny place, grianach); Balgarvie (of the rough stream); Ballagan and Ballogie (the dwelling in the hollow); Balgownie and Balgonie (of the smiths); Balbardie (of the bard); Balmac Lellan (the dwelling of the Bal-MacLellan), in Kirkcudbright; Balmaghie (of the Maghies); Balquhidder (the town at the back of the country); Balblair (of the field or plain).

high; e.g. Bala-hissar (high castle); Bala-dagh (high mountain); Bala-Ghauts (the high Ghauts); Balasore (high dwelling); Balkan (high ridge), also called Mount Haemus (the snowy mount), hima (Sansc.), snow; Balkh (high town), anc. Bactra.

a ridge; e.g. Griesen-balken (sandy ridge); Moes-balken (mossy ridge); Schieren-balken (clear ridge)—the word is applied to chains of mountains in general.

a strait or belt; e.g. Balta (the island of the strait); Baltia (the country of belts or straits), the ancient name of Scandinavia. The Great and Little Belts, or straits.

white, fair; e.g. Rivers Bann, Bane, Bain, Bana, Banon, Bandon, Banney, etc.; Banchory (the fair valley).

a hill or height; e.g. Cefn-y-fan (the hill-ridge); Tal-y-fan (the face of the hill), in Wales. B by mutation becomes f.

a district or enclosure, from Old Ger. pyndan (to confine), cognate with Cym.-Cel. pant; e.g. Brabant, i.e. Brach-bant (the ploughed district); Altenbanz (the old); Ostrevant (the eastern); Grunnenbant (the green district); Hasel-point (hazel field); Pound-stock (the enclosed place), in Germany; Drenthe, corrupt. from Thri-banta (the three districts), in Holland; Bantz, in Bavaria. From pant we have in Monmouth, Panteg (beautiful valley, têg); Pant-y-goitre (the valley of the town in the wood).

a mine; e.g. Uj-banya (new mine); Nagy-banya (great mine), a town of Hungary with gold and silver mines, named by the Germans Neustadt; Abrud-banya (the mine on the R. Abrud, a district abounding in metals).

a summit; e.g. Barmona (the summit or top of the bog); Barra-vore (great height, mor); Barmeen (smooth summit), in Ireland. In several counties in Scotland we have Barr (the uplands), but Barr in Ayrshire took its name from St. Barr; Barbreac (spotted point); Barrie and Barra (the head of the water, abh); Barcaldine (hazel point, calltunn); Barbeth (birch point); Barrglass (gray point); Bar-darroch (the summit of the oak grove); Bardearg (red point); Barcaple (the horses’ point); the Bard of Mousa and of Bressay, in the Shetlands, is the projection on these islands; the ancient name of the town of Perth was Barr-Tatha (the height of the R. Tay); Barwyn for Bar-gwn (a white-topped mountain, or tipped with snow), in Wales. In France the prefix bar is applied to strongholds, as in Bar-le-Duc (the duke’s citadel); Bar-sur Saone, Bar-sur Aube (the stronghold on the rivers Saone and Aube).

a mound of earth, especially over a grave; e.g. Barrow-by (the dwelling at the mound); Ingle-barrow (the mound at the grave of Ingold). But, in some cases, barrow may be a form of A.S. boerw (a grove), as in Barrow-den (the grove hollow), in Rutland.

a building; e.g. Brun-bau (the well-house); Neu-bau and Alten-bau (the old and new building); Buittle (the building), a parish on the Solway Firth; Tichel-boo (brick building); Forst-gebaude (the building in the forest). It takes the form of bottle and buttel in Germany, and battle in Britain—v. p. 27; Newbattle (new building in Mid Lothian); Wulfen-buttel (the dwelling of Ulpha); Bolton, in Lancashire, anc. Botl.

a tree, a post; e.g. Baumburg (tree town); Baumgarten (the orchard); Baumgartenthal (orchard valley); Baum-krüg (the tree inn); Schöenbaum (beautiful tree); Heesbaum (the hazel-tree), in Germany; Bampton and Bempton (tree town), in Oxford and Yorkshire; but Bampton in Devon takes its name from the R. Bathom—its ancient name was Bathom-ton.

a grave; e.g. Bedd-gelert (the grave of a favourite hound of Llewelyn, or, as others affirm, the grave of a saint named Kelert).

the birch-tree, cognate with the Lat. betula; e.g. Beddoe (the birches), Salop; Bedwelty, i.e. Bedw-gwal-ty (the wild beast’s dwelling among the birches), in Monmouth; Penbedw (birch hill), Monmouth. In Ireland: Beagh, Beaghy, Behagh, Behy, i.e. (birch land); Kilbehey, i.e. coill-beithne (birch wood); Behanagh (birch-producing river); Ballybay, i.e. Bel-atha-beithe (the ford mouth of the birch); Aghaveagh (birch field). In Scotland: Beith and Beath, in Fife and Ayrshire; Dalbeath, Dalbeth, Dalbeathie (the birch field or valley); Barbeth (the summit of birches).

a meadow; e.g. Beemd and Beemte (on the meadow); Haagschbeemden (enclosed meadow); Beemster-polder (the meadow embankment).

a well; e.g. Beer-sheba (the well of the oath); Beer-Elim (the well of heroes); Beer-lahai-roi (the well of the living sight); Beirout (the city of wells), in Palestine; Bir, a town of Asiatic Turkey.

a farm, cottage, or dwelling; e.g. Beer-Regis (the king’s farm); Beer-Alston (the dwelling of Alston); Beardon and Berewood (the dwelling on a hill and in a wood); Aylesbear (the dwelling of Aegle); Bühren, in Hanover and Switzerland; Beuren, in Swabia; Grasbeuren (grassy dwelling); Sandbuur (sandy dwelling); Erlesbura (dwelling among elms); Beerendrecht (the dwelling on the pasture); Nassenbeuren (damp dwelling); Blaubeuren (the blue dwelling); Benediktbeuren (the dwelling of the Benedictines).

little; e.g. Morbihan (the little sea), in Brittany; Taafe-fechan (the little River Taafe), in Wales. In Ireland: Castlebeg (little castle); Downkillybegs (the fortress of the little church); Bunbeg (small river mouth); Rathbeg (little fort).

a contraction of the Ger. bei-dem (by the); e.g. Beimbach, Beimberg, Beimhofen (by the brook, the hill, the court).

a mountain, cognate with the Cym.-Cel. pen; e.g. Beanach (a hilly place); Ben-more (great mountain); Ben-a-buird (table mountain); Ben-a-bhaird (the bard’s mountain); Benan, i.e. Binnean (the peaked hill or pinnacle); Bencleuch (stony mountain); Ben-cruachan (the stack-shaped mountain, cruach); Bendearg (red mountain); Bendronach (the mountain with the hunch, dronnag); Bengloe (the mountain with the covering or veil, gloth); Benamore and Bannmore (the great peaks, beanna, peaks); Bennachie (the hill of the pap, at its summit, ache); Benavoir (the mountain of gold, or), in Jura; Benclibrig (the hill of the playing trout); Benloyal, i.e, Ben-laoghal (the hill of the calves); Ben-na-cailleach (nun’s hill); Ben Lomond, named from Loch Lomond, quod vide; Benmacdhui, i.e. Beinn-na-muc-dubh (the mountain of the black sow); Ben Nevis (the cloud-capped or snowy mountain); Benvenue (the little mountain), as compared with Benledi; Benwyvis (stupendous mountain, uabhasach); Benvrachie (spotted mountain); Benvoirlich (the mountain of the great loch). In Ireland: Benbo, i.e. Beannabo (the peaks of the cows); Dunmanway, in Cork, corrupt. from Dun-na-mbeann (the fortress of the pinnacles). In Ireland ben is more generally applied to small steep hills than to mountains; e.g. Bengore (the peak of the goats, gabhar); Benburb, Lat. pinna superba (proud peak), in Tyrone; the Twelve Pins, i.e. bens or peaks, in Connemara; Banagh and Benagh (a place full of peaks); Bannaghbane and Bannaghroe (white and red hilly ground); Banaghar, King’s Co., and Bangor, Co. Down, anc. Beannchar (the pointed hills or rocks); but Bangor, in Wales, signifies the high choir; Drumbanagh (the ridge of the peaks).

beautiful, fine, from the Lat. bellus; e.g. Belchamp, Belcastro (beautiful field and camp); Belle-isle and Belile (beautiful island); Beaufort, Beaulieu, Beaumont, Beaumanoir (fine fort, place, mount, manor); Beaumaris (the fair marsh), so named in the reign of Edward I. Some think it may have been formerly Bimaris (between two seas), a name applied by Horace to Corinth; Belvoir (beautiful to see), in Rutland; Bewley and Bewdley, corrupt. from Beaulieu; Beauley, a river and village in Inverness-shire, named from Prioratus-de-bello-loco (the priory of the beautiful place), founded in 1230; Beachy Head, according to Camden, is the head of the beach, but Holland, who published Camden’s Britannia, says it was called Beaucliff, or, more probably, Beauchef (beautiful headland); Beaudesert (beautiful retreat); Belper, i.e. Beau-repaire (with the same meaning), in Warwick and Derbyshire; Leighton-Buzzard, corrupt. of its ancient name Legionbuhr (the fortress of the legion); Balaclava, corrupt. from its ancient name Bella-chiava (the beautiful frontier town, chiave), founded by the Genoese.

white; e.g. Biela (white stream); Bela, Belaia (white place); Belowes and Belowiz (white village); was or wies (a town or village); Belgrade, Ger. Weissenburg (white fortress); Bialgorod, Turc. Akkermann (white castle); Belki or Bielki (a name applied in Russia to snow-capped mountains); Berat, in Albania, corrupt. from Belgrade (white fort).

a mouth, in its literal sense, but in a secondary sense, signifying an entrance into any place. In Ireland it is often united with ath (a ford), forming belatha (ford entrance). The word bel itself is often used to denote a ford; e.g. Belclair, i.e. Bel-an-chlair (the ford or entrance to the plain); Belatha (Anglicised Bella) is found in many names, as in Bellanagare, i.e. Bel-atha-na-gcarr (the ford mouth of the cars); Lisbellaw (the fort at the ford mouth); Bel-atha is often changed in modern names to balli or bally, as if the original root were baile (a town), as in Ballinamore (the mouth of the great ford); Ballinafad (the mouth of the long ford); Ballyshannon is corrupt. from Bel-atha-Seanach (Shannagh’s ford); Belfast, anc. Bel-feirsde (the ford of the farset or sandbank); Ballinaboy, i.e. Bel-an-atha-buide (the mouth of the yellow ford); Ballinasloe, Bel-atha-na-sluaigheadh (the ford mouth of the armies); Bel (a ford) is not found in Scotland, but a word with a kindred meaning as applied to land, bealach (a pass or opening between hills), is frequent there, as well as in Ireland, and takes the form of ballagh or balloch; e.g. Ballaghboy in Ireland, and Ballochbuie in Scotland (the yellow pass); Ballaghmore (great pass); Ballaghkeen (the beautiful pass, cæin); Ballaghadereen (the pass of the little oak grove); Balloch alone occurs in several counties of Scotland, the best known being Balloch, at the entrance to Loch Lomond; Ballochray (smooth pass, reidh); Ballochmyle (the bald or bare pass); Ballochgair (short pass); Ballochcraggan (of the little rock); Balloch-nam-bo (the pass of the cattle), etc.

a district; e.g. Beled-es-Shurifa (the district of the nobles); Belad-es-Sûdân (the district of the Blacks); Belad-es-Sukkar (sugar district); Belad-t-moghrib (the district of the West), the Arabian name for Morocco, also called Beled-el-Djered (the land of dates); Beled-el-Sham (the district of the north or on the left), the Arabic name for Syria, to distinguish it from Yemen (to the south or right). Syria was also called by the Turks Soristan, and by the Greeks Suria, i.e. the country of Tyre (Tzur, the rock). The word in its secondary sense means prosperous or happy—hence the Greeks called it Αραβια ἡ εὐδαίμων, to distinguish it from Arabia deserta (Ar.), El-Badiah (the desert), hence the Bedawees or Bedouins.

a market or harbour. Bender is the name of several towns on the Persian Gulf, and also of a town on the Dniester; Bender-Erekli (the harbour of the ancient Heraclea), on the Black Sea.

sons of; e.g. Beni-Hassan (a town named from the descendants of Hassan); Beni-Araba (belonging to the sons of the desert); Beni-Calaf (to the sons of the Caliph); Beni-Sham (the sons of Shem), i.e. Syria; Beni-Misr (the land of Mizraim or Egypt).

a hill, a summit; e.g. Ailberg (eagle hill); Bleyberg (lead hill); Schneeberg (snowy hill); Walkenberg (the hill of clouds); Donnersberg (of thunder); Habsberg, Falkenberg, Valkenberg (of hawks); Finsterberg (dark hill); Groenberg (green hill); Teufelsberg (the devil’s hill); Greiffenberg (the griffin’s hill); Geyersberg (of the vulture); Jarlsberg (of the earl); Dreisellberg (the hill of three seats); Kupperberg (copper hill); Heilberg (holy hill); Silberberg (silver hill, near a silver mine); Schoenberg (beautiful hill). The word berg, however, is often applied to the names of towns and fortresses instead of burg; and, when this is the case, it indicates that the town was built on or near a hill, or in connection with a fortress; e.g. Kaiserberg (the hill fort of the Emperor Frederick II.); Würtemberg, anc. Wirtenberg (named from the seignorial chateau, situated upon a hill). The name has been translated (the lord of the hill) from an Old Ger. word wirt (a lord). Heidelberg is a corrupt. of Heydenberg (the hell of the pagans), or from heydel myrtle, which grows in great abundance in the neighbourhood; Lemberg, Lowenburg, or Leopolis (the fortress of Leo Danielowes), in Galicia; Nurnberg, anc. Norimberga or Castrum Noricum (the fortress of the Noricii); Lahnberg (on the R. Lahn); Spermberg (on the Spree); Wittenberg (white fortress); Köningsberg (the king’s fortress), in E. Prussia and in Norway; Bamberg (named after Babe, daughter of the Emperor Otho II.), in Bavaria; Havelberg (on the R. Havel). There are several towns in Germany and Scandinavia called simply Berg or Bergen; e.g. Bergen-op-Zoom (the hill fort on the R. Zoom), in Holland; Bergamo (on a hill), in Italy. Berg (a hill) sometimes takes the form of berry, as in Queensberry, in Dumfries; also of borough, as in Flamborough Head and Ingleborough (the hill of the beacon light). Gebirge signifies a mountain range; e.g. Schneegebirge (the snow-clad range); Siebengebirge (the range of seven hills); Fichtelgebirge (of the pines); Erzegebirge (the ore mountain range); Glasischgebirge (of the glaciers); Eulergebirge (of the owls).

a house; e.g. Bethany (the house of dates); Bethphage (of figs); Bethsaida (of fish); Bethoron (of caves); Bethabara (of the ford); Bethlehem (the house of bread), but its present name, Beit-lahm, means the house of flesh; Bethesda (of mercy); Betharaba (desert dwelling); Bethjesimoth (of wastes); Bethshemish Grk. Heliopolis (the house or city of the sun); its Egyptian name was Aun-i-Aun (light of light), contracted to On; Beit-Allah (the house of God), at Mecca; Beit-el-Fakih (the house of the saint), on the Red Sea.

a portion of land lying between a river and a hill, hence a dwelling so situated; e.g. Bettws-yn-y-coed (the dwelling in the wood); Bettws-disserth (the retreat dwelling); Bettws-Garmon (of St. Germanus, where he led the Britons to the famous Alleluia victory over the Saxons); Bettws-Newydd (new dwelling).

the birch-tree; e.g. Le Boulay, La Boulay, Les Boulages, Les Boulus, Belloy (places planted with birch-trees).

the beaver; e.g. the Biber, Beber, Biberich, Beber-bach (rivers in Germany); Bober, Boberau, Bobronia (beaver river), in Silesia and Russia; Bobersburg (on the R. Bober); Biberschlag (beaver’s wood clearing); Biberstein (beaver rock); Beverley, in Yorkshire, anc. Biberlac (beaver lake), formerly surrounded by marshy ground, the resort of beavers; Beverstone, in Gloucester; Beverloo (beaver marsh), in Belgium.

an old German word, signifying plain or level; e.g. Bilderlah (the field of the plain); Billig-ham (level dwelling); Wald-billig (woody plain); Wasser-billig (the watery plain); Bilstein (level rock); Bielefeld (level field); Bieler-see (the lake on the plain).

water, an element in many river names; e.g. the Bere, in Dorset; Ver, Hereford; Bervie, in Mearns. The town of Lifford, in Donegal, was originally Leith-bhearr (the gray water); Berra, a lake in France; the Ebura or Eure, in Normandy; and in Yorkshire, the Ebro, anc. Iberus; Ivry, in Normandy, anc. Ebarovicus (the town on the Ebura).

the birch-tree; e.g. Birkenhead (the head of the birches); Birchholt (birch wood); Berkeley (birch field); Birchington, Birkhoff (the birch-tree dwelling and court); Birkhampstead (the home place among the birches); Oberbirchen (the upper birches); but Berkshire is not from this root; it was called by the Anglo-Saxons Berroc-shyre, supposed to be named from the abundance of berroc (boxwood), or the bare-oak-shire, from a certain polled oak in Windsor Forest, where the Britons were wont to hold their provincial meetings.

the source of a stream; e.g. Blaene-Avon, Blaen-Ayron, Blaen-Hounddu (river sources in Wales); Blaen-porth (the head of the harbour); Blaen-nant (of the brook); Blaen-Bylan, abbreviated from Blaen-pwll-glan (the top of pool bank); Blaen-Sillt, at the top of a small stream, the Sillt, in Wales; Blaen-afon (of the river).

a plain, originally a battle-field; e.g. Blair-Athole, Blair-Logie, Blair-Gowrie (the battle-field in these districts); Blairmore (the great); Blaircreen (the little plain); Blairdaff (the plain of the oxen, daimh); Blair-burn (of the stream); Blair-craig (of the rock); Blair-linne (of the pool); Blair-beth (of birches); Blair-ingone (the field of spears), in Perthshire; Blair-glass (gray plain); Blarney (little field), in Ireland; Blair-Drummond, Blair-Adam, modern places named after persons.

white; e.g. Mont-Blanc, Cape-blanco, Sierra-blanca (white mountain-ridge); Castella-bianca (white castle); Villa-bianca (white town); Blankenburg (white town); Blankenham (white dwelling); Blankenhavn, Blankenloch, Blankenrath, Blankenese (white haven, place, wood-clearing, cape), in Germany; Bianchi-mandri (white sheep-folds), in Sicily; Branco (the white stream), in Brazil; Los-Brancos (the white mountains); Cata-branca (the white cove); Casa-branca (the white house), in Brazil.

near; e.g. Bliesdorf, Bliesendorf, Blieskendorf (near village); Bliskau (near meadow).

a marsh; e.g. Blotto, Blottnitz (marshy land); Wirchen-blatt (high marsh); Sa-blatt, Sablater, Zablatt (behind the marsh); Na-blatt (near the marsh). In some cases the b in this word is changed into p, as in Plotsk and Plattkow (the marshy place); Plattensee or Balaton (the lake in the marshy land).

a mouth—in topography, the narrow entrance of a river or bay; e.g. Boca-grande, Boca-chica (great and little channel), in South America; La Bochetta (the little opening), a mountain pass in the Apennines; Desemboque (the river mouth), in Brazil.

a dwelling; e.g. Bodmin, in Cornwall, corrupt. from Bodminian (the dwelling of monks); Bodffaris (the site of Varis), the old Roman station on the road to Chester; Hafod, the name of several places in Wales, corrupt. from Hafbod (a summer residence); Bosher or Bosherston, corrupt. from Bod and hir, long (the long ridge abode), in Wales.

a bay, the ocean swell; e.g. Bodden (an arm of the sea which divides the island of Rugen from Pomerania); Bodden-ness (the headland of the bay), on the east coast of Scotland.

the ground, soil—in topography, a meadow; e.g. Gras-boden (grassy meadow); Dunkel-boden (dark meadow). It may sometimes, however, be used instead of bant or paint—v. p. 18; and in Bodenburg, in Brunswick, it is a corrupt. of Ponteburg (bridge town); and Bodenheim is from a personal name, like Bodensee—v. SEE.

a bend or bow—in topography, applied to the bend of a river; e.g. Bogen, anc. Bogana (the bending river); Bogen, a town of Bavaria, on a bend of the Danube; Ellbogen or Ellenbogen, Lat. Cubitus (the town on the elbow or river bend), in Bohemia; Bogenhausen (the houses on the river bend); Langen-bogen (the long bend); Entli-buch (the bend on the R. Entle), in Switzerland.

a dwelling; e.g. Newbattle, Newbottle, Newbold (new dwelling), as distinguished from Elbottle (old dwelling); Morebattle (the dwelling on the marshy plain); Bolton, in Lancashire, A.S. Botl; Buittle, in Kirkcudbright; Newbald, Yorkshire; Harbottle (the dwelling of the army, here), a place in Northumberland where, in former times, soldiers were quartered; Erribold (the dwelling on the tongue of land, eir); Maybole, in Ayrshire, anc. Minnibole (the dwelling on the mossy place, Cym.-Cel., myswn); Exnabul, in Shetland (a place for keeping cattle); yxn, Scand. (a bull or cow); Walfenbuttel (the dwelling of Ulpha); Brunsbottle (of Bruno); Ritzbüttel (of Richard); Griesenbottel (sandy dwelling); Rescbüttel (the dwelling among rushes).

good; e.g. Bonavista, Boavista (good view); Buenos-Ayres (good breezes), in South America; Buenaventura (good luck), in California.

Bhuma (land, country); e.g. Birboom (the land of heroes); Arya-Bhuma (the noble land), the Sanscrit name for Hindostan.

wood; e.g. Bohra, Bohrau, Borowa, Borow (woody place); Borovsk (the town in the wood); Sabor and Zaborowa (behind the wood); Borzna (the woody district); the Borysthenes, now the R. Dnieper (the woody wall), from stena (a wall or rampart), the banks of the river having been covered with wood; Ratibor (the wood of the Sclavonic god Razi).

land broken up for tillage, Old Ger. pracha (to plough); e.g. Brabant, anc. Bracbant (the ploughed district); Brachstadt, Brachfeld, Brachrade (the ploughed place, field, clearing); Brakel (the ploughed land), in Holland; Hohenbrack (high ploughed land).

a place cleared of wood by burning; e.g. Eber-brand and Ober-brand (the upper clearing); Newen-brand and Alten-brand (the old and new clearing); Brandenburg (the burned city), so called, according to Buttman, by the Germans; by the Wends corrupted into Brennabor, and in their own language named Schorelitz (the destroyed city), because, in their mutual wars, it had been destroyed by fire. Bran and Brant, in English names, are probably memorials of the original proprietors of the places, as in Brandon, Cumbran, Brandeston; Brantingham (the home of the children of Brand)—v. ING, INGEN.

the birch-tree; e.g. Briesnitz, Beresoff, Beresek, Beresenskoi, Beresovoi (places where birches abound); Gross-Briesen (great birch-tree town); Bresinchen (little Briesen), a colony from it; Birsa and Beresina (the birch-tree river); Birsk, a town on the R. Birsa; Brzesce-Litewski (the house of mercy at the birches); the letter b in this word is often changed into p by the Germans, as in Presinitz for Brezenice (birch-tree village), in Bohemia; also Priebus, with the same meaning, in Silesia; Priegnitz, i.e. the town of the Brizanen (dwellers among birches); Briezen (the place of birches), in Moravia, is Germanised into Friedeck (woody corner); Bryezany (abounding in birches), in Galicia.

damp ground, a marshy place; e.g. Bray, in Normandy; Bray sur Somme and Bray sur Seine, situated on these rivers; Bray-Maresch, near Cambray; Bré Côtes-de-Nord; Bray-la-Campagne (calvados, etc.)

broad; brede, Dutch (a plain); e.g. Breitenbach and Bredenbeke (broad brook); Breda (the flat meadowland), in Holland; Breitenbrunn (broad well); Breitenstein, Breitenburg (broad fortress); Bradford, in Yorkshire, and Bredevoort, in Holland (broad ford); Bredy (the broad water), in Dorset; Brading, in Isle of Wight, and Bradley (broad meadow); Bradshaw (broad thicket); Broadstairs, corrupt. from its ancient name Bradstow (broad place).

a town; e.g. Selymbria, Mesymbria.

a general name among the Celts for a town—so called, apparently, from the Celtic words braigh, brugh, brig (a heap, pile, or elevation), because the nucleus of towns, among uncivilised tribes in early times, were merely fortified places erected on heights; cognate with the Teut. and Scand. burg, byrig, the Sclav. brieg (an embankment or ridge), and the Scottish brae (a rising ground). Hence the name of the Brigantes (dwellers on hills); the word Brigand (literally, a mountaineer); Briançon, anc. Brigantium (the town on the height); Brieg, a town in Silesia; Braga and Bragança, fortified cities in Portugal; Talavera, in Spain, anc. Tala-briga, the town on the tala, Span. (a wood clearing); Bregenz, anc. Brigantium, in the Tyrol; Breisach Alt and Neuf (the old and new town on the declivity), in the duchy of Baden—the old fortress was situated on an isolated basalt hill; Brixen (the town among the hills), in the Tyrol. In Scotland there are Braemar (the hilly district of Mar); Braidalbane (the hill country of Albainn, i.e. Scotland); Braeriach (the gray mountain, riabhach); the Brerachin, a river and district in Perthshire; Brugh and Bruighean, in Ireland, signifying originally a hill, was subsequently applied to a palace or a distinguished residence. The term, as applied to the old residences, presupposed the existence of a fortified brugh or rath, several of which still remain. The word has suffered many corruptions: thus Bruree, in Limerick, is from Brugh-righ (the king’s fort); and Bruighean (little fort) has been transformed into Bruff, Bruis, Bruce, or Bryan. The word briva, on the other hand, was generally applied to towns situated on rivers—as in Amiens, anc. Samarabrina, on the R. Somme—and was gradually used as synonymous with pons (bridge), as in Pontoise, anc. Briva-Isara (the bridge on the Ouse); Briare, anc. Brivodurum (the bridge over the water); Brionde, anc. Brives.

a grassy ridge; e.g. Osterbrink (east ridge); Mittelbrink (middle ridge); Zandbrink (sand ridge); Brinkhorst (the ridge of the thicket).

a district; e.g. Broburg (the fort of the district), in Warwickshire; Pembroke (the head, pen, of the district, it being the land’s end of Wales).

a rushing stream; e.g. Cranbrook (the stream of the cranes); Wallbrook (probably the stream at the wall); Wambrook (Woden’s stream).

the badger; e.g. Brox-bourne and Broxburn, Brogden, Brokenhurst, Brockley, Broxholme (the stream, hollow, thicket, meadow, and hill of the badger).

a ford; e.g. Brod and Brody (at the ford), the name of several towns in Moravia, Bohemia, Hungary, and Turkey; Brod-sack (ford dwelling); Brod-Ungarisch (the Hungarian ford), on the Olsawa; Brod-Deutsch (the German ford), on the Sasawa; Brod-Bohmisch (the Bohemian ford), on the Zembera; Krasnabrod (beautiful ford); Eisenbrod (the ford of the Iser); Brodkowitz (ford station).

a marsh; e.g. Broek, a town in Holland; Bogen-brok (the bending marsh); Breiden-bruch (the broad marsh); Aalten-broek (the old marsh); Eichen-bruch (the oak marsh); Broekem and Broickhausen (marsh dwelling); Bruchmühle (the mill on the marsh); Brussels or Bruxelles, anc. Bruoch-sella (the seat or site on the marsh); Oberbruch and Niederbruch (upper and lower marsh).

a dam; e.g. Biesenbrow and Priebrow, from Pschibrog (elder-tree dam), by the Germans called Furstenberg, on the Oder; Colberg, Sclav. Kola-brog (around the dam).

the slope or side of a hill; e.g. Brongest (the slope of the cest or deep glen); Bronwydd (the slope covered with trees); Wydd, in Wales.

a bridge; e.g. Brugg-Furstenfeld (the bridge at the prince’s field); Brugg-an-der-Leitha (the bridge across the Leitha); Brugg-kloster (the bridge at the monastery); Langenbrück, Langenbrücken (long bridge); Bruges, in Belgium (a city with many bridges); Saarbrook (on the R. Saar); Osnaburg, in Hanover, anc. Osnabrücke or Asenbrücke (the bridge on the R. Ase); Voklabrück (on the R. Vökle); Bruchsal, in Baden (the bridge on the Salzbach); Zweibrücken or Deux-ponts (the two bridges); Zerbruggen (at the bridge). In England: Bridgenorth, anc. Brugge-Morfe (the bridge at the wood called Morfe, on the opposite bank of the Severn); Brixham, Brixworth, and Brigham (bridge town); Brixton, A.S. Brixges-stan (the bridge stone); Cambridge, Cel. Caer-Grant (the fort and bridge on the R. Granta, now the Cam); Tunbridge (over the R. Tun or Ton), a branch of the Medway; Colebrook, in Bucks (the bridge over the R. Cole); Oxbridge (the bridge over the water, uisge); Staley-bridge (at a bridge over the R. Tame), named after the Staveleigh, a family who resided there; Bridgewater, corrupt. from Burgh-Walter (the town of Walter Douay, its founder); Bridgend and Brigham, villages in different parts of Scotland; Brora (bridge river), in Sutherlandshire, named when bridges were rarities; Trowbridge, however, did not get its name from this root, but is a corrupt. of its ancient name, Trutha-burh (the loyal town).

a marshy place, overgrown with brushwood, cognate with the French breuil and bruyère (a thicket), the Welsh pryskle, and the Breton brügek; e.g. Bruel, Bruhl, and Priel, in Germany; Bruyères, Broglie, and Brouilly (the thicket), in France; also Breuil, Bruel, Breuillet, Le Brulet, etc., with the same meaning, or sometimes a park. St. Denis du Behellan, in Eure, was formerly Bruellant, i.e. the breuil or park of Herland.

a well, especially a mineral well; e.g. Heilbroun (holy well); Frau-brunnen, Lat. Fons-beatæ-Virginis (the well of Our Lady); Brunn-am-Gebirge (the well at the hill-ridge); Haupt-brun (well-head); Lauter-brunnen (clear well); Salz-brunn, Warm-brunn, Schoen-brunn, Kaltenbrunn (the salt, hot, beautiful, cold, mineral wells); Baldersbrunnen, Baldersbrond (the well of the Teutonic god Balder); Cobern, corrupt. from Cobrunnen (the cow’s well); Paderborn (the well or source of the R. Pader), in Germany. In the north of France, and in the departments bordering on Germany, we find traces of this German word; e.g. Mittel-broun (middle well); Walsch-broun (foreign well); Belle-brune (beautiful well); Stein-brunn (stony well), etc.

a hill-ridge; bron (a round hill); e.g. Brincroes, Brin-eglwys, Bron-llys (the cross, church, palace, on the hill); Bryn-gwynn (fair hill); Brynn-uchil (high hill); Bron-Fraidd (St. Bridget’s hill); Brown-Willy, in Cornwall, corrupt. from Bryn-huel (the tin mine ridge); Brindon-hill, in Somerset (merely the hill), with synonymous word dun added to Bryn; and Brandon, in Suffolk, with the same meaning; Bryn-mawr (the great hill), in Wales; Bron-gwyn (white hill); Bryn-y-cloddian (the hill of fences, clawd), so called from its strong fortifications; Bryn-Barlwm (the bare-topped mountain); Bryn-Gwyddon (the hill of Gwyddon, a mythological philosopher); Bryn-kinallt (a mountain without trees); Bryn-berian (the kite’s hill, beri, a kite); Bryn-bo, with the same meaning, boda in Wales; Bryn-chwarew (the hill of sports); here the ancient inhabitants of Wales used to meet to play different games in competition; Brienne-la-château (the castle on the hill), in France; Brientz, in Switzerland, on the Brienz See (a lake surrounded by hills); Brendenkopf (hill-head), and the Brennen Alps, the culminating points in the mountains of Tyrol.

the beech-tree; e.g. Buch-au, Buch-berg, Buch-egg (the meadow, hill, corner of the beeches); Buchholtz and Bochholt (beech-wood); Bockum, Bucheim (beech-dwelling); Butchowitz (the place of beeches), in Moravia; Bochnia and Buchowina (with the same meaning), in Poland; Bickleigh (beech-meadow). But Bocking in Essex, and the county of Buckingham, as well as Bouquinheim in Artois, and Bochingen in Wurtemberg, were named from the Bocingas (a tribe), probably the dwellers among beeches.

a hut or dwelling; e.g. Budin, Budzin, Bautzen, or Budissen (the huts); Budweis (the district of hut villages), in Bohemia; Budzow, Botzen (the place of huts); Briebus (birch-tree dwelling); Trebus and Triebus (the three dwellings); Putbus (under the hut); Dobberbus (good dwelling, dobry, good); but Buda, in Hungary, took its name from Buda, the brother of Attila, as well as Bud-var and Bud-falva (Buda’s fort and village). The island of Bute, in the Firth of Clyde, is said to have derived its name from the bwth or cell of St. Brandon, but its earlier name was Rothsay, from a descendant of Simon Brek (i.e. Rother’s Isle), while its Gaelic name is Baile-Mhoide (the dwelling of the court of justice); Bothwell, anc. Both-uill (the dwelling on the angle of the R. Clyde). In Ireland we meet with Shanboe, Shanbogh (the old hut, sean); Raphae, in Donegal, is Rath-both (the fort of the huts); Bodoney, in Tyrone, is Both-domhnaigh (the tent of the church); Knockboha (the hill of the hut); Bodmin, in Cornwall, anc. Bodmanna, p. 27 (the abode of monks, the site of an ancient priory); Merfod, corrupt. from Meudwy-bod (the dwelling of a hermit); Bodysgallen (the abode of the thistle, ysgallen); and Bod-Ederyryn (Edryn’s dwelling). In Lancashire the word takes the form of booth, as in Barrowford booth and Oakenhead booth, etc.

a hill; e.g. Dombühil (the dwelling on the hill); Grünbühill (green hill); Eichenbühil (oak hill); Birchenbühil (birch hill); Holzbühil (wood hill); Dinkelsbühil (wheat hill); Kleinbühil (little hill).

a scaffold, sometimes in topography a hill; e.g. Hartböhen (wood hill); Bündorf (hill village); Osterbeuna (east hill).

the foot, in topography applied to the mouth of a river; e.g. Bunduff (at the mouth of the dark river, dubh); Bunderan and Bunratty, the mouth of the R. Dowran and Ratty; Bunowen (at the mouth of the water). The town of Banff is a corrupt. of Bunaimh (the mouth of the river); Bunawe (at the opening of Loch Awe); Buness (of the cascade, cas).

a town or city, literally an enclosed and fortified dwelling, from bergen, Teut. to cover or protect. As these fortified places were often erected on heights for security, as well as to enable their inmates to observe the approaches of an enemy, the word berg (a hill) was frequently used synonymously with burg, as in the name of Königsberg and other towns—v. BERG. Burgh and borough are the Anglican forms of the word in England and Scotland, while bury is distinctively the Saxon form; e.g. Sudbury (south town), as also Sidbury in Salop, but Sidbury in Devon takes its name from the R. Sid. Tewkesbury, from Theoc (a certain hermit); Glastonbury, anc. Glastonia (a district abounding in woad, glastum); Shaftsbury (the town on the shaft-like hill); Shrewsbury, anc. Shrobbesbyrig (the fortress among shrubs), being the Saxon rendering of the native name Pengwerne (the hill of the alder grove), which the Normans corrupted into Sloppesbury, hence Salop; Tenbury, on the R. Teme; Canterbury, i.e. Cant-wara-byrig (the town of the dwellers on the headland), Cantium or Kent; Wansborough, in Herts; Wanborough, in Surrey and Wilts; Woodensborough, in Kent; Wednesbury, Stafford; Wembury, Devon (the town of the Saxon god Woden); Aldeborough, on the R. Alde; Marlborough, anc. Merlberga, situated at the foot of a hill of white stones, which our forefathers called marl, now chalk; Richborough, anc. Ru-tupium (rock town); Aylesbury, perhaps church town, ecclesia, or from a person’s name; Badbury (the city of pledges, bad), in Dorset; the Saxon kings, it is said, kept their hostages at this place; Malmesbury, the town of Maidulf, a hermit; Maryborough, named for Queen Mary. Burg or burgh, in the names of towns, is often affixed to the name of the river on which it stands in Britain, as well as on the Continent; e.g. Lauterburg, Lutterburg, Schwartzburg, Salzburg, Saalburg, Gottenburg, Rotenburg, and Jedburgh (on the rivers Lauter, Lutter, Schwarza, Salza, Saale, Gotha, Rothbach, and Jed). Still more frequently, the prefix is the name of the founder of the town, or of a saint to whom its church was dedicated; e.g. Edinburgh (Edwin’s town); Lauenburg, after Henry the Lion; Fraserburgh, in Aberdeenshire, founded by Sir Alexander Fraser of Philorth in 1570; Peterborough, from an abbey dedicated to St. Peter; Petersburgh, named by its founder, Peter the Great; Tasborough, Norfolk, on the R. Thais; Banbury, anc. Berinburig (Bera’s town); Queenborough, in the Isle of Sheppey, named by Edward III. in honour of his queen; Helensburgh, in Dumbartonshire, after the lady of Sir James Colquhoun; Pittsburg, U.S., after Mr. Pitt; Harrisburg, U.S., after the first settler in 1733; Sumburgh, in Shetland, and Svendborg, Sweden (Sweyn’s fortress); Oranienburg, in Brandenburg (the fortress of the Orange family); Bury St. Edmund’s (in memory of Edmund the Martyr); Rabensburg (the fort of Hrafn, a Dane); Marienburg (the town of the Virgin), founded by the Grand Master of the Teutonic order in 1274; Rothenburg, in Prussia, Sclav. Rostarzewo (the town of the Sclav. god Razi); Duisburg, corrupt. from Tuiscoburgum (the town of the Teut. god Tuesco); Flensburg, in Sleswick, founded by the knight of Flenes; Cherbourg, supposed to be Cæsar’s town; Augsburg (the town of the Emperor Augustus); Salisbury, anc. Searesbyrgg (the town of Sarum, a chief); Bamborough (the town of Bebba, the Queen of Ida, of Northumberland); Carrisbrook, corrupt. from Gwïhtgarabyrig (the fortress of the men of Wight); Amherstburg, in Canada, named in 1780 after Lord Amherst; Loughborough, anc. Leirburg (the town on the R. Leir, now the Soar); Hapsburg or Habichtsburg (hawk’s fortress); Schässburg, Hung. Segevar (treasure fort); Luneburg, in Hanover (the fort of the Linones, a tribe); Aalburg (Eel-town) on the Lyme-fiord. There are several towns in Germany named simply Burg (the fortress), also Burgos in Spain, and Burgo in Italy. As a derivative from this Teut. root, there is the Irish form of the word, introduced by the Anglo-Normans—buirghes, Anglicised borris and burris, as in Borris in Ossory, Burriscarra, Burrishoole (i.e. the forts erected in the territories of Ossory, Carra, and Umhal); Borrisokane (O’Keane’s fortress).

a small stream; e.g. Milburn (mill stream); Lambourne (muddy stream, lam); Radbourne and Redbourne (reedy stream); Sherbourne (clear stream, or the dividing stream); Cranbourne, Otterbourne (the stream frequented by cranes and otters); Libourne, in France (the lip or edge of the stream); Bourne, in Lancashire (on a stream); Burnham (the dwelling on a stream), in Essex; Melburne, in Yorkshire, in Doomsday Middelburn (middle stream); Auburn, formerly a village in Yorkshire, called Eleburn or Eelburn; Bannockburn (the stream of the white knoll); Sittingbourne, in Kent (the settlement on the stream); Eastbourne, contracted from its former name Easbourne (probably the stream of the water or the cascade, cas); Ticheburne (the kid’s stream, ticcen, A.S. a kid).

a bushy place or grove; e.g. Boscabel (the beautiful grove); Bushey (a par. Co. Hertford); Buscot (the hut in the grove); Badenoch (a place overgrown with bushes), in Inverness; Breitenbusch (the broad grove); Hesel-boschen (hazel grove); Eichbusch (oak grove); Ooden-bosch (old grove), in Holland; Auberbosc (Albert’s grove), in France; Stellenbosch, in S. Africa, founded in 1670 by Van der Stelle, the governor of the Dutch colony; Biesbosch (the reedy thicket), in Holland; Aubusson (at the grove), France. Boissac, Boissay, Boissière, Boissey, etc., in France, from the same root; Bois-le-Duc (the duke’s wood); Briquebosq (birch-wood), in Normandy.

a pass or defile; e.g. Dwygyflch (i.e. the joint passes), in Wales; Bwlch-newydd (the new pass); Bwlch-y-groes (of the cross).

swift; e.g. Bistritza, Bistrica, Weistritz (the swift stream); Bistritz (the town on this river), called by the Germans Neusohl (new station).

(Scand.), a dwelling, a town—from biga (Norse), to build. This word occurs frequently in town names in the N.E. of England and in some parts of Scotland formerly possessed by the Danes or Normans; e.g. Derby, i.e. Dearaby (deer town), formerly called North Worthige (the northern enclosure); its Celtic name was Durgwent (the white water), from its river; Whitby (white town), A.S. Streones-heal (treasure-hall, streone); Selby (holy town); Danby (Dane’s dwelling); Rugby, anc. Rochberie (the dwelling on the rock, in reference to its castle); Appleby (the town of apple-trees); Sonderby (southern town); Ormsby, Lockerby, Thursby, Grimsby, Lewersby (the dwellings of Ormv, Loki, Ulf, Grimm, Leward); Risby (beech-tree dwelling); Canisby, in Caithness, and Canoby or Cannonbie, Dumfries (the dwelling of the canon), or perhaps Canisby is Canute’s dwelling; Haconby (of Haco); Harrowby, in Doomsday, is Herigerby (the town of the legion), A.S. herige; Kirby, Moorby, Ashby (church town, moor town, ash-tree town); Ashby-de-la-Zouch was simply Ascebi or Esseby, perhaps the town of the Asci, a tribe. It received the addition to its name from the family of the Zouches, its proprietors. In France: Daubœuf, for Dalby (vale dwelling); Elbœuf (old dwelling); Quittebœuf (white dwelling); Quillebœuf (welltown); Lindebœuf (lime-tree town); Karlby-gamba and Karlby-ny (old and new Charles’ town), in Finland; Criquebœuf (crooked town).

an enclosure; e.g. Ca-wood (wood-enclosure); Cayton (wood town or hill). This root is frequently used in Welsh names.

chalk or lime—cognate with the Lat. calx, Cel. cailc, sialc; e.g. Challock, Chaldon, Chalfield (chalk place, hill, and field); Chalgrove (the chalk entrenchment, grab); the Chiltern Hills (the hills in the chalky district, ern); Chockier, corrupt. from Calchariæ (the lime kilns), in Belgium; Kelso, anc. Calchou (the chalk heugh or height), so called from a calcareous cliff at the confluence of the Tweed and Teviot, now broken down.

an enclosed fortification, a castle, a town, and in Ireland a circular stone fort; e.g. Caer-leon, anc. Isca-legionem (the fort of the legion), on the R. Usk;[3] Caerwent, in Monmouth, anc. Venta-silurum (the fortress in the province of Gwent); Caerwys (of the assizes, gwys, a summons); Caermarthen, anc. Maridunum (the fort on the sea-shore); Caernarvon, Welsh Caer-yn-ar-Fon (the fortress opposite to Mona); Cardigan (the fortress of Caredig, a chieftain)—Cardigan is called by the Welsh Aberteifi (the mouth of the R. Teify); Cardiff, on the R. Taff; Carriden, anc. Caer-aiden or eden (the fort on the wing), in Linlithgow; Caerphilly (the fort of the trench, vallum), corrupt. into philly; Cader-Idris (the seat of Idris, an astronomer); Caer-gyffin (the border fortress); Grongar, corrupt. from Caer-gron (the circular fortress); Caer-hen or hun, corrupt. from Caer-Rhun, named from a Welsh prince; Carlisle, anc. Caergwawl (the fort at the trench); its Latin name was Luguvallum (the trench of the legion). It was destroyed by the Danes in 675, and rebuilt by William II. In Mid-Lothian, Cramond, i.e. Caer-Almond, on the R. Almond; Cathcart, on the R. Cart, Renfrew; Crail, anc. Carraile (the fort on the corner, aile), in the S.E. angle of Fife; Caerlaverock (the fort of Lewarch Ogg), founded in the sixth century; Sanquhar, i.e. Sean-cathair (old fort); Carmunnock or Carmannoc (the fort of the monks); Kirkintilloch, corrupt. from Caer-pen-tulach (the fort at the head of the hill); Cardross (the promontory fort); Kier, in Scotland, for Caer or Cathair; Carew (the fortresses), a castle in Wales; Carhaix, in Brittany, i.e. Ker-Aes (the fortress on the R. Aes—now the Hières). In Ireland: Caher (the fortress); Cahereen (little fortress); Cahergal (white fort); Cahersiveen, i.e. Cathair-saidbhin (Sabina’s fort); Carlingford, Irish Caer-linn, fiord being added by the Danes; its full name is, therefore, the ford of Caer-linn. It was also called Suamh-ech (the swimming ford of the horses); Derry-na-Caheragh (the oak grove of the fort); Caer-gwrle (the fortress of the great legion), i.e. Caer-gawr-lleon, with reference to the twentieth Roman legion stationed at Chester, or Caer-gwr-le (the boundary-place in Flintshire).

a creek or bay—probably derived from Scala (It.), a seaport, Cel. cala (a harbour), and cognate with the Teut. kille; e.g. Callao, in S. America; Cale, the ancient name of Oporto, and probably Calais; Scala (a seaport), in Italy; Scala-nova (new port), in Turkey; Kiel, in Sleswick, so called from its fine bay.

bald or bare—synonymous with the Lat. calvus and the Fr. chauve; e.g. Caumont and Chaumont (bald hill), in France; Kahlenberg, anc. Mons Calvus (bald hill), belonging to a branch of the Alps called Kahlen Gebirge.

a creek, crooked; e.g. Rivers Cam, Camon, Camil, Cambad, Camlin, Cambeck (crooked stream); Kembach, a parish in Fife, so called from the R. Kem or Kame; Cambusmore (the great creek in Sutherland); Cambuscarrig, in Ross, near which a Danish prince (Careg) was buried; Cambuskenneth (the creek of Kenneth, one of the kings of Scotland); Camelon (on the bend of the water), near Falkirk; Cambuslang (the church or enclosure, lann, on the bending water), in Lanark; Cambus, in Clackmannan; Cambusnethan (on the bend of the R. Nethan); Campsie, anc. Kamsi (the curved water); but Camus, a town in Forfarshire, is not from this root, but in memory of a Danish general who was slain in battle near the place; Camlyn (the crooked pool), in Anglesea; Cambray or Cambrai, in France, anc. Camaracum (on a bend of the Scheldt); Chambery, in Savoy, anc. Camberiacum, with the same meaning; Morecambe Bay (the bend of the sea).

a field or plain; e.g. Campania, Campagna, Champagne (the plain or level land); Féchamp, Lat. Campus-fiscii (the field of tribute); Chamouni, Lat. Campus-munitus (the fortified field); Kempen (at the field); Kempten, Lat. Campodunum (the field of the fortress); Campvere (the ferry leading to Campen), in Holland; Campo-bello, Campo-chiaro, Campo-hermoso (beautiful or fair field); Campo-felici (happy or fortunate field); Campo-frio (cold field); Campo-freddo (cold field); Campo-largo (broad field); Campillo (little field); the Campos (vast plains), in Brazil; Capua, supposed to be synonymous with Campus.

a reed; e.g. Cannæ, in Italy; Cannes, in the south of France; Canneto and Canosa (the reedy place), in Italy.

a sound or strait; e.g. Caol-Isla, Caol-Muileach (the Straits of Isla and Mull); the Kyles or Straits of Bute; Eddarachylis (between the straits), in Sutherlandshire. As an adjective, this word means narrow; e.g. Glenkeel (narrow glen); Darykeel (narrow oak grove).

a chapel, derived from the Low Lat. capella; e.g. How-capel (the chapel in the hollow), in Hereford; Capel-Ddewi (St. David’s chapel); Capel St. Mary and Maria-Kappel (St. Mary’s chapel); Capel-Garmon (St. Germano’s chapel); Chapelle-au-bois (the chapel in the wood); Capelle-op-den-Yssel (the chapel on the R. Yessel), in Holland; Kreuzcappel (the chapel with the cross).

a goat; e.g. Capri, Caprera, Cabrera (goat island); Chèvreuse, anc. Capriosa (the place of goats); Chevry, Chevrière, Chevreville, with the same meaning, in France; Gateshead, in Co. Durham, Lat. Capræ-caput, perhaps the Latin rendering of the Saxon word (the head of the gat or passage)—the Pons Ælius of the Romans; or, according to another meaning, from the custom of erecting the head of some animal on a post as a tribal emblem. In Ireland, Glengower (the glen of the goats), and Glengower, in Scotland; Ballynagore (goat’s town), in Ireland; Gowrie and Gower, in several counties of Scotland; Ardgower (goat’s height); Carnan-gour (the goat’s crag).

crooked or bending; e.g. the Rivers Carron, in several parts of Scotland; Charente and Charenton, in France; also the Cher, anc. Carus (the winding river).

a heap of stones thrown together in a conical form, also a rocky mount; e.g. Carnac (abounding in cairns), in Brittany; Carnmore (great cairn); Carnock (the hill of the cairn); Carntoul, Gael. Carn-t-sabhal (the cairn of the barn); Carntaggart (of the priest); Carnrigh (of the king); Cairndow, Cairnglass, Cairngorm (the black, the gray, the blue mountains); Cairnan and Cairnie (little cairn); Carnwath (the cairn at the ford); Carnoustie (the cairn of heroes); Carnbee (the birch cairn), in Scotland. In Ireland: Carntochar (the hill of the causeway); Carn-Tierno (Tigernach’s cairn); Carnbane (white cairn); Carnsore Point, in Irish being simply the carn or monumental heap, ore (a promontory) having been added by the Danes; Carnteel, Irish Carn-t-Siadhal (Shiel’s monument). In Wales: Carn-Dafydd (David’s cairn); Carn-Llewelyn (Llewelyn’s cairn); Carnfach (little cairn), in Monmouth; Fettercairn, perhaps the deer’s cairn, Gael. feidh (deers); Chirnside (the side or site of the cairn), on one of the Lammermuir Hills; Carnoch (abounding in cairns), a parish in Fife; Boharm, in Banffshire, anc. Bocharin (the bow about the cairn). The countries of Carniola and Carinthia probably derived their names from this Celtic root.

a rock. The words are usually applied to large natural rocks, more or less elevated. Carrick and Carrig are the names of numerous districts in Ireland, as well as Carrick in Ayrshire; Carrigafoyle (the rock of the hole, phoill), in the Shannon; Carrickaness (of the waterfall); Ballynacarrick (the town of the rocks); Carrigallen, Irish Carraig-aluinn (the beautiful rock); Carrickanoran (the rock of the spring, uaran); Carrickfergus (Fergus’s rock), where one Fergus was drowned; Carrick-on-Suir (on the R. Suir); Carriga-howly, Irish Carraig-an-chobhlaigh (the rock of the fleet); Carrickduff (black rock); Carrigeen and Cargan (little rock); Carragh (rocky ground); but Carrick-on-Shannon is not derived from this root—its ancient name was Caradh-droma-ruise (the weir of the marsh ridge); Cerrig-y-Druidion (the rock of the Druids), in Wales.

a term applied in Scotland to low grounds on the banks of rivers; e.g. the Carse of Gowrie, Falkirk, Stirling, etc.

a house; e.g. Casa-Nova and Casa-Vecchia (new and old house), in Corsica; Casal, Les Casals, Chaise, Les Chaises (the house and the houses), in France; Chassepiare (corrupt. from Casa-petrea (stone house), in Belgium.

words in the Romance languages derived from the Lat. castellum (a castle). Caiseal, in the Irish language, either cognate with the Lat. word or derived from it, has the same meaning, and is commonly met with in that country under the form of Cashel; e.g. Cashel, in Tipperary; Cashelfean and Cashelnavean (the fort of the Fenians); Caislean-n’h-Oghmaighe, now Omagh (the castle of the beautiful field). It is often changed into the English castle, as in Ballycastle, in Mayo (the town of the fort); but Ballycastle, in Antrim, was named from a modern castle, not from a caiseal or fort; Castle-Dargan (of Lough Dargan); Castlebar, Irish Caislean-an-Bharraigh (the fort of the Barrys); Castle-Dillon, Castle-Dermot, and Castle-Kieran were renamed from castles erected near the hermitages of the monks whose names they bear. Castel, Lat. Castellum (the capital of the Electorate of Hesse-Cassel); Castel Rodrigo (Roderick’s castle), in Portugal; Castel-Lamare (by the sea-shore); Castel-bianco (white castle); Castel del piano (of the plain); Castiglione (little castle), in Italy. In France: Castelnau (new castle); Castelnaudary, anc. Castrum-novum-Arianiorum (the new castle of the Arians, i.e. the Goths); Chateaubriant, i.e. Chateau-du-Bryn (the king’s castle); Chateau-Chinon (the castle decorated with dogs’ heads); Chateau-Gontier (Gontier’s castle); Chateaulin (the castle on the pool); Chateau-vilain (ugly castle); Chateau-roux, anc. Castrum-Rodolphi (Rodolph’s castle); Chatelandrew (the castle of Andrew of Brittany); Chateaumeillant, anc. Castrum-Mediolanum (the castle in the middle of the plain or land, lann); Neufchatel (new castle); Newcastle-upon-Tyne, named from a castle built by Robert, Duke of Normandy, on the site of Monkchester; Newcastle-under-Line, i.e. under the lyme or boundary of the palatinate of Chester, having its origin in a fortress erected by Edmund, Earl of Lancaster, instead of the old fort of Chesterton; Castleton, in Man, is the translation of Ballycashel (castle dwelling), founded by one of the kings of the island; Bewcastle (the castle of Buith, lord of Gilsland); Old and New Castile, in Spain, so named from the numerous fortresses erected by Alphonso I. as defences against the Moors. Cassel, in Prussia, and various places with this prefix in England and Scotland, owe the names to ancient castles around which the towns or villages arose, as Castletown of Braemar, Castle-Douglas, Castle-Rising, etc.; Castlecary, in Stirlingshire, supposed to be the Coria Damnorum of Ptolemy, and the Caer-cere of Nennius; Barnard Castle, built by Barnard, the grandfather of Baliol; Castell-Llechryd (the castle at the stone ford), on the banks of the R. Wye, in Wales; Cestyll-Cynfar (castles in the air).

a fortress, city, town, from the Lat. castrum (a fortified place), and castra (a camp); e.g. Caistor, Castor, Chester (the site of a Roman fort or camp). The Welsh still called the city of Chester Caerleon, which means the city called Legio, often used as a proper name for a city where a Roman legion was stationed; Doncaster, Lancaster, Brancaster, Illchester, Leicester, Colchester (i.e. the camps on the Rivers Don, Lune, Bran, Ivel, Legre or Leir, Colne); Alcester, on the Alne; Chichester (the fortress of Cissa, the Saxon prince of the province); Cirencester, anc. Corinium-ceaster (the camp on the R. Churn); Exeter, Cel. Caer-Isc (the fortress on the river or water, wysk); Towcester, on the R. Towey; Gloucester, Cel. Caer-glow (the bright fortress); Godmanchester (the fort of the priest), where Gothrun, the Dane, in the reign of Alfred, embraced Christianity; Chesterfield and Chester-le-Street (the camp in the field and the camp on the Roman road, stratum); Winchester, Cel. Caer-gwent (the camp on the fair plain), p. 38; Dorchester (the camp of the Durotriges (dwellers by the water); Worcester, Hwicwara-ceaster (the camp of the Huiccii); Silchester, Cel. Caer-Segont (the fort of the Segontii); Manchester, probably the camp at Mancenion (the place of tents), its ancient name; Rochester, Cel. Durobrivae (the ford of the water), A.S. Hrofceaster, probably from a proper name; Bicester (the fort of Biren, a bishop); Alphen, in Holland, anc. Albanium-castra (the camp of Albanius); Aubagne, in Provence, anc. Castrum-de-Alpibus (the fortress of the Alps); Champtoceaux, Lat. Castrum-celsum (lofty fortress); St. Chamond, Lat. Castrum-Anemundi (the fortress of Ennemond); Chalus, Lat. Castrum-Lucius (the fortress by Lucius Capriolus, in the reign of Augustus); Passau, in Bavaria, Lat. Batavia-Castra (the Batavians’ camp), corrupted first to Patavium and then to Passau; La Chartre, Chartre, and Chartres (the place of the camps), in France; Chartre-sur-Loire, Lat. Carcer-Castellum (the castle prison or stronghold); Castril, Castrillo (little fortress); Castro-Jeriz (Cæsar’s camp); Ojacastro (the camp on the R. Oja), in Spain.

a hollow place, cognate with the Lat. cavea or cavus; e.g. Cavan (the hollow), the cap. of Co. Cavan, and many other places from this root in Ireland. Cavan, however, in some parts of Ireland, signifies a round hill, as in Cavanacaw (the round hill of the chaff, catha); Cavanagh (the hilly place); Cavanalick (the hill of the flagstone); Covehithe, in Suffolk (the harbour of the recess); Runcorn, in Cheshire, i.e. Rum-cofan (the wide cove or inlet); Cowes (the coves), in the Isle of Wight; La Cava, in Naples; Cuevas-de-Vera (the caves of Vera); Cuevas-del-Valle (of the valley), in Spain.

cold; e.g. Caldicott, Calthorpe, Calthwaite (cold dwelling); Koudhuizon, Koudaim, with the same meaning; Caldbeck, Kalbach, Kallenbach (cold stream); Kaltenherberg (cold shelter); Calvorde (cold ford); Kaltenkirchen (cold church); Colwell (cold well).

a head, a point or promontory—in topography kin or ken; e.g. Kinnaird’s Head (the point of the high headland); Kintyre or Cantire (the head of the land, tir); Kenmore (the great point), at the head of Loch Tay; Kinloch (the head of the lake); Kincraigie (of the little rock); Kinkell (the head church, cill); Kendrochet (bridge end); Kinaldie and Kinalty (the head of the dark stream, allt-dubh); Kingussie (the head of the fir-wood, guith-saith); Kinnaird (the high headland), the name of a parish in Fife and a village in Stirling. Kinross may mean the point (ros) at the head of Loch Leven, with reference to the town or with reference to the county, which in early times formed part of the large district called the Kingdom of Fife, anciently called Ross; and in this sense it may mean either the head of the promontory or of the wood, both of which are in Celtic ros. The ancient name of Fife, Ross, was changed into Fife in honour of Duff, Earl of Fife, to whom it was granted by Kenneth II., and in 1426 Kinross was separated from it, or, according to Nennius, from Feb, the son of Cruidne, ancestor of the Picts. Kintore (the head of the hill, tor); Kinneil, i.e. Ceann-fhail (the head of the wall), i.e. of Agricola; Kinell, Kinellar (the head of the knoll); King-Edward, corrupt. from Kinedur (the head of the water, dur); Kinghorn, from Ceann-cearn (corner headland)—Wester Kinghorn is now Burntisland; Kingarth, in Bute, i.e. Ceann-garbh (the rough or stormy headland); Kinnoul (the head of the rock, ail); Kintail (the head of the flood, tuil), i.e. of the two salt-water lakes in Ross-shire; Boleskine (the summit of the furious cascade, boil cas), i.e. of Foyers, in Inverness-shire; Kinmundy, in Aberdeenshire, corrupt. from Kinmunny (the head of the moss, moine); Kinglassie, in Fife, was named after St. Glass or Glasianus); Kenoway, Gael. ceann-nan-uamh (the head of the den); Kent, Lat. Cantium (the country of the Cantii, or dwellers at the headland). In Ireland: Kenmare in Kerry, Kinvarra in Galway, and Kinsale in Cork, mean the head of the sea, i.e. ceann-mara and ceann-saile (salt water), the highest point reached by the tide; Kincon (the dog’s headland); Kinturk (of the boar); Slyne Head, in Ireland, is in Irish Ceann-leime (the head of the leap), and Loop Head is Leim-Chonchuillinn (Cuchullin’s leap); Cintra, in Portugal, may mean the head of the strand, traigh.

a ridge, cognate with the Grk. κεφαλη, a head; e.g. the Cevennes, the Cheviots; Cefn-Llys (palace ridge); Cefn-bryn (hill ridge); Cefn-coed (wood ridge); Cefn-coch (red ridge); Cefn-y-Fan (the hill ridge); Cefn-Rhestyn (the row of ridges); Cefn-cyn-warchan (the watch-tower ridge); Cemmaes (the ridge of the plain), in Wales; Cefalu (on the headland), in Sicily; Chevin Hill, near Derby; Chevin (a high cliff), in Yorkshire; Cephalonia (the island of headlands), also called Samos (lofty); Cynocephale (the dog’s headland), in Thessaly.

a ship; e.g. Keal and Keelby, in Lincoln (ship station); Ceolescumb, Ceolëswyrth, Ceolseig, and perhaps Kiel, in Denmark; Chelsea, i.e. Ceolesig, on the Thames.

a husbandman; e.g. Charlton (the husbandman’s dwelling); Charlinch (the husbandman’s island), formerly insulated.

sand, gravel; e.g. Chesil (the sand-hill), in Dorset; Chiselhurst (the thicket at the sand-bank); Chiseldon (sand-hill); Chiselborough (the fort at the sand-bank); Winchelsea, corrupt. from Gwent-ceoseley (the sand-bank on the fair plain, gwent), or, according to another etymology, named after Wincheling, the son of Cissa, the first king of the South Saxons; Chiswick (sandy bay), on the Thames.

a heap of stones; e.g. Cerrig-y-Druidion (the Druids’ stones); Cerrig-y-Pryfaed (the crag of the teachers), probably the Druids, in Wales.

a place of merchandise, from A.S. ceapan, Ger. kaufen (to buy); e.g. Chepstow, Chippenham, Cheapside (the market-place or town); Chipping-Norton and Chipping-Sodbury (the north and south market-town); Chippinghurst (the market at the wood or thicket); Copenhagen, Dan. Kioben-havn (the haven for merchandise); Lidkioping (the market-place on the R. Lid); Linkioping, anc. Longakopungar (long market-town), in Sweden; Arroeskiœbing (the market-place in the island of Arroe); Nykoping, in Funen, and Nykjobing, in Falster, Denmark (new market-place). The Copeland Islands on the Irish coast (the islands of merchandise), probably used as a storehouse by the Danish invaders; Copmansthorpe (the village of traders), in Yorkshire; Nordköping (north market), in Sweden; Kaufbeuren (market-place), in Bavaria; Sydenham, in Kent, formerly Cypenham (market-place).

a hill, cognate with the Lat. culmen, transposed by the Germans into kulm and sometimes into golm; e.g. Kulm, in W. Prussia (a town on a hill); Kulm, on the R. Saale; Chlumek, Chlumetz, Golmitz, Golmüz (the little hill).

a cell, a burying-ground, a church; in Celtic topography, kil or kel; e.g. Kilbride (the cell or church of St. Bridget), frequent in Ireland and Scotland; Kildonan (of St. Donan); Kilkerran (of St. Kieran); Kilpeter (of St. Peter); Kilcattan (of St. Chattan); Kilmichael, Kilmarnock, Kilmarten, Kelpatrick, Kilbrandon (the churches dedicated to St. Michael, St. Marnock, St. Martin, St. Patrick, St. Brandon); Kilmaurs, Kilmorick, Kilmurry (St. Mary’s church); I Columkil or Iona (the island of Columba’s church); Kilwinning (St. Vimen’s church); Kilkenny (of St. Canice); Kilbeggan, in Ireland, and Kilbucho, in Peeblesshire (the church of St. Bega); Kil-Fillan (of St. Fillan); Killaloe, anc. Cill-Dalua (the church of St. Dalua); Killarney, Irish Cill-airneadh (the church of the sloes)—the ancient name of the lake was Lough Leane, from a famous artificer who lived on its shores; Killin, i.e. Cill-Fhinn (the burying-ground of Finn, which is still pointed out); Kilmany (the church on the mossy ground, moine); Kilmelfort, Cel. Cill-na-maol-phort (the church on the bald haven); Kilmore generally means the great church, but Kilmore, Co. Cork, is from Coillmhor (great wood), and in many places in Ireland and Scotland it is difficult to determine whether the root of the names is cill or coill; Kildare, from Cill-dara (the cell of the oak blessed by St. Bridget); Kilmun, in Argyleshire, is named from St. Munna, one of St. Columba’s companions; Kilrush, Co. Clare (the church of the promontory or of the wood); Kells (the cells) is the name of several places in Ireland, and of a parish in Dumfries; but Kells, in Meath and Kilkenny, is a contraction of the ancient name Ceann-lios (the head, lis, or fort); Closeburn, in Dumfries, is a corrupt. of Cella-Osburni (the cell of St. Osburn); Bischofzell and Appenzell (the church of the bishop and of the abbot); Maria-Zell (of St. Mary); Kupferzell, Jaxt-zell, Zella-am-Hallbach, Zell-am-Harmarsbach (the churches on the rivers Kupfer, Jaxt, Hallbach, and Harmarsbach); Zell-am-Moss (the church on the moor); Zell-am-See (on the lake); Zella St. Blasii (of St. Blaise); Sabloncieux, in France, anc. Sabloncellis (the cells on the sandy place); but in France La Selle and Les Selles are often used instead of cella or cellules, as in Selle-St.-Cloud for Cella-Sanct.-Clotoaldi (the church dedicated to this saint); Selle-sur-Nahon, anc. Cellula (little church); Kilconquhar, in Fife (the church of St. Conchobar or Connor); Kilbernie, in Ayrshire (the church of Berinus, a bishop); Kilspindie (of St. Pensadius); Kilblane and Kilcolmkill, in Kintyre (of St. Blane and St. Columba); Kilrenny (of St. Irenaeus); Kilchrenan, in Argyleshire (the burying-place of St. Chrenan, the tutelary saint of the parish).

a city or borough, derived from the Lat. civitas; e.g. Cittadella and Civitella (little city); Città di Castello (castellated city); Città-Vecchia (old city), in Malta; Civita Vecchia (old city), in Central Italy, formerly named Centum-cellæ (the hundred apartments), from a palace of the Emperor Trajan; Civita-de-Penné (the city of the summit), in Naples; Cividad-della-Trinidad (the city of the Holy Trinity); Ciudad-Rodrigo (Roderick’s city); Ciudad-Reäl (royal city); Ciudad-de-Gracias (the city of grace), in Spain; Ciudadella (little city), in Minorca.

a stone; e.g. Clach-breac (the speckled stone); Clach-an-Oban (the stone of the little bay); Clach-na-darrach (the stone of the oak grove); Clachach (a stony place). The word clachan, in Scotland, was originally applied to a circle of stones where the Pagan rites of worship were wont to be celebrated; and, after the introduction of Christianity, houses and churches were erected near these spots, and thus clachan came to mean a hamlet; and, at the present day, the expression used in asking a person if he is going to church is—“Am bheil-thu’dol do’n clachan?” (i.e. “Are you going to the stones?”) There is the Clachan of Aberfoyle in Perthshire; and in Blair-Athole there is a large stone called Clach n’iobairt (the stone of sacrifice). In Skye there is Clach-na-h-Annat (the stone of Annat, the goddess of victory); and those remarkable Druidical remains, called rocking-stones, are termed in Gaelic Clach-bhraeth (the stone of knowledge), having been apparently used for divination. There are others called Clach-na-greine (the stone of the sun), and Clach-an-t-sagairt (of the priest). The village of Clackmannan was originally Clachan-Mannan, i.e. the stone circle or hamlet of the district anciently called Mannan. In Ireland this root-word commonly takes the form of clogh or clough, as in Cloghbally, Cloghvally (stony dwelling); Clogher (the stony land); Clomony (the stony shrubbery); Clorusk (the stony marsh); Cloichin, Cloghan, Clogheen (land full of little stones); but the word clochan is also applied to stepping-stones across a river, as in Clochan-na-bh Fomharaigh (the stepping-stones of the Fomarians, i.e. the Giant’s Causeway); Cloghereen (the little stony place); Ballycloch and Ballenaclogh (the town of the stones); Auchnacloy (the field of the stone); Clochfin (the white stone); Clonakilty, corrupt. from Clough-na-Kiltey (the stone house of the O’Keelys).

a board, a plain, a flat piece of land; Clare is the name of several places in different counties of Ireland, sometimes softened to Clara. County Clare is said to have derived its name from a plank placed across the R. Fergus, at the village of Clare. Ballyclare, Ballinclare (the town of the plain); Clarbane (white plain); Clarderry (level oak grove); Clarchoill (level wood); Clareen (little plain).

a dyke or embankment; e.g. Clawdd-Offa (Offa’s Dyke).

a steep bank or rock, cognate with the Lat. clivus (a slope); Clive, Cleave, Clee (the cliff); Clifton (the town on the cliff); Clifdon (cliff hill); Clifford (the ford near the cliff); Hatcliffe and Hockcliffe (high cliff); Cleveland (rocky land), in Yorkshire; Cleves (the town on the slope), Rhenish Prussia; Radcliffe (red cliff); Silberklippen (at the silver cliff); Horncliff (corner cliff); Undercliff (between the cliff and the sea), in Isle of Wight; Clitheroe (the cliff near the water), in Lancashire; Lillies-leaf, in Roxburghshire, a corrupt. of Lille’s-cliva (the cliff of Lilly or Lille).

a royal or episcopal residence, sometimes a manor; e.g. King’s-clere, Co. Hants, so called because the Saxon kings had a palace there; Burg-clere (where the bishops of Winchester resided), High-clere.

a fertile piece of land, surrounded by a bog on one side and water on the other, hence a meadow; e.g. Clunie, Cluny, Clunes, Clones (the meadow pastures). These fertile pastures, as well as small islands, were the favourite spots chosen by the monks in Ireland and Scotland as places of retirement, and became eventually the sites of monasteries and abbeys, although at first the names of these meadows, in many instances, had no connection with a religious institution—thus Clones, Co. Monaghan, was Cluain-Eois (the meadow of Eos, probably a Pagan chief), before it became a Christian settlement; Clonard, in Meath, where the celebrated St. Finian had his school, in the sixth century, was Cluain-Eraird (Erard’s meadow). In some instances Clonard may mean the high meadow; Clonmel (the meadow of honey); Clonfert (of the grave); Clontarf and Clontarbh (the bull’s pasture); Clonbeg and Cloneen (little meadow); Clonkeen (beautiful meadow); Cluainte and Cloonty (the meadows); Cloonta-killen (the meadows of the wood)—v. Joyce’s Irish Names of Places.

a knoll, hill, or mound; e.g. Knock, a hill in Banff; Knockbrack (the spotted knoll); Knockbane, Knockdoo, Knockglass (the white, black, and gray hill); Carnock (cairn hill); Knockea, Irish Cnoc-Aedha (Hugh’s hill); Knocklayd, Co. Antrim, i.e. Cnoc-leithid (broad hill); Knockan, Knockeen (little hill); Knockmoyle (bald hill); Knocknagaul (the hill of the strangers); Knockrath (of the fort); Knockshanbally (of the old town); Knocktaggart (of the priest); Knockatober (of the well); Knockalough (of the lake); Knockanure (of the yew); Knockaderry (of the oak-wood); Knockane (little hill), Co. Kerry; Knockandow (little black hill), Elgin; Knockreagh, Knockroe, Knockgorm (the gray, red, blue hill); Knockacullion (the hill of the holly); Knockranny (ferny hill); Knockagh (the hilly place); Knockfirinne (the hill of truth), a noted fairy hill, Co. Limerick, which serves as a weather-glass to the people of the neighbouring plains; Ballynock (the town of the hill); Baldernock (the dwelling at the Druid’s hill), Co. Stirling; Knwc-y Dinas (the hill of the fortress), in Cardigan.

red

a wood; e.g. Coed-Arthur (Arthur’s wood); Coedcymmer (the wood of the confluence); Catmoss and Chatmoss (the wood moss); Coitmore (great wood); Selwood, anc. Coitmaur (great wood); Catlow (wood hill); Cotswold (wood hill), the Saxon wold having been added to the Cel. coed. The forms of this word in Brittany are Koat or Koad—hence Coetbo, Coetmen, Coetmieux, etc.; Llwyd-goed (gray wood), in Wales.

the point of a hill between two valleys, or a tongue of land enclosed between two watercourses; e.g. Cognat, Cougny, Cognac, Le Coigné, Coigneur, Coigny, etc., in various parts of France—v. Cocheris’s Noms de Lieu, Paris.

a wood—in topography it takes the forms of kel, kil, kelly, killy, and kyle; e.g. Kellymore, and sometimes Kilmore (the great wood); Kelburn, Kelvin, Kellyburn, and Keltie (the woody stream); Callander, Coille-an-dar (the oak-wood); Cuilty, Quilty, Kilty (the woods); Kilton (the town in the wood), in Scotland. In Ireland: Kilbowie (yellow wood); Kildarroch (the oak-wood); Kilcraig (the wood of the rock); Kildinny (of the fire)—v. TEINE; Killiegowan (of the smith); Kilgour (of the goats); Eden-keille (the face of the wood); Kylebrach (the spotted wood); Kylenasagart (the priest’s wood); Kailzie (the woody), a parish in Peebles; but Kyle, in Ayrshire, is not from this root, but was named after a mythic Cymric king; Loughill, in Co. Limerick, corrupt. from Leamhchoill (the elm-wood); Barnacullia (the top of the wood), near Dublin; Culleen and Coiltean (little wood); Kildare, anc. Coill-an-chlair (the wood of the plain).

a ravine, a hollow, a whirlpool; e.g. Corrie-dow (the dark ravine); Corrie-garth (the field at the ravine); Corrimony (the hill, monadh, at the ravine); Corrielea (the gray ravine); Corrie (the hollow), in Dumfriesshire; Corriebeg (the little hollow); Corryvrechan whirlpool (Brecan’s cauldron); Corgarf (the rough hollow, garbh); Corralin (the whirlpool of the cataract)—v. LIN; Corriebuie (yellow ravine); Corryuriskin (of the wild spirit); but Cor, in Ireland, generally signifies a round hill, as in Corbeagh (birch hill); Corglass (green hill); Corkeeran (rowan-tree hill); Corog and Correen (little hill); while Cora, or Coradh, signifies a weir across a river, as in Kincora (the head of the weir); Kirriemuir, in Forfar, corrupt. from Corriemor (the great hollow); Loch Venachoir, in Perthshire, is the fair hollow or valley—v. FIN, p. 80.

a colony; e.g. Lincoln, anc. Lindum-colonia (the colony at Lindum, the hill fort on the pool, linne); Colne (the colony), in Lancashire; Cologne, Lat. Colonia-Agrippina (the colony), Ger. Köln. The city was founded by the Ubii 37 B.C., and was at first called Ubiorum-oppidum, but a colony being planted there in 50 A.D. by Agrippina, the wife of the Emperor Claudius, it received her name.

a confluence, often found as Cumber or Comber; e.g. Comber, Co. Down; Cefn-coed-y-cymmer (the wood ridge of the confluence), where two branches of the R. Taff meet; Cumbernauld, in Dumbarton, Gael. Comar-n-uilt (the meeting of streams, alt). Cumnock, in Ayrshire, may have the same meaning, from Cumar and oich (water), as the streams Lugar and Glasnock meet near the village; Comrie, in Perthshire, at the confluence of the streams Earn, Ruchill, and Lednock; Kemper and Quimper (the confluence), and Quimper-lé, or Kember-leach (the place at the confluence), in Brittany. The words Condate and Condé, in French topography, seem to be cognate with this Celtic root, as in Condé, in Normandy (at the meeting of two streams); Condé, in Belgium (at the confluence of the Scheldt and Hawe); Condate-Rhedorum (the confluence of the Rhedones, a Celtic tribe), now Rennes, in Brittany; Coucy, anc. Condiceacum (at the confluence of the Lette and Oise); Congleton, Co. Chester, was formerly Condate.

a hollow valley between hills, a dingle; e.g. Colcombe (the valley of the R. Coly); Cwmneath (of the Neath); Compton (the town in the hollow); Gatcombe (the passage through the valley, gat); Combs, the hollows in the Mendip hills; Wycombe (the valley of the Wye); Winchcombe (the corner valley); Wivelscombe and Addiscombe, probably connected with a personal name; Ilfracombe (Elfric’s dingle); Cwmrydol and Cwmdyli, in Wales (the hollow of the Rivers Rydol and Dyli); Cwm-eigian (the productive ridge); Cwmgilla (the hazel-wood valley); Cwm-Toyddwr (the valley of two waters), near the conf. of the Rivers Wye and Elain in Wales; Cwm-gloyn (the valley of the brook Gloyn); Cwmdu (dark valley); Cwm-Barre (the valley of the R. Barre), in Wales; Combe St. Nicholas, in Somerset and in Cumberland, named for the saint; Comb-Basset and Comb-Raleigh, named from the proprietors; Cwm-du (black dingle); Cwm-bychan (little dingle), in Wales; Corscombe (the dingle in the bog). In Ireland: Coomnahorna (the valley of the barley); Lackenacoombe (the hillside of the hollow); Lake Como, in Italy (in the hollow).

a flowing together, hence the meeting of waters; e.g. Coblentz, for Confluentes (at the conf. of the Moselle and Rhine); Conflans (at the conf. of the Seine and Oise); Confluent, a hamlet situated at the conf. of the Creuse and Gartempe.

a summit; e.g. Cop-yr-Leni (the illuminated hill), so called from the bonfires formerly kindled on the top.

a marsh; e.g. Corse (the marsh); Corston, Corsby, Corsenside (the dwelling or settlement on the marsh); Corscombe (marsh dingle), in England. In Ireland: Cork, anc. Corcach-mor-Mumham (the great marsh of Munster); Curkeen, Corcaghan (little marsh); Curragh-more (great marsh); Currabaha (the marsh of birches). Perhaps Careby and Carton, in Lincoln, part of the Danish district, may be marsh dwelling.

a horn, a corner—in topography, applied to headlands; e.g. Corneto (the place on the corner), in Italy; Corné, Cornay, Corneuil, etc., in France, from this root, or perhaps from Cornus (the cornel cherry-tree); Cornwall, Cel. Cernyu, Lat. Cornubiæ, A.S. Cornwallia (the promontory or corner peopled by the Weales, Welsh, or foreigners); Cornuailles, in Brittany, with the same meaning—its Celtic name was Pen-Kernaw (the head of the corner).

a hut; e.g. Cottenham, Cottingham, Coatham (the village of huts); Chatham, A.S. Coteham, with the same meaning; Bramcote (the hut among broom); Fencotes (the huts in the fen or marsh; Prescot (priest’s hut); Sculcoates, in Yorkshire, probably from the personal Scandinavian name Skule; Saltcoats, in Ayrshire (the huts occupied by the makers of salt, a trade formerly carried on to a great extent at that place); Kothendorf (the village of huts); Hinter-kothen (behind the huts), in Germany.

a fortress; e.g. Chicacotta (little fortress); Gazacotta (the elephant’s fortress); Jagarcote (bamboo fort); Islamcot (the fort of the true faith, i.e. of Mahomet); Noa-cote (new fort); Devicotta (God’s fortress); Palamcotta (the camp fort).

a side or coast; e.g. Côte d’Or (the golden coast), a department of France, so called from its fertility; Côtes-du-Nord (the Northern coasts), a department of France; Costa-Rica (rich coast), a state of Central America.

a place enclosed, the place occupied by a sovereign, a lordly mansion; from the Lat. cohors, also cors-cortis (an enclosed yard), cognate with the Grk. hortos. The Romans called the castles built by Roman settlers in the provinces cortes or cortem, thence court became a common affix to the names of mansions in England and France—thus Hampton Court and Hunton Court, in England; Leoncourt, Aubigne-court, Honnecourt (the mansion of Leo, Albinius, and Honulf); Aubercourt (of Albert); Mirecourt, Lat. Mercurii-curtis, where altars were wont to be dedicated to Mercury. From the diminutives of this word arose Cortiles, Cortina, Corticella, Courcelles, etc. The words court, cour, and corte were also used as equivalent to the Lat. curia (the place of assembly for the provincial councils)—thus Corte, in Corsica, where the courts of justice were held; but Corsica itself derived its name from the Phœnician chorsi (a woody place). The Cortes, in Spain, evidently equivalent to the Lat. curia, gives its name to several towns in that country; Coire, the capital of the Grisons, in Switzerland, comes from the anc. Curia Rhætiorum (the place where the provincial councils of the Rhætians were held); Corbridge, in Northumberland, is supposed to take its name from a Roman curia, and perhaps Currie, in East Lothian.

a rock; e.g. Craigie, Creich, Crathie, Gael. Creagach (rocky), parishes in Scotland; Carrick and Carrig, in Ireland (either the rocks or rocky ground); Carrick-on-Suir (the rock of the R. Suir)—v. p. 42; Craigengower (the goat’s rock); Craigendarroch (the rock of the oak-wood); Craigdou (black rock); Craigdearg (red rock); Craigmore (great rock); Craig-Phadric (St. Patrick’s rock), in Inverness-shire; Craignish (the rock of the island), the extremity of which is Ardcraignish; Craignethan (the rock encircled by the R. Nethan), supposed to be the archetype of Tullietudlem; Craigentinny (the little rock of the fire)—v. TEINE; Criggan (the little rock). In Wales, Crick-Howel and Crickadarn (the rock of Howel and Cadarn); Criccaeth (the narrow hill); Crick, in Derbyshire; Creach, in Somerset; Critch-hill, Dorset.

a small bay; e.g. Cricklade, anc. Creccagelade (the bay of the stream); Crayford (the ford of the creek); Crique-bœuf, Crique-by, Crique-tot, Crique-villa (the dwelling on the creek); Criquiers (the creeks), in France. In America this word signifies a small stream, as Saltcreek, etc.

a cross, cognate with the Lat. crux; e.g. Crosby (the dwelling near the cross); Crossmichael (the cross of St. Michael’s Church); Groes-wen for Croes-wen (the blessed cross), in Glamorgan; Crossthwaite (the forest-clearing at the cross); Croxton (cross town); Crewe and Crewkerne (the place at the cross); Croes-bychan (little cross); Kruzstrait (the road at the cross), in Belgium; Crosscanonby, Crosslee, Crosshill, places in different parts of Scotland, probably named from the vicinity of some cross; but Crossgates, Co. Fife, so called from its situation at a spot where roads cross each other. It was usual with the Celts in Ireland, as well as with the Spaniards and Portuguese in America, to mark the place where any providential event had occurred, or where they founded a church or city, by erecting a cross—as in St. Croix, Santa-Cruz, and Vera Cruz (the true cross), in South America. In Ireland: Crosserlough (the cross on the lake); Crossmolina (O’Mulleeny’s cross); Aghacross (the fort at the cross); Crossard (high cross); Crossreagh (gray cross); Crossmaglen, Irish Cros-mag-Fhloinn (the cross of Flann’s son); Crossau, Crossoge, and Crusheen (little cross); Oswestry, in Shropshire, anc. Croes-Oswalt (the cross on which Oswald, King of Northumberland, was executed by Penda of Mercia). Its Welsh name was Maeshir (long field), by the Saxons rendered Meserfield; Marcross (the cross on the sea-shore), in Glamorgan; Pen-y-groes, Maen-y-groes, Rhyd-y-croessau (the hill, the stone of the cross, the ford of the crosses), in Wales; Glencorse, near Edinburgh, for Glencross, so named from a remarkable cross which once stood there; Corstorphine, in Mid-Lothian, corrupt. from Crostorphin, which might mean the cross of the beautiful hill, torr fioum, or the cross of a person called Torphin. In the reign of James I. the church of Corstorphine became a collegiate foundation, with a provost, four prebendaries, and two singing boys. Croich in Gaelic means a gallows—thus Knockacrochy (gallows hill); Raheenacrochy (the little fort of the gallows), in Ireland.

a hill of a round form—from cruach (a haystack); e.g. Croghan, Crohane (the little round hill); Ballycroghan (the town of the little hill), in Ireland; Bencruachan (the stack-shaped hill), in Argyleshire.

an enclosed field; e.g. Crofton (the town on the croft); Thornycroft (thorny field).

crooked; e.g. Cromdale (the winding valley), in Inverness-shire; Croome, in Worcester; Cromlin, Crimlin (the winding glen, ghlinn), in Ireland; Krumbach (the winding brook); Krumau and Krumenau (the winding water or valley); Ancrum, a village in Roxburghshire, situated at the bend of the R. Alne at its confluence with the Teviot.

a hillock; e.g. Crughwel (the conspicuous hillock, hywel); Crug-y-swllt (the hillock of the treasure), in Wales; Crickadarn, corrupt. from Crug-eadarn (the strong crag), in Wales.

e.g. Coull, Cults, parishes in Scotland; Culter, i.e. Cul-tir (at the back of the land), in Lanarkshire; Culcairn (of the cairn); Culmony (at the back of the hill or moss, monadh); Culloden for Cul-oiter (at the back of the ridge); Culnakyle (at the back of the wood); Cultulach (of the hill); Culblair (the backlying field); Culross (behind the headland), in Scotland. In Ireland: Coolboy (yellow corner); Coolderry (at the back or corner of the oak-wood); Cooleen, Cooleeny (little corner); Coleraine, in Londonderry, as well as Coolraine, Coolrainy, Coolrahne, Irish Cuil-rathain (the corner of ferns); Coolgreany (sunny corner); Coolnasmear (the corner of the blackberries).

a country; e.g. Bundelcund, Rohilcund (the countries of the Bundelas and Rohillas).

a mountain; e.g. Daghestan (the mountainous district); Baba-dagh (father or chief mountain); Kara-dagh (black mountain); Kezel-dagh (red mountain); Belur-tagh (the snow-capped mountain); Aktagh (white mountain); Mustagh (ice mountain); Beshtau (the five mountains); Tak-Rustan (the mountain of Rustan); Tchazr-dagh (tent mountain); Ala-dagh (beautiful mountain); Bingol-tagh (the mountain of 1000 wells); Agri-dagh (steep mountain); Takht-i-Suliman (Solomon’s mountain).

a valley, sometimes a field, English dale or dell, and often joined to the name of the river which flows through the district; e.g. Clydesdale, Teviotdale, Nithsdale, Liddesdale, Dovedale, Arundel, Dryfesdale, corrupt. to Drysdale (the valley of the Clyde, Teviot, Nith, Liddel, Dove, Arun, Dryfe); Rochdale, on the Roch, an affluent of the Trivell; Dalmellington (the town in the valley of the mill). It is to be noted that in places named by the Teut. and Scand. races, this root-word, as well as others, is placed after the adjective or defining word; while by the Celtic races it is placed first. Thus, in Scandinavia, and in localities of Great Britain where the Danes and Norsemen had settlements, we have—Romsdalen and Vaerdal, the valleys of the Raumer and Vaer, in Norway; Langenthal, on the R. Langent, in Switzerland; Rydal (rye valley), Westmoreland; Laugdalr (the valley of warm springs), Iceland. In districts again peopled by the Saxons, Avondale, Annandale (the valleys of the Avon and Annan). This is the general rule, although there are exceptions—Rosenthal (the valley of roses); Inn-thal (of the R. Inn); Freudenthal (of joy); Fromenthal (wheat valley); Grunthal (green valley). In Gaelic, Irish, and Welsh names, on the contrary, dal precedes the defining word; e.g. Dalry and Dalrigh (king’s level field); Dalbeth and Dalbeathie (the field of birches); Dalginross (the field at the head of the promontory or wood); Dalness and Dallas (the field of the cascade, cas); Dalserf (of St. Serf); Dailly, in Ayrshire, anc. Dalmaolkeran (the field of the servant, maol, of St. Kiaran); Dalrymple (the valley of the rumbling pool, ruaemleagh); Dalgarnock (of the rough hillock); Dalhousie (the field at the corner of the water, i.e. of the Esk); Dalwhinnie (the field of the meeting, coinneach); Dalziel (beautiful field, geal); Dalguise (of the fir-trees, giuthas); Dalnaspittal (the field of the spideal, i.e. the house of entertainment); Dalnacheaich (of the stone); Dalnacraoibhe (of the tree); Dalbowie (yellow field). Dollar, in Clackmannan, may be from this root, although there is a tradition that it took its name from a castle in the parish called Castle-Gloom, Gael. doillair (dark); Deal or Dole (the valley in Kent); Dol and Dole, in Brittany, with the same meaning; Doldrewin (the valley of the Druidical circles in Wales); Dolquan (the owl’s meadow); Dolau-Cothi (the meadows of the River Cothi); Dolgelly (the grove of hazels); Dalkeith (the narrow valley, caeth); Codale (cow field); Grisdale (swine field); Gasdale (goosefield); Balderdale, Silverdale, Uldale, Ennerdale, Ransdale (from the personal names, Balder, Sölvar, Ulf, Einer, Hrani); Brachendale (the valley of ferns); Berrydale, in Caithness, corrupt. from Old Norse, Berudalr (the valley of the productive wood); Dalecarlia, called by the Swedes Dahlena (the valleys); Dieppedal (deep valley); Stendal (stony valley); Oundle, in Northampton, corrupt. from Avondle; Kendal or Kirkby-Kendal (the church town in the valley of the R. Ken); Dolgelly (the valley of the grove), in Wales; Dolsk or Dolzig (the town in the valley), in Posen; Dolzen, in Bohemia; Bartondale (the dale of the enclosure for the gathered crops), in Yorkshire; Dalarossie, in Inverness, corrupt. from Dalfergussie, Fergus’dale; Dalriada, in Ulster, named from a king of the Milesian race, named Cairbe-Raida, who settled there. His descendants gradually emigrated to Albin, which from them was afterwards called Scotland; and that part of Argyleshire where they landed they also named Dalriada. The three brothers, Fergus, Sorn, and Anghus, came to Argyleshire in 503 A.D. Toul and Toulouse, situated in valleys, probably were named from the same root-word; Toulouse was anciently called Civitas-Tolosatium (the city of the valley dwellers, dol-saetas).

a part, a district; e.g. Kalthusertheil (the district of the cold houses); Kerckdorfertheil (the district of the village church); Baradeel (the barren district), in Germany and Holland. This word, rather than dail, may be the root of Dalriada; see above.

far; e.g. Daliz, Dalchow, Dalichow (the distant place).

an embankment, a dyke; e.g. Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Saardam, properly Zaandam (the embankment on the Rivers Rotte, Amstel, and Zaan); Schiedam, on the R. Schie; Leerdam (the embankment on the field, lar); Veendam (on the marsh, veen); Damm (the embankment), a town in Prussia; Neudamm (the new dyke); Dammducht (the embankment of the trench).

in topography, signifies belonging to the Danes; e.g. Danelagh (that portion of England which the Danes held after their treaty with Alfred); Danby, Danesbury (the Danes’ dwellings); Danesbanks, Danesgraves, Danesford, in Salop, where the Danes are believed to have wintered in 896; Danshalt, in Fife, where they are said to have halted after their defeat at Falkland; Danthorpe, Denton (Danes’ town); Denshanger (Danes’ hill or declivity); Dantzic (the Danish fort, built by a Danish colony in the reign of Waldemar II.); Tennstedt, in Saxony, corrupt. from Dannenstedi (the Danes’ station); Cruden, in Aberdeenshire, anc. Cruor-Danorum (the slaughter of the Danes on the site of the last battle between the Celts and the Danes, which took place in the parish 1012). The Danish king fell in this battle, and was buried in the churchyard of Cruden. For centuries the Erroll family received an annual pension from the Danish Government for taking care of the grave at Cruden, but after the grave had been desecrated this pension was discontinued.

a dwelling, camp, or district; e.g. Dar-el-hajar (the rocky district), in Egypt; Darfur (the district of the Foor or Foorians, or the deer country), in Central Africa; Dera-Fati-Khan, Dera-Ghazi-Khan, Dera-Ismail-Khan (i.e. the camps of these three chiefs, in the Derajat, or camp district); Deir (the monk’s dwelling), in Syria; Diarbekr (the dwellings or tents of Bekr); Dehi-Dervishan (the villages of the dervishes); Deh-haji (the pilgrims’ village); Dekkergan (the village of wolves); Deir-Antonius (St. Anthony’s monastery), in Egypt; Buyukdereh (Turc. the great district on the Bosphorus).

an oak, cognate with the Lat. drus, and Sansc. dru, doire, or daire, Gadhelic, an oak-wood, Anglicised derry, darach, or dara, the gen. of dair; e.g. Daragh (a place abounding in oaks); Adare, i.e. Athdara (the ford of the oak); Derry, now Londonderry, was originally Daire-Calgaigh (the oak-wood of Galgacus, Latinised form of Calgaigh). In 546, when St. Columba erected his monastery there, it became Derry-Columkille (the oak-wood of Columba’s Church); in the reign of James I., by a charter granted to the London merchants, it obtained its present name; Derry-fad (the long oak-wood); Derry-na-hinch (of the island, innis); Dairbhre or Darrery (the oak forest), the Irish name for the Island of Valentia; Derry-allen (beautiful wood); Derrybane and Derrybawn (white oak-wood); Derrylane (broad oak-wood); Durrow, Irish Dairmagh, and Latinised Robereticampus (the plain of the oaks); New and Old Deer (the oak-wood), in Aberdeenshire, was a monastery erected in early times by St. Columba, and given by him to St. Drostan. The old monastery was situated near a wooded hill, still called Aikie-Brae (oak hill), and a fair was held annually in the neighbourhood, called Mercatus querceti (the oak market)—v. Book of Deer, p. 48; Craigendarroch (the crag of the oak-wood); Darnock, or Darnick (the oak hillock), in Roxburghshire; Dryburgh, corrupt. from Darach-bruach (the bank of oaks); Dori, the name of a round hill covered with oak-trees, in Wales; Darowen (Owen’s oak-wood), in Wales.

a dyke or entrenchment. These dykes were vast earthen ramparts constructed by the Anglo-Saxons to serve as boundaries between hostile tribes; e.g. Hoorndyk (the dyke at the corner); Grondick (green dyke); Wansdyke (Woden’s dyke); Grimsdyke and Offa’s dyke (named after the chiefs Grim and Offa); Houndsditch (the dog’s dyke); Ditton, Dixton (towns enclosed by a dyke); Zaadik, in Holland, (the dyke) on the R. Zaad. Cartsdike, a village in Renfrewshire separated from Greenock by the burn Cart. Besides Grimesdyke (the name for the wall of Antoninus, from the R. Forth to the Clyde), there is a Grimsditch in Cheshire.

a canal, from delfan (to dig); e.g. Delft, a town in Holland, intersected by canals; Delfshaven (the canal harbour); Delfbrüke (canal bridge).

a deep, wooded valley. This word is traced by Leo and others to the Celtic dion (protection, shelter); e.g. Dibden (deep hollow); Hazeldean (the valley of hazels); Bowden or Bothanden (St. Bothan’s valley), in Roxburghshire; Tenterden, anc. Theinwarden (the guarded valley of the thane or nobleman), in Kent; Howden (the haugr or mound (in the valley), in Yorkshire; Howdon, with the same meaning, in Northumberland; Otterden (the otter’s valley); Stagsden (of the stag); Micheldean (great valley); Rottingdean (the valley of Hrotan, a chief); Croxden (the valley of the cross).

a wild animal—English, a deer; e.g. Deerhurst (deer’s thicket); Durham, in Gloucester (the dwelling of wild animals). For Durham on the Wear, v. HOLM. Tierbach, Tierhage (the brook and the enclosure of wild animals).

a term borrowed from the Lat. desertum, and applied by the Celts to the names of sequestered places chosen by the monks for devotion and retirement; Dyserth, in North Wales, and Dyzard, in Cornwall; e.g. Dysart, in Fife, formerly connected with the monastery of Culross, or Kirkcaldy—near Dysart is the cave of St. Serf; Dysertmore (the great desert), in Co. Kilkenny; Desertmartin in Londonderry, Desertserges in Cork (the retreats of St. Martin and St. Sergius). In Ireland the word is often corrupted to Ester or Isert—as in Isertkelly (Kelly’s retreat); Isertkeeran (St. Ciaran’s retreat).

from thiod, the people, a prefix used in Germany to distinguish any district or place from a foreign settlement of the same name. In Sclavonic districts it is opposed to the word Katholic, in connection with the form of religion practised by their inhabitants—as in Deutsch-hanmer (the Protestant village, opposed to Katholic-hanmer, belonging to the Catholic or Greek Church). In other cases it is opposed to Walsch (foreign—v. WALSCH), as in Deutsch-steinach and Walsh-steinach (the German and foreign towns on the Steinach, or stony water). The Romans employed the word Germania for Deutsch, which Professor Leo traces to a Celtic root gair-mean (one who cries out or shouts); e.g. Deutschen, in the Tyrol; Deutz, in Rhenish Prussia; Deutschendorf, in Hungary; Deutschenhausen, in Moravia, i.e. the dwellings of the Germans. The earliest name by which the Germans designated themselves seems to have been Tungri (the speakers). It was not till the seventeenth century that the word Dutch was restricted to the Low Germans. The French name for Germany is modernised from the Alemanni (a mixed race, and probably means other men, or foreigners).

deep; e.g. Deeping, Dibden, Dibdale (deep valley); Deptford (deep ford); Market-deeping (the market-town in the low meadow); Devonshire, Cel. Dwfnient (the deep valleys); Diepholz (deep wood); Dieppe, Scand. Duipa (the deep water), the name of the river upon which it was built; Abraham’s diep (Abraham’s hollow), in Holland; Diepenbeck (deep brook); Tiefenthal and Tiefengrund (deep valley); Teupitz (the deep water), a town in Prussia on a lake of this name; Defynock (a deep valley), in Wales.

a fortified height, a city, cognate with the Gadhelic dun; e.g. Dinmore (the great fort), in Hereford; Dynevor, anc. Dinas-fawr (great fortress), in Carmarthen; Denbigh, Welsh Din-bach (little fort); Ruthin, in Co. Denbigh, corrupt. from Rhudd-din (red castle); Dinas Bran, a mountain and castle in Wales named after an ancient king named Bran-Dinas-Powys, corrupt. from Denes Powys, a mansion built by the Prince of Powys in honour of the lady whom he had married, whose name was Denis; Hawarden, i.e. fixed on a hill, den, in Flint; its ancient name was Penarth-Halawig (the headland above the salt marsh); Dinefwr (the fenced hill), an ancient castle in the vale of the R. Tywy; Tenby (Dane’s dwelling)—v. DAN; Welsh Denbych-y-Pysod, i.e. of the fishes—to distinguish from its namesake in North Wales; Tintern, corrupt. from Din-Teyrn (the king’s mount), in Wales; Dinan in France; Dinant in Belgium (the fortress on the water); Digne, anc. Dinia-Bodionticarium (the fort of the Bodiontici), in France; London, anc. Londinum (the fort on the marsh—lon, or perhaps on the grove—llwyn). Din sometimes takes the form of tin, as in Tintagel (St. Degla’s fort), in Cornwall; Tintern (the fort, din, of the prince, Welsh teyrn), in Monmouth.

a kind of grain; e.g. Dinkelburg, Dinkelstadt, Dinkellage, Dinklar, Dinkelsbuhl (the town, place, field, site, hill, where this grain abounded).

the people; e.g. Thetford, corrupt. from Theotford (the people’s ford); Detmold, corrupt. from Theot-malli (the people’s place of meeting); Diotweg (the people’s highway); Dettweiller (the town of the Diet, or people’s meeting); Ditmarsh, anc. Thiedmarsi (the people’s marsh); Dettingen (belonging to the people)—v. ING.

an island; e.g. the Maldives (i.e. the 1000 islands); the Laccadives (the 10,000 islands); Java or Yava-dwipa (the island of rice, jawa, or of nutmegs, jayah); Socotra or Dwipa-Sukadara (the island of bliss); Ceylon or Sanhala-Dwipa (the island of lions), but called by the natives Lanka (the resplendent), and by the Arabs Seren-dib (silk island); Dondrahead, corrupt. from Dewandere (the end of the island), in Ceylon.

long, Germanised dolge; e.g. Dlugenmost (long bridge); Dolgenbrodt (long ford); Dolgensee (long lake); Dolgen, Dolgow, Dolgenow (long place).

good; e.g. Great and Little Döbern, Dobra, Dobrau, Dobrawitz, Dobretzee, Dobrezin (good place); Dobberstroh (good pasture); Dobberbus (good village); Dobrutscha (good land), part of Bulgaria; Dobergast (good inn).

a hill with a round top; e.g. Dodd-Fell (the round rock), in Cumberland; Dodmaen (the round stone), in Cornwall, popularly called Dead Man’s Point.

a cathedral, and, in French topography, a house, from the Lat. domus; e.g. Dom, in Westphalia; Domfront (the dwelling of Front, a hermit); Dompierre (Peter’s house or church); Domblain (of St. Blaine); Domleger (of St. Leger); Dongermain (of St. Germanus), in France; but the word domhnach, in Ireland (i.e. a church), has another derivation. This word, Anglicised donagh, signifies Sunday as well as church, from the Lat. Dominica (the Lord’s day); and all the churches with this prefix to their names were originally founded by St. Patrick, and the foundations were laid on Sunday; e.g. Donaghmore (great church); Donaghedy, in Tyrone (St. Caidoc’s church); Donaghanie, i.e. Domnach-an-eich (the church of the steed); Donaghmoyne (of the plain); Donaghcloney (of the meadow); Donaghcumper (of the confluence); Donnybrook (St. Broc’s church).

a mound surrounded by a marsh; e.g. Dong-weir (the mound of the weir); Dunkhof (the enclosure at the mound); Dongen (the dwelling at the mound); Hasedonk (the mound of the brushwood).

a village or small town, originally applied to any small assembly of people; e.g. Altendorf, Oldendorf (old town); Sommerstorf (summer town); Baiarsdorf (the town of the Boii, or Bavarians); Gastdorf (the town of the inn, or for guests); Dusseldorf, Meldorf, Ohrdruff, Vilsendorf (towns of the Rivers Dussel, Miele, Ohr, and Vils); Jagersdorf (huntsman’s village); Nussdorf (nut village); Mattersdorf and Matschdorf, Ritzendorf, Ottersdorf (the towns of Matthew, Richard, and Otho); Lindorf (the village at the linden-tree); Sandrup (sandy village); Dorfheim, Dorpam (village home).

the thorn; e.g. Dornburg, Dornheim or Dornum, Dornburen, Thornton (thorn dwelling); Doorn, the name of several places in the Dutch colony, South Africa; Dornberg and Doornhoek (thorn hill); Dornach (full of thorns); but Dornoch, in Sutherlandshire, is not from this root; it is said to be derived from the Gael. dorneich, in allusion to a certain Danish leader having been slain at the place by a blow from a horse’s hoof. Thornhill, Thornbury, village names in England and Scotland; Thorney (thorn island); Thorne, a town in Yorkshire; Yr Ddreinog, Welsh (the thorny place), a hamlet in Anglesey; but Thorn, a town in Prussia—Polish Torun—is probably derived from a cognate word for torres, a tower. In Ireland: Dreen, Drinan, Dreenagh, Drinney (places producing the black thorn).

for trift, meadow pasture; e.g. Moordrecht, Zwyndrecht, Papendrecht, Ossendrecht (the moor, swine, oxen pasture, and the priest’s meadow); Dort or Dordrecht (the pasture on the water), situated in an island formed by the Maas; Maestricht, Latinised into Trajectus-ad-Moesum (the pasture or ford on the Maas or Meuse); Utrecht, Latinised Trajectus-ad-Rhenum (the ford or pasture on the Rhine), or Ultra-trajectum (beyond the ford).

fallow ground; e.g. Driesch and Dresche, in Oldenburg; Driesfelt (fallow field); Bockendriesch (the fallow ground at the beech-trees).

a bridge; e.g. Drogheda, anc. Droichead-atha (the bridge at the ford); Ballydrehid (bridge town); Knockadreet (the hill of the bridge); Drumadrehid (the ridge at the bridge); Kildrought (the church at the bridge), in Ireland; Ceann-Drochaid (bridge end), the Gaelic name for the Castleton of Braemar.

a hill fort; e.g. Savendroog (golden fort); Viziadroog (the fort of victory); Chitteldroog (spotted fort); Calliendroog (flourishing fort); Sindeedroog (the fort of the sun).

wood, or a forest; e.g. Drebkau, Drewitsch, Drewitz, Drohobicz (the woody place); Drewiz, Drehnow, Drehna, with the same meaning; Misdroi (in the midst of woods).

a ridge, from droma, the back-bone of an animal, cognate with the Lat. dorsum; e.g. Drumard (high ridge); Dromeen, Drumeen, Drymen (little ridge); Dromore (great ridge); Dromagh and Drumagh (full of ridges); Dromineer, Co. Tipperary, and Drumminer in Aberdeenshire (the ridge of the confluence, inbhir); Aughrim, Irish Each-dhruim (the horses’ ridge); Leitrim, i.e. Liath-dhruim (gray ridge); Dromanure (the ridge of the yew-tree); Drumderg (red ridge); Drumlane (broad ridge); Drumcliff, i.e. Druim-chluibh (the ridge of the baskets); Drummond, common in Ireland and Scotland, corrupt. from drumen (little ridge). In Scotland there are Drumoak (the ridge of St. Mozola, a virgin)—in Aberdeenshire it was originally Dalmaile (the valley of Mozola); Meldrum-Old (bald ridge), in Aberdeenshire; Drem (the ridge in East Lothian); Drumalbin, Lat. Dorsum-Britanniae (the back-bone or ridge of Scotland); Drummelzier, formerly Dunmeller (the fort of Meldredus, who, according to tradition, slew Merlin, whose grave is shown in the parish); Drumblate (the warm ridge, or the flowery ridge); Drumcliff, Co. Sligo, i.e. Druimcliabh (the ridge of the baskets).

a door or pass; e.g. Drws-y-coed (the pass of the wood); Drws-y-nant (of the valley); Drws-Ardudwy (of the black water).

black; e.g. Ddulas, a river in Wales; Douglas, in Scotland (the black stream); Dubyn (the black lake).

the oak; e.g. Dubicza, Dubrau, Düben, Dubrow (the place of oak-trees); Teupliz, corrupt. from Dublize, with the same meaning; Dobojze, Germanised into Daubendorf (oak village); Dubrawice (oak village); Dubrawka (oak wood), Germanised Eichenwäldchen, a colony from Dubrow. In Poland this word takes the form of Dombrowo Dombroka.

a stronghold, a hill fort, cognate with the Welsh din. As an adjective, dun or don means strong, as in Dunluce, i.e. dun-lios (strong fort); Duncladh (strong dyke). As a verb, it signifies what is closed or shut in, dunadh, with the same meaning as the Teut. tun, as in Corra-dhunta (the closed weir). Its full signification, therefore, is a strong enclosed place, and the name was accordingly applied in old times to forts surrounded by several circumvallations, the remains of which are still found in Ireland and Scotland. Many such places are called simply doon or down; e.g. Doune Castle, in Perthshire; Down-Patrick, named from an entrenched dun near the cathedral; Down and the Downs, King’s Co. and West Meath; Dooneen and Downing (little fort); Dundalk, i.e. Dun-Dealgan (Delga’s fort); Dundonald (the fort of Domhnall); Dungannon (Geanan’s fort); Dungarvan (Garvan’s fort); Dunleary (Laeghaire’s fort), now Kingston; Dunhill and Dunally, for Dun-aille (the fort on the cliff); Downamona (of the bog); Shandon (old fort); Doonard (high fort); and many others in Ireland. In Scotland: Dumbarton (the hill fort of the Britons or Cumbrians); Dumfries (the fort among shrubs, preas, or of the Feresians, Caer Pheris)—v. Dr. Skene’s Book of Wales; Dunbar (the fort on the summit, or of Barr, a chief); Dunblane (of St. Blane); Dundee, Lat. Tao-dunum, probably for Dun-Tatha (the fort on the Tay); Dunedin, or Edinburgh (Edwin’s fort), so named by a prince of Northumberland in 628—its earlier names were Dunmonadh (the fort of the hill), or in Welsh Dinas-Agned (the city of the painted people), and the Castrum-Alatum of Ptolemy. The Pictish maidens of the royal race were kept in Edinburgh Castle, hence it was also called Castrum-Puellarum; Dunottar (the fort on the reef, oiter); Dunfermline (the fort of the alder-tree pool, or of the winding pool); Dundrennan (the fort of the thorn bushes); Dunlop (the fortified hill at the angle of the stream, lub); Dunkeld, anc. Duncalden (the fort of hazels); Dunbeath (of the birches); Dunrobin (Robert’s fortress), founded by Robert, Earl of Sutherland; Dunure (of the yew-trees); Dunnichen, i.e. Dunn-Nechtan (of Nechtan, a Pictish king); Dunsyre (the prophet’s hill or fort); Donegall, Irish Dungall (i.e. the fort of the strangers, the Danes); Lexdon, in Essex, Lat. Legionis-dunum (the fort of the legion); Leyden, in Holland, Lat. Lugdunum-Batavorum (the fortress of the Batavians, in the hollow, lug); Lyons, anc. Lugdunum (the fort in the hollow); Maldon, in Essex, anc. Camelodunum (the fort of the Celtic war-god Camal); Melun, anc. Melodunum (bald fort, maol), in France; Nevers, Lat. Noviodunum (new fort), in France; Thuin, in Belgium, and Thun, in Switzerland (dun, the hill fort); Yverdun, anc. Ebrodunum (the fort on the water, bior); Kempten, in Germany, anc. Campodunum (the fort in the field); Issoudun (the fort on the water, uisge); Emden (the fort on the R. Ems); Dijon, anc. Dibisdunum (the fort on two waters), at the conf. of the Ouche and Suzon; Mehun, Meudon, and Meuny, in France (the fort on the plain), Lat. Magdunum; Verdun, anc. Verodunum (the fort on the water, bior), on the R. Meuse, in France; Verden, in Hanover, on the R. Aller, with the same meaning; Autun, corrupt. from Augustodunum (the fortress of Augustus); Wimbledon, in Surrey, anc. Wibbandun (from an ancient proprietor, Wibba); Sion, in Switzerland, Ger. Sitten, corrupt. from its ancient Celtic name Suidh-dunum (the seat of the hill fort). From Daingeann (a fortress) are derived such names as Dangen and Dingen, in Ireland; also Dingle, in its earlier form Daingean-ui-Chuis (the fort of O’Cush or Hussey); it received its present name in the reign of Elizabeth; Ballendine and Ballendaggan (the town of the fort); Dangan was also the ancient name of Philipstown.

a grassy hill or mound; e.g. the Downs, in the south of England; the Dunes, in Flanders; Halidon Hill (the holy hill); Dunham, Dunwick, and Dutton, originally Dunton (hill town); Croydon (chalk hill); Dunkirk, in Flanders (the church on the dunes); Snowdon (snowy hill), in Wales; its Welsh name is Creigiawr (the eagle’s rock), eryr (an eagle); Dunse, a town in Berwickshire, now Duns, near a hill of the same name; the Eildon Hills, in Roxburghshire, corrupt. from Moeldun (the bald hill); Eddertoun, in Ross-shire (between the hills or dunes).

water; e.g. Dour, Douro, Dore, Duir, THUR, Doro, Adour, Durance, Duron (river names); Glasdur (green water); Calder, anc. Caldover (woody water); Derwent (bright or clear water); Lauder (the gray water); Ledder and Leader (the broad water); Dorking, Co. Surrey, anc. Durchinges, or more correctly, Durvicingas (dwellers by the water—wician, to dwell); Briare, on the Loire, anc. Briva-durum (the town on the brink of the water, probably Dover, from this root); Dorchester (the fortress of the Durotriges—dwellers by the water), trigo, Cym.-Cel. (to dwell), called by Leland Hydropolis; Rother (the red river); Cawdor, anc. Kaledor (woody water).

dry, sterile; e.g. Dürrenstein (the barren rock); Dürrental (the barren valley); Dürrwald (the dry or sterile wood); Droogberg (the barren hill); Drupach (dry brook).

a door or opening, an open court; e.g. Dvoretz (the town at the opening), in Russia; Dwarka (the court or gate), Hindostan; Hurdwar (the court of Hurry or Siva), called also Gangadwara (the opening of the Ganges), in Hindostan; Issoire, anc. Issiodorum (the town at door or meeting of the waters, uisge), a town in France at the conf. of the Allier and Couze; Durrisdeer, Gael. Dorus-darach (at the opening of the oak-wood), in Dumfriesshire; Lindores, in Fife, anc. Lindoruis (at the outlet of the waters), on a lake of the same name which communicates by a small stream with the Tay.

a river valley; e.g. Dyffryn-Clydach, Dyffryn-Gwy, in the valleys of the R. Clwyd and Gwy, in Wales; Dyffryn-golych (the vale of worship), in Glamorgan.

an island; from ea, a, aa, running water; ea or ey enter into the composition of many A.S. names of places which are now joined to the mainland or to rich pastures by the river-side, as in Eton, Eaton, Eyam, Eyworth, Eywick (dwellings by the water); Eyemouth, Moulsy, on the R. Mole; Bermondsey, now included in the Metropolis; Eamont, anc. Eamot (the meeting of waters); Fladda and Fladday (flat island); Winchelsea (either the corner, A.S. wincel, of the water, or the island of Wincheling, son of the Saxon king Cissa, who founded it); Swansea (Sweyn’s town, on the water), at the mouth of the Tawey; Anglesea (the island of the Angles or English), so named by the Danes—its Welsh name was Ynys-Fonn or Mona; Portsea (the island of the haven); Battersea (St. Peter’s isle), because belonging to St. Peter’s Abbey, Westminster; Chelsea (ship island, or the island of the sandbank)—v. p. 46, CEOL, CEOSEL; Ely (eel island); Jersey (Cæsar’s isle); Olney (holly meadow); Odensee (Woden’s island or town on the water); Whalsey (whale island, hval); Rona (St. Ronan’s isle); Mageroe (scraggy island); Nordereys and Sudereys—from this word Sudereys, the Bishop of Sodor and Man takes his title—(the north and south isles), names given by the Norsemen to the Hebrides and the Orkneys under their rule; Oesel (seal island); Oransay (the island of St. Oran); Pabba and Papa (priest’s isle). The Papae or Christian anchorites came from Ireland and the west of Scotland to Orkney and Shetland, and traces of them were found in Iceland on its discovery by the Norsemen, hence probably such names as Pappa and Crimea (the island of the Cymri or Cimmerians); Morea (the mulberry-shaped island); Shapinsay (the isle of Hjalpand, a Norse Viking); Faröe (the sheep islands—faar, Scand.); Faroe, also in Sweden; but Farr, a parish in the north of Scotland, is from faire, Gael. a watch or sentinel, from a chain of watch-towers which existed there in former times; Staffa (the island of the staves or columns, Scand. stav); Athelney (the island of the nobles); Bressay, Norse Bardie’s ay (giant’s island); Bardsey (the bard’s island), the last retreat of the Welsh bards; Femoe (cattle island); Fetlar, anc. Fedor’s-oe (Theodore’s island); Romney (marsh island), Gael. Rumach; Sheppey, A.S. Sceapige (sheep island); Langeoog (long island); Oeland (water land); Torsay (the island with conical hills, torr); Chertsey, A.S. Ceortes-ige (Ceorot’s island); Lingley (heathery island), ling, Norse (heather); Muchelney (large island); Putney, A.S. Puttanige (Putta’s isle); Thorney (thorny island), but its more ancient name was Ankerige, from an anchorite who dwelt in a cell in the island.

e.g. Eddertoun, Co. Ross (between hills)—v. DUNE; Eddra-chillis, i.e. Eadar da Chaolas (between two firths), Co. Sutherland; Killederdaowen, in Galway, i.e. Coill-eder-da-abhainn (the wood between two rivers); and Killadrown, King’s County, with the same meaning; Cloonederowen, Galway (the meadow between two rivers); Ballydarown (the townland between two rivers). In France: Entre-deux-mers (between two seas); Entrevaux (between valleys); Entre-rios (between streams), in Spain; Entre-Douro-e-Minho (between these rivers), in Portugal; Interlacken (between lakes), in Switzerland.

a church. These and synonymous words in the Romance languages are derived from Lat. ecclesia, and that from the Grk. ὲκκλησια (an assembly); e.g. Eccles, a parish and suburb of Manchester, also the name of two parishes in Berwickshire; Eccleshall, in Staffordshire, so called because the bishops of Lichfield formerly had a palace there; Eccleshill (church hill), in Yorkshire; Eccleston (church town), in Lancashire; Ecclesmachan (the church of St. Machan), in Linlithgow; Eaglesham (the hamlet at the church), Co. Renfrew; Ecclescraig or Ecclesgrieg (the church of St. Gregory or Grig), in Kincardine; Eglishcormick (St. Cormac’s church), Dumfries; Ecclescyrus (of St. Cyrus), in Fife; Lesmahago, Co. Lanark, corrupt. from Ecclesia-Machuti (the church of St. Machute, who is said to have settled there in the sixth century); Carluke, in Lanarkshire, corrupt. from Eccles-maol-Luke (the church of the servant of St. Luke); Terregles, anc. Traver-eglys (church lands), Gael. treabhair (houses), in Kirkcudbright. In Wales: Eglwys Fair (St. Mary’s church); Hen-eglwys (old church); Aglish and Eglish (the church), the names of parishes in Ireland; Aglishcloghone (the church of the stepping-stones); Iglesuela (little church), in Spain; Fèhér eghaz (white church), in Hungary. In France: Eglise-aux-bois (the church in the woods); Eglise neuve (new church); Eglisolles, Eliçaberry, and Eliçaberria (the church in the plain). Such names as Aylesford, Aylsworth, Aylesby, etc., may be derived from eglwys or ecclesia, corrupted.

a waterfall; e.g. the R. Ness and Loch Ness (i.e. the river and lake of the Fall of Foyers); Essnambroc (the waterfall of the badger); Essmore (the great waterfall); Doonass (i.e. Irish Dun easa (the fort of the cataract), on the Shannon; Caherass, in Limerick, with the same meaning; Pollanass (the pool of the waterfall); Fetteresso, in Kincardine (the uncultivated land, fiadhair, near the waterfall); Edessa, in Turkey, seems to derive its name from the same root, as its Sclavonic name is Vodena, with the same meaning; Edessa, in Mesopotamia, is on the R. Daisan; Portessie (the port of the waterfall), Banff.

a plain; e.g. Ebenried and Ebenrinth (the cleared plain); Ebnit (on the plain); Breite-Ebnit (broad plain); Holzeben (woody plain).

a nook or corner; e.g. Schönegg (beautiful nook); Eckdorf (corner village); Eggberg (corner hill); Reinecke (the Rhine corner); Randecke (the corner of the point, rand); Vilseek (at the corner of the R. Vils); Wendecken (the corner of the Wends or Sclaves); Edgcott (the corner hut); Wantage, Co. Berks (Wanta’s corner), on the edge of a stream; Stevenage, Co. Herts (Stephen’s corner); Gourock (the goal’s corner); Landeck, in the Tyrol (at the meeting or corner of three roads); Nigg, Gael. N-uig (at the corner), a parish in Co. Kincardine, and also in Ross and Cromarty; Haideck (heath corner), in Bavaria.

the alder-tree; e.g. the R. Eger with the town of the same name.

an island, cognate with the Lat. insula. The Gaelic word is generally applied to smaller islands than innis; e.g. Eilean-sgiathach or Skye (the winged island); Eilean-dunan (the isle of the small fort); Eilean-na-goibhre (of the goats); Eilean-na-monach (of the monks); Eilean-na-Clearach (of the clergy); Eilean-na-naoimbh (of the saints), often applied to Ireland; Eilean-nam-Muchad or Muck (the island of pigs), in the Hebrides; Flannan, in the Hebrides, i.e. Eilean-an-Flannan (of St. Flannan); Groote Eylandt (great island), off the coast of Australia; Rhode Island, in the United States, Dutch (red island), or, according to another interpretation, so named from its fancied resemblance in form to the island of Rhodes.

iron; e.g. Eisenstadt (iron town); Eisenach, in Germany (on a river impregnated with iron); Eisenberg (iron hill fort), in Germany; Eisenburg (iron town), Hung. Vasvar, in Hungary; Eisenirz (iron ore), on the Erzberg Mountains; Eisenschmidt (iron forge), in Prussia.

a river; e.g. Alf, Alb, Elbe, Elben, river names; Laagenelv (the river in the hollow); Dol-elf (valley river); Elbing, a town on a river of the same name.

an assembly of people, such as were held in old times by the Irish at the burial mounds, and in modern times applied to a cattle fair; e.g. Nenagh, in Tipperary, anc. ’n-Ænach-Urmhumhan (the assembly meeting-place of Ormund), the definite article n having been added to the name—this place is still celebrated for its great fairs; Ballinenagh, Ballineanig, Ballynenagh (the town of the fair); Ardanlanig (the height of the fair); Monaster-an-enagh (the monastery at the place of meeting). But this word is not to be confounded with eanach (a watery place or marsh), found under such forms as enagh and annagh, especially in Ulster. Thus Annabella, near Mallow, is in Irish Eanachbile (the marsh of the old tree); Annaghaskin (the marsh of the eels).

the end or corner; Ostend, in Belgium (at the west end of the canal opening into the ocean); Ostend, in Essex (at the east end of the land); Oberende (upper end); Süderende (the south corner); Endfelden (the corner of the field), probably Enfield, near London. Purmerend (at the end of the Purmer), a lake in Holland, now drained.

narrow; e.g. Engberg (narrow hill); Engbrück (narrow bridge); Engkuizen (the narrow houses).

an inheritance or property; e.g. Erbstellen (the place of the inheritance, or the inherited property); Erbhof (the inherited mansion-house); Sechserben (the property or inheritance of the Saxons).

cultivated land; e.g. Rotherde (red land); Schwarzenerde (black land).

the alder-tree; e.g. Erla and Erlabeka (alder-tree stream); Erlangen (the dwelling near alder-trees); Erlau, a town in Hungary, on the Erlau (alder-tree river).

a river; e.g. Kizel-Ermack (red river); Jekil-Ermak (green river).

a common or sowed field; e.g. Summeresche, Winteresche (the field sown in summer and winter); Brachesche (the field broken up for tillage); Kaiseresche (the emperor’s common). For this word as an affix, v. p. 5; as a prefix it signifies the ash-tree, as in the Aschaff or ash-tree river; Aschaffenberg (the fortress on the Aschaff); Eschach (ash-tree stream); Escheweiller (ash-tree town); Eschau (ash-tree meadow).

a long ridge; e.g. Esgair-hir (the long ridge); Esgair-yn-eira (the snow ridge).

old; e.g. Eski-djuma (old ditch).

the poplar-tree; e.g. Aspach (a place abounding in poplars, or the poplar-tree stream); Espenfield (the field of poplars); Aspenstadt (the station of poplars)—v. AESP, p. 5.

a marsh or salt creek; e.g. Estero-Santiago (St. James’s marsh); Los-Esteros (the salt creeks), in South America.

a district, with the same meaning as the Cel. tan, Latinised tania; e.g. Aquitania (the district of the waters); Mauritania (of the Moors); Lusitania (the ancient name of Portugal). This root-word enters into the name of Britain, according to Taylor—v. Words and Places.

the forehead—in topography, the front or brow of a hill; e.g. Edenderry (the hill-brow of the oak-wood); Edenkelly (the front of the wood); Ednashanlaght (the hill-brow of the old sepulchre); Edenmore (the great hill-brow); Edina (one of the ancient names of Edinburgh).

a margin; e.g. Evedon (on the brink of the hill); Evesbatch (the brink of the brook); Evesham (the dwelling on the bank of the River Avon, in Worcester, or the dwelling of Eoves, a shepherd, afterwards made Bishop of Worcester).

a beech-tree; Fagetum, a place planted with beeches; e.g. La Fage, Le Faget, Fayet, Les Faus, Faumont, in France.

a way or passage—from fahren, to go; e.g. Fahrenhorst (the passage at the wood); Fahrenbach, Fahrwasser (the passage over the water); Fahrwangen (the field at the ferry); Rheinfahr (the passage over the Rhine); Langefahr (long ferry); Niederfahr (lower ferry); Vere or Campvere, in Holland (the ferry leading to Kampen); Ferryby (the town of the Ferry), in Yorkshire; Broughty-Ferry, in Fife (the ferry near a brough or castle, the ruins of which still remain); Ferry-Port-on-Craig (the landing-place on the rock, opposite Broughty-Ferry); Queensferry, West Lothian, named from Queen Margaret; Connal-Ferry (the ferry of the raging flood), confhath-tuil, in Argyleshire; Fareham, Co. Hants (the dwelling at the ferry).

a village; e.g. Uj-falu (new village); Olah-falu (the village of the Wallachians or Wallochs, a name which the Germans applied to the Sclaves); Hanus-falva (John’s village); Ebes-falva (Elizabeth’s village), Ger. Elizabeth-stadt; Szombat-falva (the village at which the Saturday market was held); Balars-falva (the village of Blaise); Bud-falva (the village of Buda).

a temple; e.g. Fano, in Italy, anc. Fanum-Fortunæ (the temple of fortune), built here by the Romans to commemorate the defeat of Asdrubal on the Metaurus; Famars, anc. Fanum-Martis (the temple of Mars); Fanjeaux, anc. Fanum-Jovis (of Jove); St. Dié, anc. Fanum-Deodati (the temple of Deodatus, Bishop of Nevers); St. Dezier, anc. Fanum-Desiderii (the temple of St. Desiderius); Florent-le-Vieul, anc. Fanum-Florentii (of St. Florentius); St. Flour, Fanum-Flori (of St. Florus).

a sheep. This word seems to have given names to several places in the north of Scotland, as affording good pasture for sheep; e.g. Farr, a parish in Sutherlandshire); Farra, Faray, islands in the Hebrides and Orkneys; Fare, a hill in Aberdeenshire.

the alder-tree; e.g. Fernagh, Farnagh, and Ferney (a place abounding in alder-trees), in Ireland; Glenfarne (alder-tree valley); Ferns, Co. Wexford, anc. Fearna (the place of alders); Gortnavern (the field of alders); Farney, Co. Monaghan, corrupt. from Fearn-mhagh (alder-tree plain); Altanfearn (the little stream of alders); Sronfearn (the point of alders)—v. p. 178; Fearns (the alder-trees), in Ross-shire; Fearn, also in Forfar; Ferney, on the Lake of Geneva, probably with same meaning as Ferney in Ireland.

white; Szekes-Fehervar, Ger. Stulweissenburg (the throne of the white fortress).

black; e.g. Fekete-halam (black hill).

upper, in opposition to al, lower; e.g. Felsovaros (upper town); Alvaros (lower town).

a plain or field; lit. a place where trees had been felled; e.g. Feldham (field dwelling); Feldberg (field fortress); Bassevelde, in Belgium (low plain); Gurkfeld (cucumber field); Leckfeld, Rhinfeld (the plain of the Rivers Leck and Rhine); Great Driffield, in Yorkshire (dry field); Huddersfield, in Doomsday Oderesfeld, from a personal name; Macclesfield (the field of St. Michael’s church); Sheffield, on the R. Sheaf; Mansfield, on the R. Mann; Lichfield, Co. Stafford (the field of corpses), A.S. Licenfelt, where, according to tradition, a great slaughter of the Christians took place in the reign of Diocletian; Wakefield (the field by the wayside, waeg); Spitalfields, (i.e. the fields near the hospital or place of entertainment), Lat. hospitalium. There is a watering-place near Berwick called Spital, also a suburb of Aberdeen called the Spital; Smithfield, in London, is a corruption of Smethfield (smooth field); Beaconsfield, Berks, so called from having been built on a height on which beacon fires were formerly lighted); Coilsfield, in Ayrshire (the field of Coilus or King Coil). There is a large mound near it said to mark the site of his grave.

a high mountain or mountain range; e.g. Dovrefeld (the gloomy mountains); Donnersfeld (the mountain range of thunder or of Thor); Snafel, Iceland, and Sneefell, in the Isle of Man (snow mountain); Blaefell (blue mountain); Drachenfells (the dragon’s rock); Weissenfels (the white rock); Rothenfels (red rock); Scawfell (the mountain of the scaw or promontory); Hartfell (of harts); Hestfell (of the steed); Lindenfels (of the linden-tree); Lichtenfels (the mountain of light), a Moravian settlement in Greenland; Fitful Head, corrupt. from fitfioll (the hill with the promontory running into the sea), Old Norse fit—in Shetland; Falaise, in France, a promontory, derived from the Ger. fell; Fellentin (the fort, dun, on the rock), in France; Souter-fell, Cumberland; Saudfjeld, Norway; Saudafell, in Iceland (sheep hill), from Old Norse sauder, a sheep; perhaps Soutra Hill, in Mid-Lothian, may come from the same word; Criffel (the craggy rock), Dumfries; Felza, Felsbach (rocky stream), in France; Felsberg (rock fortress), in Germany; Goat-fell, in Arran, Gael. Gaoth-ceann (the windy point), to which the Norsemen added their fell.

a marsh; e.g. the Fenns or marshy lands; Fen-ditton (the enclosed town on the marsh); Fenny-Stratford (the ford on the Roman road, strat, in the marshy land); Fenwick, Fenton, Finsbury (the town or enclosed place on the marsh); Venloo, in Belgium (the place in the marsh); Veenhof, Veenhusen (dwellings in the marsh); Houtveen (woody marsh); Diepenveen (deep marsh); Zutphen, in Holland (the south marsh); Ravenna, in Italy, called Pludosa (the marshy). It was originally built in a lagoon, on stakes, like Venice; Venice, named from the Veneti, probably marsh dwellers; Vannes, in France, and La Vendée, may be from the same word, although others derive the names from venna (a fisherman), others from gwent, Cel. (the fair plain); Finland (the land of marshes). The natives call themselves Suomilius, from suoma (a marsh). Fang in German and Dutch names, and faing in French names, are sometimes used instead of fenn—as in Zeefang (lake marsh); Aalfang (eel marsh); Habechtsfang (hawk’s marsh); Faing-du-buisson, Dom-faing, etc., in the valleys of the Vosges.

the fern; e.g. Ferndorf, Farndon, Farnham, Farnborough (dwellings among ferns); Farnhurst (fern thicket); Ferndale (fern valley); Farringdon (fern hill); Fernruit (a place cleared of ferns).

a grave or trench; e.g. Farta, Ferta, and Fartha (i.e. the graves); Fertagh and Fartagh (the place of graves); Moyarta, in Clare, Irish Magh-fherta (the field of the graves); Fortingall, in Perthshire, is supposed to have derived its name from this word, Feart-na-gall (the grave of the strangers), having been the scene of many bloody battles.

contracted from the French La fermeté, from the Lat. firmitas (strength), applied in topography to a stronghold; e.g. La Ferté Bernardi (Bernard’s stronghold); Ferté-freshal, from Firmitas Fraxinelli (the stronghold of little ash-trees); La Ferté, in Nièvre and in Jura, etc.

a fortress; e.g. Altefeste (high fortress); Franzenfeste (the fortress of the Franks); Festenburg (the town of the fortress); Ivanich-festung (John’s fortress), in Croatia.

moist, marshy; e.g. Feuchtwang (the marshy field), in Bavaria, formerly called Hudropolis, in Greek, with the same meaning; Feucht (the damp place), also in Bavaria; Viecht-gross and Viecht-klein (the great and little damp place), in Bavaria.

beans, Lat. faba, from which come such places in France as La Favière, Favières, Faverage, Favray, Faverelles, etc.

the pine-tree; e.g. Schoenfichten (the beautiful pine-trees); Finsterfechten (the dark pine-trees); Fichthorst (pine-wood); Feichheim (a dwelling among pines). In topography, however, it is difficult to distinguish this word from feucht (damp).

fair, white, Welsh gwynn; e.g. Findrum (white ridge); Fionn-uisge (the clear water). The Phœnix Park, in Dublin, was so called from a beautiful spring well on the grounds; Findlater (the fair slope, leiter); Fingart (fair field); Finnow, Finnan, and Finglass (fair stream); Finglen (fair glen); Knockfin (fair hill); Loch Fyne (clear or beautiful lake); Fintray, in Aberdeenshire; Fintry, in Stirling (fair strand, traigh); Ventry, Co. Kerry, i.e. Fionn-traigh (fair strand); Finnow (the fair stream).

a creek or inlet formed by an arm of the sea, Anglicised ford, or in Scotland firth; e.g. Selfiord (herring creek); Laxfiord (salmon creek); Hvalfiord (whale creek); Lymefiord (muddy creek); Skagafiord (the inlet of the promontory, skagi); Halsfiord (the bay of the neck or hals, i.e. the narrow passage); Waterford, named by the Danes Vadre-fiord (the fordable part of the bay)—the Irish name of the town was Port-lairge (the port of the thigh), from its form; Wexford (the western creek or inlet), also named by the Danes Flekkefiord (the flat inlet)—its Irish name was Inverslanie (at the mouth of the Slaney); Strangford Lough (i.e. the loch of the strong fiord); Carlingford, in Irish Caerlinn, the fiord having been added by the Danes; Vaeringefiord, in Norway (the inlet of the Varangians or Warings); Breidafiord (broad inlet), in Ireland; Haverford, probably from Scand. havre (oats).

a spot or level place, hence a hamlet; e.g. Flegg, East and West, in Norfolk; Fleckney (the flat island); Fletton (flat town); Pfaffenfleck (the priest’s hamlet); Amtsfleck (the amptman’s hamlet); Schœnfleck (beautiful hamlet); Marktflecten (the market village); Fladda, Flatholme, Fleckeroe (flat island); Fladstrand (flat strand).

a flush of water, a channel or arm of the sea on which vessels may float; e.g. Fleet (a river name), in Kirkcudbright; Fleet Loch; Swinefleet (Sweyn’s channel); Saltfleetby (the dwelling on the salt water channel); Shalfleet (shallow channel); Depenfleth (deep channel); Adlingfleet (the channel of the Atheling or noble); Ebbfleet, a place which was a port in the twelfth century, but is now half a mile from the shore; Purfleet, Co. Essex, anc. Pourteflete (the channel of the port); Fleetwood (the wood on the channel of the R. Wyre); Mühlfloss (mill channel); Flushing, in Holland, corrupt. from Vliessengen (the town on the channel of the R. Scheldt). In Normandy this kind of channel takes the form of fleur, e.g. Barfleur (the summit or projection on the channel); Harfleur or Havrefleur (the harbour on the channel); Biervliet (the fruitful plain on the channel). Flad as a prefix sometimes signifies a place liable to be flooded, as Fladbury, Fledborough. The Lat. flumen (a flowing stream) is akin to these words, along with its derivations in the Romance languages: thus Fiume (on the river), a seaport in Croatia, at the mouth of the R. Fiumara; Fiumicina, a small seaport at the north mouth of the Tiber; Fiume-freddo (the cold stream), in Italy and Sicily; Flims, in Switzerland, Lat. Ad-flumina (at the streams); Fiume-della Fine, near Leghorn, is a corrupt. of its ancient name, Ad-Fines (the river at the boundary).

land; e.g. Földvar (land fortress); Alfold (low land); Felföld (high land); Szekel-föld (the land of the Szeklers); Havasel-föld (the land beyond the mountains), which is the Hungarian name for Wallachia.

a fountain, a well; e.g. Fontainebleau, corrupt. from Fontaine-de-belle-eau (the spring of beautiful water); Fontenoy (the place of the fountain); Fontenay (the place of the fountain); Les Fontaines, Fontanas (the fountains); Fontenelles (the little fountains); Fontevrault, Lat. Fons-Ebraldi (the well of St. Evrault); Fuente (the fountain), the name of several towns in Spain; Fuencaliente (the warm fountain); Fuensagrada (holy well); Fuente-el-fresna (of the ash-tree); Fuente-alamo (of the poplar); Fontarabia, Span. Fuentarrabia, corrupt. from the Lat. Fons-rapidans (the swift-flowing spring); Fuenfrido (cold fountain); Fossano, in Italy, Lat. Fons-sanus (the healing fountain); Hontanas, Hontanares, Hontananza, Hontangas (the place of springs), in Spain; Hontomin (the fountain of the R. Omino), in Spain; Pinos-fuente (pine-tree fountain), in Granada; Saint-fontaine, in Belgium, corrupt. from Terra-de-centum fontanis (the land of the hundred springs); Spa, in Belgium, corrupt. from Espa (the fountain)—its Latin name was Fons-Tungrorum (the well of the Tungri); Fonthill (the hill of the spring). The town of Spalding, Co. Lincoln, is said to have derived its name from a spa of mineral water in the market-place. The Celtic uaran or fuaran takes the form of oran in Ireland: thus Oranmore (the great fountain near a holy well); Knock-an-oran (the hill of the well); Ballynoran (the town of the well); Tinoran, corrupt. from Tigh-an-uarain (the dwelling at the well); Foveran, in Aberdeenshire, took its name from a spring, fuaran, at Foveran Castle; Ffynon-Bed (St. Peter’s well), in Wales.

a shallow passage over a river; e.g. Bradford (the broad ford), in Yorkshire, on the R. Aire; Bedford, Bedican ford (the protected ford), on the Ouse; Brentford, on the R. Brenta; Chelmsford, on the Chelmer; Camelford, on the Camel; Charford (the ford of Ceredic); Aylesford (of Ægle); Hacford and Hackfurth (of Haco); Guildford (of the guilds or trading associations); Hungerford, corrupt. from Ingle ford (corner ford); Oxford, Welsh Rhyd-ychen (ford for oxen); Ochsenfurt, in Bavaria, and probably the Bosphorus, with the same meaning; Hertford (the hart’s ford); Hereford (the ford of the army), or more probably a mistranslation of its Celtic name, Caer-ffawydd (the town of the beech-trees); Horsford, Illford, and Knutsford (the fords of Horsa, Ella, and Canute). Canute had crossed this ford before gaining a great battle; Watford (the ford on Watling Street); Milford, the translation of Rhyd-y-milwr (the ford of the Milwr), a small brook that flows into the haven; Haverford West—v. HAVN—the Welsh name is Hwlfford (the sailing way, fford), so called because the tide comes up to the town; Tiverton, anc. Twyford (the town on the two fords); Stamford, A.S. Stanford (stony ford), on the Welland; Stoney Stratford (the stony ford on the Roman road); Stafford, anc. Statford (the ford at the station, or a ford crossed by staffs or stilts); Crayford, on the R. Cray; but Crawford, in Lanarkshire, is corrupt. from Caerford (castle ford); Wallingford, anc. Gual-hen, Latinised Gallena (the old fort at the ford); Thetford, anc. Theodford (the people’s ford), on the R. Thet; Dartford, on the R. Darent; Bideford, in Devonshire (by the ford); Furth and Pforten (the fords), in Prussia; Erfurt, in Saxony, anc. Erpisford (the ford of Erpe); Hohenfurth (the high ford), Bohemia; Frankfort, on the Maine and on the Oder (the ford of the Franks); Quernfurt and Velvorde (the fords of the Rivers Quern and Wolowe); Steenvoord (stony ford); Verden, in Hanover (at the ford of the R. Aller).

a waterfall; e.g. High-force, Low-force, on the R. Tees; Skogar-foss (the waterfall on the promontory), in Ireland; Wilberforce, in Yorkshire (the cascade of Wilbera); Sodorfors (the south cascade), in Sweden; Foston (the town of the waterfall).

a wood; e.g. Forst-lohn (the path through the wood); Forst-bach (forest brook); Eichenforst (oak forest); Forstheim (forest dwelling).

a stronghold; from the Lat. fortis, strong—akin to the Irish Longphorth (a fortress), and the French La Ferté, abridged from fermeté—v. p. 79; e.g. Rochefort (the rock fortress); Fort Augustus, named after the Duke of Cumberland; Fort-George (after George II.); Fort-William, anc. Inverlochy (at the mouth of the lake), and surnamed after William III.; Fortrose (the fortress on the promontory); Fort-Louis, in Upper Rhine, founded and named by Louis XIV.; Charles-Fort, in Canada, named after Charles I. In Ireland the town of Longford is called in the annals Longphorth O’Farrell (the fortress of the O’Farrells). This Irish word is sometimes corrupted, as in Lonart for Longphorth, and in Athlunkard for Athlongford (the ford of the fortress).

a market-place or place of assembly; e.g. Forli, anc. Forum-Livii (the forum of Livius), in Italy; Feurs, in France, anc. Forum-Segusianorum (the forum of the Segusiani); Forlimpopoli (the forum of the people); Ferrara, anc. Forum-Alieni (the market-place of the foreigner); Fornova (new forum); Fossombrone, anc. Forum-Sempronii (of Sempronius); Fréjus and Friuli, anc. Forum-Julii (of Julius); Frontignan, anc. Forum-Domitii (of Domitius), also called Frontiniacum (on the edge of the water); Voorburg, in Holland, anc. Forum-Hadriani (the market-place of Hadrian); Klagenfurt, anc. Claudii-Forum (the forum of Claudius); Fordongianus, in Sardinia, anc. Forum-Trajani (the forum of Trajan); Forcassi, anc. Forum-Cassii (of Cassius); Fiora, anc. Forum-Aurelii (of Aurelius); Appii-Forum (of Appius); Marazion, in Cornwall, or Marketjeu, Latinised by the Romans into Forum-Jovis (the forum of Jove or of God), resorted to in former times from its vicinity to the sacred shrine of St. Michael.

a ditch or trench dug around a fortified place, from the Lat. fodio, to dig; e.g. Fosseway (the road near the trench); Foston (the town with the trench or moat); Fosse, in Belgium; Fos, at the mouths of the Rhone, anc. Fossæ Marianæ Portus (the port of the trench or canal of Marius).

free, but in topography meaning belonging to the Franks; e.g. Franconia (the district of the Franks); France, abridged from Frankreich (the kingdom of the Franks or freemen); Frankenthal (the valley of the Franks); Frankenberg and Frankenfels (the hill and rock of the Franks); Frankenburg and Frankenhausen (the dwellings of the Franks); Frankenstein (the rock of the Franks); Frankenmarkt (the market of the Franks); Ville-franche and Ville-franche sur Saone (free town), in France; Villa-franca (free town), several in Italy; Villa-franca (free town), in Spain.

a privileged place, as also freiheit (freedom); e.g. Freyburg and Fribourg (the privileged city); Schloss-freiheit and Berg-freiheit (the privileged castle); Oude-Vrijheid (the old privileged place), in Holland; Freystadt, in Hungary, Grk. Eleutheropolis (free city).

the ash-tree; e.g. Les Frênes, Les Fresnes (the ash-trees); Frenois, Frenoit, Frenai, Frenay, Fresney (the place abounding in ash-trees), in France; Frassinetto-di-Po (the ash-tree grove on the R. Po).

joy; e.g. Freudenthal (the valley of joy); Freudenstadt (the town of joy).

a hedge, from the Old Ger. word vride—akin to the Gael. fridh, and the Welsh fridd (a wood); e.g. Burgfried (the hedge of the fortress); Friedberg, anc. Vriduperg (a fortress surrounded by a hedge); but Friedland, in East Prussia, Grk. Irenopyrgos (the tower of peace), is from friede, Ger. peace. The prefix fried is also sometimes a contraction for Frederick—thus Friedburg may mean Frederick’s town.

the navigable estuary of a river, akin to fiord and the Lat. fretum, a channel; e.g. the Firths of Forth, Tay, and Clyde; the Solway Firth. This word Solway has had various derivations assigned to it: one derivation is from the Selgovæ, a tribe; Ferguson suggests the Old Norse word sulla, Eng. sully, from its turbid waters, particularly as it was called in Leland’s Itinera Sulway. I would suggest the A.S. sol (mire), as this channel is a miry slough at low tide, and can be crossed on foot; Pentland Firth, corrupt. from Petland Fiord (the bay between the land of the Picts and the Orkneys).

lord and lady; e.g. Froustalla (the lord or nobleman’s stall); Frousthorp (the nobleman’s farm); Fraubrunnen (our lady’s well); Frauenberg, Frauenburg, Fraustadt (our lady’s town); Frauenkirchen (our lady’s church); Frauenfeld (our lady’s field).

dirty; e.g. Fulbeck, Fulbrook (dirty stream); Fulneck or Fullanig (dirty water); Fulham or Fullenham (either the dwelling on the miry place or, according to another derivation, from fügel, a bird).

a bath or watering-place; e.g. Tisza-Füred (the watering-place on the R. Theis or Tisza); Balaton-Füred, on Lake Balaton.

a prince or the first in rank; e.g. Furstenau, Furstenberg, Furstenfeld, Furstenwald, Furstenwerder, Furstenzell (the meadow, hill, field, wood, island, church, of the prince); but Furstberg means the chief or highest hill.

a fork, applied to river forks; e.g. Gabelbach (the forked stream); Gabelhof (the court or dwelling at the forked stream), in Germany. In Ireland: Goul, Gowel, and Gowl (the fork); Gola (forks); Addergoul, Addergoule, and Edargoule, Irish Eadar-dha-ghabhal (the place between two river-prongs); Goule, in Yorkshire (on the fork of two streams).

a cottage; e.g. Holzgaden (wood cottage); Steingaden (rock cottage).

an enclosure, a city, or fortified place, from kir, a wall; e.g. Gades or Cadiz, anc. Gadr, in Spain; Carthage, anc. Kartha-hadtha (the new city, in opposition to Utica, the old); Carthagena (New Carthage); Kirjath-Arba (the city of Arba, afterwards Hebron); Kirjath-sepher (of the book); Kirjath-jearim (of forests); Kirjath-Baal (Baal’s town); Kirjath-Sannah (of palms); Keriathaim (the double town); Kir-Moab (the citadel of Moab); Cordova, in Spain, Phœn. Kartha-Baal (which may mean the city of Baal).

a village; e.g. Alut-gama (new village), in Ceylon.

a narrow passage, either on land or by water; e.g. Birkengang (the birch-tree pass); Strassgang (a narrow street); Gangbach (the passage across the brook); Ganghofen (the dwelling at the ferry), on the R. Roth, in Bavaria.

a river; e.g. Borra Ganga or the Ganges (the great river); Kishenganga (the black river); Neelganga (the blue river); Naraingunga (the river of Naranyana or Vishnu); Ramgunga (Ram’s river).

rough; e.g. Rivers Gara, Garry, Garwe, Garwy, Owengarve, Garonne, Garvault, Yair, Yarrow (rough stream); Garracloon (rough meadow); Garroch head or Ard-Kingarth (the point of the rough headland), in Bute; Garioch (the rough district), in Aberdeenshire.

a word of Germanic or Celtic origin, from the Low Lat. warenna, and that from the High Ger. waran (to take precautions), had at first the sense of a protected or guarded place, and more lately of a wood to which was attached the exclusive right of the chase; e.g. La Garenne, Garenne, Varenne, Varennes, Warennes, in various departments of France.

a river; e.g. Ky-garief (yellow river); Nu-garief (black river).

a garden; e.g. Garryowen (Owen’s garden); Gairyard (high garden); Ballingarry (the town of the garden); Garrane and Garrawn (the shrubbery); Garranbane (white shrubbery).

a hill; e.g. Tal-garth (the brow of the hill), in Brecknockshire; Brecknock, named after Brychan, its king, who came from Ireland in the sixth century. Its ancient name was Garth-Madryn (the fox’s hill).

an enclosed place, either for plants or cattle, then a farm. It is sometimes found in the form of gort in Ireland and Scotland; e.g. Garton (the enclosure or enclosed town); Applegarth (the apple enclosure or farm); Hogarth (an enclosure for hay); Weingarten (an enclosure for vines, or a vineyard); Stuttgart and Hestingaard (an enclosure for horses); Nornigard (the sibyl’s dwelling, norn, a prophetess); Fishgarth or Fishguard (the fisher’s farm), in Wales; Noostigard (the farm at the naust or ship station); in Shetland; Smiorgard (butter farm); Prestgard (the priest’s farm); Yardley (the enclosed meadow); Yardborough (the enclosed town); Gartan (little field); Gordon, a parish in Berwickshire, corrupt. from Goirtean (little farm); Gartbane and Gortban (fair field); Gartfarran (the farm at the fountain, fuaran); Gartbreck (spotted field); Gortnagclock (the field of the stones); Gortreagh (gray field); Gortenure (the field of the yew-tree); Oulart, in Ireland, corrupt. from Abhalghort (apple-field or orchard); Bugard (an enclosure for cattle), in Shetland; Olligard (the farm or dwelling of Olaf), in Shetland; Girthon, corrupt. from Girthavon (the enclosure on the river), in Kirkcudbright). On the other hand, Garda or Warda in French names signified originally a fortified or protected place, from an old Teutonic word warta; hence Gardere, Gardière, La Garderie, La Garde, La Warde, etc.

an opening or passage; e.g. the Cattegat (the cat’s throat or passage); Margate (the sea-gate or passage), anc. Meregate, there having been formerly a mere or lake here which had its influx into the sea; Ramsgate (the passage of Ruim, the ancient name of Thanet); Reigate, contraction from Ridgegate (the passage through the ridge); Yetholm (the valley at the passage or border between England and Scotland, yet, Scot. a gate); Harrowgate, probably the passage of the army, A.S. here, as it is situated near one of the great Roman roads; Crossgates, a village in Fife (at the road crossings); Ludgate did not derive its name from a certain King Lud, according to popular tradition, but is an instance of tautology, there having been an ancient A.S. word hlid (a door), hence Geathlid (a postern gate)—v. BOSWORTH. In India the word ghat is applied to a pass between hills or mountains, as in the Ghauts (the two converging mountain ranges); Sheergotta (the lion’s pass), between Calcutta and Benares; and Geragaut (the horse’s pass), or to a passage across a river, as well as to the flights of steps leading from a river to the buildings on its banks. Thus Calcutta is Kalikuti (the ghauts or passes leading to the temple of the goddess Kali), on the R. Hoogly; also Calicut, on the Malabar coast.

a district; e.g. Sundgau, Westgau, Nordgau (south, west, and north district); Aargau, Rheingau, Thurgau (the districts watered by the Rivers Aar, Rhine, and Thur); Schöengau (beautiful district); Wonnegau (the district of delight); Hainault, Ger. Hennegau (the district of the R. Haine, and ault, the stream); Pinzgau (the district of rushes, binse), in Tyrol; Oehringen or Oringowe (the district of the R. Ohr).

a mountain; e.g. Gebel-Kattarin, in Sinai (St. Catharine’s mountain), where, according to tradition, the body of St. Catharine was transported from Alexandria; Djebel-Mousa (the mountain of Moses), in Horeb; Djebel-Nimrod (of Nimrod), in Armenia; Jebel-Khal (black mount), in Africa; Gibraltar, Ar. Gebel-al-Tarik (the mountain of Tarik, a Moor, who erected a fort on the rock of Calpe, A.D. 711); Jebel-Libnan or Lebanon (the white mountain), supposed to be so called because covered with snow during a great part of the year; Gebel-Oomar (the mountain of Omar); Gibel-el-Faro (the mountain with the lighthouse), near Malaga; Djebel-es-Sheikh (the mount of the sheik or shah, i.e. of the king), the Arabian name for Mount Hermon—v. INDEX.

barren land; e.g. Gaste, Geist, Geeste (the barren land); Geestefeld (barren field); Holzengeist (the barren land in the wood); Nordergast, Middelgast (the northern and middle barren land).

a goat; e.g. Geisa and Geisbach (the goat’s stream); Geismar (rich in goats); Geiselhoring, Geisenhausen, Geisenheim (the goat’s dwelling); Geisberg (goat’s hill).

a common; e.g. Gmeind (the common); Petersgemeinde (Peter’s common); Gemeindmühle (the mill on the common).

a river-mouth or a confluence; e.g. Neckargemund (at the mouth of the R. Neckar); Saaregemund (at the conf. of the R. Saare and the Belise); Gmünd, in Wurtemberg (at the conf. of the two streams); Gemund and Gemunden, in various parts of Germany. In Holland this word takes the form of monde, as in Roermonde and Dendermonde (at the mouths of the Roer and Dender); Emden, in Hanover, is a corrupt. of Emsmünder (at the conf. of the Ems and a small stream).

an abbreviated form of magen or megen, the Teutonic form for the Cel. magh (a field)—qu. v.; e.g. Remagen or Rhemmaghen (the field on the Rhine); Nimeguen, for Novio-magus (the new field); Schleusingen (the field or plain of the R. Schleuse); Munchingen (the field of the monks); Beverungen, on the R. Bever; Meiningen (the great field or plain), in the valley of the R. Wara.

a mouth or opening; e.g. Llanfihangel-genaur’-glyn (the church of the angel at the mouth of the glen), in Wales; Genappe and Gennep (the mouth of the water, abh); Geneva (either the opening or mouth of the water, or the head, ceann, of the water, where the Rhone proceeds from the lake); Genoa, probably with the same meaning; Ghent or Gend, at the conf. of the Scheldt and Lys, may also mean at the mouth of the rivers, although, according to tradition, it acquired its name from a tribe of Vandals, the Gandani, and was called in the ninth century Gandavum-vicum, from the name of its inhabitants.

in French topography, beautiful; e.g. Gentilly, anc. Gentiliacum (the place of beautiful waters), on the Bièvre—v. OEUIL; Nogent (beautiful meadow).

a court of justice; e.g. Gerichtsbergen (the hill of the court of justice); Gerichtstetten (the station of the court of justice).

a cave; e.g. Garbo (the cave), in Malta; Trafalgar, i.e. Taraf-al-gar (the promontory of the cave).

a fort; e.g. Ahmednaghar (the fort of Ahmed); Ramghur (of Ram); Kishenagur (of Krishna); Furracknagur (of Furrack); Moradnagur (of Morad); Jehanagur (of Jehan); Allighur (of Allah or of God); Bisnaghur (triumphant fort); Futtegur (fort of victory); Deoghur (God’s fort); Neelgur (blue fort); Seringagur (the fort of abundance); Chandernagore (the fort of the moon); Haidernagur (of Hyder Ali); Bissengur (the fort of Vishnu); Chunarghur (the fort of the district of Chunar).

a mountain; e.g. Ghaur, a mountainous district in Affghanistan; Boughir (the woody mountain); Kistnagherry (Krishna’s mountain); Rutnagiri (the mountain of rubies); Chandgherry (of the moon); Shevagherry (of Siva); Neilgherries (the blue mountains); Dhawalageri (the white mountain), being the highest peak of the Himalayas.

a ravine; e.g. Buttergill, Horisgill, Ormsgill, Thorsgill, etc. (ravines in the Lake District named after Norse leaders); Hrafngia (the ravens’ ravine, or of Hrafan, a Norse leader); Almanna-gja (Allman’s ravine), in Iceland. The Hebrew gäe (a ravine) answers in meaning to this word, as in Ge-Hinnom (the ravine of the children of Hinnom), corrupt. to Gehenna. This word, in the form of goe, is applied to a small bay, i.e. a ravine which admits the sea, as in Redgoe, Ravengoe, in the north of Scotland.

a small stream; e.g. Glasaboy (the yellow stream); Tullyglush (hill stream); Glasheena (abounding in small streams); Douglas, i.e. Dubhglaise (the black stream), frequent in Ireland and Scotland; Douglas, in the Isle of Man, is on the R. Douglas; also the name of a parish and village in Lanarkshire, from which the Douglas family derive their name. Glasheenaulin (the beautiful little stream), in Co. Cork; Ardglashin (the height of the rivulet), in Cavan.

a shore, a brink, a side; e.g. Glan-yr-afon, Welsh (the river side).

gray, blue, or green; e.g. Glasalt (gray stream); Glascloon (green meadow); Glasdrummond (green ridge); Glaslough (green lake); Glasmullagh (green summit), in Ireland; Glass, a parish in Scotland. In Wales: Glascoed (greenwood); Glascombe (green hollow). Glasgow is said by James, the author of Welsh Names of Places, to be a corrupt. of Glas-coed.

a small valley, often named from the river which flows through it; e.g. Glen-fender, Glen-finnan, Glen-tilt, Glen-shee, Glen-esk, Glen-bervie, Glen-bucket, Glen-livet, Glen-lyon, Glen-almond, Glen-dochart, Glen-luce, Glen-isla, Glen-ary, Glen-coe, Glen-devon (valleys in Scotland watered by the Rivers Fender, Finnan, Tilt, Shee, Esk, Bervie, Bucket, Livet, Lyon, Almond, Dochart, Luce, Isla, Aray, Cona, Devon). In Ireland: Glennagross (the valley of the crosses); Glenmullion (of the mill); Glendine and Glandine and Glendowan, Irish Gleann-doimhin (the deep valley)—sometimes it takes the form of glan or glyn, as in Glin on the Shannon, and Glynn in Antrim; Glennan, Glenann, Glentane, Glenlaun, etc. (little valley). When this word occurs at the end of names in Ireland the g is sometimes suppressed; e.g. Leiglin, in Carlow, anc. Leith-ghlionn (half glen); Crumlin, Cromlin, and Crimlin (the winding glen); Glencross or Glencorse, in the Pentlands, named from a remarkable cross which once stood there; Glenelg (the valley of hunting or of the roe); Glengarnock (of the rough hillock); Glencroe (of the sheepfold); Glenmore or Glenmore-nan-Albin (the great glen of Scotland which divides the Highlands into two nearly equal parts); Glenmoreston (the valley of the great cascade, i.e. of Foyers); Glenbeg (little valley); Glenburnie (of the little stream); Glenmuick (the boars’ valley); Glenure (of the yew); Glenfinlas (of the clear stream); Glengariff (rough glen); Glendalough, Co. Wicklow, is in Irish Gleann-da-locha (the glen of the two lakes); Glennamaddy (of the dogs, madadh); Glinties (the glens), Co. Donegal; Forglen, a parish in Banffshire (the cold or the grassy glen). In Wales, Glyn-Nedd (of the R. Nedd.)

shining; e.g. Glisbach (shining brook); Gleisberg (shining hill); Gleesdorf, Gleesweiler (shining dwelling).

clay; e.g. Glinzig, Glindow, Glintock, Glianicke, Glinow (names of places near clay pits); Glina (the clayey stream).

the white thorn; e.g. Glogau, Gross, and Upper Glogau, in Silesia (places abounding in white thorn); Glognitz, with the same meaning.

grace; e.g. Gnadenhütten (the tabernacles of grace), a Moravian settlement on the Ohio; Gnadenthal (the valley of grace), in Africa; Gnadenburg and Gnadenfeld (the city and field of grace).

a blacksmith—in topography Gow or Gowan; e.g. Ardgowan (the blacksmith’s height); Balgowan, Balnagowan, Balgownie, Balgonie, in Scotland, and Ballygow, Ballygowan, Ballingown, Ballynagown, in Ireland (the dwelling of the blacksmith); Athgoe (the blacksmith’s ford). In early times the blacksmith was regarded as an important personage, being the manufacturer of weapons of war, and the ancient Irish, like other nations, had their smith god, Goban, hence the frequent use of the word in their topography.

a wood; e.g. Golschow, Goltzen, Golkojye or Kolkwitz, and Gahlen (the woody place); Galinchen (the little Gahlen, i.e. a colony from that town); Kallinichen, i.e. the colony from Gallun (the woody place); Gollnow, in Pomerania, from this root; but Gollnitz, near Finsterwalde, is corrupt. from Jelenze (stag town), from jelen.

the dove; e.g. Gulbin, Golbitten, Golembin, Golembecks, Golembki (dove town); Gollombken, in Prussia, Ger. Taubendorf (dove town).

a mountain or hill; e.g. Goritz, Ger. Goïs (the town on the hill), in Hungary, in a province of the same name; Gorlitz (behind the hill), called also Sgoretz; Gorigk, Ger. Bergheide (hilly heath); Gorgast (hill inn), gosta corrupt. into gast; Podgorze, Podgorach, Podgoriza, Poschgorize (near the hill). This word sometimes takes the form of hora, as in Zahora, in Turkey (behind the hill); Czernahora (the black hill).

a field, cognate with the Lat. hortus and Span. huerta, and the Teut. garth—v. p. 87; e.g. Huerta-del-rey (the king’s orchard), in Spain.

the red beech; e.g. Grabkow, Grabitz, Grabig, Grabow (the place of red beeches); Grabin, Ger. Finsterwalde (the place of red beeches or the dark wood).

a grave or trench, from graben, grafan (to dig); e.g. Mühlgraben (the mill trench or dam); Vloedgraben (the trench for the flood); Schutzgraben (the moat of the defence); Grafton and Graffham (the moated town); Gravesend (the town at the end of the moat); Bischofsgraef (the bishop’s trench). In Ireland the prefix graf is applied to lands that have been grubbed up with a kind of axe called a grafan—hence such names as Graffan, Graffin, Graffee, Graffy.

a count or earl; e.g. Graffenau, Graffenberg, Grafenschlag, Grafenstein (the meadow, hill, wood-clearing, and rock of the count); Grafenworth and Grafenhain (the count’s enclosure or farm); Grafenthal (the count’s valley); Grafenbrück (the count’s bridge); Grafenmühle (the count’s mill); Gravelines, in Flanders, anc. Graveninghem (the count’s domain). In Sclavonic names, Grabik, Grabink, Grobitz, Hrabowa, Hrabaschin (the count’s town); Grobinow (count’s town), Germanised into Kroppstadt.

a farm or storehouse for grain, from the Lat. granaria, cognate with the Gadhelic grainnseach, Low Lat. grangia; e.g. Grange, a parish and village in Banffshire; Les Granges (the granaries); La Neuve Grange (the new farm), in France; La Granja, in Spain; Grangegeeth (the windy farm), in Ireland. From the same root such names in Ireland as Granagh, Granaghan (places producing grain).

the boundary or corner; e.g. Grenzhausen (the dwellings on the boundary); Banai-Militar Granze (the border territory under the government of a military officer called The Ban); Gransee (the corner lake); Graniz, Granowo (boundary towns), in Hungary; Gran, a town in Hungary, in a province of the same name through which the R. Gran flows.

the sun; e.g. Greenock, either from grianach (sunny) or the knoll, cnoc (of the sun); Greenan, Greenane, Greenawn, and Grennan (literally, a sunny spot), translated by the Irish Latin-writers solarium; but as it occurs in topographical names in Ireland, it is used as another name for a royal palace; Grenanstown, in Co. Tipperary, is a sort of translation of its ancient name Baile-an-ghrianain (the town of the palace); Greenan-Ely (the palace of the circular stone fortress, aileach); Tullagreen (the hill of the sun); Monagreany (sunny bog).

sand or gravel; e.g. Griesbach (sandy brook); Griesau, Griesthal (sandy valley); Grieshaim (sandy dwelling); Grieswang (sandy field); Griesberg (sand hill); Grieskirchen (the church on the sandy land). Gressius and Gresum in bas Lat. have the same meaning, and have given names to such places in France as Les Grès, Grèses, Les Gresillons, La Gressée, La Grezille, etc.

a fortified town; e.g. Belgrade and Belgorod (white fortress); Ekateringrad and Elizabethgrad (the fortified town of the Empress Catharine and Elizabeth); Zaregorod (the fortress of the Czar or Emperor); Novgorod (new fortress); Paulograd and Ivanograd (the fortress of Paul or Ivan, i.e. John); Gratz, Gradiska, Gradizsk, Gradentz, Grodek, Grodno, Grodzizk (the fortified towns), in Poland and Russia; Hradeck and Hradisch, with the same meaning, in Bohemia.

land reclaimed from the sea; e.g. Moorgroden, Ostergroden, Salzgroden, places in Holland.

green; e.g. Groenloo, Gronau (the green meadow); Grunavoe (green bay); Grunataing (green promontory); Grunaster (green dwelling), in Shetland; Greenland, translated from Terra-verde, the name given to the country by Cortoreal in 1500, but it had been discovered by an Icelander (Lief, son of Eric the red), in the ninth century, and named by him Hvitsaerk (white shirt), probably because covered with snow; Greenwich, A.S. Grenavie, Lat. viridus-vicus (green town).

a valley; e.g. Amsel-grund, Itygrund (the valleys of the Rivers Amsel and Ity); Riesengrund (the giant’s valley); Laucha-grund (the valley of the R. Laucha), in Thuringia.

the name given to the rivers in Spain by the Moors, from the Arabic wädy (the dried-up bed of a river); e.g. Guadalaviar, i.e. Ar. Wadi-l-abyadh (the white river); Guadalete (the small river); Guadalimar (red river); Guadarama (sandy river); Guadalertin (the muddy river); Guadaloupe (the river of the bay, upl); Guadiana (the river of joy), called by the Greeks Chrysus (the golden); Guadalquivir, i.e. Wad-al-kebir (the great river); Guaalcazar (of the palace); Guadalhorra (of the cave, ghar); Guadalbanar (of the battlefield); Guadaira (of the mills).

a ford, perhaps from the Celtic gwy, water; e.g. Gué-du-Loire (the ford of the Loire); Gué-de-l’Isle (of the island); Le Gué-aux-biches (of the hinds); Boné, formerly Bonum-vadum, Lat. (the good ford), in France; Bungay, in Suffolk, on the R. Waveney, corrupt. from Bon-gué (good ford).

to gush, found in river names; e.g. Buachgieso (the bending stream); Goldgieso (golden stream); Wisgoz (the white stream).

a market-town; e.g. Saibgunge (the market-town of the Englishmen); Futtegunge (the town of victory); Sultangunge (of the Sultan); Shevagunge (of Siva); Jaffiergunge (of Jaffier).

a property; e.g. Schlossgut (the property of the castle); Wüstegut (the property in the waste land); but this word, used as a prefix, denotes good, as in Guttenberg, Guttenbrun, Guttenstein (the good hill, well, and fortress).

fair, white, cognate with the Gadhelic fionn; e.g. Gwenap (the fair slope); Gwendur and Derwent (the fair water); Berwyn (the fair boundary); Corwen (the fair choir); Ventnor (the fair shore); Guinty or Guindy (the fair or white dwelling), common in Wales. Gwent, Latinised Venta, meant a fair open plain, and was applied to the counties of Monmouth, Gloucester, and Hereford, and Hampshire, as well as to the coast of Brittany: thus Winchester was formerly Caer-gwent (the fortress of the fair plain), Latinised Venta-Belgorum (the plain of the Belgians). There was a gwent also in Norfolk, Latinised Venta-Icenorum (the plain of the Iceni). This root-word may be the derivation of Vannes and La Vendée, in Normandy, if not from the Veneti—v. FEN.

a fair or open region, a campaign. It is a name now confined to nearly all Monmouthshire, but which anciently comprehended also parts of the counties of Gloucester and Hereford, being a district where Caer-went or the Venta-Silurum of the Romans was the capital; Corwen (the blessed choir or church); Yr Eglwys-Wen (the blessed choir or church); Wenvoe, in Glamorgan, corrupt. from Gwenvai (the happy land).

the alder-tree, also a swamp; e.g. Coed-gwern (alder-tree wood).

water; e.g. the Rivers Wye, the Elwy (gliding water); Llugwy (clear water); Mynewy (small water); Leveny (smooth water); Garway (rough water); Conway (the chief or head water, cyn); Gwydir, i.e. Gwy-tir (water land), the ancient name of Glastonbury; Gwynedd (water glen), an ancient region in North Wales.

green, verdant; e.g. Gwyrdd-y-coed (the winter green).

an eminence; e.g. Haarlem (the eminence on the clayey soil, leem).

a harbour, from haff (the ocean); e.g. Frische-haff (freshwater haven); Kurische-haff (the harbour of the Cures, a tribe); Ludwig’s-hafen (the harbour of Louis); Charles’s-haven, Frederick’s-haven (named after their founders); Delfshaven (the canal harbour); Vilshaven (the harbour at the mouth of the R. Vils); Thorshaven (the harbour of Thor); Heiligenhaven (holy harbour); Hamburg (the town of the harbour), formerly Hochburi (high town); Soderhamm (the south harbour); Osterhafen (east harbour); Ryehaven, in Sussex (the harbour on the bank, rive); Milford-haven (the harbour of Milford), the modern name of the Cel. Aber-du-gledian (the confluence of the two swords), a word applied to streams by the ancient Britons; Whitehaven, in Cumberland, according to Camden named from its white cliffs; Stonehaven (the harbour of the rock), in allusion to the projecting rock which shelters the harbour; Newhaven, Co. Sussex, in allusion to the new harbour made in 1713—its former name was Meeching; Newhaven, Co. Edinburgh, named in contradistinction from the old harbour at Leith.

an enclosure, literally a place surrounded by a hedge, cognate with the Celtic cae; e.g. Hagen, in Germany, and La Haye, Les Hayes, and Hawes (the enclosures), in France, Belgium, and England; Hagenbach (the hedged-in brook); Hagenbrunn (the enclosed well); Hagueneau (the enclosed meadow), a town in Germany; Fotheringay (probably originally an enclosure for fodder or fother); The Hague, Ger. Gravenhage (the duke’s enclosure, originally a hunting-seat of the Princes of Orange); Hain-Grossen (the great enclosure); Jacob’s-hagen (James’s enclosure), in Pomerania; Urishay (the enclosure of Uris), in Hereford; Haigh and Haywood (the enclosed wood), in Lancashire.

a hill; e.g. Kiraly-hago (the king’s hill); Szarhegy (the emperor’s hill).

the sea; e.g. Hoanghai (the yellow sea); Nankai (the southern sea).

a heath or wild wood; e.g. Falkenheid (the falcon’s wood); Birchenheide (the birch-wood); Hohenheid and Hochheyd (high heath); Hatfield, Hadleigh, Hatherley, and Hatherleigh (the heathy field or meadow); Hadlow (heath hill); Haidecke (heath corner); Heydecapelle (the chapel on the heath), in Holland.

a grove or thicket; e.g. Wildenhain (the wild beasts’ thicket); Wilhelmshain (William’s grove or thicket); Langenhain (long thicket); Grossenhain (the thick grove).

a declivity, cognate with hald, Scand. (a rock); e.g. Leimhalde (clayey declivity); Frederick’s-hald, in Norway, so named by Frederick III. in 1665. Its old name was simply Halden (on the declivity).

a stone house, a palace; e.g. Eccleshall (church house), in Staffordshire, where the Bishops of Lichfield had a palace; Coggeshall, in Essex (Gwgan’s mansion); Kenninghall (the king’s palace), in Norfolk, at one time the residence of the princes of East Anglia.

in German topography, is a general name for a place where salt is manufactured. The word has its root in the Cym.-Cel. halen (salt), cognate with the Gadhelic salen and the Teut. salz, probably from the Grk. hals (the sea). Hall and Halle, as town names, are found in connection with Salz; as in Hall in Upper Austria, near the Salzberg (a hill with salt mines), and Hall, near the salt mines in the Tyrol; Halle, in Prussian Saxony, on the R. Saale; Reichenhall (rich salt-work), in Bavaria; Hallein, celebrated for its salt-works and baths, on the Salza; Hallstadt, also noted for its salt-works; Hall, in Wurtemberg, near salt springs; Halton, in Cheshire, probably takes its name from the salt mines and works in the neighbourhood; Penardhalawig (the headland of the salt marsh) was the ancient name of Hawarden, in Flint and Cheshire; Halys and Halycus (salt streams), in Galatia and Sicily.

a home or family residence, literally a place of shelter, from heimen, Ger. (to cover), hama, A.S. (a covering), cognate with the Grk. heima; e.g. Hampstead and Hampton (the home place); Okehampton (the dwelling on the R. Oke), in Devonshire; Oakham (oak dwelling), so called from the numerous oaks that used to grow in its vicinity; Buckingham (the home of the Buccingus or dwellers among beech-trees); Birmingham, probably a patronymic from the Boerings; Addlingham and Edlingham (the home of the Athelings or nobles); Horsham (Horsa’s dwelling); Clapham (Clapa’s home); Epsom, anc. Thermæ-Ebbesham (the warm springs of Ebba, a Saxon queen); Flitcham (Felex’s home); Blenheim, Ger. Blindheim (dull home), in Bavaria; Nottingham, A.S. Snotengaham (the dwelling near caves); Shoreham (the dwelling on the coast); Waltham (the dwelling near a wood); Framlingham (the dwelling of the strangers), from the A.S.; Grantham (Granta’s dwelling); Ightham (the parish with eight villages), in Kent; Wrexham, anc. Writtlesham (the town of wreaths), A.S. wreoth; Ingelheim (the dwelling of the Angli); Ingersheim (of Ingra); Oppenheim (of Uppo); Rodelheim (of Rodolph); Southampton (the south dwelling, in distinction from Northampton); Twickenham (the dwelling between the streams, where the Thames seems to be divided into two streams); Rotherham, anc. Cel. Yr odre (the boundary), Lat. Ad-fines (on the boundary); Wolverhampton (the dwelling endowed by the Lady Wulfrana in the tenth century); Godmanham, in Yorkshire (the holy man’s dwelling), the site of an idol temple, destroyed under the preaching of Paulinus, whose name it bears. This root-word is often joined to the name of a river, thus—Coleham, Coverham, Debenham, Hexham or Hestildisham, Jaxtham, Lenham, Trentham, Tynningham (i.e. towns or villages on the Rivers Colne, Cover, Deben, Hestild, Jaxt, Len, Trent, Tyne); Cheltenham, on the Chelt; Oxnam, Co. Roxburgh, formerly Oxenham (a place of shelter for oxen); Hameln, on the R. Hamel, in Hanover; Drontheim or Trondjeim (throne dwelling); Kaiserheim (the emperor’s dwelling); Heidelsheim (the dwelling of Haidulf), in Bavaria; Hildesheim, probably the dwelling near the field of battle, Old Ger. hilti (a battle); Mannheim (the dwelling of men), as contrasted with Asheim or Asgarth (the dwelling of the gods), in Baden; Hildersham, in Yorkshire, anc. Hildericsham (the dwelling of Childeric). Ham is often contracted into om, um, en, or am, etc.—as in Dokum (the town of the port or dock), in Holland; Nehon, in Normandy, corrupt. from Nigel’s home; Angeln (the dwelling of the Angli); Oppeln, in Silesia (the dwelling of Oppo); Edrom, in Berwickshire, corrupt. from Adderham (the dwelling on the R. Adder); Ednam, on the Eden, in Roxburghshire; Hitchen, on the Hiz or Hitche, in Herts; Fulham, anc. Fullenham (the home of birds), A.S. fugil; Hownam (the dwelling of Howen or Owen), in Roxburghshire. In Flanders ham or heim often takes the forms of eim, em, etc., as in Killim (the dwelling of Kilian); Ledringhem (of Ledro); Hem (of Hugnes); Pitgain (of the well); Wolsen, for Wolfsheim; Bohemia (the home of the Boii); Dahlen (valley dwelling); Wolsen (Wolfa’s dwelling).

hot springs; e.g. Hamman-Mousa (the hot springs of Moses); Hamman-Pharoon (of Pharaoh); Hammah-de-Cabes (the warm baths of Cabes), in North Africa; Alhama (the town of the warm baths), the name of several places in Spain.

This word sometimes signifies a village or small town, and sometimes a rock; e.g. Lillehammer (the little town); Oesthammer (east village); Hamr (a steep place), in Shetland; Hammerfeste, in the island of Qualoe, probably means the rock fortress, faestung. In German topography it is generally connected with the blacksmith’s hammer, and is common in localities where metals are worked, thus—Hammersmeide (hammer-smithy); Silberhammer (a place where silver is wrought), near Dantzic. Kemble also suspects a reference to Thor’s hammer in the names of some towns or villages in England; e.g. Hamerton, in Huntingdon, and also in Middlesex; Hammerwich, in Staffordshire; Hamerton-kirk, in Yorkshire.

a declivity, from hängen (to hang), A.S. hongian; e.g. Hangenheim (the dwelling on the declivity); Pannshanger (Penn’s slope), in Herts; Clehonger (clayey slope), Hereford.

the army; e.g. Harwich (army town or bay), in Essex, so called because the Danes had a great military depot at this place; Herstal, in Belgium, anc. Hari-stelle (army place); Hargrave (the army entrenchment), in Norfolk; Harbottle (the army’s quarters), in Northumberland. In Edmond’s Names of Places this prefix, as well as hor, is referred to an A.S. word signifying hoary; under which he places Harborough, in Leicestershire, the name of which is traced by Bailey to havre (oats).

brushwood or a wood; e.g. the Harz Mountains, with the town of Harzburg (the fortress in the wood); Harsefeld (woody field), in Hanover; Hurst, in Kent; Deerhurst (deer wood or thicket); Hurst-Monceaux (the wood of Monceaux, probably a Norman baron), in Sussex; Hurst, a town in Lancashire; Lyndhurst (the wood of lime-trees); Midhurst (in the middle of the wood); Hawkhurst (hawk wood); Gravenhorst (the count’s wood); Horstmar (rich in wood)—v. MAR; Billing’s-hurst (the wood of the Billings), a patronymic; Farnhurst and Ferneyhurst (ferny wood); Sendenhorst (the rushy wood), in Westphalia; Herzovia or Herzegovia (a woody district), in Turkey; Murrhard, in Wurtemberg, means the wood on the R. Muhr; Delmenhorst, on the Delme, in Hanover. Hart, in English topography, however, refers more commonly to heort (the hart), as in Hartgrove, Hartland, Hartley, Hartfield, Hartsford, Hartshill. It occasionally takes the form of chart, as in Seal-chart (holy wood); Chart-Sutton (the wood at the south town).

the hazel-tree; e.g. Hessle (the place of hazels); Haselburn and Haselbrunnen (the stream and well of the hazels); Haslau (hazel meadow); Heslington (the dwelling among hazels); Hasselt, in Belgium, i.e. Hasselholt, Lat. Hasseletum (hazel grove); Hasseloe (hazel island), in Sweden and Denmark; Hazeldean and Haslingden (the hollow of the hazels).

a bolt, a gate, hence an enclosed dwelling; e.g. Hatch-Beauchamp (the enclosed dwelling of Beauchamp, a personal name); Colney-Hatch (of Colney); West-Hatch, in Somerset; Pilgrim’s Hatch, in Essex.

In Scotland these words generally denote a low-lying meadow between hills or on the banks of a stream,—as in Hobkirk (i.e. the church in the hope or meadow); Howwood (the wood in the hollow); Hutton, for Howton (the dwelling in the hollow), parishes in Scotland. In England how and haugh come more frequently from the Scand. haugr (a heap or mound often raised over a grave, like the cairns in Scotland),—as in Silver-how, Butterlip-how, in the Lake District, probably from mounds over some Norse leader’s grave; Haugh, in Lincoln; Haugham (the dwelling near the mound); Howden, in Yorkshire (the valley of the haugr or mound); Haughley (the meadow near the mound). La Hogue, in France, is from haugr or from the houg, as also Les Hogues and La Hoguette (the little mound); Gretna Green is the modern name for Gretan-how (the great hollow). Haugr also means a temple or high place, fenced off and hallowed, among the Scandinavians; and to this word so derived Dasent traces Harrow-on-the-hill and Harrowby.

a head, a promontory; e.g. Howth Head, in Ireland, from the Danish hofed—its Irish name is Ben Edair (the hill of Edar); Brunhoubt (the well head); Berghaupt (hill head); Ruckshoft (ridge head), in Germany; Hoft (the headland), in the island of Rugen; Sneehatten (snowy head), in Norway; Hoddam (holm head), in Dumfriesshire.

a dwelling, allied to casa, Lat., It., Span., and Port.; e.g. Mühlhausen (at the mill house); Saxenhausen (the dwelling of the Saxons); Wendenhausen (of the Wends); Schaffhausen (the ship station), which consisted originally of a few storehouses on the banks of the Rhine for the reception of merchandise; Dunkelhauser (the dark house); Aarhuus (the town on the watercourse), a seaport in Denmark; Aggers-huus, in Norway, on the R. Agger. This district and river seems to have been named from an agger or rampart erected near Christiania in 1302, on the Aggerfiord. Ward-huus (the dwelling in the island of the watch-tower), on the coast of Fenmark; Holzhausen (the dwelling at the wood); Burghausen (the fortified dwelling); Distilhousen (the dwelling among thistles), in Belgium. In Hungary, Bogdan-haza (God’s house); Oroshaza (the dwelling of the Russians); Chaise-Dieu, Lat. Casa-Dei (the house of God), in France. Also in France, Chaise, Les Chaises; Casa-nova (new house); Casa-vecchia (old house), in Corsica; Chassepierre, Lat. Casa-petrea (stone house), in Belgium; Casa-bianca (white house), in Brazil.

prefixes with various meanings in Eng., Ger., and Scand. topography. Sometimes they mean holy, Ger. heilig, as in Heligoland (holy isle); Heilbron (holy well); Heligensteen (holy rock); Heilberg and Hallidon (holy hill); Heiligencreuz (the town of the holy cross), Hung. Nemet-keresztur (the grove of the cross); Heiligenhaven (holy harbour); Heiligenstadt (holy town); Halifax, in Yorkshire (holy face), is said to have been named from an image of John the Baptist, kept in a hermitage at the place; Hoxton, in Sussex, was originally Hageltoun (holy town), because it was there that St. Edmund suffered martyrdom. Sometimes, however, hell denotes a covered place, as in Helwell, in Devonshire (the covered well); sometimes it means clear, as in Hellebrunn (clear or bright fountain); Heilbronn, in Wurtemberg (fountain of health), named from a spring formerly used medicinally. Hellefors, a waterfall in Norway, and Hellgate, New York, seem to derive their names from a superstition connected with Hel, the goddess of the dead; Holyhead, in Wales, is in Welsh Pen-Caer-Gibi (the hill fort of St. Cybi, called holy in his honour); Holy Island, Lat. Insula-sancta, obtained its name from the monastery of St. Cuthbert—its more ancient name, Lindisfarne, is probably the ferry, fahr, of the brook Lindis, on the opposite shore; Holywell, in Flint, took its name from St. Winifred’s Well, celebrated for its miraculous cures—its Welsh name is Tref-fynnon (the town of the clear water); Holywood, Dumfriesshire, Cel. Der Congal (the oak grove of St. Congal).

a cave into which the tide flows; e.g. Hellr-hals (the neck or strait of the cave); Heller-holm (the island of the cave); Hellersness (the headland of the caves).

a place; e.g. Vasarhely (the market-place); Varhely (the place of the fortress); Marosvasarhely (the market-place on the R. Maros), in Ger. Neumarkt; Vasarhely-hod-Mezö (the market-place of the beaver’s meadow); Szombathely (the place where the Saturday market is held, szombat); Csotortokhely (the Thursday market-place), Germanised Donners-markt; Udvarhely (court place); Szerdahely (Wednesday market-place), Vasar, Hung. (a market), from Turc. Bazar.

old; e.g. Henly (the old place), on the Thames; Hentland, for Hen-llan (old church, now St. Asaph’s); Henlys (old palace): Hen-egglys (old church), in Anglesea.

old, ancient; e.g. Henlys (the ancient hall).

a horse—hence Hengiston, in Cornwall, either an enclosure for horses or the town of Hengist; Hengestdorf or Pferdsdorf (horse’s village); Hengistridge (horse’s ridge); Hinksey (the horse’s island or marshy place); Hinkley (the horses’ meadow).

a duke or lord; e.g. Herzogenbosch or Bois-le-Duc (the duke’s grove); Hertogspodler (the duke’s reclaimed land); Herzogenburg (the duke’s fortress); Herzogenrath (the duke’s cleared land); Herrnsbaumgarten (the duke’s orchard); Herrnhut (the Lord’s tabernacle), founded by Count Zinzendorf, in Saxony, for the Moravian Brethren, in 1722; Herisau (the duke’s meadow), Lat. Augia-Domini, in Switzerland.

a hedge or thicket; e.g. Hessingen (the dwelling in the thicket); Maashees (the thicket on the R. Maas); Wolfhees (the wolf’s thicket).

an elevation, cognate with the Ger. hugel; e.g. Silver-hill, named after Sölvar, a Norse leader, in the Lake District; Hilton, Hilston (hill town); Woolwich, anc. Hyl-vich (hill town); Butterhill (the hill of Buthar), a personal name in the Lake District.

water; e.g. the Rivers Indus, Inde, Indre, etc.; Hindostan (the district watered by the R. Indus).

a walled town; e.g. Hippo, near Carthage. There were three cities called Hippo in Africa and two in Spain: Olisippo (the walled town), now Lisbon; Oreppo, Belippo, Lacippo.

long.

the hart; e.g. Hirzenach (the hart’s stream); Hersbrock (the hart’s marsh); Hirschberg, Lat. Corvamontem (the hart’s hill); Hirschfeld, Herschau, Hirschholm, Hirschhorn (the field, meadow, hill, peak of the harts).

a castle; e.g. Kezil-hissar (red castle); Kara-hissar (black castle); Eski-hissar (old castle), anc. Laodicea; Demir-hissar (iron castle); Guzel-hissar (white castle); Sevri-hissar (cypress castle); Sultan-hissar (the sultan’s castle); Kulci-hissar (the castle on the R. Khelki).

a haven; e.g. Hythe, in Kent; Greenhithe (the green haven); Lambeth, anc. Lomehithe (clayey haven); Maidenhead, anc. Mayden-hithe, i.e. the wharf midway between Marlow and Windsor; Queenhithe (the queen’s haven); Redriff, in Surrey, anc. Rethra-hythe (the haven of sailors), A.S. rethra, also called Rotherhithe (the haven for horned cattle), Old Eng. rother; Stepney, anc. Stebon-hythe (Stephen’s haven or timber wharf); Erith, A.S. Ora-hithe (shore haven), in Kent; Challock, in Kent, corrupt. from ceale hythe (chalk haven).

a Viking; e.g. Shapansay, anc. Hjalpansay (the Viking’s island); Shetland, i.e. Hjaltiland, with the same meaning.

a ridge; e.g. Linch, in Sussex; Rouselinch (Rouse’s ridge), in Worcestershire.

a river or water; e.g. Euho (the precious river); Hoangho (the yellow river); Peiho (white river); Yuho (imperial river); Keangho (rapid river); Hoonan (south of the lake); Hoohe (north of the lake, i.e. of Lake Tongting).

high; höhe (a height); e.g. Hohurst and Hohenhart (high wood); Hohenberg (high hill); Homburg (high hill fort); Homburg-von-der-höhe (the high fort in front of the height); Hochfeld (high field); Hochain (high enclosure); Hochstadt, Hochstetten, Hochstatten (high dwelling); Hocheim (high home or dwelling), from which place Hock wines are named; Hochwiesen, Sclav. Velko-polya (high meadow or plain); Hochst for Hochstadt, and Hoym for Hochham (high town); Hohenelbi, Grk. Albipolis (the high town on the Elbe); Hohenlohe (the high meadow or thicket); Hohenstein and Hohenstauffen (high rock); Hohenwarth, Lat. Altaspecula (the high watch-tower); Hohenzollern (the high place belonging to the Zwolf family); Hohenscheid (the high watershed); Hockliffe (high cliff), in Bedford; Higham, Highworth (high manor or dwelling); Highgate (high road); Wilhelmshöhe (William’s high place); Hoy, in Shetland (the high island).

an enclosure, manor, and court. In Scandinavia hoff means a temple; e.g. Eyndhoven (the manor at the corner); Neuhof and Neunhoffen, in France (new manor); Hof and Hoff (the enclosure), in Belgium; Hof, in Bavaria, on the R. Saale; Stadt-am-hof, in Bavaria, anc. Curia Bavarica (the place at the court); Hof-an-der-March (the court or manor on the R. March); Schoonhoven (beautiful manor), in Holland; Nonnenhof (the nun’s enclosure); Meerhof (the dwelling on the marshy land); Peterhof (the court dwelling founded by Peter the Great); Hoff (the temple), in Iceland; Hoff, a village near Appleby, has the same meaning, as it is situated in a wood called Hoff-land (the temple grove). In Iceland, when a chieftain had taken possession of a district, he erected a temple (hoff) and became, as he had been in Norway, the chief, the pontiff, and the judge of the district; and when the Norwegians took possession of Cumberland and Westmoreland they would naturally act in the same manner.

a low place, as in Die-Höhne (the hollows), in the Brocken.

a cave, from hohl (hollow); e.g. Hohenlinden, anc. Hollinden (the hollow place of lime-trees); Holland or the Netherlands (the low countries); also Holland, a low-lying district in Lincolnshire; Holdeornesse (the low promontory of the province of Deira); Holmer, in Hereford (the low lake, mere).

a small island; e.g. Flatholm (flat island); Steepholm (steep island); Priestholm (of the priest); Alderholm (of alders); Holm, in Sweden, and Hulm, in Norway (the island); Stockholm, anc. Holmia (the island city, built upon stakes). But holm also signifies occasionally a hill, as in Smailholm, in Roxburghshire (little hill); and Hume, or holm, Castle, in Berwickshire (on a hill). Sometimes also it signifies a low meadow on the banks of a stream, as in Durham, corrupt. from Dun-holm or Dunelme (the fortress on the meadow), almost surrounded by the R. Wear; Langholm (the long meadow); Denholm (the meadow in the deep valley); Twynholm, anc. Twynham (the dwelling on the hillock), Welsh twyn, a parish in Kirkcudbright; Brachenholm (ferny meadow); Lingholme (heather island), in Windermere; also Silverholme (the island of Sölvar, a Norse leader); Bornholm, in the Baltic, anc. Burgundaland (the island of the Burgundians); Axholme, an insulated district in Co. Lincoln, formed by the Rivers Trent, Idle, and Don, from uisge, Cel. (water); Drotningholm, in the Mälar Lake near Stockholm (queen’s island), from Swed. drottmig (a queen); Battleholme, found in some places in the north of England, according to Ferguson, means fertile island, from an Old English word battel or bette (fertile).

a wood; e.g. Aldershot (alder-tree wood); Bergholt (the hill or hill fort in the wood); Evershot (the boar’s wood, eofer); Badshot (badger’s wood); Bochholt (beech-wood); Jagerholz (huntsman’s wood); Oosterhout (east wood); Holzkirchen (the church at the wood); Thourhout, in East Flanders (the wood consecrated to the god Thor); Tourotte, in the department of Oise, in France (also Thor’s wood); Hootenesse (woody promontory), in Belgium; Diepholz (deep wood); Meerholt and Meerhout (marshy wood); Holt, a woody district in Norfolk.

a spit of land running into the sea; e.g. Sandhoe (the sandy cape); The Hoe, in Kent; Kew, in Surrey, anc. Kay-hoo (the quay on the spit of land).

a horn-like projection or cape jutting into the sea, or a valley between hills, curved like a horn; e.g. Hoorn (the promontory), a seaport in Holland, from which place the Dutch navigator Schoutens named Cape Horn, Hoorn being his native place; Hornburg (the town on the projection); Hornby (corner dwelling); Horncastle (the castle on the promontory); Hornberg and Horndon (the projecting hill); Hornsea (the projection on the coast); Matterhorn (the peak in the meadows), so called from the patches of green meadow-land which surround its base; Schreckhorn (the peak of terror); Finsteraarhorn (the peak out of which the Finster-Aar, or dark Aar, has its source). This river is so named to distinguish it from the Lauter or clear river. Skagenshorn (the peak of the Skaw, in Denmark); Faulhorn (the foul peak), so called from the black shale which disintegrates in water; Wetterhorn (stormy peak); Katzenhorn (the cat’s peak); Silberhorn (the silvery peak); Jungfrauhorn (the peak of the maiden).

a corner or little elevation, akin to the Scottish heugh and the Scand. haugr; e.g. Hoogzand and Hoogeveen (the sand and marsh at the corner); Hoogheyd (corner heath); Hoogbraek (the broken-up land at the corner); Stanhoug (stone corner).

a little hill; e.g. Haidhugel (heath hill); Steinhugel (stony hill); Huchel and Hivel (the little hill); Lindhövel (the hill of lime-trees); Gieshübel (the hill of gushing brooks).

a district supposed to have originally comprised at least one hundred family dwellings, like Welsh Cantref (from cant, a hundred), the name of a similar division in Wales; e.g. Hundrethwaite (the cleared land on this Hundred), a district in Yorkshire.

a shed or cottage; e.g. Dunkelhütte (dark cottage); Mooshutten (the cottage in the mossy land); Buxtehude (the hut on the ox pasture); Huttenwerke (the huts at the works or mines); Hudemühlen (mill hut); Hutton (the town of huts). But Landshut, in Bavaria, does not seem to be derived from hütte, but from schutz, Ger. (a defence), as it is in the neighbourhood of an old fortress, on the site of a Roman camp.

a warm, bubbling spring; e.g. Uxaver (the oxen’s spring), in Iceland.

an island; e.g. I-Colum-chille or Iona (the island of St. Columba’s cell); Ierne or Ireland (the western island or the island of Eire, an ancient queen).

a country or land; e.g. Galatia and Galicia, and anc. Gallia (the country of the Gauls); Andalusia, for Vandalusia (the country of the Vandals); Batavia (the good land), bette, good; Britania or Pictavia (probably the land of painted tribes); Catalonia, corrupt. from Gothalonia (the land of the Goths); Circassia (the land of the Tcherkes, a tribe); Croatia (the land of the Choriots or mountaineers); Suabia (of the Suevii); Moravia (the district of the R. Moravia); Moldavia (of the R. Moldau). It is called by the natives and Turks Bogdania, from Bogdan, a chieftain who colonised it in the thirteenth century. Ethiopia (the land of the blacks, or the people with the sunburnt faces), from Grk. ops (the face), and aitho (to burn); Phœnicia (the land of palms or the brown land), Grk. Phœnix; Silesia (the land of the Suisli); Bosnia (the district of the R. Bosna); Russia, named after Rourik, a Scandinavian chief; Siberia, from Siber, the ancient capital of the Tartars; Kaffraria (the country of the Kaffirs or unbelievers), a name given by the Arabs; Dalmatia (the country of the Dalmates, who inhabited the city Dalminium); Iberia, the ancient name of Spain, either from the R. Ebro or from a tribe called the Iberi or Basques; Caledonia, perhaps from Coille (the wood).

an affix used by the Romans, sometimes for ia (a district), and sometimes the Latinised form of the adjectival termination ach—qu. v. p. 5; e.g. Juliers, Lat. Juliacum (belonging to Julius Cæsar); Beauvais, Lat. Bellovacum (belonging to the Bellovaci); Annonay, Lat. Annonicum (a place for grain, with large magazines of corn); Bouvignes, in Belgium, Lat. Boviniacum (the place of oxen); Clameny, Lat. Clameniacum (belonging to Clement, its founder); Joigny, anc. Joiniacum, on the R. Yonne; Annecy, Lat. Anneacum (belonging to Anecius); Cognac, Lat. Cogniacum (the corner of the water), Fr. coin, Old Fr. coiny, Cel. cuan.

an affix in French topography denoting a possession, and generally affixed to the name of the proprietor; e.g. Guilletière (the property of Guillet); Guzonière (of Guzon).

a district; e.g. Ili-Bosnia (the district of the R. Bosna); Rumeli or Roumelia (the district of the Romans).

a town; e.g. Elloirio, Illora, and Illura (the town on the water, ura); Lorca, anc. Illurcis (the town with fine water); Elibyrge (the town with the tower), Grk. pyrgos; Elché, anc. Illici (the town on the hill, ci); Illiberus (new town, surnamed Elne after the Empress Helena), in Spain; the isle of Oleron, anc. Illura (the town on the water).

a contraction for the Ger. in der (in or on the); e.g. Imgrund (in the valley); Imhorst (in the wood); Eimbeck (on the brook); Imruke (on the ridge).

an affix used by the Teutonic races, as a patronymic, in the same sense as Mac is used in Scotland, ap in Wales, and O in Ireland. Ing is generally affixed to the settlement of a chief, and ingen to that of his descendants. Ing, preceding ham, ton, dean, ley, thorp, worth, etc., is generally an abbreviation of ingen, and denotes that the place belonged to the family of the tribe, as in Bonnington, Collington, Collingham, Islington (the home of the Bonnings, the Collings, and the Islings). In French topography ingen takes the forms of igny, igné, or inges; and it appears, by comparing the names of many towns and villages in England and the north-west of France with those of Germany, that Teutonic tribes forming settlements in these countries transferred the names in their native land to their new homes. For the full elucidation of this subject reference may be made to Taylor’s Words and Places, chap. vii. and the Appendix, and to Edmund’s Names of Places, p. 58. Only a few examples of the use of this patronymic can be given here; thus, from the Offings—Oving and Ovingham, corresponding to the Ger. Offingen and the Fr. Offignes. From the Eppings—Epping, Ger. Eppinghofen, and Fr. Epagne. The Bings—Bing, Bingham, Bingley; Ger. Bingen; Fr. Buigny. The Basings—Eng. Basing, Basingham, Bessingby; Fr. Bazigny. From the Raedings—Reading, Co. Berks. The Harlings—Harlington. The Billings—Bellington. From the Moerings or Merovingians many French towns and villages are named; e.g. Morigny, Marigné, Merignac, Merrigny; in England—Merring, Merrington. We can sometimes trace these tribe names to the nature of the localities which they inhabited. Thus the Bucings, from which we have Boking and Buckingham, to a locality abounding in beech-trees, boc; the Durotriges, from which we have Dorset and Dorchester, are the dwellers by the water, dur; as well as the Eburovices, who gave their name to Evreux, in France. Ing, also, in A.S. names, sometimes means a meadow, as in Clavering, in Essex (clover meadow), A.S. Claefer; Mountnessing, Co. Essex (the meadow of the Mountneys, who were formerly lords of the manor); Godalming (the meadow of Godhelm).

opposed to ausser (the inner and outer), as in Innerzell, Ausserzell (the inner and outer church).

an island, also in some cases pasture land near water, or a peninsula. It often takes the form of inch, as in Inchkeith (the island of the Keith family); Inchcolm (St. Columba’s Island); Inchfad (long isle); Inchgarvie (the rough island); Inchard (high isle); Inch-Cailleach (the island of the old women or nuns), in Loch Lomond, being the site of an ancient nunnery; Inchmarnoch (of St. Marnoch), in the Firth of Clyde; Inchbrackie (the spotted isle); Inchgower (the goat’s isle); Inchtuthill (the island of the flooded stream); Craignish, anc. Craiginche (the rocky peninsula); Durness, in Sutherlandshire, is a corrupt. from Doirbh-innis (the stormy peninsula); Ynys-Bronwen (the island of Bronwen, a Welsh lady who was buried there), in Anglesey; Ynis-wyllt (wild island), off the coast of Wales; Inysawdre (the isle and home of refuge), in Glamorgan. In Ireland: Ennis (the river meadow); Enniskillen, Irish Inis-Cethlenn (the island of Cethlenn, an ancient queen of Ireland); Ennisheen (beautiful island); Devenish, in Lough Erne, is Daimhinis (the island of oxen). But Enniskerry is not from this root; it is corrupt. from Ath-na-scairbhe (the rough ford); Orkney Isles, Gael. Orc-innis (the islands of whales); they are sometimes called Earr-Cath (the tail of Caithness); Innisfallen, in Lake Kallarney (the island of Fathlenn); the Hebrides or Sudereys, called Innisgall (the islands of the Gaels); the Aleutian Islands, from Russ. aleut (a bald rock); in Holland, Duiveland (pigeon island), and Eyerlandt (the island of the sand-bank); Eilenburg, in Saxony (the town on an island in the R. Mulda); Isola, a town in Illyria (on an island); Issola or Imo-Isola (low island), in Italy; Lille, in Flanders, anc. L’Isle, named from an insulated castle in the midst of a marsh; Peloponnesus (the island of Pelops); Polynesia (many islands).

a river confluence or a creek at the mouth of a river. This word is an element in numerous names throughout Scotland; and although it is not so common in Ireland, it exists in old names, as in Dromineer, for Druim-inbhir (the ridge of the river mouth). In Scotland it is used in connection with aber, the word inver being found sometimes at the mouth and aber farther up the same stream: thus—Abergeldie and Invergeldie, on the Geldie; Abernyte and Invernyte, etc.; Inversnaid (the needle or narrow confluence, snathad, a needle); Innerkip (at the conf. of the Kip and Daff); Inveresk and Inverkeilor (at the mouths of the Esk and Keilor), in Mid Lothian and Forfar; Innerleithen (at the conf. of the Leithen and Tweed), in Peebles; Inveraven (at the conf. of the Aven and Spey); Inverness (at the conf. of the Ness with the Beauly); Inveraray (at the mouth of the Aray); Inverury (the Urie); Inverkeithing (of the Keith); Inverbervie or Bervie (at the mouth of the Bervie); Peterhead, anc. Inverugie Petri or Petri promontorium (the promontory of the rock of St. Peter), on the R. Ugie, with its church dedicated to St. Peter; Inverleith, now Leith (at the mouth of the Leith); Inverarity (at the mouth of the Arity), in Forfar; Cullen, anc. Invercullen (at the mouth of the back river)—v. CUL.

a Sclavonic affix, signifying a possession or quality, equivalent to the Teut. ing; e.g. Carlovitz (Charles’s town); Mitrowitz (the town of Demetrius); Studnitz (of the fountain); Targowitz (the market town); Trebnitz and Trebitsch (poor town); Schwanitz (swine town); Madlitz (the house of prayer); Publitz (the place of beans); Janowitz (John’s town); Schwantewitz (the town of the Sclavonic god Swantewit).

the apple-tree; e.g. Jablonez, Jablonka, Jablona, Jablonken, Jablonoko, Gablenz, Gablona (places abounding in apples); Jablonnoi or Zablonnoi (the mountain of apples).

a ditch; e.g. Jamlitz, Jamnitz, and Jamno (places with a ditch or trench); Jamburg (the town in the hollow or ditch); but Jamlitz may sometimes mean the place of medlar-trees, from jemelina (the medlar).

a marsh; e.g. Jehser-hohen and Jeser-nieder (the high and lower marsh), near Frankfort; Jeserig and Jeserize (the marshy place).

the ash-tree; e.g. Jessen, Jessern, Jesseu, Jessnitz (the place of ash-trees).

the maple-tree; e.g. Great and Little Jawer, in Silesia; Jauer, in Russia; Jauernitz and Jauerburg (the place of maple-trees), in Russia.

a house; e.g. Jäschen, Jäschwitz, Jäschütz (the houses).

an island or peninsula; e.g. Algiers or Al-Jezirah, named from an island near the town; Al-Geziras (the islands), near Gibraltar; Alghero (the peninsula), in Sardinia; Jezirah-diraz (long island), in the Persian Gulf; Al-Jezirah or Mesopotamia (between the river).

a snow-covered hill; e.g. Vatna-Jökul (the hill with the lake); Orefa-Jökul (the desert hill); Forfa-Jökul (the hill of Forfa): Long-Jökul (long hill).

from juncus, Lat. (a rush); e.g. Jonchère, Joncheres, Jonchery, Le Jonquer, La Joncières, etc., place-names in France.

a quay or a bank by the water-side; e.g. Oudekaai (old quay); Kadzand (the quay or bank on the sand); Moerkade (marshy bank); Kewstoke (the place on the quay); Kew, in Surrey, on the Thames; Torquay (the quay of the hill called Tor).

bald, cognate with the Lat. calvus; e.g. Kalenberg and Kahlengebirge (the bald mountains).

the emperor or Cæsar; e.g. Kaisersheim, Kaiserstadt (the emperor’s town); Kaiserstuhl (the emperor’s seat); Kaiserberg (the emperor’s fortress), in Alsace, named from a castle erected by Frederick II.; Kaiserslautern (the emperor’s place), on the R. Lauter; Kaiserswerth (the emperor’s island), on the Rhine; Keysersdyk (the emperor’s dam); Keysersloot (the emperor’s sluice), in Holland; Cysarowes (the emperor’s village), in Bohemia; Kaisariyeh, anc. Cæsarea.

a castle; e.g. Khelat, in Belochistan; Yenikale (the new castle), in the Crimea; Calatablanca (white castle), in Sicily; Calahorra, Ar. Kalat-harral (stone castle), in Spain; Calata-bellota (the oak-tree castle), in Sicily; Calata-girone (the surrounded castle), Sicily; Calata-mesetta (the castle of the women); Calatayud (the castle of Ayud, a Moorish king); Alcala-real (the royal castle); Alcala-de-Henares (the castle on the R. Henares), in Spain; Sanjiac-Kaleh (the castle of the standard), corrupt. by the French into St. Jaques, in Asia Minor; Calatrava (the castle of Rabah).

a stone; e.g. Camentz, Kemmen, Kammena, Kamienetz (the stony place); Kamminchen (the little stony place), a colony from Steenkirchen; Chemnitz (the stony town, or the town on the stony river); Kersna-kaimai (the Christian’s stone house); Schemnitz, Hung. Selmecz (stony town), in Silesia.

black; e.g. Karamania (the district of the blacks); Karacoum (the black sand), in Tartary; Kara-su (the black river); Kara-su-Bazar (the market-town on the Kara-su); Kara-Tappeh (the black mound), in Persia; Kartagh and Kartaon (the black mountain chains), in Turkey and Tartary; Kara-Dengis, the Turkish name for the Black Sea, called by the Russians Tchernœ-more, Ger. Schawarz-meer; Kara-mulin (black mill); Cape Kara-bournow (the black nose), in Asia Minor.

a gorge or defile; e.g. Bergkehle (hill gorge): Hundkehle (the dog’s gorge); Langkehl (long gorge); Kehl (the gorge), in Baden; Schuylkill (the hidden gorge), a river in America.

literally a kettle, but in topography applied to a bowl-shaped valley surrounded by hills; e.g. Ketel, in Holstein; Kessel, in Belgium; Kessel-loo (the low-lying grove or swamp), in Belgium; Kesselt (the low-lying wood, holt), in Belgium; Kettle or King’s-kettle (the hollow), in the valley of the R. Eden, in Fife, formerly belonging to the crown; but such names as Kesselstadt, Kesselsham, Kettlesthorpe, and Kettleshulme are probably connected with the personal name Chetil or Kettle, being common names among the Teutons and Scandinavians.

a wall or stronghold, a city or town; e.g. Kir-Moab (the stronghold of Moab); Kiriathaim (the two cities); Kirjath-Arba (the city of Arba), now Hebron; Kirjath-Baal (of Baal); Kirjath-Huzoth (the city of villas); Kirjath-jearim (of forests); Kirjath-sannah (of palms), also called Kirjath-sepher (the city of the book). The Breton Ker (a dwelling) seems akin to this word, as in Kergneû (the house at the nut-trees), in Brittany.

a church. The usual derivation of this word is from kuriake, Grk. oikos-kuriou (the Lord’s house); e.g. Kirkham, Kerkom, Kirchdorf (church town); Kirchhof (church court); Kirchwerder (church island), on an island in the R. Elbe; Kirchditmold (the church at the people’s place of meeting)—v. DIOT. Fünfkirchen (the five churches), in Hungary; Kirchberg (church hill), in Saxony. Many parishes in Scotland have this affix to their names, as in Kirkbean (the church of St Bean); Kirkcaldy (the church of the Culdees, who formerly had a cell there); Kirkcolm (of St. Columba); Kirkconnel (of St. Connal); Kirkcowan, anc. Kirkuen (of St. Keuin); Kirkcudbright (of St. Cuthbert); Kirkden (the church in the hollow); Kirkhill (on the hill); Kirkhope (in the valley); Kirkinner (the church of St. Kinneir). In England: Kirkby-Lonsdale (the church town), in the valley of the Lune; Kirkby-Stephen (of St. Stephen, to whom the church was dedicated); Kirkdale, in Lancashire; Kirkham, also in Lancashire; Kirkliston (the church of the strong fort, founded by the Knights Templars), in Linlithgow; Kirkoswald, named after Oswald, King of Northumberland; Kirkurd, in Peeblesshire, Lat. Ecclesia de Orde (the church of Orde or Horda, a personal name); Kirkwall, Norse Kirk-ju-vagr (the church on the bay); Hobkirk (the church in the hope or valley); Ladykirk, in Berwickshire, dedicated to the Virgin Mary by James IV. on his army crossing the Tweed near the place; Falkirk, supposed to be the church on the Vallum or wall of Agricola, but more likely to be the A.S. rendering of its Gaelic name Eglais-bhrac (the spotted church), fah in A.S. being of divers colours; Stonykirk, in Wigtonshire, corrupt. from Steenie-kirk (St. Stephen’s church); Kirkmaden (of St. Medan); Carmichael for Kirk-Michael (of St. Michael); Bridekirk (of St. Bridget); Carluke for Kirkluke (of St. Luke); Selkirk, anc. Sella-chyrche-Regis (the seat of the king’s church, originally attached to a royal hunting-seat); Laurencekirk (the church of St. Laurence, Archbishop of Canterbury, called the Apostle of the Picts); Kirby-Kendal (the church in the valley of the Ken or Kent); Channelkirk, in Berwickshire, anc. Childer-kirk (the children’s church, having been dedicated to the Innocents).

little; e.g. Kis-sceg (little corner), in Transylvania; Kishissar (little fort).

a place shut in, from the Lat. claudo, also a cloister; e.g. Klausen (the enclosed place), in Tyrol; Klausenburg (the enclosed fortress); Klausenthal (the enclosed valley); Kloster-Neuburg (the new town of the cloister); Chiusa, in Tuscany, anc. Clusium, and Clusa, in Saxony (the enclosed place), also La Chiusa, in Piedmont; but claus, as a prefix, may be Klaus, the German for Nicholas, and is sometimes attached to the names of churches dedicated to that saint.

little; e.g. Klein-eigher (the little giant), a mountain in Switzerland.

a hillock; e.g. Noopnoss (the projecting point); Knabtoft (the farm of the hillock); The Knab, in Cumberland; Knapen-Fell (the hill with the protuberance), in Norway; Knapdale (the valley of hillocks), Argyleshire; Knapton, Knapwell (the town and well near the hillock); Snape (the hillock), in Suffolk and Yorkshire; Nappan (little hillock), and Knapagh (hilly land), in Ireland.

a hillock; e.g. Knowle and Knoyle (the hillock); Knowl-end (hill end); Knowsley (hill, valley, or field). In the form of know or now it is common as an affix in Scotland.

a mountain; e.g. Koh-baba (the chief or father mountain); Caucasus (mountain on mountain, or the mountain of the gods, Asses); Kuh-i-Nuh (Noah’s mountain), the Persian name for Ararat; Kashgar (the mountain fortress).

a village; e.g. Kopri-koi (bridge village); Haji-Veli-koi (the village of the pilgrim Veli); Papaskoi (the priest’s village); Kadikoi (the judge’s village); Hajikoi (the pilgrim’s village); Akhmedkoi (Achmed’s village); Boghaz-koi (God’s house), near the ruins of an ancient temple in Asia Minor.

a king; e.g. Königshofen (the king’s court); Königheim (the king’s dwelling); Königsbrunn (the king’s well); Königshain (the king’s enclosure); Königshaven (the king’s harbour); Königsberg, in Prussia, and Kongsberg, in Norway (the king’s mountain); Königstein (the king’s rock fortress); Coningsby, Connington, Coniston, Kingsbury, places in England where the Anglo-Saxons held their court; Kingston, in Surrey, where their kings were generally crowned; Kingston or Hull, upon the R. Hull, in Yorkshire, named after Edward I.; Kingston, Co. Dublin, so named in commemoration of George IV.’s visit to Ireland; Kingston, in Jamaica, named after William III.; Cunningham, Kingthorpe, Kingsby (the king’s dwelling or farm); but Cuningsburg, in Shetland, may be derived from Kuningr (a rabbit); Kingsbarns, in Fife, so called from certain storehouses erected there by King John during his occupation of the castle now demolished.

a headland or mountain peak; e.g. Catzenkopf (the cat’s head); Schneekopf and Schneekoppe (snowy peak); Ochsenkopf (the oxen’s peak); Riesenkoppe (giants’ peak); Perecop, in Russia (the gate of the headland); Vogelskuppe (the birds’ peak); Cape Colonna (the headland of the pillars), so named from the ruins of a temple to Minerva; Cape Leuca (the white); Cape Negro (the black); Cape Roxo (the red cape); Kuopio (on a headland), in Russia; Cabeza-del-buey (ox headland), in Spain; Cabeciera (black headland), in Spain; Capo-d’Istria (the summit of Istria); Copeland, a district in Cumberland full of peaks or headlands.

a bridge; e.g. Vezir-kopri (the vizier’s bridge); Keupri-bazaar (the market-town at the bridge); Keupris (bridge town), in Turkey.

a goat; e.g. Koselo (goat’s river); Koslin (goat town), in Pomerania.

a Romish church; e.g. Kostel, Kosteletz (towns with a Romish church), a Protestant church being called Zbor, and a Greek church Zerkwa.

a king; e.g. Kralik, Kralitz, Krolow, Kraliewa, Kralowitz (the king’s town or fortress).

beautiful; e.g. Krasnabrod (the beautiful ford); Krasnapol (the beautiful city); Krasno-Ufimsk (the beautiful town of the R. Ufa); Krasna and Krasne (the beautiful place).

a coppice; e.g. Sakrau, Sakrow (behind the coppice).

a circle; e.g. Saalkreis (the circle watered by the R. Saal); Schwardswaldkreis (the circle of the Black Forest).

a stone building; e.g. The Kremlin (the stone fort of Moscow); Kremmen, Kremenetz, Kremnitz, Kremmenaia, Kremenskaia, towns in Russia, Poland, and Lusatia.

a crown; e.g. Kronstadt, Hung. Brasso (crown city), in Hungary; Cronstadt, in Russia, founded by Peter the Great; Königscrone (the king’s crown); Carlscrone (Charles’s crown); Landscrone (the crown or summit of the land), a mountain and town in Silesia—also with the same meaning, Landscrona, in Sweden. Kron, however, as a prefix, comes occasionally from krahn (a crane), as in Kronwinkel (the crane’s corner).

a small inn; e.g. Dornkrug (the thorn inn); Krugmülle (the mill at the inn).

a site, a low-lying field; e.g. Brawenlage (brown field); Wittlage (white field or wood field); Blumlage (flowery field); Mühlenloog (the mill field or site); Dinkellage (wheat field). This word is also used as an adjective, signifying low; e.g. Loogkirk (low church); Loogheyde (low heath); Loogemeer (low lake); Laaland (low island).

a lake, cognate with the Lat. lacus and the Cel. loch or lwch. These words in the various dialects originally signified a hollow, from the roots lag, lug, and Grk. lakos; e.g. Lachen, Lat. Adlacum (at the lake), a town on Lake Zurich; Interlachen (between the lakes), in Switzerland; Biberlachen (beaver lake); Lago Maggiore (the greater lake), with reference to Lake Lugano, which itself means simply the lake or hollow; Lago Nuovo (new lake), in Tyrol,—it was formed a few years ago by a landslip; Lagoa (on a lake or marsh), in Brazil; Lagow (on a lake), in Prussia; Lagos, in Portugal (on a large bay or lake); Laguna-de-Negrillos (the lake of the elms) and Laguna-Encinillos (of the evergreen oaks), in Spain; Laach, in the Rhine Provinces (situated on a lake), the crater of an extinct volcano; Anderlecht or Anderlac (at the lake or marsh), in Belgium; Chablais, Lat. Caput-lacensis (at the head of the lake, i.e. of Geneva); Missolonghi, i.e. Mezzo-laguno (in the midst of a marshy lagoon); Beverley, in Yorkshire, anc. Biberlac (the beaver lake or marsh); Lago-dos-Patos (the lake of geese), in Brazil; Niederhaslach and Oberhaslach (lower and upper lake), in Bas Rhin; Lake Champlain takes its name from a Norman adventurer, Governor-general of Canada, in the seventeenth century; Alagoas (abounding in lakes), a province in Brazil, with its capital of the same name; Filey, in Yorkshire, in Doomsday Fuielac (i.e. bird lake, fugæ).

a pile or heap; e.g. Ladhouse, Ladhill, Ladcragg, Ladrigg (the house, hill, crag, ridge of the mound or cairn), probably so named from a heap or cairn erected over the grave of some Norse leader.

a way, passage, or canal; e.g. Ladbrook (the passage of the brook); Lechlade, in Gloucester (the passage of the R. Lech into the Thames); Evenlode (at brink of the passage or stream); Cricklade, anc. Crecca-gelade or Crecca-ford (the creek at the opening or entrance of the Churn and Key into the Thames).

land leased out, a fief; e.g. Kingsland or Kingslaen, in Middlesex, Hereford, and Orkney; Haylene (the enclosed fief), in Hereford; Lenham (the dwelling on the laen); Lenton, ditto.

pasture, literally moist, wet land; e.g. Lewes, in Sussex; Lesowes, in Worcester (the wet pasture); Lewisham (the dwelling on the pasture), in Kent; Leswalt (wood pasture), in Dumfriesshire.

a hollow, cognate with the Lat. lacus and the Grk. lakkos; e.g. Logie (the hollow), in Stirling; Logiealmond (the hollow of the R. Almond in Perth); Logie-Buchan, in Aberdeenshire; Logie-Coldstone, Gael. Lag-cul-duine (the hollow behind the fort), Aberdeen; Logie-Easter and Logie-Wester, in Cromarty; Logie Loch and Laggan Loch (the lake in the hollow); Logan (the little hollow); Logierait, Gael. Lag-an-rath (the hollow of the rath or castle, so called from the Earls of Atholl having formerly had their castle there in Perthshire); Mortlach, Co. Banff, probably meaning the great hollow. In Ireland: Legachory, Lagacurry, Legacurry (the hollow of the pit or caldron, coire); Lugduff (dark hollow); Lugnaquillia (the highest of the Wicklow mountains), is from the Irish Lug-na-gcoilleach (the hollow of the cocks, i.e. grouse); Lough Logan (the lake of the little hollow); Lagnieu, in France, anc. Lagniacum (the place in the hollow of the waters); Laconia and Lacedemonia (in the hollow), in Greece.

an enclosure, a church, a house; but Mr. Skene considers that the Cel. llan comes from the Lat. planum (a level place), just as the Gael. lan (full) comes from the Lat. plenus. This word is more common in Welsh names than in the topography of Ireland and Scotland, and in its signification of a church forms the groundwork of a vast number of Welsh names. In Ireland it means a house as well as a church, as in Landbrock (the badger’s house); Landmore (the great church), in Londonderry; Landahussy (O’Hussy’s church), in Tyrone; Lanaglug (the church of the bells). It is not so frequent in Scotland, but the modern name of Lamlash, in the Island of Arran, formerly Ard-na-Molas, the height of St. Molios, who lived in a cave there, seems to be the church or enclosure of this saint; Lambride, in Forfar, is Lannbride (St. Bridget’s church); Lumphanan is from Lann-Finan (St. Finan’s church). The derivation of Lanark, anc. Lanerk, is probably from the Welsh Llanerch (a distinct spot or fertile piece of ground). There are many examples of this root in Brittany; e.g. Lanleff (the enclosure on the R. Leff); Lanmeur (great church); Lannion (the little enclosure); Landerneau and Lannoy (the enclosure on the water); but in French topography the Teut. land generally signifies uncultivated ground; e.g. La Lande, Landes, Landelles, La Landelle, Les Landais, Landau, etc.—v. Cocheris’s Noms de Lieu. Launceston, in Cornwall, is probably corrupt. from Llan-Stephen. The greatest number of our examples must be taken from Wales. There are Lantony or Llan-Ddevinant (the church of St. David in the valley, nant, of the R. Hodeny); Llan-Dewi-Aberarth (St. David’s church at the mouth of the Arth); Lampeter (of St. Peter); Llan-Asaph (of St. Asaph); Llanbadern-fawr (the great church founded by Paternus), also Llan-Badarn-Odyn; Llandelo-vawr (of Feilo the Great); Llandewi-Brefi (St. David’s church). Brevi here means the bellowing, from the dismal moans of a sacred animal killed here; Llandovery, corrupt. from Llan-ym-dyffrwd (the church among the rivers, at the confluence of three streams); Llanudno (of St. Tudno); Llanelly (of St. Elian); Llanfair (of St. Mary); Llanover (the church of the Gover wells); Llanon (the church dedicated to Nonn, the mother of St. David); Llanfair-yn-nghornwy (on the horn or headland of the water). There are several of this name,—as Llan-fair-ar-y-bryn (St. Mary’s church on the hill); Llanfair-helygen (St. Mary’s church among willows); Llanfair-o’r-llwyn (on the lake); Llanfihangel (of the angel); Llanfihangel-genau’r-glyn (the church of the angels at the opening of the valley); Llanfihangel-y-creuddin, a church erected probably on the site of a bloody battle; Llanfihangel-lledrod (the church at the foot of a declivity); Llangadogvawr (of St. Cadoc the Great); Llangeler (of St. Celert); Llangollen (of St. Collen); Llanidloes (of St. Idloes); Llaniestyn (of St. Constantine); Llannethlin, anc. Mediolanum (the church among the pools or marshes); Llantrissant (of three saints); Llanddeusaint (of two saints); Llanberis (of St. Peres); Llandegla (of St. Theckla); Llanrhaiadr (the church of the cataract); Llanfaes (the church of the battle-field); Landaff, on the R. Taff; Llangoedmore (the church of the great wood); Llanaml-lech (the church on the stony ground, etc.); Llangwyllog (the gloomy church, perhaps in the shade of the Druidic grove); Llanfleiddian (dedicated to a bishop named Flaidd); Llanllawer (the church of the multitude, llawer, close to which was a sainted well famous for its medicinal properties, and which was resorted to by crowds of impotent folk); Llancilcen (the church in the nook, cil, at the top, cen, of a hill), a parish in Flint; Llan-mabon (of St. Mabon); Llan-Beblig, corrupt. from Bublicius, named for the son of Helen, a Welsh princess; Llan-sant-Fagan, named in honour of St. Faganus, a missionary from Rome. Llan is sometimes corrupted to long in Scotland, as in Longniddrie; Lagny, a town in France, anc. Laniacum (the church or enclosure on the stream). From the Teut. land, i.e. a country or district, some names may come in appropriately under this head—thus Scotland (the land of the Scots), from Ireland; Monkland, in Lanarkshire (belonging to the monks); Natland, in Norway (the land of horned cattle); Sutherland (the southern land, as compared with Caithness), both Sutherland and Caithness having formed part of the Orkney Jarldom; Cumberland (the land of the Cymbri), being part of the British kingdom of Cumbria; Holland (the marshy land, ollant); Gippsland, named in honour of Sir George Gipps, a governor of Port Philip; Friesland (the land of the Frisii); Beveland (of oxen or beeves); Baardland (of the Lombards); Westmoreland (the land of the Westmoringas or people of the Western moors); Gothland, in Sweden (the land of the Goths); Jutland (the land of the Getæ or Jutes, the Cimbric Chersonesus of the ancients).

a site, a bed; and in Germany, according to Buttmann, a field; in topography, synonymous with lage; e.g. Goslar (the site or field on the R. Gose), in Hanover; Somplar (marshy field); Wittlar (woody field); Dinklar (wheat field); Wetzlar, in Prussia, anc. Wittlara (woody field); Wassarlar (watery field); Noordlaren (the northern site); Lahr (the site), a town in Baden. In Ireland this word takes the forms of laragh and lara; e.g. Laraghleas (the site of the fort); Laraghshankill (of the old church). Lara, however, is sometimes a corrupt. of Leath-rath (half rath), as in Laragh, in West Meath; and laar and lare often mean middle, as in Rosslare (the middle peninsula); Ennislare (the middle island); Latheron, in Caithness, is the site of the seal.

a current, a rapid, from laufen, Ger.; hlaupen, Scand.; hleapen, A.S. (to run, to leap); e.g. Laufen (the rapids), on the R. Salzach; Lauffenberg (the town near the rapids of the Rhine); Laufnitz (the leaping river); Lauffen (on the rapids of the R. Inn); Leixlip, in Ireland, Old Norse Lax-hlaup (salmon-leap), on a cataract of the R. Liffey; Beck-loop (brook cataract), in Holland; Loop-Head, Co. Clare, Irish Leim-Chon-Chuillerin (Cuchullin’s leap)—v. Joyce’s Names of Places.

a hill, cognate with the Irish lagh; e.g. Houndslow (the dog’s hill); Ludlow (the people’s hill, leod); Greenlaw, in Berwickshire (the green hill)—the modern town is situated on a plain, but old Greenlaw was on a hill; Winslow (the hill of victory), in Berks; Marlow (the chalk or marshy hill); Wardlaw (guard hill); Hadlow, anc. Haslow (hazel hill); Castlelaw, in the Lammermuir range, named from Roman camps on these hills; Sidlaw Hills (the south hills, in reference to their forming the southern boundary of Strathmore); Warmlow, Co. Worcester, anc. Waermundes-hleau (the hill of Waermund, a personal name); Fala, a parish in Mid Lothian, abbreviated from Fallaw (the speckled hill); Mintlaw, in Aberdeenshire, corrupt. from Moan-alt-law (the hill at the moss burn).

an abode; e.g. Naglaya (the abode of snakes); the Himalaya Mountains (the abode of snow); Hurrial, for Arayalaya (the abode of Hari or Vishnu).

a flat stone—in topography, found in the forms of lick and leck, cognate with the Lat. lapis and Grk. lithos; e.g. Lackeen, Licken (the little stone); Slieve-league (the mountain of the flagstone); Lickmollasy (St. Molasse’s flagstone); Bel-leek, Irish Bel-leice (the ford of the flagstone), near Ballyshannon; Lackagh (full of flagstones); Lickfinn (white flagstone); Duleek, anc. Doimhliag (the stone house or church); Auchinleck (the field of the stone), in Ayrshire; Harlech, in Merioneth; Ar-llech (on the rock, the place being situated on a craggy eminence); Llananl-lech—v. LLAN; Llech-trufin, probably originally Llech-treffen (the rock of the look-out, or twrfine); Llanml-lech (the church among many stones); Tre-llech (stone dwelling); Llech-rhyd (the ford of the flat stone); Leck, Lech, Leckbeck (the stony rivers); Leckfield (the field on the R. Leck); Leckwith, in Wales, for Lechwedd (a slope).

the elm-tree; e.g. the Laune, a river at Killarney, and the Leven, in Scotland (the elm-tree stream); Lennox or Levenach (the district of the R. Leven), the ancient name of Dumbartonshire; Lislevane (the fort of the elm-tree), in Ireland. According to Mr. Skene, the Rivers Leven in Dumbartonshire and in Fife have given their names to Loch Lomond and Loch Leven, while in each county there is a corresponding mountain called Lomond.

the slope of a hill; e.g. Largy, in Ireland; Lairg, a parish in Sutherlandshire; Largs, in Ayrshire, and Largo, in Fife, from this word; Largan (the little hill-slope); Largynagreana (the sunny hill-slope); Larganreagh (gray hill-slope), in Ireland.

a possession, an inheritance. Forsteman thinks this word is derived from the Old Ger. laiban (to leave or bequeath), cognate with the Grk. leipa, and not from leben (to live); e.g. Leibnitz, anc. Dud-leipen (the inheritance of Dudo); Ottersleben (of Otho); Ritzleben (of Richard); Germersleben (of Germer); Osharsleben (of Ausgar); Sandersleben (of Sander); Hadersleben (of Hada).

a Roman legion; e.g. Caerleon, on the Usk, anc. Isca-Legionis; Leicester, Legionis-castra (the camp of the legion); Leon, in Spain, anc. Legio, being the station of the seventh Roman legion; Lexdon, anc. Legionis-dunum (the fort of the legion); Megiddo, in Palestine, now Ledjun, anc. Castra-legionis (the camp of the legion).

clay, mud; e.g. the Leam (the muddy river); Leamington (the town on the R. Leam); Lehmhurst (the clayey wood); Lambourn (muddy brook); Leemkothen (the mud huts).

the slope of a hill; e.g. Ballater, in Aberdeenshire (the town on the sloping hill); Letterfearn (the alder-tree slope); Letterfourie (the grassy hillside, feurach); Findlater (the cold hill-slope, fionn), in Scotland. In Ireland: Letterkenny (the hill-slope of the O’Cannons); Letterkeen (beautiful hill-slope); Lettermullen (Meallan’s hill-slope); Letterbrick (the badger’s hill-slope); Letterlickey (the hill-slope of the flagstone); Letherhead, in Surrey (at the head of the slope, Welsh llethr), on the declivitous bank of the R. Mole; Machynlleth for Mach-yn-Llethr (the ridge on the slope), a town in Montgomery.

the people; e.g. Leutkirch (the people’s church); Liège, Ger. Lüttich, anc. Leodicus-vicus (the people’s town)—the hill on which the citadel stands was called Publes-mont (the people’s hill); Leeds, in Yorkshire, anc. Loidis (the people’s town, according to Bayley); Whittaker, however, makes it the town of Loidi, a personal name); but Leeds, in Kent, is said to have been named after Ledian, the Chancellor of Ethelred II.

a wood or thicket; e.g. Lessau, Leske, Leskau, Lessen, Lissa (the woody place), towns in Prussia; Leschnitz, in Silesia, and Leizig, in Saxony, with the same meaning; Leschkirch (the church in the wood), in Transylvania; Liezegorike (woody hill).

white, e.g. Leuctra, Leuctron, Leucadia, so named from the white rocks at its extremity; Leucasia (the white river); Leucate (the white promontory in Greece).

a district—in English topography generally applied to an open field or meadow; e.g. Leigh (the meadow), in Lancashire; Berkeley, Thornley, Oakley, Auchley, Alderley, Brachley (the meadow of birch, thorn, oak, alder, ferns); Hasley (of hazels); Hagley (the enclosed meadow); Horsley (the meadow of Horsa, or of horses); Brockley (of the badger); Hindley (of the stag); Everley (of the wild boar, aper); Bradley (broad meadow); Stanley (stony meadow); Loxley (of Loki, a Scandinavian deity); Ashley (ash-tree meadow); but Ashley, S. Carolina, was named after Lord Ashley in the reign of Charles II.; Morley (moor-field); Bisley (bean-field); Cowley (cow’s field); Linley (flax-field); Monkley (the monk’s field); Audley, Co. Stafford (old field); but Audley, in Essex, took its name from a palace erected by Thomas Audley, Lord Chancellor of England; Ofley (the field of King Offa); Tarporley, in Cheshire, corrupt. from Thorpeley (the farm-field or meadow); Chorley (the meadow of the R. Chor); Bosley (Bodolph’s field); West Leigh, North Leigh, Leighton, from the same root; Satterleigh (the field of Seator, an A.S. deity); Earnley, Sussex (eagle meadow); Ripley, in Yorkshire, from Hryp, a personal name; Bentley, bent, pasture (a coarse kind of grass); Tewesley and Tisley, from Tiw, a Saxon deity—as also Tewing, Tuoesmere, and Teowes (thorn); Henley (the old meadow or field), supposed to be the oldest town in Oxfordshire.

a fort or town; e.g. Rialin, now Riga (the fortress of the Rugii), in Russia; Pernau, anc. Perna-lin (the lime-tree fort); Tepelin (hill town; tepe, Turc. hill).

the linden-tree; e.g. Lindhurst and Lyndhurst (the linden-tree wood); Lindheim, Lindorf, Limburg, in Germany (the town of linden-trees); as also Limburg, in Holland, formerly Lindenburg; Lindau (the linden-tree meadow); Lindesnaes (the promontory of linden-trees), in Norway; La Linde, Le Lindois (abounding in linden-trees); Limbœuf, Lindebœuf (linden-tree dwelling), in France.

a pool, a lake, sometimes applied to a waterfall, not as associated with the cascade, but with the pool into which it is received, as in the Linn of Dee, in Aberdeenshire, and Corra-linn, on the Clyde. Dublin (the black pool) takes its name from that part of the R. Liffey on which it is built; and there are several other places in Ireland whose names have the same meaning, although variously spelt, as Devlin, in Mayo; Dowling and Doolin, in Kilkenny and Clare; Ballinadoolin (the town of the black pool), in Kildare. In several such cases the proper name was Ath-cliath (hurdle ford), literally Baile-atha-cliath (the town of the hurdle ford), the original name of Dublin. The ancient name of Lincoln, Lindum, is the hill fort on the pool; Linlithgow comes from the same root, and is probably the gray lake—how it came by the termination gow, gu, or cu, as it is variously spelt, cannot be determined; Linton, in Roxburghshire, is the town on the pool; Linton, in Peebles, on the R. Lyne—in Cambridge (on the brook, hlynna); Dupplin, on the R. Earn, in Perthshire (the black pool); Crailing, in Berwickshire, anc. Traverlin (the dwellings, treabhar, on the pool); Edarline (between the pools); Aber-glas-lyn (the estuary of the blue pool), in Wales; Lynn-Regis (the king’s pool), in Norfolk; Roslin (the projecting point on the pool), in Mid Lothian; Lynn-yr-Afrange (the beaver’s pool), in Wales; Mauchline, in Ayrshire (the pool in the plain, magh); Lincluden, in Kirkcudbright (the pool of the R. Cluden); Lindores, in Fife, probably not from this root, but a corrupt. of Lann-Tours, being the seat of the abbey of Tours, founded by David, Earl of Huntingdon. Lyme-Regis (the king’s pool), in Dorset; Lymington, anc. Linton (the town on the pool), in Hants; Llyn-hir (long pool); Llyn-y-cun (the dog’s pool), in Carnarvon; Llynn-y-Nadroedd (the adder’s pool); Llynn-ye-cae (the enclosed pool), all in Wales; Llyn-tegid (the fair or beautiful lake); Lly-gwyn, with the same meaning; Llyn-Teivy, of the R. Teivy, in Wales; Llyn-Safaddon, corrupt. from Llyn-saf-baddon (the standing pool or fixed bathing place)—v. BAD.

an enclosure, a garden, or a fort. In Ireland it generally meant originally a place enclosed with a circular entrenchment, for the purpose of shelter and safety, and is often translated by the Lat. atrium (the entrance-room to a dwelling or temple). There are eleven places in Ireland called Lismore (the great enclosure); Lismore also in Argyleshire; Listowel (Tuathal’s fort); Liscarrol (Carrol’s fort); Liscahane (Cathan’s fort); Lissan, Lissane, Lessany (the little fort); Ballylesson (the town of the little fort); Lisclogher (stone fort); Lislevane (the fort of the elm); Lismullin (of the mill); Lisnadarragh (of the oaks); Lisnaskea, i.e. Lios-na-sceithe (of the bush); Lissard (high fort); Gortnalissa (the field of the fort); Lisbellaw, i.e. Lios-bel-atha (the fort at the ford mouth); Dunluce (strong fort); Thurles, Co. Tipperary, from Durlas (strong fort); Rathurles (the rath of the strong fort)—all in Ireland; Liskard or Liskeard (the enclosure on the height), in Cornwall and Cheshire; Lostwithel, in Cornwall, i.e. Les-vthiel (the lofty palace), one of the ancient seats of the Duke of Cornwall; Lesmahago, in Lanarkshire, Lat. Ecclesia-Machute (the enclosure or church of St. Machute); Lesneven, in Brittany, i.e. Les-an-Evan (the enclosure or palace of Evan, Count of Leon); Leslie, in Fife (the enclosure on the R. Leven); Lessudden or St. Boswell’s, in Roxburghshire, bears the first name from Aidan, the Bishop of Lindesfarne, who is said to have lived there; and its second name from Boisel, a disciple of St. Cuthbert. The Spanish llosa is akin to the Celtic lios, as in Lliosa-del-Obispo (the bishop’s enclosure).

the linden-tree; e.g. Leipzig, Lipten, Laubsdorf or Libanoise, Lauban or Luban, Luben, Laubst, Labolz, etc. (the places abounding in linden-trees); Lubeck and Lublin may come from the same root, or from a Sclavonic word signifying beloved.

gray-brown; e.g. Rhipyn Llwyd (the gray upland); Llwyd-goed (gray wood).

a lake; e.g. Loch Broom (the lake of showers, braon); Loch Carron (of the winding water); Loch Doine (deep loch); Loch Duich, in Ross-shire (the lake of St. Duthic, the same person from whom the town of Tain took its Gaelic name, Baile-Duich, St. Dulhaick’s town); Loch Fyne (the fair lake); Loch Lomond (the lake of the elm-tree river); Loch Nell (of the swan, eala); Loch Ness (of the waterfall, i.e. of Foyers)—v. EAS; Loch Long (ship lake, Scand. Skipafiord); Gareloch (short lake, gearr), in Ross-shire, and also a branch of the Firth of Clyde; Loch Etive (dreary loch, eitidh); Lochlubnaig (the lake of the little bend, lubnaig); Lochbuie and Lochbuy (the yellow loch); Lochmuic (of the wild boar); Lochgorm (blue loch); Lochlaggan (of the hollow); Loch Tay (of the R. Tay or Tamha, quiet river); Lochgelly (of the fair water); Loch Maree (the lake of St. Malrube); Lochard (high loch); Loch Awe and Loch Linnhe (here duplicate names, aw signifying water and linne a pool); Loch-na-keal (the loch of the cemetery, cill); Loch Earn (the west loch, i.e. west of Loch Tay); Lochgelly (white lake, gealich); Loch Katrine, probably the lake of the Caterans or freebooters; Benderloch, in Argyleshire, i.e. Bendaraloch (the hill between the lakes); Lochnagar, i.e. Lochan-na-gabhar (the little lake of the goats, at the base of the mountain to which it gives its name); Lochmaben, probably the loch of the bald headland, as in an old charter the castle at the head of the loch is called Lochmalban; Lochfad (long loch), in the Island of Bute, five miles long and scarce half a mile broad; Loch Achray, in Perthshire (the loch of the level plain, reidh); Leuchars, in Fife, formerly Lough-yards, the low grounds of the village used to lie under water for the greater part of the year. In Ireland there are Lough Derg (red lake), originally Loch Dergderc (the lake of the red eye, connected with a legend); Lough Conn (from a personal name Conn); Loch Rea (gray or smooth lake, reidh, smooth); as also Loch Ryan, in Kirkcudbright (of the smooth water, reidhan); Loch Foyle (the lake of Febhal, the son of Lodan); Loughan, Loughane (little lake); Lochanaskin (the little lake of the eels); Lough Corrib, corrupt. from Lough Orbsen (the lake of Orbsen or Mannanan, over whose grave it is said to have burst forth); Lough Erne, in Ireland, named from the Ernai, a tribe; Lough Finn, named after a lady called Finn, who was drowned in its waters; Lough, i.e. Loch-n’-Echach (the lake of Eochy, a Munster chief, who, with his family, was overwhelmed in the eruption which gave their origin to its waters); Loch Swilly, probably a Scand. name, meaning the lake of the surges or whirlpool, swelchie. The town of Carlow was originally Cetherloch (the quadruple lake, cether, four), from a tradition that formerly the R. Barrow formed four lakes at this spot.

a place; e.g. Netley, Lat. Laeto-loco (at the pleasant, cheerful place), so called from a monastery founded there by Mereward, King of Mercia, in 658; Madley (the good place); Matlock (the meat enclosure or storehouse); Leominster, Lat. Locus-fanum (temple place); Porlock or Portlock, in Somerset (the place of the port); Lok-Maria-Ker (the town of Maria Ker), in Brittany. In France: Richelieu (rich place); Chaalis, anc. Carolis-locus (the place of Charles the Good, Count of Flanders); Beaulieu (beautiful place); Loctudey, at Finisterre, corrupt. from Loc-Sancti-Tudené (the place of St. Tudy); Locdieu and Dilo, i.e. Dei-locus (God’s place); Lieusaint (holy place); Baslieu (low place).

a meadow or thicket, and sometimes a marsh; e.g. Waterloo (watery meadow); Venloo (the marshy meadow), and perhaps Louvain may have the same meaning; Groenloo (green thicket); Hohenlohe (the high marshy meadow); Tongerloo (the marshy meadow of the Tungri); Schwarzenloh (the black thicket); Anderlues (on the marsh).

a path; e.g. Iser-lohn (the path by the R. Iser); Forstlohn (the path in the wood); Neerloon and Oberloon (the lower and upper path); Loon-op-Zand (the path on the sand).

a sacred grove; e.g. Lugo, in Italy, anc. Lucus-Dianæ (the sacred grove of Diana); Lugo, in Spain, anc. Lucus-Augusti (the sacred grove of Augustus); Les luches, in France, near the remains of an ancient temple; Luc, anc. Lucus, in Dauphiny.

a marsh, cognate with the Lat. lutum; e.g. Lusatia or Lausatz (the marshy land); Lassahn, Ger. Laki-burgum (the town on the marsh); Lugos or Lugosch, Luko and Leignitz, with the same meaning, in Poland and Silesia; Podlachia (near the marshes), a district in Poland. The towns of Lyons, Laon, and Leyden were formerly named Lugdunum (the fortress in the marshy land); Paris was formerly Lutetia-Parisiorum (the marshy land of the Parisii). In France: Loches, formerly Luccæ and Lochiæ (the marshy land); and Loché, formerly Locheium (the marshy dwelling), in the department of Indre et Loire.

a sacred grove; e.g. Lund, towns in Sweden and in the Shetlands; Lundgarth (the enclosed grove), in Yorkshire; Lundsthing (the place of meeting at the grove), in Shetland; Charlottenlund, Christianslund, and Frederickslund (the grove of Charlotte, Christian, and Frederick), villages in Denmark; and perhaps the island Lundy, in the Bristol Channel.

pleasure—applied, in topography, to a palace or lordly mansion; e.g. Ludwigslust, Charlottenlust, Ravenlust (the palaces of Ludovick, of Charlotte, and of Hrafen); Lostwithel, in Cornwall (the manor of Withel), in the old Brit. language, Pen Uchel coet (the lofty hill in the wood, and the Uzella of Ptolemy); Lustleigh (the valley of pleasure), in Devon.

bright, clear; e.g. Lutri, on Lake Geneva; Luttar, in Brunswick (the bright place); Latterbach and Lauterburn (clear stream); Lauterburg, in Alsace, on the R. Lauter; Lutterworth (the bright farm); Lauterecken, in Bavaria, at the corner, eck, of the R. Lauter.

small; e.g. Lutgenrode (the little clearing); Luxemburg, corrupt. from Lutzelburg (small fortress), Latinised Lucis-Burgum (the city of light), and hence passing into Luxemburg; Lucelle or Lutzel, in Alsace; Lutzelsten (the small rock), in Alsace.

a stone; e.g. Maentwrog (the tower-like pillar), a parish in Merioneth; Maen or Dewi (St. David’s possession).

a meadow or field, cognate with the Gael. magh; e.g. Maescar (the pool in the field); Maisemore (great field), in Brecknock and Gloucestershire; Marden, in Hereford, anc. Maes-y-durdin (the field of the water camp); Basaleg, a parish in Wales. The name has been corrupted Maes-aleg, signifying elect land, from an event famous in Welsh history, which took place there. Maes-teg (the fair field); Maes-yr-onnen (the field of ash-trees); Cemmaes (the plain of the ridge, cefn); Maes-y-Mynach (monk field); Cemmaes, i.e. Cefn-maes (the ridge of the plain), in Wales; Runnymede, Co. Surrey (the meadow of the council), Latinised Pratum-concilii; Andermatt (on the meadow); Zermatt (at the meadow), in Switzerland; Matterhorn (the peak of the meadow); Aeschenmatt (ash-tree meadow); Maes-Garmon (the field of St. Germanus), in Wales; Soultzmatt (the meadow of mineral waters, salz), in Alsace.

great; e.g. the R. Main, anc. Magen-aha (great water); Mainland, anc. Meginland (great island), in the Orkneys; Mainhardt (great wood); Meiningen (the great field)—v. GEN—in Germany.

a field or plain, corrupt. into Maw or Moy, Latinised magus; e.g. Magh-breagh (the beautiful plain), in Ireland, extending from the R. Liffey to the borders of Co. Louth; Moy and May (the plain), both in Ireland and in Scotland; Moidart (the high plain), in Inverness-shire; Mayo (the plain of yew-trees); Moynalty, Irish Magh-nealta (the plain of the flocks); Macosquin, in Londonderry, corrupt. from Magh-Cosgrain (the field of Cosgrain); Mallow, in Cork, Magh-Ealla (the plain of the R. Allo or Ealla, now the Blackwater); Moville and Movilla (the plain of the old tree, bile); Moycoba, for Magh-Coba (the plain of Coba); Machaire, a derivative from Magh, is found under the forms of Maghera and Maghery, thus—Magheracloone (the plain of the meadow); Magheraculmony (the plain at the back of the shrubbery); Maynooth (the plain of Nuadhat); Moira, corrupt. from Magh-rath (the plain of the forts), Co. Down; Moyarta (the plain of the grave, ferta). In Scotland we find Rothiemay, in Banff, corrupt. from Rath-na-magh (the castle of the plain); Monievaird, i.e. Magh-na-bhaird (the plain of the bards), in Perthshire; Machynlleth (the ridge on the slope), a town in Montgomeryshire, Wales. In its Latinised form this word is found in Marcomagus, now Margagen (the plain of the Marcomanni); Juliomagus and Cæsaromagus (of Julius and Cæsar); Noviomagus (the new plain); and again the same word became magen or megen among the Teutonic races, thus Noviomagus became Nimeguen; Nozon was anc. Noviomagus or Noviodunum; Riom, in France, anc. Ricomagus (rich plain); Maing or Meung, on the Loire, formerly Magus; Argenton, Argentomagus (silver field); Rouen, anc. Rothomagus (the fort on the plain). The ancient name of Worms was Bartomagus, which Buttman says means high field; its present name was corrupted from Vormatia; Mouzon, in France, was Mosomagus (the plain of the R. Meuse).

great; e.g. Mahabalipoor (the city of the great god Bali); Mahanuddy (the great river); Mahadea Mountains (the mountains of the great goddess); Maha-vila-ganga (the great sandy river); Mantote, in Ceylon, corrupt. from Maha-Totta (the great ferry).

the place of meeting; e.g. Mahlburg or Mailburg, in Lower Austria (the town of the place of meeting); Detmold, anc. Theotmalli (the people’s meeting-place); Wittmold (the meeting-place in the wood); Moldfelde (in the field); Malton (the town of the meeting), in Yorkshire; Maulden (the valley of the meeting), in Bedfordshire; Kirch-ditmold (the church at the meeting-place).

little; e.g. Malinek, Malinkowo, Malenz, Malchow, Malkow, Malkowitz (little town); Maliverck (the little height).

a place or district; Maenol or Mainor, Welsh (a possession), akin to the Lat. mansio and the Fr. maison. From this word maybe derived Maine, a province of France; Mans and Mantes, although more directly they may probably come from the Cenomanni, a people who formerly inhabited that district in France; Mantua, in Italy, and La Mancha, in Spain, may be placed under this head; also Manchester, anc. Mancunium, and Mancester, anc. Manduessedum; Menteith, in Perthshire, the district of the R. Teith. In the Welsh language the letter m is changed into f and pronounced v, and fan abridged to fa, thus—Brawdfa (the place of judgment); Eisteddfa (the sitting place); Gorphwzsfa (resting place); Morfa (the shore or sea place); Manaera (the place of slaughter), probably the site of a battle; Manclochog (the ringing-stone).[4]

a farm or rural dwelling, to which was attached a certain portion of land. It was often contracted into mas, miex, or mex; e.g. La Manse, Mansac, Manselle, Le Mas, Beaumets, Beaumais, in France. The Manse, i.e. the dwelling and glebe attached to a parish in Scotland; Mains, a parish in Forfar.

the fir-tree; e.g. Mantilholz (the fir-wood); Mantilberg (fir-tree hill); Zimmermantil (the room or dwelling at the fir-trees).

a Ger. word, used both as an affix and a prefix, with various meanings. As a prefix, it occasionally stands for mark (a boundary), as in Marbrook (the boundary brook), and Marchwiail (the boundary of poles), in Wales; sometimes for a marsh, as in Marbach, on the Danube, and Marburg, on the Neckar; sometimes also for mark, an Old Ger. word for a horse, as in Marburg, on the R. Lahn, and Marburg and Mardorf (horse town), in Hesse. As an affix, it is an adjective, and signifies, in the names of places and persons, clear, bright, distinguished, or abounding in; e.g. Eschmar (abounding in ash-trees); Geismar (in goats); Horstmar (in wood); Weimar (in the vine).

the boundary; e.g. Styria or Stiermark, the boundary of the R. Steyer; Markstein (the boundary stone); Markhaus (the dwelling on the border); March, a town in Cambridge; La Marche (the frontier), a domain in France, having been the boundary between the Franks and Euskarians; Mercia, one of the kingdoms of the Heptarchy, bordering on Wales; and Murcia, in Spain, the boundary district between the Moorish kingdom of Granada and the other parts of Spain; Newmark, Altmark, Mittelmark (the new, old, and middle boundary), in Germany; Mark, in the Scandinavian language, meant a plain or district, thus Denmark means the plain of the Danes; Finnmark (of the Finns); Markbury, in Cheshire; Markley, in Hereford (the boundary town and field). The Marcomanni were the March or boundary men of the Sclavonic frontier of Germany; the R. March or Morava, the boundary between Lower Austria and Hungary; Marbecq and Marbeque, rivers in France; Mardick (the boundary dike).

a market, sometimes found as mart; e.g. Marktmühle (the market mill); Marktham, Marktflecken (market-town), in Germany; Martham, also in Norfolk; Neumarkt in Germany, and Newmarket in England (new market-town); Martock, in Somerset (the oak-tree under which the market of the district used to be held); Market-Raisin, in Lincoln, on the R. Raisin; Bibert-Markt, in Bavaria, on the R. Bibert; Kasmarkt, in Hungary, corrupt. from Kaiser-Markt (the emperor’s market-town); Donnersmarkt, the German translation or corruption of Csotartokhely (the Thursday market-place), in Hungary. The cattle-market at Stratford-on-Avon is still called the Rother-market, from an old word rother, for horned cattle.

a port; e.g. Marsala, in Sicily, i.e. Marsa-Allah (the port of God); Marsalquivir, i.e. Marsal-el-kebir (the great port). In Malta: Marsa-scala, Marsa-scirocco, Marsa-muscetto, Marsa Torno.

the thigh—applied in topography to a long low hill; e.g. Massreagh (gray hill); Mausrower (thick hill); Massareene, i.e. Mas-a-rioghna (the queen’s hill); but Massbrook, Co. Mayo, is not from this root; it is a translation of Sruthan-an-aiffrinn (the brook where the mass used to be celebrated).

Irish madhm (a mountain pass or chasm); e.g. Maum-Turk (the boar’s pass); Maumakeogh (the pass of the mist); Maumnaman (of the women); Maumnahaltora (of the altar).

black; e.g. Mavrovouno (the black mountain); Mavro Potamo (the black river), in Greece; Mavrovo and Mavroya (the black town), in Turkey.

by mutation fawr, Welsh (great)—v. MOR, p. 143.

a city or the metropolis; e.g. Medina, in Arabia, called by the Arabs Medinat-al-Nabi (the city of the prophet). In Spain: Medina-de-las-torres (the city of the towers); Medina-del-campo (of the plain); Medina-delpomar (of the apple-orchard); Medina-del-rio-seco (of the dry river-bed); Medina-Sidonia (of the Sidonians). This city was so named by the Moors, because they believed it to have been built on the site of the Phœnician city Asidur.

a lake, sea, or marsh; e.g. Blakemere (the black lake, blaec), in Hereford; Great Marlow or Merelow (the hill by the marsh); Cranmere (the crane’s lake or marsh); Winandermere, so called, according to Camden, from the winding of its shores; Wittleseamere, Buttermere, and Ellsmere, probably from personal names; Meerfeld, Meerhof, Meerholz, and Meerhout (the field, court, and wood near the lake or marsh), in Holland. But mere, in place-names, is said sometimes to mean a boundary—thus Merse, the other name for Berwickshire, may mean either the marshy land or the boundary county between England and Scotland. Closely connected with meer (a lake) are the words in the Celtic as well as in the Teutonic languages, denoting marshy lands, i.e. lands that have lain under water, and are still partially submerged—such as merse, A.S.; morast, Ger.; morfa, Welsh; marish, Gadhelic; marsk, Scand.; and marais, Fr. Many places in Great Britain and the Continent derive their names from these words, thus—the Maros or Marosh; and the Morava (marshy rivers); Moravia (the district of the marshy river); Morast, in Sweden (the town on the marsh); Merton, in Berwickshire (the town on the marsh); Morebattle, in Roxburghshire, anc. Mereboda (the dwelling on the marsh); Ostermarsh (east marsh), in Holland; Marengo (the marshy field), in Italy; Les Moeres (the marshes), in Flanders; Marchienne, Marchienes, Maresché, Maresches, Marest, etc., in France; Marcienisi, in Italy (marshy localities). The River Mersey may come from this word, or it may mean the border river between England and Wales.

from Mansionile, the dim. of mansus; e.g. Grandmenil (the great dwelling or hamlet); Le Menil-la-comtesse (the manor of the countess); Mesnil-église (the church hamlet); Mesnil-Guillaume, Mesnil-Gilbert, Mesnil-Jourdan, named from the proprietors; Mesnil-sur-l’Estrée (the hamlet on the Roman road called Strata Estrée); Les Menils, Menillot, etc., in France.

a village; e.g. Miselmeri, corrupt. from Menzil-el-Emir (the emir’s village); Mezojuso, from Menzil-Yusuf (the village of Joseph).

little, cognate with the Lat. minor; e.g. the Rivers Minnow and Mynwy, in Wales; the Mincio, in Italy; the Minho, in Portugal; Minorca (the less), in opposition to Majorca (the greater island); Miosen (the little sea or lake), in Norway.

great, Scotch muckle; e.g. Mickledorf, Michelstadt, Michelham, Mickleton (great dwelling); Micklebeck (great brook); Michelau (great meadow); Mitchelmerse (the great marsh); Mecklenburg, anc. Mikilinberg (the great town or hill fort); Muchelney (the great island), in Somersetshire, formed by the conf. of the Rivers Ivel and Parret; Meikle Ferry (the great ferry), on Dornoch Firth; Micklegarth (the great enclosure), the Scandinavian name for Constantinople, Grk. Megalopolis; but mikil or miklos, especially in Russia and Hungary, is often an abbreviation of St. Nicholas, and denotes that the churches in these places were dedicated to that saint—thus Mikailov, Mikhailovskaia, Mikhalpol (St. Nicholas’s towns), in Russia; Miklos-Szent and Miklos-Nagy-Szent, in Hungary; Mikolajow, in Poland; Mitcham, in Surrey, in Doomsday is Michelham.

a high rock or the brow of a hill; e.g. Maen-du (black rock), in Monmouth; Minto, a parish in Roxburghshire, on the brow of a steep hill; Meonstoke (hill station); East and West Meon, in Gloucestershire; Mendabia (at the foot of the hill), in Spain; Altmaen, corrupt. to “Old Man of Coniston,” in the Lake country, and to the “Old Man of Hoy,” in the Orkneys; the “Dodmaen,” in Cornwall—v. DODD—has been corrupted to Deadman.

a monk’s dwelling or monastery, hence a cathedral—Lat. monasterium; e.g. Illminster, Axminster, Stourminster, Kremmunster, Charminster (the monasteries on the Rivers Ill, Ax, Stour, Krem, and Char); Beaminster, Co. Dorset, named after St. Bega; Kidderminster (the monastery of Earl Cynebert); Westminster (the minster west of St. Paul’s); Warminster (near the weir or dam of the R. Willey); Monasteranenagh (the monastery of the fair); Monasterboice (of St. Bœthus); Monasterevin (of St. Evin), in Ireland; Monasteria de la Vega (of the plain), in Spain. In France: Moutier, Moustier, Moustoir, Munster, Monestier (the monastery); Montereau, Montreuil, Marmoutier (the monastery of St. Martin); Masmoutier (of Maso); Noirmoutier and Rougemoutier (the black and red monastery); Toli-Monaster or Bitolia (the monastery of the beech-trees), in Turkey; Munster (the monastery), in Alsace; but Munster, a province in Ireland, is compounded from the Scand. ster—qu. v.—and the Irish Mumha, a king’s name; Munster-eifel (the monastery at the foot of the Eifel-berg).

peace; e.g. Mirgorod (the fortress of peace); Miropol, Mirowitz, Mirow (the town of peace).

the middle, cognate with the Lat. medius, Grk. mesos, and Gadhelic meadhon; e.g. Middleby, Middleton, Middleham, Mitton, Middleburg (the middle town); Middlesex (the territory of the middle Saxons); Middlewich (the middle salt manufactory), in Cheshire—v. WICH; Midhurst (the middle wood), in Sussex; Midmar (the middle district of Mar), in Aberdeenshire; Ardmeanadh, Gael. Ardmeadhonadh (the middle height), being the Gaelic name for Cromarty; Mitford (the middle ford); Melton-Mowbray, sometimes written Medeltune (the middle town), formerly belonging to the Mowbray family; Mittelgebirge (the middle mountain range); Mittelwalde, Sclav. Medzibor (the middle of the wood), in Silesia; Methwold, in Norfolk, with the same meaning; Mittweyda (in the midst of pasture ground), in Saxony; Methley and Metfield (middle field); Meseritz and Meseritsch, i.e. mied-zyvreka (in the midst of streams), in Moravia and Pomerania; Mediasch (in the midst of waters), in Hungary; Misdroi (in the midst of woods), in Pomerania; Mediterranean Sea (in the middle of the land); Media (the middle country, as then known); Mesopotamia, Grk. (the country between the rivers); Mediolanum (in the midst of the plain or land)—v. LANN—the ancient name of Milan, Saintes, and some other towns.

new; e.g. Mladiza, Mladowitz, Mladzowitz (new town), in Bohemia; Bladen and Bladow, corrupt. from Mladen, with the same meaning, in Silesia.

a round hill or a bald promontory, as an adjective signifying bald, and often applied to hills and promontories, thus—the Mull or promontory of Cantyre and Galloway; Meldrum, in Aberdeenshire, and Meeldrum, in Ireland (the bald ridge); Melrose, i.e. Maol-ros (the bald headland), Old Melrose having been situated on a peninsula formed by the Tweed; the Eildon Hills, near Melrose, corrupt. from Moeldun (bald hill); the Island of Mull, one of the Hebrides; Mealfourvounie (the hill of the cold moor), in Inverness-shire; Glassmeal (gray hill), in Perth; Malvern (the bald hill of the alders, gwernen); Moel-y-don (the hill of the waves), in Anglesea; Moel-Aelir (the frosty hill); Muldonach (the hill of Donald), one of the Hebrides; Moel-Try-garn (the ridge of the three cairns); Moel-Eilio (the mount of construction); Moel-y-crio (the hill of shouting); Moel-ben-twrch (boar’s head hill), in Wales; Moel-cwm-Cerwyn (the bald dingle of the cauldron); Moelfre, corrupt. from Moelbre (bald hill), in Wales. In Ireland this word often takes the form of moyle, as in Kilmoyle (bald church); Rathmoyle, Lismoyle, Dunmoyle (the bald or dilapidated fort); Mweelbane (the white hill); Meelgarrow (rough hill); Meelshane (John’s bald hill); Mweel-na-horna (the bald hill of the barley); Maulagh (abounding in hillocks); Mullaghmeen (smooth hillock); Mulboy (yellow hillock), etc.; Mullanagore and Mullanagower (the little summit of the goats). In Wales: Moel-hebog (hawk hill); Moel-eryn (eagle hill), in Wales. The Mool of Aswich and the Mool of Land, in Shetland.

a moss or bog. in Ireland: Mona-braher, i.e. Moin-nam-brathar (the bog of the friars); Monalour (of the lepers); Moneen (the little bog); Ballynamona (the town of the bog); Monard (high bog); Montiagh, for Mointeach (the boggy place); Monabrock (the badger’s moss); Monroe (the red moss); Mon is, however, sometimes used instead of monadh (a rising ground in a moor), as in Co. Monaghan, Muineachan (abounding in little hills); which country, however, according to the Annals of the Four Masters, was named from its chief town (the town of monks). In Scotland: Moin, a moorland district in Sutherlandshire; Monzie and Moonzie (the mossy land), in Fife and Perthshire; Montrose (the boggy promontory); Mon, again for monadh, in Monimail (bald hill), in Fife; Moncrieffe (the woody hill, craobach); Moness (the hill of the cascade, eas).

a monk, from the Greek monos (alone); e.g. Monkton, Monkstown, Monkswood, Monkland, named from lands belonging to the monks; Le Mönch (the monk), one of the highest of the Bernese Alps; Monachty (the monks’ dwelling), in Wales; Llan-y-mynach (the monks’ church or enclosure), Co. Salop; Monksilver, in Somerset, corrupt. from Monk-sylva (the monks’ wood); Monkleagh (the monks’ meadow); Munsley, with the same meaning, in Hereford; Monach-log-ddu (the place of the black monks), in Wales; Munchberg (monk’s hill), in Bavaria; Munchengratz (the monks’ fortress), in Bohemia; Munich and Munchingen (belonging to the monks), in Germany.

a river mouth; e.g. Dortmund, Fischmund, Dendermund, Roermonde, Travemünde, Saarmund, Tangermünde, Ysselmonde, Rupelmonde, Orlamunda, Stolpemünde, Swinmund or Sweinemund, Ukermünde, Warnemunde, at the mouth of the rivers forming the first part of these names; Münden, in Hanover (at the mouths of the Rivers Werra and Fulda); Monmouth (at the conf. of the Mynwy and Wye); Plymouth, Falmouth, Sidmouth, Yarmouth, Grangemouth, Teignmouth, Wearmouth, Cockermouth, at the mouths of these rivers; Bishop’s Wearmouth, founded by Biscop in the middle of the seventh century; Deulemont, in France, at the mouth of the Deule; Gladmouth, in Wales, formerly Cledemuth, at the mouth of the Clede or Cleddy; Minde, in Iceland, at the mouth of Lake Miosen.

a frequent prefix in Irish names from muine (a brake or shrubbery); e.g. Moneymore, Moneybeg (the great and little shrubbery); Moneygorm (the blue shrubbery); Moneyduff (the black or dark shrubbery); Moneygall (the shrubbery of the strangers).

a mountain, from the Lat. mons, and cognate with the Gadhelic monadh, and the Cym.-Cel. mynydd; e.g. Montalto (high mount); Montauban (the mount of Albanus); Montechiaro (clear mount); Monte-fosoli (brown mount); Montehermosa (beautiful mount), in Spain; Montenegro, Turc. Karadagh, Sclav. Zerna-gora (black mount), in Turkey; Beaumont, Chaumont, Haumont (the beautiful, bald, and high mount); Montereale and Montreal (the royal hill); Montreal, in Canada, so named by Cartier in 1555; Monte-Rosa, anc. Mons-sylva (woody hill); Monte-Video (the prospect mount); Montmartre, anc. Mons-Martyrum (the hill of the martyrdom of St. Denis), but its earlier name was Mons-Martis (the hill of Mars); Montmirail, Lat. Mons-mirabilis (the wonderful mountain); Remiremont, Lat. Romaries-mons, founded by St. Romarie in 620; Monte-Cavallo, corrupt. from Monte-Calvaria (the Mount of Calvary), so called from a number of chapels, in which were represented the successive scenes of our Lord’s passion. From monticellus, the diminutive of mont, have arisen such place-names as Moncel, Le Monchel, Monchelet, etc.; Mont d’Or (golden mount), in Auvergne; Montefrio (cold mount), in Spain; Montpellier, Lat. Mons-puellarum (the hill of the young girls), so called from two villages belonging to the sisters of St. Fulcrum; Montserrat (the serrated hill); Clermont (bright hill); Mondragon and Montdragone (the dragon’s hill); Monfalcone (hawk hill); Mons, Ger. Berghen (hill town), in Belgium; Piedmont (at the foot of the Alps); Floremont or Blumenberg (flowery hill), in Alsace; Montaign and Monthen, anc. Mons-acutus (sharp or peaked hill); Montigny, Montignac (mountainous); Jeumont, anc. Jovismons (the hill of Jove), in France; Mount Pilatus (the mount with the cap of clouds, from pileus, Lat. a felt cap); Richmond, in Yorkshire, named from a castle in Brittany, from which the Earl of Richmond took his title, meaning the rich or fertile hill; Richmond, in Surrey, named by the Earl after his Yorkshire estate, formerly called Shene from the splendour of the royal residence there, seine, A.S. (splendid); Righimont, in Switzerland, corrupt. from Mons-regius (royal hill); Montacute (sharp hill), in Somerset; Tras-os-Montes (beyond the hills), in Portugal; Apremont, in France, for Aspromonte (rough hill); Pyrmont, corrupt. from Mons-Petrus (St. Peter’s mount); Montferrato (the fortified hill). Mont also signified a hill fort, like berg and dun, as in Montalcino (the fort of Alcinous), in Italy; Montgomery, in Wales, (the fortress of Roger de Montgomerie, who erected a castle there in 1093)—its earlier name was Tre-Faldwyn (the dwelling of Baldwin, a Norman knight); Charlemont, in France, named after Charles V.; Henrichemont, after Henri-Quatre. In Wales: the town of Mold, abbreviated from Mons-altus (high fort)—the Normans built a castle there; Mynydd-du (black hill); Mynydd-mawr (great hill); Mynydd-moel (bald hill). In Scotland: Monadh-ruadh (the red mount or the mounth), the Gaelic name for the Grampians; Mount Battock, Gael. Monadh-beatach (the raven’s hill); Mountbenjerlaw, in Selkirkshire, originally Ben-Yair (the hill of the R. Yair), to which the A.S. law and the Norman mount were added. But monadh in Gael. signifies a mountain range, and sometimes a moor, as Monadh-leath (the gray mountain range). Probably Mendip, in Somerset, is the deep hill, Welsh dwfn and mynydd; Monimail (bald hill); Monifieth (the hill or moor of the deer, feidh). The Mourne Mountains, in Ireland, means the mountains of the tribe; Mughhorna. Mon, in the Basque language, also signifies a hill, and is found in Monzon, an ancient town of Spain, with a hill fort; Monda and Mondonedo, in Spain; and Mondego, in Portugal; and in Carmona (hill summit), in Spain.

mossy ground; e.g. Donaumoss (the mossy meadow of the Danube); Mosston (the town on the mossy ground); Moseley (moss-field or valley); Moscow, on the R. Moskwa (mossy water); Mossow, Mehzo, Mochow, Mochlitz (the mossy ground); Mohacs, Ger. Margetta (the marshy or mossy island), in the Danube; Miesbach (the district of the mossy brook), in Bavaria. The Irish word mæthail (soft mossy land) is almost synonymous with these roots. It is found in Mohill, Co. Leitrim; Mothel in Waterford, and Mothell in Kilkenny; Cahermoyle (the stone fort of the mossy land) in Ireland, and in Muthil in Perthshire.

waste land, heath; Scot. muir; e.g. Moorby, Morton, and Moreton (the dwelling on the moor); Morpeth (the moor path); Oudemoor (the old moor), and Oostmoer (east moor), in Holland; Moorlinch (the moor ridge, hlinc); Lichtenmoer (the cleared moor); Muirkirk (the church in the moor), in Argyleshire; Murroes, corrupt. from Muirhouse, a parish in Co. Forfar; Tweedsmuir (the moor at the source of the R. Tweed), a parish in Peeblesshire; Muiravonside (the mossy land on the banks of the R. Avon), in Stirlingshire.

great; e.g. Morven (the great ben or hill), a hill in Caithness and also in Aberdeenshire; Morven or Morvern, i.e. Mor-Earrain (the great district), in Argyleshire, called by the Gaels Kenalban, corrupt. from Cenealbaltyn, i.e. the tribe of Baldan, a personal name; Kenmore (the great headland), on Loch Tay; Penmaen-mawr (the great stone-hill), in Wales.

the sea, cognate with the Lat. mare, and its derivatives in the Romance languages, and the Teut. meer; e.g. Armorica or Brittany, and Pomerania (the districts on the sea-shore); Morbihan (the little sea), in Brittany; Morlachia or Moro-Vlassi (the Wallachs’ or strangers’ land by the sea)—v. WALSCH; Morlaix (a place on the sea-shore), in Brittany; Glamorgan, Welsh gwlad-morgant (the district of Morgan Mawr, an ancient king of Wales); Morgan, in Cornwall, i.e. by the sea-shore; Maracaybo (the headland by the sea-shore), in South America; Parimaribo (the dwelling near the sea), in South America; Connemara, in Ireland, Irish Conmac-ne-Mara, the descendants of Conmac (by the sea-side).

a bridge; e.g. Dolgemost (long bridge); Maust, Most, Mostje (the place at the bridge), in Bohemia; Babimost (the old woman’s bridge, i.e. the fragile bridge), abbreviated to Bomst; Priedemost (the first bridge), in Silesia; Mostar (old bridge), a town in Turkey.

the place of assembly, where the Anglo-Saxons held their courts of justice; e.g. Mote-hill, at Scone; the Moat Hill, near Hawick; the Mote of Galloway; the Moat of Dull, in Perthshire, and of Hamilton, on Strathclyde; Moot-hill, at Naseby; and in the Lake District, Montay and Caermote; Moothill also appears in Aberdeenshire; Almoot, near Peterhead, meaning the meeting-place on the height, has been corrupted into Old Maud, and the railway company have called their station New Maud. It is found in the Gaelic name for the Island of Bute, Baile-mhoide (the dwelling of the courts of justice), but in this case, as in Ireland, the word was probably borrowed from the Saxons. The word is found in Ireland, signifying a large mound, as well as in connection with the courts of justice—as in Tom-an-mhoid (the hill of the court of justice); La Motte, Fr. (a hillock), common in France.

a mill, cognate with the Lat. mola, and its derivatives in the Romance languages; e.g. Mülenbach and Molinbech (mill brook); Mühlan, Mühldorf, Mühlhausen, Muhlheim (mill dwelling); Moleneynde (mill corner), in Germany and Holland. In England and Scotland: Melbourne, Milton, Millwick, Milford, Milden, Milnathorpe (the stream, town, ford, hollow, farm, of the mill); but Milton, in Kent and in Dorsetshire, are corrupt. from middle town; Moulin, a parish in Perthshire. In France: Moulins (the mills), so called from the great number of water mills formerly on the R. Allier; Mülhausen or Mulhouse, in Alsace, celebrated for its manufactures; Molina, a manufacturing town in Murcia; also in Spain, Molinos-del-Rey (the king’s mills). In Ireland: Mullinahone (the mill of the cave); Mullinavat (of the stick); Mullintra (of the strand); Mullinakil (of the church). In Sclavonic districts: Mlineh, Mlinki, Mlinsk, Mlinow, etc.

the top or summit, and sometimes applied to hills of a considerable height; e.g. Mullaghmeen (the smooth summit); Mulkeergh (the summit of the sheep, caoirich); Mullan (the little summit), in Ireland; probably the Island of Mull, in the Hebrides.

a wall; e.g. Maurs (the walled town), in France; also Villa-de-Muro-cincto (the dwelling surrounded by walls); Morsain, in 879 Murocinctus (surrounded by walls); Murviel (old walls), in Herault,—a place where the ruins of an ancient Gaulish city are found; Mauerhof (the enclosed court), in Germany; Trasmauer (the walled town on the R. Trasen), in Austria; Murany-var (the walled fortress), in Hungary; Muriel-de-la-fuente (the walled town of the fountain); Muriel-viejo (the old walled town); Murillo (the little walled town), in Spain; Murviedro (the old fortifications), called by the Romans Muriveteres, because they believed it to be on the site of the ancient Saguntum; Semur, in France, corrupt. from Sinemurum (without walls).

a nose, cognate with the Lat. nasus, and in topography applied to a promontory; e.g. the Naze, in Norway, and Nash, in Monmouth; Nash-scaur (the promontory of the cliff), in Wales; Katznase (the cat’s headland); Blankenese (white cape), in Holstein; Foreness, Sheerness, Fifeness, Buchanness, Blackness, in England and Scotland; Roeness (red cape), Shetland; Vatternish (water cape), in Skye; Borrowstounness or Bo’ness, in West Lothian (the cape near Burward’s dwelling); Holderness (the woody promontory); Langness and Littleness, in Man; Dungeness (danger cape); Furness (the cape of the beacon-fire), the site of an ancient lighthouse in Lancashire; Saturnness (the southern cape), in Kirkcudbright; Shoeburyness, corrupt. from Sceobirig (the cape of the sea-fortress); Skegness (the cape near the wood, skogr); Skipness (ship headland); Sviatanos, Sclav. (holy cape), in Russia; Caithness (the promontory of the Catti, a tribe).

a city; e.g. Barnagore for Varaha-nagur (the city of the boar); Chandernagore (of the moon); Serenagur (of the sun).

great; e.g. Nagy-Karoly (Charles’s great town); Nagy-Malton (St. Matthew’s great town); Nagy-Szent-Miklos (of St. Nicholas); Nagy-varad (great fortress); Nagy-Koros (the great town on the R. Köros).

a river; e.g. Nahr-el-keber (the great river); Nahr-el-kelb or Lycus (the river of the dog or wolf), so named from a fancied resemblance of a rock near its mouth to the head of these animals; Nahr-Mukatta (the river of slaughter); Aram-Naharaim (the high lands of the two rivers, i.e. Mesopotamia); Nahar-Misraim (the river of Egypt, i.e. the Nile).

a brook or a valley through which a stream flows; e.g. Nantmel (the honey brook); Sych-nant (dried-up brook); Nancemillin (the valley of the mill), in Wales; Dewffneynt (the deep valley) was the ancient British name of Devonshire; Levenant (smooth stream); Nant-frangon, i.e. Nant-yr-a-franc (the beavers’ valley); Nantglyn (the glen of the brook); Nant-y-Gwrtheyren (Vortigern’s valley), in Wales; Nans, in Cornwall; also in Cornwall—Penant (the head of the valley), and Cornant (a brook); Nantwich, in Cheshire (the salt-works, wich, on the brook or stream, i.e. the Weaver); Nantua (in a valley of the Alps); Nantes named from the Namnetes (dwellers in the valley); Mochnant (the swift brook); Nannau (the brooks), in Wales; Nangle, a bay on the coast of Wales, perhaps Nant-gel or cel (a secret corner)—the Rev. J. James. Nevern, a parish in Wales, for Nant-ynfer (the brook of the confluence); Nancy (the valley dwellings); Nans, Nant, with the same meaning, in France; Nanteuil (the valley of the fountain)—v. ŒUIL; Nantberis (St. Peris’s brook).

moist; e.g. Nassau (the moist meadow); Nassenfeld (moist field); Nassenhuben (the huts in moist land); Nassenbeuren (the dwelling in moist land).

a plain; e.g. Nava-de-los-Oteros (the plain of the heights); Nava-hermosa (beautiful plain); Navarre and Navarreux (the plain among hills); Navarette (the plain at the foot of the hill); Paredes-de-nava (the houses of the plain).

lower; e.g. Netherlands (the lower lands); Netherby (lower town); Niederlahnstein (the fortress on the lower R. Lahn); Nederheim, Nederwyk (lower dwellings).

a sacred grove, cognate with the Lat. nemus and the Grk. nemos; e.g. Nemours, anc. Nemoracum (the place of the sacred wood or grove); Nanterre, also in France, anc. Nemetodurum (the sacred grove on the waters); Nismes, anc. Nemausus (the place in the grove); Augustonemetum (the splendid place of the grove), being the ancient name of Clermont; Nemetacum, the ancient name of Arras; Nemea (the place of the grove), in Greece.

new, cognate with the Lat. novus and the Grk. neos and their derivatives; e.g. Neuburg, Neudorf, Neustadt, Neuville, Newbury, Newburgh (new town); Neumarkt (new market); Newbold, Newbottle, Newbattle (new building), in Germany, England, and Scotland; Newburgh, in Fife, is a town of considerable antiquity. It owes its origin to the Abbey of Lindores, in its neighbourhood. It was erected into a burgh or barony by Alexander III., in 1266, and in the charter it was called “Novus burgus, juxta monasterium de Lindores.” It seems, therefore, that there was a more ancient burgh belonging to the abbey in the neighbourhood—Newburn (new stream), in Fife. Newhaven (the new harbour), in relation to the older harbour of Leith. In the sixteenth century Newhaven had a chapel dedicated to the Virgin Mary, and was then called our Lady’s port of grace; but in the year 1511 the city of Edinburgh bought up the village and harbour. In France: Nevers and Noyon, anc. Noviodunum (the new fortress); Neuvy, with the same meaning; Neuvéglise (new church); Villeneuve (new villa); Nièvre and Nivernais, a department and ancient province of France; Nienburg, corrupt. from Neuenburg (new town), in Hanover; Newport (new harbour), in Belgium; Newport, in the Isle of Wight, so named because it superseded the older harbour at Carisbrook; Newport, in Wales, which superseded Caerleon; Neusatz or Neoplanta (new station), founded in 1700, on the Danube; Neusohl (new seat), in Hungary—its native name is Bestereze-banya (the mine on the R. Bistritz); Neustadl (new stall); Neuwied (new pasture); Nimeguen, anc. Noviomagus (new field), in Holland; Novgorod and Novigrad (new fortress); Novidwar (new court), in Russia; Nowe-mjasto (new bridge), in Poland; Novobeilaiaskaia (the new town on the white stream), in Russia; Nova-Zembla, i.e. Novaia-Zemlia (the new land); Nowazamka (new castle); Novi-Bazaar (new market), in Turkey; Nowosedl (new seat); Nienburg, Nyborg, Nyby, Nystead (new town), in Denmark and Holland; Neocastro (new camp), in Greece; Nola or Novla (new place), in the Sardinian states; Naumburg and Nienburg, corrupt. from Neuenburg (new town); Nykioping (new market-town), in Sweden, and Nykjobing, in Denmark, with the same meaning; Newington, in Surrey, corrupt. from Neweton; Newfoundland, so called when rediscovered by John Cabot in 1427, but known previously by Icelandic colonists as Litla-Helluland; Nova Scotia (New Scotland), called by the Norseman Markland; New River, a large aqueduct from Hertfordshire to Islington, by which a great part of London is supplied with water; New Ross, Co. Wexford, corrupt. from its Irish name Ros-mic-Treoin (the wood of Treun’s son); Newtown-Hamilton, in Ireland, founded by the Hamilton family in 1770; Newtown-Limavady, Co. Londonderry, named from a castle in the neighbourhood called Limavady (the dog’s leap); Newtown-Stewart, Co. Tyrone, so called from Sir William Stewart, to whom it was granted by Charles I.; New York, named in honour of the Duke of York, afterwards James II.; New Zealand, called by Tasman, its Dutch discoverer, in honour, it is supposed, of his native province.

lower; e.g. Nijny-Novgorod (the lower new fortress); Nijny-Neviansk (the lower town on the Neva), as distinguished from Verkii-Neviansk, the upper; Nijnaia-ozernaia-krepost (the lower fort of the lakes); Nijny-Devitzk (the lower town on the Devitza); Nijni-Tagelsk (the lower town on the R. Tagel), in Russia.

foreign, from nemy or nêmec, dumb—a word applied by the Sclavonic races to the Germans, because their language was unintelligible to them: e.g. Niemitsch, Niemez, Niemtschitz, German towns in Bohemia; Nemet-uj-var (the new German fortress), in Hungary; but there is a Sclavonic deity called Njam, to whom the names of some of these places may be traced.

a low meadow habitually overflowed with water. It has evidently arisen out of noyer, to submerge; e.g. Noaillac, Noallau, La Noalle, Noalles, Noyelle, Noyellette, in which the word is probably joined to œuil, a water-source; Nogent (pleasant meadow); No-aux-Bois (in the woods); Les Noues, Neuillay, Neuilly, Noisy, Lat. Noesiacum.

the north; e.g. Normandy (the land given by the French to the Normans under Rollo in 912); Noordbroek (the north marshy land); Noordwolde (north wood), in Holland; Norbury, Nordenburg, Norton, Nordhausen (north dwelling or town); Norham, on the R. Tweed; Northampton (the town on the north side of the Aufona, now the R. Nen); Northumberland (the land north of the Humber); Nordkyn (north cape); Normanton and Normandby (dwellings of the Norsemen or Danes), in England; Norrköping (northern market-town), in Sweden; Norrland (a large division of Sweden); Northallerton, in Yorkshire, so called to distinguish it from Allerton-Mauleverer; North Cape (the most northerly point of Norwegian Lapland); North Berwick, Co. Haddington, so called to distinguish it from Berwick-upon-Tweed; Norway (the northern kingdom)—v. REICH, REIKE; Norfolk (the abode of the north people, as distinguished from Suffolk to the south); Northleach, north of the R. Leach; Northwich, in Cheshire (the north salt manufactory)—v. WICH; Norwich, the town which superseded Venta-Icenorum, whose inhabitants fled at the approach of the Danes, and erected a castle of defence farther north.

the walnut-tree, Lat. nucarius, from which are derived nucetum, nucelletum, and nugaretum (a place planted with walnut-trees); e.g. Noyers, Nozay, Noroy, La Nozaye, Les Nozées, Nozieres, Nozeroy, etc., in France.

a river; e.g. Maha-nuddy (great river); Nuddea (the district of the rivers).

a city; e.g. Alut-nuwera (new city); Kalawa (the city on the Kala-Oya, i.e. the rocky river); Nuwera-Panduas (the city of Panduas), in Ceylon.

upper; e.g. Oberhofen (upper court); Oberlahnstein (the upper fortress on the R. Lahn); Oberndorf, Overbie, Overham, Overton, Overburg (upper town); Oberdrauburg (the upper town on the R. Drave); Overyssel (beyond the R. Yssel); Orton (upper town), in Westmoreland; St. Mary’s-Overy, Southwark (i.e. over the water from London).

the eye—(in topography applied to the source of a stream or a fountain; e.g. Arcueil (the arched fountain or aqueduct); Berneuil (the source of the water, bior); Verneuil and Vernel (alder-tree fountain, Lat. vernus); Argenteuil (silver fountain); Bonneuil (good fountain); Nanteuil (the source of the stream); Auneuil (alder-tree fountain, Fr. aune); Auteuil (high fountain); Boisseuil (the woody fountain); Chantilly, anc. Cantilliacum (the head of the water-source).

a border, boundary, or shore—cognate with the Lat. ora and the Grk. horos; e.g. Oare and Ore (the shore), in Kent, Sussex, and Somerset; Windsor, i.e. Windle-sora (the winding shore, A.S. windle); Southover and Westover (the south and west shore); Ventnor (the shore of Gwent, the ancient name of the Isle of Wight); Pershore (the willow shore, pursh), or, according to Camden, corrupt. from Periscorum—in allusion to the abundance of pear-trees in its vicinity; Andover, anc. Andeafaran (the shore or ferry of the R. Anton); Ravensore (the point or promontory of Hrafen, a Scand. personal name); Hanover, anc. Hohenufer (high shore); Elsinore (the point near the town of Helsing), in Denmark; Argyle, Gael. Oirirgaedheal (the coast lands of the Gaels); Dover, in Kent, and Douvres, in Normandy, perhaps from ofer.

water; e.g. Oich River and Oichel (the Rivers Ock, Ocker, Ocke, Eck); Loch Oich, Duich (the black water).

a city; e.g. Ellore, Vellore, Nellore; Tanjore, anc. Tanja-nagaram (the city of refuge); Bednore (bamboo city); Mangalore (the city of Mangala-Devi).

a serpent, also a personal name; e.g. Ormeshead, in Cumberland, named either from the serpent-like shape of the rock, or from the common Norse name Ormr; Ormathwaite, Ormsby, Ormiston, Ormskirk (the clearing, the dwelling, and the church of Ormr). The same prefix in French topography signifies the elm-tree, as in Les Ormes (the elms); Ormoy, Lat. Ulmetium (the elm-grove), synonymous with Olmedo and Olmeto, in Spain. The Orne or Olna (elm-tree river), in Normandy; Ulm or Ulma (the place of elm-trees), in Wurtemburg; Olmeta, in Corsica.

a point, a corner, and sometimes a place; e.g. Angerort (the corner of the R. Anger); Ruhrort (of the Rohr or Ruhr); Grünort (green point); Schönort (beautiful point); Akkerort (the corner of the field); Tiegenort (of the R. Tiege); Störort (of the R. Stör); the Ord or headland of Caithness.

the east; e.g. Ostend (at the east end or opening of the canal into the ocean); Osterburg, Osterfeld, Osterhofen (the east town, field, and court); Osterholtz (the east wood); Osterdalen (the east basin of the R. Duhl), in Sweden; Ostheim, Osthausen, Oesthammer (the eastern dwelling or village); Ostwald (east wood), in Alsace; Essex (the country of the East Saxons, in opposition to Wessex); Austerlitz (the east town of the R. Littawa); Alost (to the east), in Belgium.

an island or lake; e.g. Ostrov, in Russia (on a river-island); Kolkoe-Ostrog (the island in the R. Kola); Ostrova (an island in the Danube); Bielo-Ozero (the white lake); Tschudskoe-Ozero (the lake of the Tschudes, a tribe); Ostrownoye (the new island). But Ostrow and Wustrow are sometimes Germanised forms of Wotschow, Sclav, (a marshy place), as in Wustrow, Ostropol, Ostrasatz, Ostrawiec (the place on the marshy ground).

a hill or rising ground; e.g. El-Otero (the rising ground); Otero-de-las-duenas (the hill of the old ladies); Otero-del-Rey (the king’s hill).

Sclavonic affixes, used as patronymics, like the Ger. ingen; e.g. Nowakwitz (the possession of the descendants of Nouak); Jvanow, Janow, Janowitz (belonging to John and his descendants); Karlowitz (to Charles); Petrowitz (to Peter); Kazimiritz (to Casimir); Mitrowitz (to Demetrius); Stanislowow (to Stanislaus); Tomazow (to Thomas); Cracow or Kracow (the town of Duke Craus or Krak of Poland, by whom it was founded in 1700).

a palace; e.g. the Upper and Lower Palatinate, so called from the palaces erected by the Roman emperors in different parts of the empire; Palazzo, in Dalmatia and Naples; Palazzolo and Palazzuolo (the great palace), in Piedmont; Los Palachios (the palaces), in Spain; Pfalsbourg, anc. Palatiolum (the town of the palace, founded in 1570), in France; Semipalatinsk, in Siberia (the town of the seven palaces), so called from the extensive ruins in its neighbourhood; Spalatro, in Dalmatia, named from the palace of Diocletian, originally Salonæ-Palatium (the palace near Salona), at first corrupted to As-palthium (at the palace), and then to Spalatro. In Wales: Plas-gwyn (the white palace); Plas-newydd (the new palace).

a small town or village, sometimes corrupted to Poly, Pilly, or Pally; e.g. Trichinopoly, i.e. Trisira-palli (the town of the giant).

a marsh; e.g. Padula and Paduli, towns in Italy; Peel, Lat. palus, an extensive marsh in Belgium; La Pala, La Palud, and Paluz, in France; Perugia (the town on the marsh), in a province of the same name in Italy; Pelusium, Coptic Permoun (the muddy or marshy place), on the Delta of the Nile.

a hollow; e.g. Pant-y-crwys (the hollow of the cross), in Wales; Pant-yr-Ysgraff for Pont-yr-Ysgraff—v. PONT.

a priest; e.g. Pabba (the priest’s island), several of this name in the Hebrides; Papa-Stour (the great island of the priest), in Shetland; Papa-Stronsay (the priest’s island near Stronsay), Orkney; Pappenheim, Pfaffenhausen, Pfaffenberg, Pfaffenhofen (the priest’s dwelling), in Germany; Papendrecht (the priest’s pasture); Pfarrkirchen (the priest’s or parish church); Poppowitz, Poppow, Sclav. (places belonging to the priests).

a river, water, or the sea; e.g. Para, Parahiba, Parana, Paranymbuna, rivers in Brazil; Paraguay (the place of waters); Parana-Assu (the great river); Parana-Mirim (the small river); Parahyba (bad water).

a swamp or marsh, cognate with the Lat. palus; e.g. Parchen, Parchau, Parchim (places in a marshy locality); Partwitz or Parzow, Paaren (the town on the marsh), in several localities. The letter p is sometimes changed into b as in Barduz, Barzig, Baruth, in Prussia, and Bars or Barsch, in Hungary.

a city; e.g. Nagapatam (the city of the snake); Masulipatam (of fishes); Periapatam (the chosen city); Viziapatam (the city of victory); Seringapatam, i.e. Sri-ranja-Pattana (the city of Vishnu); Pata or Pattana (the city); Madras or Madras-patan (the city of the college or school; madrasa, Ar., a university). Madras is called by the natives Chenna-patana (the city of Chenappa, an Indian prince).

a small fortress; e.g. Peel, in the Isle of Man, and numerous Peel towers on the border between England and Scotland. The Pile of Foudrig (the peel or tower of the fire island), called Furness, the site of an ancient lighthouse; Les Pilles, in Dauphiny; Ile du Pilier, in La Vendée, with a lighthouse; Pillas, in the Lithuanian language also, is a castle, thus—Pillkallan (the castle on the hill), in E. Prussia, as well as the towns of Pillau, in E. Prussia, Pilsen, in Bohemia, and Pillnitz (the towns with fortifications).

a head, or a promontory, or hill summit; e.g. Pen-carrig (rocky hill or cape); Pen-brynn (hill summit); Pencoid (of the wood); Penmon (the promontory of Mona or Anglesea); Pentir (the headland); Pentyrch (the boar’s head); Pen-y-cwm-gwig (the top of the woody vale), in Wales; Pen-y-groes (the headland of the cross); Penby-diog (land’s end), in Wales; Pencelly (the chief grove); Pen-y-gelly (the head of the grove, cell, a grove); Penllech (of the stone or rock); Penhill, Somerset, and Penlaw, Dumfries (the hill summit); Pendarves (the head of the oak-field); Penpont (the head of the bridge), in Dumfriesshire; Penn (a hill), in Stafford; Pencombe (the head of the hollow); Penforfa (of the moor); Pennant (of the valley); Pen-mynnydd (of the mountain); Penrith, anc. Pen-rhyd (of the ford); Penicuik (the cuckoo’s hill); Cockpen (red hill); Pen-maen-maur (the great stone head or hill); Pennigant (windy hill); Penryn and Penrhyn (the head of the promontory); Pentraeth (of the strand); Pen-y-craig or Old Radnor (the head of the rock); Penzance, formerly Pensans—it is called the saint’s headland, from a head of John the Baptist (the town’s arms), but Camden thinks it might mean the head of the sands; Pain-bœuf or Penn-Ochen (the ox’s headland); Pendennis (the fort on the headland)—v. DINAS. Mount Pindus and the Grampians, Van in Brecknock, and the Vans in Wales, embody this root; also the Apennines and the Pennine Alps, Pena and Penha, in Spain and Portugal are applied to rocks, thus—Penafiel (the loyal rock), in Spain, and also Cape Penas; Penha-verde (green rock) in Brazil.

In Germany this word signifies an enclosure for cattle—in England and France, an enclosure for the protection of game or for pleasure; e.g. Parkhurst (the enclosure in the wood); Parkfoot (at the foot of the park), Co. Stirling; Parkham (park dwelling); Parkmore (great park or field), in Ireland; Parkatotaun (the field of the burning), Co. Limerick.

a horse; e.g. Pferdsfeld (the horse’s field); Pfersdorf (the horse’s village).

a haven, landing-place, or passage—cognate with the Lat. portus; e.g. Seligenpforten (the blessed port); Sassenpoorte (the Saxons’ haven); Himmelpforte (the port of heaven); Pforzheim (the dwelling at the passage or entrance to the Hyrcenian forest), in Baden; Zandpoort (sandy haven); Porlock (the enclosed haven), in Somersetshire; Portsmouth (the mouth of the haven); Porthkerry (rocky haven), in Wales; Porthaethroy (the landing-place of the terrible water), a dangerous ferry in Wales; Portholgoch, corrupt. from Porth-y-wal-goch (i.e. the harbour of the red wall); Porthstinian (the port of Justinian), in Wales; Porth-y-cawl, corrupt. from Porth-y-Gaul (the harbour where the Gallic invaders used to land), in Wales. In Ireland: Portraine, now Rathlin (the landing-place of Rachra); Portadown (at the fortress); Portlaw, Irish Port-lagha (at the hill); Portmarnock (the haven of St. Marnock); Port-na-Spania (the port of the Spaniard), where one of the vessels of the Invincible Armada was wrecked, off the coast of Ireland; Port-Arlington, named after the Earl of Arlington in the reign of Charles II.; Port-Glasgow, anc. Kil-ma-Colm (St. Columba’s church). It received its modern name in 1668, when purchased by the merchants of Glasgow; Portmoak, in Kinross (the landing-place of St. Moak); Port-Patrick (the place from which it is said St. Patrick sailed for Ireland); Portree, in Skye, and Port-an-righ, in Ross (the king’s haven); Portnellan (the landing-place of the island), in Loch Tummel; Portmore (the great port), in Wigton; Port-na-craig (of the rock); Port-na-churaich (of the boat), in Iona, where St. Columba landed from Ireland; Port-skerrie (the rocky landing-place), in Sutherland; Snizort, in Skye, corrupt. from Snisport, probably named after a Norse leader or pirate; Port-ny-hinsey (the haven of the island), the Celtic name of Peel, in the Isle of Man; Portinscale, in Westmoreland (the passage where the skaala or booths for the Scandinavian thing, i.e. meeting, were erected); Portobello (the beautiful harbour), in South America, so named by its founder; Portobello, in Mid Lothian, named in commemoration of the capture of the South American town in 1739; Portskewitt or Porth-is-coed (the port below the wood), in Monmouth; Porth-yn-lyn (the port of the pool), in Wales; Portsoy, in Banffshire, i.e. Port-saith (the safe port); Port-dyn-Norwig (the port of the Northman), in Wales; Maryport, in Cumberland, named after the wife of its first proprietor; Portlethan, Gael. Port-leath-an (the port of the gray river), Kincardine; Port-Logan, in Wigton, i.e. Gael. Port-na-lagan (the port of the hollow). Port became an established Saxon word for a market-town—hence we have such names as Newport, Longport, applied to inland towns; Bridport, on the R. Brit. The Cinque-ports, Fr. cinq (five), were the towns of Dover, Hastings, Hythe, Romney, Sandwich. In Portugal: Oporto (the port); Portugal, anc. Portus-cale, both meaning the harbour; Porto-rico (rich port), an island of the Antilles group; Porto-Santo (the holy port), in the Madeira Isles; Porto-seguro (safe port); Porto-Vecchio (old port), in Corsica; Porto-Alegre (the cheerful port), in Brazil; Porto-farina (the port of wheat), in North Africa; Porto-ferrajo (fortified port), in Tuscany, on the coast of the Island of Elba; Port-Vendres, Lat. Portus-Veneris (the port of Venus), in France; Le Treport, corrupt. from the Lat. Ulterior-Portus, in Normandy, at the mouth of the Bresle.

a peak or promontory; e.g. the Pike o’ Stickle (the peak of the high rock); the Peak, in Derbyshire; Pike’s Peak, in the Rocky Mountains, named after General Pike; Spitz, in Austria, built around a hill; Spitzbergen (the peaked mountains); Spithead (the head of the promontory); Le Puy (the peak), a town situated on a high hill; Puy-de-dome (the dome-shaped peak).

sand; e.g. Pesth, in Hungary (on a dry, sandy soil); but Buttman suggests that the name may be derived from paz, Sclav. (a baking place), as the German name for Buda, on the opposite side of the Danube, is Ofen (the oven); Peschkowitz, Peshen, Pisck, Pskov, Peckska, in Russia and Bohemia. Pies, Sclav. (the dog), may, however, be the root-word of some of these names.

PITT, PITTEN (Gadhelic),

a hole, a small hollow. This word, as a prefix, occurs very frequently in Scotland, especially in Fife, in which county the most important place is Pittenweem (the hollow of the cave, uaimh), the seat of an ancient monastery, near which is the cave from which it was named; Pitcairn (the hollow of the cairn), near Perth, in the neighbourhood of which there are two large cairns of stones; Pitgarvie (the rough hollow); Pitglas (the gray hollow); Pettinain (the hollow of the river), a parish on the Clyde; Pittencrieff (the hollow of the tree, craobh); Pitgober (of the goat); Pitnamoon (of the moss); Pittendriech (the Druid’s hollow); Pitcaithly, probably the hollow of the narrow valley, in Perthshire; Pittentaggart (the priest’s portion)—as in ancient times, the word pitte is understood to have also meant a part or portion of land; and it has probably this meaning in Pitlochrie, in Perthshire, anc. Pittan-cleireach (the portion of the clergy or church-land), as well as in Pittan-clerach, in Fife; Pitmeddin, in Aberdeenshire, named after St. Meddane. Pittenbrae (the hollow of the hill); Petty or Pettie, anc. Petyn (the hollow of the island), on Beauly Loch, Inverness; Pettycur (the hollow of the dell, coire), in Fife.

meaning successively a hedge, an enclosed and cultivated place surrounded by trees, an enclosed garden, a park, a mansion, or country residence; e.g. Plessis, Le Plessin, Plessier, Le Plessial, etc.—v. Cocheris’s Noms de Lieu.

a village, found only in Brittany; e.g. Pleu-meur (great village); Pleu-nevey (new village); Ploer-mel (the mill village); Pleu-Jian (John’s village); Pleu, Ploven, Pleven, etc.

a plain; e.g. Ploen, a town in Holstein; Plönersee (the lake of the plain); Juriev-Polskoi (St. George’s town on the plain); Poland, i.e. Polskoi (the plain or level land); Volkynia (the level country).

near or under; e.g. Podgoriza (under the hill); Podmokla (near the moss); Potsdam, from Pozdu-pemi (under the oaks).

land reclaimed from the sea; e.g. Polder and Polders, in Belgium; Beemsterpolder (the meadow of the reclaimed land); Charlotten-Polder (Charlotte’s reclaimed land); Pwlpolder (land reclaimed from a pool or marsh).

a city; pol (Sclav.), probably borrowed from the Greek; Constantinople, Adrianople, founded by the emperors Constantine and Adrian; Nicopolis and Nicopoli (the city of victory)—the first founded by Augustus to commemorate the battle of Actium, and the second by Trajan to commemorate his victory over the Dacians; Persepolis (the city of the Persians); Pampeluna, corrupt. from Pompeiopolis, so called because rebuilt by the sons of Pompey the Great; Decapolis (the district of the ten cities), colonised by the Romans, in Palestine; Sebastopol (the august city); Stavropol (the city of the cross), in Russia; Bielopol (the white city); Bogopol (the city of God, Sclav. Bog); Gallipoli, anc. Calipolis (the beautiful city); Naples, Nauplia, Nablous, and Neapolis (the new city); Grenoble, corrupt. from Gratianopolis (the city of Gratian); Heliopolis (the city of the sun), being the Greek name for On, in Egypt, and also for Baalbec, in Syria; Krasnapol (the fair city); Theriasipol, in Hungary (named after the Empress Theresa)—its Hungarian name Szabadka (the privileged); Yelisabetpol (after the Empress Elizabeth); Tripoli, in Syria (the three cities), being a joint colony from Tyre, Sidon, and Aradus; Tripoli, in Barbary, named from its three principal cities, Lepta, Oca, and Sabrata; Tripolitza, in the Morea, built from the remains of the three cities Tegea, Mantinea, and Palantium; Amphipolis, now Emboli (the surrounded city), so called because almost encircled by the R. Strymon; Anapli, in the Morea, corrupt. from Neapolis (new town); Annapolis, in Nova Scotia, named after Queen Anne; Antibes, in Provence, a colony from Marseilles, anc. Antinopolis, named after its founder; Stamboul, the Turkish name for Constantinople, means eis ten polin (to the city).

a pool or marsh, cognate with the Lat. palus; e.g. Poole, in Dorset, situated on a lagune; Pontypool (the pool at the bridge); Welsh-pool, so called to distinguish it from Poole in Dorset—its Welsh name is Trellyn (the dwelling on the pool); Hartlepool, Danish Hartness (the pool hard by the headland)—the Normans added le pol, from a pool called the Slake, by which it is almost insulated; Liverpool, probably Llyr-pwl, Welsh (the sea pool); Blackpool, in Lancashire, named from a marsh now drained; Polton and Pulborough (pool town); Polbaith and Polbeath, Gael. (the pool of the birches); Poltarf (of the bull); Pollnaranny and Polrane (of the ferns), in Ireland; Wampool in Cumberland (i.e. Woden’s pool); Pwl-helli (the salt pool); Pwll-du (black pool); Pwll-broch-mael (the pool of the warlike weapons), the site of a battle between the Welsh and Saxons; Pwll-tin-byd (the very deep pool, literally the pool at the bottom of the world); Pwll-y-wrach (the hag’s pool), in Wales. Pill, in Gloucester, means the mouth of a brook, e.g. Cow-pill, Horse-pill, etc.; Polmont, Co. Stirling, corrupt. from poll-monaidh (the pool near the hill).

the apple-tree; pomeratum (a place planted with apple-trees); e.g. La Pommerée, Pommeray, Pomiers, Pommera, Pommeraie, Pommereau, Pommereuil, in France.

the bridge, with its derivatives in the Romance and in the Welsh languages; e.g. Pontefract, Lat. Ad-pontem-fractum (at the broken bridge); Pontoise (the bridge across the R. Oise); Pont-Audemer (the bridge built by Aldemar across the R. Rille); Pont-de-briques (the bridge of bricks); Pont-d’Espagne, corrupt. from Pont-de-sapins (the fir-tree bridge); Ponteland, in Northumberland, corrupt. from Ad-pontem-Ælianum (at the bridge of Ælius); Pontigny (bridge town); Les-Ponts-de-Cé (the bridges of Cæsar), a town in France, with four bridges across the Loire; Negropont, probably a corrupt. of Egripo, which the Italian sailors translated into Negripo or Negropont (black bridge), in allusion to the narrow strait called in Greek Euripos (i.e. the strait with the violent current), on which the town was built—the name of the town was gradually extended to the whole island, till then called Eubœa; Ponte-vedra (the old bridge), and Puenta-de-la-Reyna (the queen’s bridge), in Spain; Grampound, in Cornwall, Welsh Pout-maur (the great bridge), corrupt. from the Fr. Grand-pont; Paunton, in Lincoln, anc. Ad-pontem (at the bridge); Pontesbury (bridge town), in Cheshire; Ponte-corvo (the crooked bridge), in Campania; Deux-ponts (the two bridges), in Bavaria. In Wales: Pont-faen (stone bridge); Pont-newydd (new bridge); Pont-glasllyn (the bridge at the blue pool); Pont-y-glyn (the bridge of the glen); Pont-y-pair (the bridge of the cauldron); Pont-ar-ddulas (the bridge on the dark water); Pont-ar-Fynach (the devil’s bridge); Pontypool (the bridge of the pool); Pant-yr-ysgraff, probably corrupt. from Pont-yr-ysgraff (the bridge of boats). In France: Poncelle, Ponchel, Poncelet, Ponceaux, etc.; Pont-à-couleuvre, in the depart. of Oise, probably from an Old Lat. text, in which this place is called Pont-à-qui-l’ouvre (i.e. the bridge to whomsoever may open), it being a bridge closed by barriers—Cocheris’s Noms de Lieu.

a city; e.g. Nagpoor (snake city); Chuta Nagpore (the little snake city); Amarapoora (divine city); Bejapore or Visiapoor (the city of victory); Berampore (of the Mahometan sect called Bohra); Bhagulpore (tiger city); Ahmedpore (the city of Ahmed); Ahmedpore Chuta (the little city of Ahmed); Callianpoor (flourishing city); Bhurtpore (the city of Bhurat, the brother of the god Ram); Rampoor (Ram’s city); Bissenpoor (of Vishnu); Ferozepore (of Feroze-Togluk); Huripoor (of Hari or Vishnu); Shahjehanpoor (of Shah Jehan); Mahabalipoor (of Bali the Great); Caujapoor (of the Virgin); Rajapore (of the rajah); Cawnpoor or Khanpur (of the Beloved One, a title of Krishna); Hajipoor (of the pilgrim); Ghazipore (of Ghazi, a martyr); Mirzapoor (the city of the emir); Secunderpoor (of Secunder Lodi); Sidhpoor (of the saint); Singapore (of the lions); Russoulpoor (of the prophet); Chandpoor (of the moon); Joudpoor (war city); Ratnapoor (of rubies); Munnipora (of jewels); Darmapooram (of justice); Dinajpore (of beggars); Futtepoor (of victory); Sudhapura (bright city); Conjeveram, corrupt. from Canchipura (the golden city); Trivandrum, corrupt. from Tiruvanan-thapuram (the town of the holy Eternal One), in Travancore.

a holy place; e.g. Vissenpraag (the holy place of Vishnu); Devaprayaga (God’s holy place).

a meadow, derived from the Lat. pratum; e.g. the Prairies or meadow lands; Prato-Vecchio (the old meadow), in Tuscany; Ouro-preto, corrupt. from Ouro-prado (the gold meadow), near a gold mine in Brazil. In France, Prémol, i.e. pratum molle (the smooth meadow); Prabert, i.e. Pratum Alberti (Albert’s meadow); Pradelles, Les Prések, Prémontié, Lat. Pratum-mons (the mount in the meadow), the site of an abbey, chief of the order of the Prémontié.

a collection of people, hence a village; e.g. La Puebla, in Mexico; La Puebla-de-los-Angelos (the village of the angels), in Mexico.

an island; e.g. Pulo-Penang (betel-nut island).

a waste place; e.g. Pustina (on the waste ground); Pusta-kaminica (the stony waste).

a well or pool of standing water, cognate with the Lat. puteus and its derivatives in the Romance languages; e.g. Puozzuoli in Italy, and Puteaux in France, anc. Puteoli (the place of wells); Le Puiset, anc. Puteolis castrum (the camp of the well); Pfutzenburg and Pfutzenthal (the town and valley of the wells or pools), in Germany; Poza-de-la-sal (the salt well), near a salt mine in Spain; also in Spain: Pozanca and Pozancos (the stagnant pools); Pozo-blanco and Pozo-hondo (the white and deep pool); Putney, anc. Puttenheath (the pool on the heath), in Surrey; Puttenheim, in Belgium (a dwelling near a well or pool).

a place from which water flows—from quellen, to spring, and wyllan, to flow; e.g. Mühlquelle (the mill fountain); Hoogkill (corner well), and Bassekill (low well), in Holland; Quillebœuf (well town), in Normandy; Roeskilde (the fountain of King Roe), in Denmark; Salzwedel (salt well); Hohenwedel (high well); Tideswell, in Derbyshire—probably from a personal name, as there is a Tideslow in the neighbourhood; Wells, in Norfolk (a place into which the tide flows); Wells, in Somerset, named from a holy fountain dedicated to St. Andrew; Motherwell, in Lanarkshire, named from a well dedicated to the Virgin Mary; Amwell, in Hants, corrupt. from Emma’s well; Holywell, in Wales, named from St. Winifred’s well—in Welsh it is called Treffynnon (the town of the well); Shadwell, in London (St. Chad’s well); Bakewell, anc. Badican-wylla (the bath wells), in Derbyshire; Walston, a parish in Lanarkshire, named from a sacred well near the site of the church; Ashwell (the well among ash-trees), in Hertford; Ewell, in Surrey, found written Etwell and Awell (at the well).

a place where wood has been cut down, and which has been cleared for tillage, from reuten, to root out, to plough or turn up. The word in its various forms, reud, reut, and rath, is common in German topography; e.g. Wittarode (the cleared wood); Herzegerode (the clearing on the Hartz Mountains); Quadrath (the clearing of the Quadi); Lippenrode (the clearing on the R. Lippe); Rade-vor-dem-walde (the clearing in front of the wood); Randarath and Wernigerode (the clearing of Randa and Werner); Zeulenroda (the clearing on the boundary, ziel); Schabert, corrupt. from Suabroid (the Swabian clearing); Pfaffrath (the priest’s clearing); Baireuth (the cleared ground of the Boii or Bavarians); Schussenried (the clearing on the R. Schussen). Royd, in England, means a path cut through a wood, as in Huntroyd, Boothroyd, Holroyd. Terra-rodata (rode land) was so called in opposition to Terra-Bovata, i.e. an ancient enclosure which had been from time immemorial under the plough, i.e. Ormeroyd (Ormer’s rode land).

a promontory or peninsula; e.g. Rain, a town name in Bavaria and Styria; Randers, on a promontory in Denmark; Hohenrain (high promontory); Steenrain (rock headland); Renfrew (the promontory of the stream, frew), anc. Strathgriff, on the R. Griff; the Rhinns (i.e. the points), in Galloway; Rhynie, a parish in Aberdeenshire; Rhind, a parish in Perthshire, with the parish church situated on a headland jutting into the R. Tay; Rinmore (the great point), in Devon, Argyle, and Aberdeenshire; Rindon, in Wigton; Tynron, Gael. Tigh-an-roinne (the house on the point), a parish in Dumfriesshire; Reay, in Sutherlandshire, and Reay, a station on the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway, from Ra, Norse (a point); Penryn (the head of the point), in Cornwall. This word, in various forms, such as rin, reen, rine, ring, is of frequent occurrence in Ireland; e.g. Ringrone (the seal’s promontory); Rineanna (the promontory of the marsh, eanaigh); Ringville and Ringabella, Irish Rinn-bhile (the point of the old tree); Ringfad (long point); Ringbane (white point); Rineen (little point); Ringagonagh (the point of the O’Cooneys); Rinville, in Galway (the point of Mhil, a Firbolg chieftain); Ringsend, near Dublin (the end of the point).

royal; e.g. Rajamahal (the royal palace); Rajapoor (royal city); Rajpootana (the country of the Rajpoots, i.e. the king’s sons—putra, a son).

a cape; e.g. Ras-el-abyad (the white cape); Rasigelbi, corrupt. from Rasicalbo (the dog’s cape); Rasicarami (the cape of the vineyards); Ras-el-tafal (chalk cape); Rasicanzar (the swine’s cape); Ras-el-shakah (the split cape); Ras-el-hamra (red cape); Rascorno (Cape Horn).

council; e.g. Rachstadt or Rastadt (the town of the council or court of justice); Rathenau (the meadow of the council): Raithby (the dwelling of the court of justice).

a round earthen fort or stronghold, cognate with the Welsh rhath, a mound or hill; e.g. Rathmore (the great fort); Ratass or Rathteas (the south fort); Rattoo or Rath-tuaith (northern fort); Rathbeg (little fort); Rathduff (black fort); Rathglass (green fort); Rathcoole (the fort of Cumhal, the father of Finn); Rathcormac (of Cormack); Rathdrum (of the ridge); Rathdowney, Irish Rath-tamhnaigh (of the green field); Rathbane (white fort); Rathfryland (Freelan’s fort)—all in Ireland. Rattray, in Perthshire, where there are the remains of an old fortress on a hill, and near what is called the Standing Stones, supposed to have been a Druidical temple; Rathven (hill-fort), in Banffshire; Rathmorail (the magnificent fort), in Aberdeenshire; Raphoe, Co. Donegal, abbrev. from Rathboth (the fort of huts).

a kingdom; e.g. France, i.e. Frank-reich (the kingdom of the Franks, who are supposed to have derived their name from a kind of javelin called franca); Austria, Œstreich (the eastern kingdom), as opposed to Neustria (the western); Surrey or Sud-rice (the southern kingdom); Goodrich, in Hereford (Goda’s rule or kingdom); Rastrick (Rasta’s rule), in Yorkshire; Norway or Nordrike (the northern kingdom); Ringerige, in Norway (the kingdom of King Ringe); Gothland, anc. Gotarike (the kingdom of the Goths); Sweden, anc. Sviarike (the kingdom of the Suiones).

smooth, used also as a noun to signify a level field, and Anglicised re, rea, or rey; e.g. Remeen (the smooth plain); Muilrea (smooth hill, mullagh, p. 145); Rehill for Redh-choill (smooth wood).

a river; e.g. Riga, Rega, Regan, Regnitz (river names); also the R. Spree, Sclav. Serbenreka (the river of the Serbs or Wends); Meseritz and Meseritsch (in the midst of rivers), in Moravia and Wallachia; Rakonitz (the town on the river), in Russia; Reka, the Sclavonic name for Fiume, It. (the river), a town on the Adriatic, at the mouth of a stream of the same name.

to flow, from whence are derived rivus and rivula, Lat.; rio, Span. and Port.; rivola, raes, and rith, A.S. (a stream). The Eng. river comes through the Fr. rivière, and that from riparia, in Mediæval Lat. a river, but literally a river-bank. From these root-words many river names are derived, or from rhe, rea (swift), joined to root-words signifying water; e.g. the Rhone, anc. Rhodanus, the Rhine, Rye, Rea, Rhee, Rhea, Rey, Rheus, Roe, Ruhr, etc.; Rio-doce and Rio-dulce (sweet or fresh river), in opposition to Rio-salada (salt river); Rio-branco (white river); Rio-bravo-del-norte (the great north river); Rio-grande-do-sul (the great south river); Rio-negro (black river); Rio-tinto (coloured river); Rio-colorado, with the same meaning; Rio-de-Janeiro, generally called Rio—so named by the Portuguese discoverer because the bay was discovered on the feast of St. Januarius: the city founded at the place, and now called Rio, was originally named St. Sebastian; Rio-de-Cobra (the snake river), in Jamaica; Rio-dos-Reis (the river of the kings), in Africa, so named by Vasco de Gama, because discovered on the feast of the Epiphany; Rio-de-Ouro (the river of gold), on the coast of Guinea; Rio-azul (the blue river); Rio-Marahão (the tangled river); Rio-de-la-Plata (the river of plata, i.e. silver), so called from the booty taken on its banks.

a cataract; e.g. Rhayadar (the cataract), a town in Radnor, near a fall of the R. Wye, removed in 1780. Radnor itself is supposed to have taken its name from Rhiadur-Gwy (the cataract of the R. Wye); Rhiadur-mawr (the great cataract), in Caernarvonshire; Rhaidr-y-wennol (the cataract of the swallow), so named from the rapidity of its motion, like that of the bird.

an ascent; e.g. Ruabon, corrupt. from Rhiw-Fabon (the ascent of St. Mabon).

in Wales signifying a moor, in Cornwall a valley; e.g. Ross, a town in Hereford; Rhoscollen (the moor of hazels), in Anglesea; Rhos-du (black moor); Penrhos (the head of the moor), in Wales. In Cornwall: Roskilly (the valley of hazels); Rosecrewe (the valley of the cross); Rosvean (little valley); Rosmean (stony valley).

red; e.g. Rutland (red land), or perhaps cleared ground—v. RODE; Rhuddlan (the red bank, glan); Rhuthin, corrupt. from Rhudd-din (the red land); Llanrhudd (the red church), in Wales; Romhilde, anc. Rotemulte (red land); Rother, Rotha, Rothback (red stream); Rotherthurm, Hung. Vörostoroney (red tower); Rothen-haus, Sclav. Czerweny-hradek (red house or castle), in Bohemia; Rotenburg, in Switzerland (the town on the red brook); Rothenburg, in Hanover and Bavaria (the red fortress); Rothenburg, in Prussia proper, is called by the Sclaves Rostarezewo (the town of the Sclavonic deity Ratzi); Rothenfels (red rock); Rotherham (the dwelling on the red river); Roughan and Rooghaun (reddish land), in Ireland. But the prefix rud is sometimes the abbreviation of a proper name, thus— Rudesheim, in Germany, is from Hruodinesheim (the dwelling of Hruodine); Rudby, in Yorkshire (of Routh); Rudkioping, in Denmark (the market-town of Routh).

a ford; e.g. Rhyderin, corrupt. from Rhyd-gerwin (the rough ford); Rhyd-y-Boithan, corrupt. from Byddin (the ford of the army); Rhydonen, corrupt. from Rhyd-hen (the old ford); Rhyd-dol-cynfar (the ford of the valley of the ancient fight).

the three things, q.v., i.e. the three places or districts where the Scandinavians held their judicial assemblies; e.g. the Ridings, in Yorkshire, so named under the Danish rule; Lincoln was divided by the Danes in the same manner.

a reed; e.g. Retford and Radford (the reedy ford); Radbourne (reedy brook); Redbridge, in Hants, anc. Reideford (reedy ford). Bede calls it Arundinis-vadum, Lat. (the ford of the reeds).

a ridge; e.g. Hansrücke (John’s ridge); Hengistrücke (the horses’ ridge); Hundsricke (the dog’s ridge); Rudgeley (the field at the ridge); Brownrigg, Grayrigg (the brown and gray ridge); Reigate (the passage through the ridge), contracted from ridgegate; Lindridge (lime-tree ridge); Rucksteig (the steep path on the ridge); Langrike (long ridge); Steenrücke (stony ridge).

a bank or the border of a stream; e.g. Riva (on the bank of Lake Como); Riva or Rief (on Lake Garda); Rive-de-Gier and Aube-rive (on the banks of the R. Gier and Aube); Aute-rive and Rives-altes (the high river-banks); Rieux, anc. Rivi-Castra (the camp of the river-bank); Riberac (on the bank of the water), in France; Rivalta (the high bank), in Piedmont; Rivoli, anc. Ripula (the little bank), in Piedmont; Romorantin, anc. Rivus-Morentini (the bank of the R. Morantin), in France; Riveria or Riberia, in Low Lat. signified a plain on the bank of a river—hence Rivière, Rivières, Hautes-Rivières, La Rivoire, etc., in France; Rivarrennæ, i.e. Ripa-arenæ (the sandy bank), on the R. Cher; the Rialto at Venice is corrupt, from Riva-alto (the high bank); Rye, in Sussex, in Lat. records Ripa; Ryde, in the Isle of Wight, formerly Rye (on the bank of the water); Altrupp, on the R. Rhone, anc. Alta-ripa (the high bank); Ribaute and Autrepe, for Haute-rive (high bank), in Belgium; Ribadavia and Riba-de-Sella (the bank of the Rivers Avia and Sella), in Spain; Ripon, in Yorkshire, anc. Ripum (on the bank of the R. Ure).

the rush; e.g. Ruscomb (the rushy hollow); Rushbrook (the rushy stream); Rushford, Rushmere, Rushholme, Ryston (the rushy ford, marsh, island, and town); Rogatzn, in Poland, and Rogatchev, in Russia (the place of rushes).

a rock—derivatives from the Lat. rupes; e.g. Rocca-bianca (white rock); Rocca-casale (rock village or dwelling); Rocca-secura (the safe rock fortress), in Italy; Rocca-Valoscuro (the rock in the dark valley), in Naples; Rochefort-sur-mer (the strong fortress on the sea), at the mouth of the R. Charente; La Rochelle (the little rock fortress); Rochefort (rock fortress), in Belgium; Rochester, Co. Kent (the fortress on the rock), or, according to Bede, the fort of Hrop, a Saxon chief; Rochester, in New York, named after Colonel Rochester, one of the early settlers; Roche-Guyon, Lat. Rupes-Guidonis (the rock fortress of Guido); Roche-Foucault, anc. Rupes-Fucaldi (the fortress of Foucalt); Rocroi, Lat. Rupes-Regia (the royal fortress), in France; Roxburgh (the rock fortress)—the ancient town, as well as the county, taking their name from the strong castle, situated on a rock near the junction of the Tweed and Teviot—the ancient name of the castle was Marchidun (the hill-fort on the marshy land).

a promontory or isthmus, and also, in the south of Ireland, a wood; thus New Ross, Co. Wexford, anc. Ros-mic-Treoin (the wood of Treuon’s son); Roscommon (of St. Coman); Roscrea (Cree’s wood); Ross-castle (on a promontory on Lake Killarney); Muckross (the peninsula of the pigs), in several places in Ireland; Muckros (with the same meaning—the pig’s headland) was the ancient name of the town of St. Andrews; Rossbegh (of the birches); Rossinver (of the confluence); Port-rush (the landing-place of the promontory); Ross-shire seems to have taken its name from Ross (a wood); Montrose, anc. Monros (the promontory on the marshy land, moin); Rosneath, anc. Rosneveth (the promontory of St. Nefydd), in Dumbartonshire; Roslin (the promontory on the pool); Kinross (the head of the promontory), either with reference to the county—in regard to Fife, of which it anciently formed part—or with reference to the town at the head of Loch Leven. Fife was anciently called Ross: it got the name of Fife in honour of Duff, Earl of Fife, to whom it was given by Kenneth II.; and in 1426 Kinross was made a separate county. Roskeen (the head or corner of Ross-shire); Rosehearty, in Aberdeenshire, corrupt. from Ros-ardty (the dwelling on the high promontory).

rest; e.g. Ludwigsrühe (Ludowic’s rest); Carlshrühe (Charles’s rest), founded by Charles William, Margrave of Baden, in 1715; Henricksrühe (Henry’s rest).

council; e.g. Runhall (the hall of the council); Runnington, anc. Runenton (the town of the council); Runnymede (the meadow of the council).

fish; e.g. Rybnik, Rybniza (the fish pond); Rybinsk, Rybnaia (fish town).

a dam or ditch; e.g. Prierow (near the dam); Prierosbrück (the bridge near the dam); Ryswick (the town on the dam); Riez, Rieze, Riezow, Riezig (at the dam).

behind; e.g. Sabor (behind the wood); Zadrin (behind the R. Drin); Zamosc (behind the moss); Zabrod (behind the ford); Zablat (behind the marsh).

a barn; e.g. Saul, Co. Down, anc. Sabhall-Patrick (Patrick’s barn), being the first place of worship used by St. Patrick in Ireland; Saval (the barn used as a church), near Newry; Drumsaul (the barn or church on the ridge); Sawel, a mountain in Ireland, probably from the same root; Cairntoul, a hill in Aberdeenshire, originally Carn-t-Sabhall (the cairn of the barn).

sand; e.g. Sable, Sablé, Sablat, Sablon, Sablières, La Sablonière, in France.

the willow; e.g. Salehurst (willow copse); Salford (willow ford); Saul, in Gloucestershire (the place of willows). In France many places take their name from Saule, Fr. (the willow); e.g. Sailly, from Salicetum (a place planted with willows), as also Saux, Saules, Saulzais, etc.

a stone dwelling; sel, a cottage, cognate with the Span. and Port. sala; e.g. Hohensale (high dwelling); Nordsehl (north dwelling); Oldenzeel (old dwelling); Eversal (the dwelling of the wild boar); Brunsele (the dwelling at the well); Holzselen (at the wood); Laufenselden (the dwelling near the waterfall); Marsal (on the marsh), in France. In Spain: Salas (the halls); Salas-de-la-ribera (the dwellings on the river-bank); Salas-de-los-Infantes (the dwellings of the infantry); Upsal, Scand. Upsalr (the high halls), in Sweden.

salt, cognate with the Lat. sal and the Grk. hals; e.g. the Rivers Saale, Salzach, Salzbach, Sal, Salat (salt stream); Salies, Salins, Salinas, Salines, Salenillas, Salskaia, place-names in France, South America, and Russia (in the neighbourhood of salt mines or springs); Saalfeld, on the R. Saal, in Saxony; also Saalfelden, in Austria (the salt field); Salamanca, in Spain, anc. Salmantica (the place in the neighbourhood of salt springs); Salzburg, on the R. Salzach; Salzbrunn (the salt well); Salzkammergut (the public treasury of the salt-works); Soultz or Soultzbad (the saline bath); Soultzbach (the salt brook); Soultz-sous-forets (the salt springs under the woods); Soultzmatt (the meadow of the salt springs); Selters, anc. Saltrissa, in Nassau, near the Selzar or mineral springs; Saltzkotten (the huts of the salt miners), in Westphalia; Solikamsk (the town of the salt-works on the R. Kama), in Russia; salt and saltz, as affixes, are also applied to dwellings on the sea-coast, thus—Westersalt, Ostersalt, Neusaltz (the west, east, and new watering-place by the sea); but Salton, a parish in East Lothian, does not come from this word. It is said to have derived its name from Nicolas de Soules, who possessed that part of the country in the thirteenth century. Hal, the Celtic word for salt, still exists in the names of places where there are or were salt-works; e.g. Haling, in Hants; Halton, in Cheshire; Halsal and Hallaton, in Lancashire; Halle, in Prussian Saxony, stands on the R. Saala; Reichenhall, on the Saale; Hallein, on the Salza, near the salt mines in Tyrol.

a place cleared of wood by burning, from sengen, to burn; e.g. Feuersang (the fire clearing); Altensang (the old clearing); but Vogelgesang means the place of singing-birds.

a road. The word sarn refers to the old Roman road which the Emperor Maximus called in honour of his wife Helen, a Welsh princess whom he had married; e.g. Sarn-Helen (Helen’s road); Pen-Sarn (the head or end of the road); Tal-Sarn (the face of the road).

a stone, cognate with the Lat. saxum; e.g. Sachsa (the stony water in the neighbourhood of quarries); Sasso, in Italy (the stone or tomb); Sassoferrato (the fortified rock); Sassuolo (the little rock or stone), in Italy; but these words, either as prefixes or affixes, in topography generally indicate places belonging to the Saxons, who were so called from the seax, a kind of sword which they used in warfare; thus Sachsenberg, Sachsenburg, Sachsenheim, Sachsendorf, Sassetot, denote the dwellings of the Saxons; Saxony, in Germany (peopled by Saxons); Sussex, Essex, and Wessex (the south, east, and west districts of the Saxons), in England; Saxby (the Saxons’ town), in Lincoln; Saxlingham (the home of the descendants of the Saxons), in Norfolk; Sassenberg (the Saxons’ hill), in Westphalia.

a hut or shed; e.g. Scalby and Scaleby (hut town); Scalloway (the huts on the bay, vig), in Shetland; Galashiels (the huts on the R. Gala); Biggarshiels (the huts near the town of Biggar); Larbert, Co. Stirling, formerly Lairbert-scheills (the huts of a man named Lairbert); North and South Shields, originally a collection of fishermen’s huts; but as scald, in the Scandinavian language, means a bard—that word is likely to have formed an element in place-names. Scaldwell is probably the bard’s well; Skalholt, in Iceland, may be the bard’s hill.

little; e.g. Schambach, Schamach (the little stream).

a bulwark; e.g. Rheinschanze (the bulwark of the Rhine); Hochschanze (high bulwark).

a watershed, from scheiden, to divide; e.g. Lennscheide, Remschede, Nettenscheide (the watershed of the Rivers Lenn, Rems, and Nette); but this word sometimes means a place separated by an enclosure from the surrounding land, as in Scheidhof (the separated or enclosed court); Scheidlehen (the separated fief).

a public-house; e.g. Schenholtz (the wood near the public-house); Shenklein (the little public-house); Shenkendorf (the inn village).

a shed or barn; e.g. Ziegelscheune (the brick barn); Kalkscheune (lime-shed); Scheunenstelle (the place of sheds).

a wood clearing or field; e.g. Leopoldschlag (the field of Leopold); Grafenschlag (of the count); Pfaffenschlag (of the priest); Kirchsclag (of the church); Schlagenwald (the cleared wood); Schlagberg and Schlaghöck (the cleared hill and corner); Murzuschlag (the clearing on the R. Murz), in Styria.

a snake; e.g. Slagenhorst (snake thicket); Schlangenbad (snake bath).

a sluice; e.g. Rhinschleuse (the sluice of the Rhine); Sluys, in Holland; and Slooten, also a town in Holland, on a lake of the same name (from sloot, a ditch); Sluispolder (the reclaimed land at the sluice); Schlusseburg, in Russia (the fortress at the sluice), built on an island at the spot where the R. Neva issues from Lake Ladoga; Helvoetsluis (the sluice on the Haring-vliet, an arm of the R. Maas); Fort de l’Ecluse (the fortress of the sluice), in France.

a castle; e.g. Marienschloss (the castle of the Virgin Mary); Heidenschloss (the castle on the heath); Schlossmühle (castle mill); Schlosshof (the castle court).

little; e.g. Schmalkalden, anc. Schmalenaha (the town on the small stream); Smalley, with the same meaning; Smaalehlen (the small fief), in Norway; Smallburgh (little town); Schmallenberg (little hill); Smailholm (little hill), a parish in Roxburghshire.

a smithy; e.g. Nagelschmeide (the nail smithy); Schmeidefeld and Schmeidsiedel (the field and site of the smithy); Schmeideberg (the hill of the smithy).

a cattle-shed; e.g. Herrnschweige (the count’s cattle-shed); Brunswick, anc. Braunsweig (Bruno’s shed, or the town of Bruno).

a wood clearing; e.g. Schwand or Schwandt, in Bavaria; Schwanden, in Switzerland; Schwandorf (the village at the wood clearing).

black; e.g. Schwarza, Schwarzach, Schwarzbach, Schwarzwasser (black stream); Schwarzburg (black fortress); Schwarzberg (black mountain); Schwarzwald (black wood); Schwarzkreutz (the black cross).

a wild beast; e.g. Schwerin and Schwerinlake, in Mecklenburg; and Schwersentz, in Posen (places infested by wild beasts).

clear, bright; e.g. Sherbourne (the clear stream); but this word is sometimes used instead of scyre, a division or shire, as in Sherwood (the wood where the shire meetings were held); Sherston (shire boundary stone); Shardlow and Shardhill (the boundary hill); Sharnford (the boundary ford); Sharrington (the town of the children of the shire or division).

old; e.g. Shanmullagh (the old summit); Shandrum (the old ridge); Shangarry (the old garden); Shanbally and Shanvally (the old dwelling); Shanbo, Shanboe, and Shanbogh (the old hut), in Ireland; also Shankill (old church), and Shandon, Irish Seandun (old fort). There are several places in Ireland called Shannon from this word, but it is uncertain what is the origin of the R. Shannon, whose ancient name was Senos; Sanquhar, Gael. Seann-Cathair (the old fortress), in Dumfriesshire, named from an old castle near the town.

a lake or sea; e.g. Ostsee and Oostzee (east lake); Zuyderzee (the Southern Sea); Zealand and Zeeland (land surrounded by the sea); Gransee (boundary or corner lake); Bodensee or Lake Constance, named from Bodami-Castrum, the castle of the legate of the Carlovingian kings on its shore, and latterly from a fortress erected by Constantine the Great; Dolgensee, Sclav. (the long lake); the Plattensee (the lake on the marsh, blatto); Unterseen (below the lakes); the Red Sea, the translation of the sea of Edom (the red).

a place where metals are washed; e.g. Seifen and Seifendorf (towns where metals were washed); Seifengold (where gold is washed); Seifenzinn (where tin is washed); Seifenwerk (the hill of the metal washing).

an affix in French and Belgian topography, signifying a wood or forest, derived from the Lat. saltus and sylva; e.g. Baseille (low wood); Haseille (high wood); Forseille (out of the wood); Senlis, Lat. Civitas Sylvanectensium (the town of the Sylvanectes, i.e. dwellers in the woods); Savigny and Souvigny, Lat. Sylvaniacum (in the woods); Selvigny, Souvigné, with the same meaning; La-silve-bénite (the blessed wood); Silve-réal (royal wood), etc., in France; Transylvania (the district beyond the woods)—its Hungarian name, Erdely-Orsag, means the woody country; Selwood, anc. Brit. Coit-mawr, Lat. Sylva-magna (the great wood), perhaps Selby, in Yorkshire.

green; e.g. Selinga (the green river); Zelendorf (green village); Zielonagora (green mountain); Zieleng-brod (green ford); Zielenzig and Szelenek (green place).

holy; e.g. Seligenstadt, Seligenfeld, Seligenthal (the holy place, field, valley); Sellyoak (holy oak), perhaps Selby, in Yorkshire, if it is not from sylva, wood.

a seat, settlement, or possession, cognate with the Lat. sedes; e.g. Dorset (the settlement of the Durotriges, i.e. dwellers by the water); Wiltshire, anc. Wilsaetan (the settlement on the R. Willy); Shropshire, anc. Scrobsaetan (the settlement among shrubs); Somerset, named from Somerton (the summer seat of the West Anglo-Saxon kings); Settle, in Yorkshire (the settlement); Sittingbourne, in Kent (the settlement on the brook). In the Lake District, colonised by Norsemen, this word often takes the form of side; e.g. Ormside, Ambleside, Kettleside, Silverside (the settlement of Ormr, Hamel, Ketyl, Soelvar), etc.; Pecsaeten (the settlement at the peak), in Derbyshire; Alsace, anc. Alsatia, i.e. the other settlement, with reference to the German settlements on the west bank of the Rhine, as distinguished from the Franks or Ripuari, on the east; Holstein, anc. Holtsatia (the settlement in the woods); Waldsassen (wood settlement); Winkelsass and Endzettel (the corner settlement); Neusass, Neusiedel, and Neusohl (the new settlement); Einsiedeln (the settlement of Eina), in Switzerland; Wolfsedal (of Wolfa); Soest or Söst, in Prussia, for Suth-satium (the southern seat). In Sclavonian names we have Sedlitz (the possession); Stary-Sedlo (the old possession); Sedlitz-gross (the great settlement); Sursee, in Switzerland (the seat or dwelling, Old Fr. Zi), on the R. Sur; Sion or Sitten, in Switzerland, Cel. Suidh-dunum (the seat on the hill-fort). In Ireland: Seagoe, Irish Suidhe-Gobha (St. Gobha’s seat); Seeoran (Oran’s seat); Seaghanbane (the white seat); Seaghandoo (the black seat); Shinrone, anc. Suidhe-an-roin (literally the seat of the seal, but figuratively of a certain hairy man); Hermosillo, in Mexico, Span. (beautiful seat).

a mountain; e.g. Shan-tung (east of the mountain); Shan-se (west of the mountain); Thian-Shan (the celestial mountain).

a river; e.g. Samer, Samara, Sambre, river names. The Samur, which flows into the Sea of Asoph.

a wood or grove; e.g. the Shaws, in Cumberland and Lanarkshire; Birchenshaw (the birch grove); Pollokshaws (the woods near the village of Pollok); Bradshaw (broad wood); Shaugh-Prior (the prior’s wood); Shawbury (the town in the wood); Evershaw (the wood of the wild boar, eofer); Skegness (the headland of the wood).

a dwelling; e.g. Begshehr (the dwelling of the beg or bey); Abou-shehr (the dwelling of Abou); Allah-shehr (God’s house); Eskshehr (old dwelling); Yenishehr (new dwelling); Anoopshehr (incomparable dwelling); Pondicherry, originally Pudicheri (new dwelling or town); Paraicherie (the village of Pariahs)—probably Shiraz and Shirvan belong to this root.

a fairy or a fairy hill. The belief in these supernatural beings is still general among the Celtic races. It was believed that they resided in the interior of pleasant hills called sidhe or siodha. The word frequently takes the form of shee, as in the Shee Hills, in Co. Meath; Glenshee, in Perthshire; Mullaghshee (the fairy hillock); Sheetrim, i.e. Sidh-dhruim (the fairy ridge), the old name of the rock of Cashel; Killashee (the church near the fairy hill); Rashee (the fort of the fairies); also Shean, Sheann, Sheane, Shane, in Ireland.

a mountain chain, having a serrated appearance, from the Lat. serra, a saw; or perhaps from the Ar. sehrah, an uncultivated tract of land, being the root of the desert of Sahara, in Africa; e.g. Sierra-de-fuentes (the mountain chain of the fountains); Sierra-de-los-vertientes (of the cascades); Sierra Leone (of the lion); Sierra-Calderona (the mountain chain with the cauldrons or craters); Sierra-de-las-Monas (of the apes); Sierra Morena (the dark mountain range); Sierra Nevada (the snowy); Sierra Estrella (the starry mountain range); Sierra-de-Culebra (of the snake); Sierra-de-gata (of agates); Esmeraldas-Serradas (the emerald mountains), in Brazil; Cerro-da-vigia (the mountain of observation); Cerro-de-la-Giganta (of the giantess); Cerro-largo (broad mountain); Cerro-gordo (fruitful mountain); Cerro-del-cobre (of the snake); but serra, in Italian, means a narrow place—as in Serra-capriola (the narrow place of the goats); and Serra-Monascesca (of the monks).

a sharp rock-allied to the Welsh skerid, cleft asunder, ysgariad; e.g. Skerid-fawn and Skerid-fach (the great and little skerid or division). Esgair is another word from the same root, applied to a long ridge; e.g. Esgair-hir (the long ridge); Esgair-graig (the rock ridge)—e.g. Scarcliff (the cliff of the sharp rock); Nashscaur (the promontory of the steep rock); Scarborough (the town on the rock or cliff); Scorton, with the same meaning, in Yorkshire; Scarnose and Scarness (the sharp cape); Skerryford, Skeerpoint, on the coast of Wales; Sheerness (the sharp headland), on the Thames; Scaranos, with the same meaning, on the coast of Sicily; Scarabines (the sharp points), in Caithness; Scuir (a sharp rock), on the island of Egg; Scordale, in Westmoreland, and Scordal, in Iceland (the valley of the steep rock); Scarsach (abounding in steep rocks), in Perth; Scarba (the island of the sharp rock), and Scarp, in the Hebrides; the Skerry and the Skerries, in the Shetlands, and on the coast of Ireland and Wales; Skerry-vore (the great rock), in the Hebrides.

an isthmus or promontory; e.g. the Skaw or Skagen Cape, on the coast of Denmark; Skagerack or Skagen-rack (the strait near the promontory).

an affix in Sclav. topography, signifying a town, often annexed to the name of the river near the town, or to the name of its founder; e.g. Tobolsk, Tomsk, Pinsk, Vitepsk, Volsk, Omsk, on the Rivers Tobol, Tom, Pina, Viteba, Volga, Om; Irkutsk, Berdiansk, Bielorietzk, Bobroninsk, Illginsk, Miask, Olekminsk, Okhotsk, Olensk, on the Rivers Irkut, Berda, Biela, Bobronia, Ilga, Miass, Olekma, Okhota, and Olenek; Bielozersk (the town on the white island); Jarensk (the town on the Jarenga or strong river); Kesilskaia (on the red river); Krasno-Ufimsk (the beautiful town of the R. Ufa); Petsk (silk town), in Turkey, where the mulberry-tree is extensively cultivated; Yakutsk (the town of the Yakuts, a Tartar tribe); Salskaia, on the R. Sal; Sviajsk (the town on the Sviga, holy river); Sviatskaia (the town of Sviatovid, a Sclav. deity); Dmitrovisk (the town of Demetrius, a Russian saint); Kupiansk and Kupiszki (the town on the promontory, kupa).

a sheep; e.g. Skipton, Skipwich, Schaefheim (sheep town); Shapfells (sheep hills); Sheppey (sheep island); Skipsia (sheep’s stream); Schaefmatt (sheep meadow); Shefford (sheep’s ford); Scaefstadt (sheep town).

a mountain or heath, akin to the Ger. sliet, a declivity; e.g. Slieve-Anieran (the iron mountain), so called from its mines; Slievesnaght (snowy mountains); Slieve-Bernagh (gapped mountain); Bricklive (speckled mountain); Beglieve (small mountain). In all these places in Ireland the original names have been corrupted: Sleaty (the mountains); Sleeven (the little hill); Slievenamon, i.e. Sliabh-na-mban-fion (the mountain of the fair women or fairies); Slievebloom (Bladh’s mountain); Slieve-beagh (birch-tree hill); Slieve-corragh (rugged hill); Slieveroe (the red hill); Sliabh-cuailgne, now the Cooley Mountains, in Ireland; Sleibhe-Cuillinn (the Coolin or Cuchullin Hills), in Skye; Slamannan (the sliabh or moor of the district formerly called Manan, parts of Stirling and Clackmannanshire).

a slough or marshy place; e.g. Slough, Co. Bucks; Sloby, Slawston, Slaugham (the dwelling on the marshy ground).

a multitude, a host; e.g. Ballinasloe (the ford-mouth of the hosts), in Co. Galway; Srahatloe, i.e. Srath-a’-tsluagh (the river holm of the hosts); Knockatloe and Tullintloy (the hill of the hosts), in Ireland.

a separated piece of land, from the Old Ger. sniden and Modern Ger. schneiden (to cut); e.g. Eckschnaid (the oak snaid); Hinterschnaid (behind the snaid); Snaith, in Yorkshire; Snead, Montgomery; Sneyd, Co. Stafford; Sneaton (the town on the snaid); Snodland and Snodlands (the separated lands); Snodhill (the hill on the snaid).

a place privileged to hold local courts; e.g. Thorpe-le-Soke and Kirby-le-Soken (the village and church-town where the courts were wont to be held); Walsoken and Walton-le-Soken (the place near the wall, or perhaps the well, where the court was held); Sockbridge and Sockburn (the bridge and stream near the court station).

a grove; e.g. Soto, the name of several places in Spain; Sotilla (the little grove); Sotilla-de-las-Palomas (the little grove of the doves); Sotilla-de-la-ribera (the little grove of the river-bank).

a thorn; e.g. Epinac, Epinal, Epinay, in France; Espinosa, in Spain (the thorny place); Epinville (the thorny villa); Epineuil (the thorny fountain, œuil); Epinoy, Epineuse, etc., in France; Speen, in Co. Berks, anc. Spinæ (the thorny place).

an hospital or place of entertainment for strangers or invalids, from the Lat. hospitium; e.g. Spittal, in Caithness and Co. Pembroke; Spittle, in Cheshire and in Berwickshire; the Spital of Glenshee, in Perthshire; Dalna-Spidal (the field of the hospital); Spittalfields, in Middlesex; Yspytty-Rhew-Ystwith, on the R. Ystwith; Yspytty-Evan (Evan’s hospital), in Wales; Llanspithid, in Brecknock, which derived its name from an ancient Ysbytty hospitium that existed here, supported by the priory of Malvern. These names and many others in England and Scotland derived their names from hospitals attached to religious houses in the Middle Ages.

a water-source; e.g. Springthorpe (the farm at the fountain); Adlerspring (the eagle’s fountain); Lippspring (at the source of the R. Lippe); Springe (at the source of the R. Haller); Magdespring (the maiden’s fountain).

an extensive valley, Anglicised strath; e.g. Strathmore and Strathbeg (the great and little valleys); Strathavon, Strathblan, Strathbogie, Strathconan, Strathearn (the valleys of the Rivers Avon, Blane, Bogie, Conan, and Earn); Strathyre, corrupt. from Srathiar (the western valley, with reference to Strathearn, the eastern), in Perthshire; Strathclyde, Strathnaver, Strathspey, Strathallan, Strathpeffer, Strathbran, Strathgriffe (the valleys of the Rivers Clyde, Naver, Spey, Allan, Peffer, Bran, and Griffe); Strath Tary, in Sutherlandshire (the bull’s strath, tairebb); Strichen, in Aberdeenshire, corrupt. from Srath-Ugie (the valley of the R. Ugie); Strathdon, corrupt. from Srath-domhain (the valley of the deep river); Ystrad-Tywy (the valley of the R. Tywy), in Wales; Ystrad-yw (yew-tree valley or the valley of the brook Ywen); Yester, a parish in East Lothian, from Ystrad; Ystrad-fflur (the flowery valley), called by the Romans Strata-Florida; Ystrad-gwnlais (the valley of the trench, clais, through which a stream flows); Straiton, in Ayrshire (the town on the Strath); Traquhair (sheep valley).

a nose, hence a promontory; e.g. Stronaba (the cow’s promontory); Stronaclacher (the stony promontory); Stronechrigen (the rocky point); Stronfearn (the point of the alders); Strondeas (the southern point); Strontian (the little promontory); Sorn, in Ayrshire, named from an ancient castle situated on a rocky headland; Troon (the promontory), on the Ayrshire coast; Sroan-keeragh (the sheep’s promontory); Shrone-beha (birch-tree promontory), in Ireland; Duntroon Castle (the fortress on the promontory), in Argyleshire; Turnberry Head, in Ayrshire, from trwyn; also Trwyn Point, in Ayrshire; Au-tron (on the point), in Cornwall; Trwyn-y-Badan (the promontory of the boats), in Wales.

a river or flowing water; sru, Sansc., to flow—cognate with stroum, Teut., struja, Sclav.; e.g. Srue, Sruh, Shrough, Sroughan (the stream), in Ireland; also Abbeyshrule (the abbey on the stream); Bealnashrura (the ford-mouth of the stream); Sroolane, Srooleen, Sruffan, and Sruffaun (little stream); Killeenatruan, anc. Cillin-a-tsruthain (the little church of the stream); Anstruther in Fife, and Westruther in Berwickshire, probably from the same root; but Strowan, in Perthshire, is named for St. Rowan; Ardstraw, in Tyrone, is a corrupt. of Ard-sratha (the height near the bank of the stream).

a projecting rock or point; e.g. the Stack Rocks and South Stack, on the coast of Wales; the Stags, on the Irish coast; Stack Island, Wales; and St. Bude’s Stack. In Ireland this word is generally Anglicised into stook; thus—the Stookans (the little rock pinnacles), near the entrance of the Giant’s Causeway; Stookan and Stookeen (the little rock).

a place or town; gestade, a station for ships; stadel, a small town; staeth, a bank or shore; e.g. Carlstadt, TheresienStadt, Christianstadt (towns named after one of the German emperors, Charles, after the Empress Theresa, and after Christian IV. of Sweden); Darmstadt, Illstadt, Stadt-Steinach, Lippstadt (towns on the Rivers Darm, Ill, Steinach, and Lippe); Bleistadt (lead town), near lead mines; Brahestadt, in Russia (founded by Count Brahe); Elizabethstadt, Hung. Ebes-falva, named after the Empress Elizabeth; Frederickstadt (Frederick’s town), in Denmark and in Norway; Gerbstadt, in Saxony (the town of Gerbert); Glückstadt, Lat. Fanum-fortunæ (the fortunate town or the temple of fortune); Halbertstadt (the town of Albert); Heiligenstadt (holy town); Hermanstadt (the town of Herman, one of the Germans who colonised certain German cities in Transylvania in the twelfth century); Ingoldstadt, in Bavaria (the town of Ingold)—the name of this town was mistranslated by Latin and Greek authors into Auripolis and Chrysopolis (the golden city); Rudolstadt (the town of Rudolph); Grimstadt, in Norway, and Grimstead, in Co. Wilts (the town of Grim, a common Scandinavian name); Stade (the station), in Hanover; Scoppenstadt, in Brunswick, anc. Scipingestete (the ship station); Stadt-am-hop (the town at the court), in Bavaria; Tennstadt, anc. Dannenstedi (the station of the Danes), in Saxony; Kroppenstadt, the Germanised form of the Sclav. Grobenstadt (the count’s town); Reichstadt (rich town); Altstadt (old town); Elstead, in Sussex and in Surrey (the place of Ella, the Saxon); Stadhampton (the town at the home place), in Oxford; Thaxsted (the thatched place), in Essex; Boxstead (the place of beech-trees, or of the Bokings, a patronymic); Hampstead (the home place); Wanstead (Woden’s place); Armenianstadt, in Transylvania, colonised by Armenians in 1726; Staithes (the banks), in Cumberland; Stathern (the dwelling on the bank), Leicester; Halstead, A.S. Haelsted (a healthy place).

a stake or pole, also, in Germany, applied to a perpendicular rock; e.g. Stauffenberg (the mountain with pillar-like rocks), in Lower Hesse; Donaustauff (the steep rock on the Danube); Hohenstauffen (the high rocks), in Wurtemberg; Regenstauf (the rock on the R. Regen); Staufen (a fort situated on a rock), in Baden; Staffa (the island with the pillar-like rocks), off the coast of Argyleshire; Staffenloch (the lake of the pillars), in the Island of Skye.

a stall, place, or seat; e.g. Hohenstellen (the high place); Herstal (the place of the army); Tunstall (the place on the hill, dun), in Co. Stafford.

a stone or rock, and in topography sometimes applied to a rock-fortress; e.g. Staunton, Steynton (the town on the stony ground); Stanton, in Gloucestershire, named from a remarkable stone in the neighbourhood); Fewstone (fire stone), in Yorkshire, said to have been named from a fire-circle near the place; Staines (the stones), in Middlesex, marking the jurisdiction of the mayor of London; Stantz (the stony place), in Switzerland; Steenbeke, Steenbegue, Steinbach (the stony brook); Stanley (stony field), in Yorkshire; Steenbirge, Steenbrugge, Steenhout, Steenkirche (the stony hill, bridge, wood, church), in Belgium; Steenvorde (stony ford); Stein-am-anger (the rock on the field); Steinitz (the German rendering of Sczenz, dog town), in Moravia; Offenstein (the fortress of Offa); Lahnstein (the fortress on the R. Lahn); Lauenstein (the lion’s fortress, with reference to some person who bore that sobriquet); Ehrenbreitstein (the broad stone of honour); Stennis (the headland of the stones), in Orkney; Hauenstein, in Baden (the hewn rock), so called because the precipices of the Jura in that locality resemble masonry; Ysselstein (the rock on the R. Yssel); Bleistein (lead rock), near lead mines, in Bavaria; Dachstein, in Alsace, anc. Dagoberti Saxum (the rock of Dagobert); Frankenstein (the rock of the Franks); Falkenstein (of the falcon or of the personal name Falk); Greiffenstein (of the vulture); Schaunstein (the beautiful rock or fortress); Neckar-Steinach (the stony place on the Neckar); Iselstein, on the Isel; Wetterstein, on the Wetter; Buxton, in Derbyshire, was named from the piles of stones called buck-stones, found in the Yorkshire and Derbyshire moors; Standish, in Gloucestershire, corrupt. from Stonehouse. In some cases the affix stone is used instead of town or ton, as in Maidstone, A.S. Medwegston, Cel. Caer-Medwig (the town on the R. Medway); Goodmanstone (the priest’s town), Dorsetshire; and in Cumberland and Westmoreland, where the Norsemen had settlements, this word often marks the site of the grave of one of their heroes, as in Haroldstone, Hubberstone, Thurston, Gamfrestone, Silverstone, Stanton, Drew (the Druid’s stone), in Somersetshire, near an ancient stone-circle; Kingston, in Surrey, where in the centre of the town is still shown the stone on which the A.S. kings were crowned.

a district or region; e.g. Hindostan (the district watered by the R. Indus, Pers. hindu—water); Affghanistan (the district of the Affghans, who are said to have taken their designation from a certain chief called Malik Afghāna); Rajpootana (the district of the Rajpoots or king’s sons); Kurdistan (of the Kurds); Beloochistan (of the Beluchis); Gurgistan or Georgia (the district watered by the R. Kur or Kyros); Kaffaristan or Kaffraria (of the unbelievers); Arabistan (of the Arabs); Bootan (the district of the Highlanders); Dushistan (the south region), also called Gurmsir (warm country); Gulistan (the district of roses); Baghistan (of gardens); Khorasan (the country of the sun); Zangistan or Zanguebar, Pers. and Ar. (the country or coast-lands of the Zangis)—v. BAHR.

literally a prop, support, or heap; but in the commerce of the Middle Ages it was applied, in the first place, to the buildings or towns in which the chief products of a district were treasured up or sold; and, in the second place, to the commodities themselves; e.g. Stapleton (the town of the market); Staplehurst and Stapleford (the wood and ford near the market-place); Dunstable (the market-place on the hill), formerly Dunstaple; Whitstable (white market-place); Barnstaple, anc. Berstable (the market-place for the produce of the district—beor, what it bears). In France: Etaples, L’étape, Staple, etc.

old; e.g. Stargard, Starogard (the old fortress); Stary-sedlo, Storosele, Starosol (the old settlement); Starodub (the old oak-tree); Starwitz, Staria, Starinka, Stariza (old place); Starobielsk (the old town on the R. Biela); Staro-Constantinov (the old town of Constantine). In places where the population is chiefly German this word takes the form of stark, as in Starkenburg, Starkenhorst; Istarda or Starova (old town), in Turkey; Staroi-Oskol (the old town on the R. Oskol, in opposition to Novoi-Oskol, the new town on that river).

a steep path; e.g. Stickney (the island or watery meadow by the steep path); Kirchsteg (the steep path to the church); Durnsteeg (thorny path); Stiegmühle (the mill on the steep path); Amsteg (at the steep path).

the tail—in topography a point; e.g. Startpoint, in Devonshire; Starston (the town on the point); Sterzhausen, Sterzmühle, Staartpolder—v. HAUS, MÜHLE, POLDER; Staartven (the marsh on the point).

an uncultivated waste—a word applied to the extensive desert plains in Russia.

in Brittany, a stream; e.g. Ster-boueux (the muddy stream); Stercaer (the stream at the fort); Sterpoulder (of the black pool), etc. According to Forsteman, there is a Teutonic river-root, str, which he finds in the names of 100 German streams; e.g. Elster, Alster, Wilster, Gelster, Laster, and Ister—an ancient name of the Danube—Stour, Stura, etc.

Old Norse setr (a station or place), contracted from stadr (a place); bu-stadr (a dwelling-place), contracted to bister or buster; e.g. Grunaster (green place); Keldabister (the place at the well or fountain); Kirkbuster (the dwelling at the church); Hesting-ster (the settlement of Hesting). The same word appears in the names given by the Danes to three of the provinces of Ireland—Ulster, for the Irish Uladh, i.e. Ulla-ster; Leinster, Irish Laighen or Layn; Munster, Irish Mumha (named after a king).

literally a stake or the trunk of a tree, applied at first to a place protected by a stockade, or surrounded by stocks or piles; and in German topography sometimes applied to hills, as in Hochstock (high hill); Stockheim (the home on the hill); sometimes to places built upon stakes, as in Stockholm. In Great Britain, standing alone, it means simply the place, as Stock, in Essex; Stow, a parish in Mid Lothian; Stoke-upon-Trent; Stow-in-the-Wold or waste land; Stoke-Bardolph, Stoke-Fleming, Stoke-Gabriel, Stoke-Poges, Stoke-Edith (named from the proprietors); Stow-market (the market-place); Stow-Upland (the place in the high lands); Kewstoke (at the quay); Elstow, in Wilts (old place); Elstow, in Bedford (St. Helen’s place), the site of a nunnery dedicated to that saint; Basingstoke (the place belonging to the Basings, a patronymic); Bridstow (St. Bridget’s place); Bristol, anc. Briegstow (the place at the breach or chasm, brice, through which the R. Avon passes)—its Celtic name was Nant-Avon (on the valley of the Avon); Padstow, in Cornwall, anc. Petrocstowe, Welsh Llan-petroc (the place or church of St. Petroc); Tavistock and Tawstock (places on the Rivers Tavy and Taw). As a prefix, stock often denotes the chief place in a district, as in Stockton (the chief town on the Tees), and in Stockport (the chief port on the Mersey).

a mine-shaft; e.g. Stollenberg (the hill of the mine-shaft); Stollenschmeide (the smithy at the mine-shaft); but Stollenkirchen, i.e. Stallinchirchun, is from Stalla (a person’s name).

a rising ground in a marshy place; e.g. Stolpe, the name of a circle and of several towns in Hungary and Pomerania; Stolpen, in Saxony.

great; e.g. Störfiord (the great bay); Störhammer (great hill); Störoe (great island); Störaa (great river); Störsjon and Störsoen (great lake); Störa-kopparberg (the great copper mountain), in Sweden and Norway.

a row, a street, a road, borrowed from the Lat. strata; e.g. Stratford (the ford near one of the great Roman roads, called streets); Stratford-le-Bow (the ford with the bow or bridge near the Roman road); Stratsett (the road station); Streatham and Stretton (the town on the road); Stratton, in Cornwall, and Stradbally, in Ireland (the village of one street); Straid, Strade (the street); Stradeen (little street), in Ireland; Strond, on the R. Strond; Strasbourg, in West Prussia (the town on the highway); but Strasbourg, in Alsace, anc. Stratiburg, is the German translation of its Latin name Argentoriatum (the town of silver—strati, Teut., silver); Stony Stratford (the stony ford on the great Roman road, called Erming Street); Watling Street is said to have been named from waedla (the mendicant or pilgrim); Icknield Street from the Iceni; Erming Street from earm (a pauper).

a watch-tower, akin to the A.S. streone; e.g. Straznitz, in Moravia (the town with the watch-tower).

a huntsman; e.g. Strelitz-klein and Strelitz-gross (the great and little town of the huntsman, or of the Strelitzi, the name given to the lifeguards), in Russia; Strelitzkaia and Strielinskaia, with the same meaning.

a stream or current; e.g. the Maelstrom (mill stream, so called from its rushing sound); Rheinstrom (the Rhine current); Stroomsloot (the sluice of the current); Stroma, Stromoe, Stromsoe, Stromay (the island of the current); Stromen and Stromstadt (the place near the current); Stromen-Fiorden (the bay of the current); Stromberg (the town or hill on the stream); Stromness (the headland of the current).

water; e.g. Ak-su (the white stream); Kara-su (the black stream); Adji-su (bitter water).

the south; Buttman traces this word to the sun, the oldest form of the word being sundar; e.g. Sonnenburg, Sonderhausen, Sundheim, Soudham, Southofen (the south dwelling or enclosure); Southdean (south hollow); Southwark, Dan. Sydvirche (the south fortress); Southover (south shore); Suffolk (the district of the south people, as distinguished from Norfolk); Sutton and Sodbury (south town); Sudborne (south stream); Suderoe (south island); Sudetic Mountains (the southern mountain chain); Sudereys (the southern islands), a name applied by the Norsemen to all the British islands under their rule south of the Orkneys and north of the Island of Man—hence the bishoprick of Sodor and Man; Sutherland (the land to the south of Caithness); Soderköping (the south market-town), in Sweden; Soest, in Prussia (on the Sosterbach); Sidlaw Hills (the south hills, in reference to their forming the south boundary of Strathmore).

summer; e.g. Somercotes, Somersall, Somerton (summer dwellings); Somerghem in Belgium, and Sommerberg in Bohemia, with the same meaning; but Somarsheim, in Hungary, is the German corrupt. of Szomorfalva (the village of sorrow); Szmarja or Szent-marfa (St. Mary’s town), Germanised into Sommarein.

a strait; e.g. the Sound, between Sweden and Zealand; Christiansund, at the mouth of a narrow inlet, founded by Christian IV.; Frederichsund, on a narrow inlet in Zealand; Ostersund (the eastern strait), in Sweden; Stralsund (the arrow-like strait—straele, an arrow).

privileged land; e.g. Frankensundern (the privileged place of the Franks); Beversundern (the privileged place on the R. Bever); Sontra, in Hesse-Homburg (the privileged place); Sunderland (the privileged land), in Durham.

Saxon; e.g. Szasvaros, Ger. Sachsenstadt (the town or fortress of the Saxons), in Transylvania; Szasz-Sebes (the Saxon-Sebes or swift stream).

a saint; e.g. Szenta, Szentes (the saints’ town or holy town); e.g. Szendro (St. Andrew’s town); Mindszent (the town of All Saints); Szent-kercsyt (the town of the holy cross); Santarem, in Portugal, from St. Irene, Santiago (for St. James); St. Denis, named after St. Dionysius, where the remains of this saint were interred; St. Heliers, in Jersey (for St. Hilarius); Szent-György (St. George’s town); St. Ives, in Cornwall, named after an Irish saint called Jia, who came to that spot; St. Ives, in Huntingdon, named after Ivon, a bishop.

great; e.g. Ta-kiang (the great river); Ta-Hai (the great lake); Ta-Shan (great mountain); Ta-Gobi (the great desert).

an inn; e.g. Taberna, in Spain; Zabern-Rhein (the inn on the Rhine); Zabern-berg (the hill inn); Zabern-Elsass (the Alsatian inn), called in French Savernæ, corrupt. from the Lat. Tabernæ; Tavernes and Taverny, in France.

a tongue, a point of land; e.g. Tongue, a parish in Sutherlandshire; Tong, in Ross; Tongland, in Kirkcudbright, upon a peninsula formed by the Rivers Dee and Tarf; Tonge, in Lancashire; but Tongres, Tongrinnes, and Tongerloo, in Belgium, derive their names from the Tungri, a tribe; Tong-fell, in Cumberland, and Tangfjeld, Norway, and Tunga-fell, Iceland (the mountain with the tongue or point); Thong-castle, in Kent, and Thong-castor, near Grimsby.

the forehead, or, as an adjective, high; e.g. Talgarth (the brow of the hill; Talibont (bridge-end, pont); Talbenny (the head of the hill-pen), in Wales. Tal-y-cavn (the head of the trough); Tal-y-Llychan (the head of the pools), in Caermarthen; Talachddu (the head of the black water, a small brook called Achddu), a parish in Brecknock.

quiet, cognate with A.S. tam, found in many river names; e.g. the Tame, Tamar, Tamer, Teane, Teign, Thame, Taw, Tawey, Tavoy, Tay, Temesch, Tees, Thames (the quiet water), joined to uisge, a, y, o, or, ri (flowing water).

a green field, common in Irish topography under various forms, such as Tawny, Tawnagh, Tonagh, and Taminy; e.g. Tonaghneeve, for Tamhnaich-naemh (the field of the saints), now Saintfield; Tawnaghlahan (broad field); Tawnkeel (narrow field); Tamnaghbane (white field); Tavnaghdrissagh (the field of the briers).

wood; tanne (modern), the fir-tree; e.g. Niederthan (the lower wood); Hohenthan (high wood); Thanheim, Thanhausen, Tandorf (the dwellings at the wood); Tanberg (wood hill).

an isthmus; e.g. Tarbet, in Cromarty and Ross; Tarbert, in Harris; Tarbet, on Loch Lomond; East and West Tarbert, in Argyleshire; Tarbetness (the point of the isthmus), in Ross-shire.

a bull, cognate with the Lat. taurus and the Grk. tauros; e.g. Knockatarriv and Knockatarry (the hill of the bull); Clontarf, anc. Cluain-tarbh (the bull’s meadow); Cloontarriff and Cloontarriv, with the same meaning. Some river names, such as Tarf, Tarras, Tarth, Tarn, may have this word as a prefix, or perhaps tara, Irish, rapid.

the thorn; e.g. Tarnowce and Tarnowitz (thorn village); Tarnau, Tarnow, Tornow, Torniz (a thorny place); Tarnograd (thorn fortress); Tarnopol (thorn city).

a house or dwelling, cognate with the Lat. tectum, Ger. dach, and Scand. tag, a roof; Anglicised tagh, in the genitive, tigh. This word, under various forms, is common in Irish topography; e.g. Tagheen (beautiful house); Taghboy and Taghbane (the yellow and white house); Taghadoe (St. Tua’s house); Tiaquin, in Co. Galway, i.e. Tigh-Dachonna (St. Dachonna’s house); Timahoe, for Tech-Mochua (St. Mochua’s house or church). Joined to the genitive of the article, it takes the form of tin or tinna, thus—Tinnahinch (the house of the island or river holm, innis); Tincurragh (of the marsh); Tinakilly (of the church or wood); Timolin (of St. Moling); Tigh-na-bruaich, in Argyleshire (the dwelling on the edge of the bank); Tynron, in Dumfries, i.e. Tigh-an-roinne (the house on the point); Tyndrum, in Perthshire (the dwelling on the ridge); Tisaran, anc. Teach-Sarain (the house of St. Saran), in King’s Co. Stillorgan, also in Ireland, corrupt. from Tigh-Lorcain (the house of St. Lorcain or Lawrence); Saggard, from Teach-Sacra (of St. Mosacra); Cromarty, anc. Crum-bachtyn (the dwelling on the winding bay); Tinnick, in Ireland, i.e. Tigh-cnuie (the house on the hill). In Wales: Ty-gwyn (white house); Ty-Ddewi (St. David’s house); Great Tey and Little Tey (great and little dwelling); Tey-at-the-elms, in Essex.

a palace situated on an elevated spot; e.g. Tara, anc. Teamhair, the ancient capital of Meath, and several other places called Tara, in Ireland. This word sometimes takes the form of tavver, tawer, or tower, as in Towerbeg and Towermore (the little and great palace).

a temple or church, derived from the Lat. templum; e.g. Templemichael, Templebredon (the churches of St. Michael and St. Bredon); Templemore (the great church or cathedral); Templecarriga (of the rock); Temple-tochar (of the causeway), in Ireland; Templemars and Talemars, in France, anc. Templum-Martis (the temple of Mars).

fire. In topography this word is found in the forms of tin and tinny, and must indicate spots where fires of special importance were wont to be kindled. Whether these fires were beacon-fires, or whether they referred to the Beltane fires kindled by the ancient Celts on May Day, cannot, in special cases, be determined; but that the Beltane fires were connected with the religious rites of the Druids is allowed, even by those who do not derive the word Beltane from the name of a Celtic deity, or trace the observance of these rites to the sun and fire worship once alleged to have existed among the Celtic tribes, but now held to be an untenable theory by Celtic scholars.[5] In Ireland, near Coleraine, we find Kiltinny (the wood of the fire); Tamnaghvelton (the field of the Beltane sports); Clontinty, Co. Cork (the meadow of the fires); Mollynadinta, anc. Mullaigh-na-dtaeinte (the summit of the fires); Duntinny (the fort of the fire), Co. Donegal. In Scotland tinny is also found in topography, thus—Ardentinny and Craigentinny (the height and rock of the fire); Auchteany, and perhaps Auchindinny (the field of the fires); Tinto (the hill of the fire), in Lanarkshire.

a mountain; e.g. Popocatepetl (the smoky mountain), in Mexico; Citlaltepetl (the star-like mountain—citaline, a star); Naucampatepetl (the square-shaped mountain), in Mexico.

warm; e.g. Tepla (the warm stream); Tepel, on the R. Tepla (in the neighbourhood of warm mineral waters); Teplitz, the name of towns in Hungary, Bavaria, and Illyria, sometimes written Toplitz; Teplik and Teplovka, in Russia; Teflis, in Georgia, celebrated for its warm baths.

land; e.g. Terciera (the rough land), in the Azores; Terranova (the new land), in Sicily, supposed to be on the site of the ancient Gela; Tierra-del-fuego (the land of fire), so named on account of the numerous fires seen on the land by the first discoverers; Terregles (church land); Tiree Island, Gael. Tir-ith (the land of corn); Terryglas, i.e. Tir-da-ghlas (the land of the two rivers), Co. Tipperary; Terryland, i.e. Tir-oilein (the land of the island); Tyrone, anc. Tir-Eoghain (Owen’s land); Tir-Rosser, i.e. Tir-Rhos-hir (the long peat land), in Caermarthen; Pentir (the headland); Gwydir, from the roots gwy, water, and tir, a general term for moist land in different places in Wales. It was the ancient name of Glastonbury; Tiranascragh (the land of the sand hill, esker), Co. Galway; Tyrconell (the land of Conell), the ancient name of Co. Donegal; Carstairs, in Lanarkshire, anc. Casteltarras, probably corrupt. from Castelterres (the castle lands), the castle in the village having been the site of a Roman station; Culter, in Lanarkshire, anc. Cultir (the back of the land); Finisterroe (land’s end), now Cape Finistère, the north-west extremity of France; Blantyre (warm land—blane, warm), in Lanarkshire; Terrebonne (good land), in Canada; Terre-haute (high land), in Indiana.

a valley—v. DAL.

a term applied by the Scandinavians to the legislative assemblies of their nation, and also to the places where these assemblies met, from an old word tinga, to speak. Traces of these institutions appear in the topography of certain districts in Great Britain formerly occupied by Danes or Norwegians. The Norwegian Parliament is still called the Storthing or great assembly; smaller courts are called Lawthings, and the Althing was the general assembly of the whole nation. These meetings were generally held on some remote island, hill, or promontory, where their deliberations might be undisturbed. The Swedish Parliament used to assemble on a mound near Upsala, which still bears the name of Tingshogen, Scand. haugr; Thingveller (the council-plains), in Iceland; Sandsthing (the place of meeting on the sand), in Iceland; Aithsthing (the meeting-place on the headland), in Iceland; Dingwall, in Ross-shire, has the same derivation—its Gaelic name is Inverpeffer (at the mouth of that stream); Tingwall, in Shetland, Tynwald Hill, Isle of Man, Thingwall in Cheshire, and Dinsdale in Durham, from the same root; Tinwald, in Dumfries (the wood of the meeting); Tain, in Ross-shire, Norse Thing—its Gaelic name is Baile-Duich (St. Duthic’s town).

prefixes derived from the Saxon and Scandinavian deity Thor; e.g. Thorley, Thurley, Thursley, Thorsby, Thurlow, the valley, dwelling, and hill, named after Thor, or perhaps from a people or family name derived from the god, i.e. the Thurings, from whence also probably come Thorington in England, and Thorigné and Thorigny in France; Thüringerwald, in Germany; Thurston, Thursford, Thurscross, Thurlstone, etc.; Thorsoe (Thor’s island); Thurso (Thor’s stream, on which the town of Thurso is situated); Thorshaven (Thor’s harbour), in Norway and in the Faroe Islands. On the continent the god Thor was worshipped under the name of Thunor, hence the English word thunder and the German Donner (supposed, in the Middle Ages, to be Thor’s voice). From this word are derived Thunersberg and Donnersberg (the mountain of Thor); Donnersbach (Thor’s stream), in Styria; Torslunde (Thor’s sacred grove), in Denmark.

an assembly of people, cognate with the Welsh torf (a crowd or troop), Gael. treubh (a tribe), and troupe, French; and then gradually coming to denote a farm or village; e.g. Thorp, in Northamptonshire; Calthorpe (cold village); Langthorpe (long village); Ingelthorpe, Kettlesthorpe, Swansthorpe, Bischopsthorpe (the farm or village of Ingold, Kettle, Sweyn, and the bishop); Nunthorpe (the nun’s village); Raventhorpe (Hrafen’s village); Thorparch, in Yorkshire (the village bridge), on the R. Wharfe; Milnethorpe (the village of the mill); Althorpe (old villages); Basingthorpe (the village of the Basings, a patronymic); Copmanthorpe (of the merchant).

a cleared spot or an isolated piece of land, akin to the Danish tvede, a peninsula; e.g. Harrowthwaite, Finsthwaite, Ormathwaite, Sattersthwaite, places cleared and cultivated by the Scandinavians, whose names they bear; Applethwaite (of apples); Calthwaite (cold clearing); Birkthwaite (of birches); Micklethwaite (great clearing); Crossthwaite, in Cumberland, where St. Kentigern is said to have erected a cross; Lockthwaite (Loki’s clearing).

a fountain or well, from the old word doboir, water. Wells and fountains were held in great veneration by the Celts in heathen times, and are the subjects of many traditions in Ireland and Scotland. Many of the early preachers of Christianity established their foundations near these venerated wells, which were the common resorts of the people whom they had come to convert. In this way the new religion became associated in the minds of the converts with their favourite wells, and obtained the names of the saints, by which they are known to this day; e.g. Tobermory (St. Mary’s well), in the Island of Mull; Tobar-na-bhan-thighern (the chieftainess’s well), in Badenoch; Ballintobar (the town of the well), Co. Mayo, now called Tobermore (the great well), which had a well blessed by St. Patrick; Tibbermore or Tippermuir (the great well), in Perthshire; Tobar-nam-buadh, in Skye (the well of virtues); Tipperary, anc. Tiobrad-Arann (the well of the district of Ara); Tipperkevin (St. Kevin’s well); Tipperstown, anc. Baile-an-tobair (the town of the well); Tobercurry (the well of the cauldron); Toberbilly (the well of the old tree); Tobernaclug (the well of the bells, clog). Bells were held sacred by the Irish on account of a certain bell favoured by St. Patrick. Perhaps the rivers Tiber and Tiverone, as well as Tivoli, anc. Tibur, may come from this root.

an enclosure or farm; e.g. Lowestoft, Dan. Luetoft (the enclosure or place of the beacon-fire, which in early times was placed on the promontory where the town stands); Langtoft (long farm); Monk’s Tofts (the monk’s farm), and West Tofts, in Norfolk; Ecclestofts (the church farm buildings), in Berwickshire; Ivetot, anc. Ivonis-tot (the farm of Ivo and Hautot (high farm), in Normandy; Sassetot (the Saxon’s farm); Littletot (little farm); Berguetot (birch farm), in Normandy.

a knoll or mound; e.g. Tomintoul (the knoll of the barn), Gael. Tom-an-t-sabhail, Co. Banff; Tomachuraich (the boat-shaped knoll), Inverness-shire; Tom-ma-Chessaig (St. Kessag’s mound), at Callander; Tom-na-faire (the knoll of the watch-tower), on Loch Etive; Tomatin (the knoll of the fire, teine); Tomnacroiche (of the gallows); Tom-da-choill (of the two woods); Tombreck (speckled knoll); Tomgarrow (rough knoll); Tomnaguie (windy knoll), in Ireland; Tom-bar-lwm (the mound of the bare hill); Tommen-y-Bala (the mound of Lake Bala, having been raised as representative of Mount Ararat); Tommen-y-mur (of the rampart).

an enclosure, a town. The primary meaning of this word comes from the Gothic tains, Scand. teinn, Ger. zaun, a fence or hedge formed of twigs. Originally it meant a place rudely fortified with stakes, and was applied to single farm-steadings and manors, in which sense tun is still used in Iceland, and toon in Scotland. The word toon retained this restricted meaning even in England in the time of Wickliffe. These single enclosures became the nucleus of a village which, gradually increasing, became a town or city, in the same manner as villages and towns arose around the Celtic duns, raths, and lises. This root, in the names of towns and villages, is more common than any other in Anglo-Saxon topography, being an element in an eighth part of the names of dwelling-places in the south of Great Britain. The greatest number of these names is connected with those of the original proprietors of the places, of which but a few examples can be given here. In such cases, the root ton is generally preceded by s or ing—qu. v.; e.g. Grimston, Ormiston, Ribston, Haroldston, Flixton, Kennington (the property of Grim, Orm, Hreopa, Harold, and Felix); Canewdon (of Canute); Addlington and Edlington (of the nobles); Dolphinton, Covington, and Thankerton, parishes in Lanarkshire, took their names from Dolphine, Colban, and Tancred, to whom the lands were given in very early times; Symington and Wiston, in Lanarkshire, are found mentioned in old charters, the one as Symington, in Ayrshire, named from the same Simon Lockhart, the progenitor of the Lockharts of Lee; Cadoxton, i.e. Cadog’s town, in Wales; Ecclesia de uilla Simonis Lockard (the church of Simon Lockhart’s villa), and the other, Ecclesia uilla Withce (the church of Withce’s villa); Haddington (the town of Haddo); Alfreton, Wimbledon, Herbrandston, Houston (of Alfred, Wibba, Herbrand, Hugh); Riccarton, in Ayrshire, formerly Richardston, took its name from Richard Waleys, i.e. Richard the Foreigner, the ancestor of the great Wallace); Stewarton, in Ayrshire, had its name from the family which became the royal race of Scotland; Boston, in Lincoln (named after St. Botolph, the patron saint of sailors); Maxton, a parish in Roxburghshire (the settlement of Maccus, a person of some note in the reign of David I.); Flemingston and Flemington (named from Flemish emigrants); Woolston (from St. Woolstan); Ulverston (from Ulphia, a Saxon chief); Wolverhampton and Royston (from ladies who endowed religious houses at these places); Minchhampton (the home of the nuns, minchens); Hampton (the enclosed home); Preston and Presteign (priest’s town); Thrapston (the dwelling at the cross-roads); Broughton (the town at the fort or mound), a parish in Peeblesshire, with a village of the same name; Albrighton (the town of Aylburh); Harrington (of the descendants of Haro); Barton and Barnton (the enclosure for the crop; literally, what the land bears); Shettleston, in Lanarkshire, Lat. Villa-filii-Sadin (the villa of Sadin’s son); Bridlington (the town of the Brihtlingas, a tribe), sometimes called Burlington; Adlington (town of Eadwulf); Prestonpans, in Mid Lothian, named from the salt pans erected there by the monks of Newbattle; Layton, in Essex, on the R. Lea; Luton, in Bedford, also on the Lea; Makerston, in Roxburghshire, perhaps from St. Machar; Johnstone, in Renfrew (founded by the Laird of Johnston in 1782); Liberton, near Edinburgh, where there was an hospital for lepers; Honiton, Co. Devon, Ouneu-y-din (the town of ash-trees); Kensington (of the Kensings); Edmonton, in Middlesex (Edmond’s town); North and South Petherton, in Somerset (named from the R. Parret), anc. Pedreda; Campbeltown, in Argyleshire, received its name from the Argyle family in 1701—its Gaelic name was Ceann-Loch (the loch head); Launceston—v. LANN; Torrington, in Devon (the town on the hill, tor, or on the R. Torridge); Watlington (the village protected by wattles). Of towns named from the rivers near which they are situated, Collumpton, Crediton, Frampton, Taunton, Lenton (on the Culm, Credy, Frome or Frame, Tone, and Lee); Northampton (on the north shore of the R. Aufona, now the Nen); Okehampton, on the R. Oke; Otterton, Leamington, Bruton, Moulton, Wilton, on the Otter, Learn, Brue, Mole, and Willy; Darlington or Darnton, on the Dar; Lymington, in Hants, anc. Lenton (on the pool); Southampton (the south town on the Anton or Test, which with the Itchen forms Southampton Water); Ayton, in Berwickshire, on the R. Eye.

the poplar-tree; e.g. Töplitz, Neu and Alt (the place of poplars), in the basin of the R. Elbe, to be distinguished from Teplitz, in Bohemia—v. TEPLY, which is sometimes misnamed Töplitz.

a market-place; e.g. Torgau, Torgovitza, Torgowitz (market-towns).

a mound, a heap, a conical hill, cognate with the Lat. turris, the Ger. thurm, and the Grk. pyrgos (a tower); Tor, in Ireland, means a tower also; e.g. Toralt (the tower of the cliff); Tormore (great tower or tower-like rock); Tornaroy (the king’s tower); Tory Island, off the Irish coast, had two distinct names—Torach (i.e. abounding in tower-like rocks), and Toirinis (the island of the tower), so named from a fortress called Tor-Conaing (the tower of Conaing, a Fomorian chief); Torran, Tortan (little tower), applied to little knolls, as in Toortane and Turtane; Mistor and Mamtor, in Devonshire; Croken Torr, in Cornwall (a hill where meetings were held—gragan, Welsh, to speak); Torphichen (the raven’s hill), a parish in West Lothian; Torbolton, in Ayrshire, tradition says is the town of Baal’s mound. There is a beautiful hill in the parish where superstitious rites are still held; a bonfire is raised, and a sort of altar erected, similar to those described in the sacrifices to Baal on Mount Carmel; Torbay, in Devonshire, named from the hill which overlooks the bay, which gives its name to Torquay; Torrdubh and Torrduff (black hill); Torbane and Torgorm (the white and the blue hill); Torbreck (speckled hill); Torinturk (the wild boar’s hill); Kintore (at the head of the hill), in Aberdeenshire; Turriff, in Banffshire, is the plural form of toir. From the Lat. turris and its derivatives, come Tordesillas (the tower of the bishop’s see), in Spain; Torquemada, Lat. Turris cremata (the burned tower); Torr-alba and Torre-blanca (the white tower); Torrecilla, Lat. Turricellæ (the church-towers), in Spain; Torres-novas and Torres-vedras (the new and old towers), in Portugal; Torella (the little tower), Naples; Truxillo, in Spain, i.e. Turris-Julii (the tower of Julius); Tourcoing (corner tower), in France; La-tour-Sans-Venin, near Grenoble, is a corrupt. of Tour-Saint-Verena—to this saint the chapel was dedicated; Tournay, in Belgium, Lat. Turris Nerviorum (the tower of the Nervii); Torres-Torres (the fortifications of the mountains), Tours, in France, is not named from this root, but from the Turones, a tribe; but Torres Strait was named after the navigator Torres, who discovered it in 1606. In the Semitic languages also Tzur means a rock; it is the root of the names of the city of Tyre, and of Syria, of which in early times it was the chief city. Taurus or Tor is a general name for a mountain chain; Tabris (the mountain town), a city of Persia.

a strand; e.g. Traeth-mawr (great strand); Traeth-bach (little strand); Trefdraeth (the dwelling on the strand), in Wales; Traeth-coch (red strand), in Anglesea. In Ireland: Tralee, Co. Derry, is from Traigh-liath (the gray strand); Tranamadree (the strand of the dogs), Co. Cork; Ballintra, when it occurs on the coast, means the town on the strand, but inland it comes from Baile-an-tsratha (the town on the river-holm); Ventry, Co. Kerry, is from Fionn-traigh (white strand); as also Trabane, Trawane, and Trawbawn, which derive their names from the whitish colour of the sand; Fintray, a parish in Aberdeenshire on the R. Don, is also white strand; but Fintray, in Dumbartonshire, was formerly Fyntref or Fyntre, probably the dwelling, tre, on the Fenach, which is the boundary-stream of the parish on one side; Traeth-Saith, in Wales, named after a mythological patriarch.

a tank for watering animals; e.g. Kleintrank (little tank); Rosstrank (horse tank); Trankmühle (mill tank).

grass; e.g. the Traun and the Trave (i.e. the grassy rivers); Traunkirchen (the church on the Traun); Traunik, Trawitz (the grassy place); Traunviertel (the district of the R. Traun), in Silesia and Austria.

a dwelling, a town; e.g. Treago, anc. Tref-y-goll (hazel-tree dwelling), in Monmouth; Tre-n-eglos (church town), in Cornwall; Tremaine (stone dwelling), Cornwall; Tref-y-clawdd (the town of the dyke, i.e. Offa’s dyke), the Welsh name for Knighton, in Pembrokeshire; Oswestry might come naturally from this word, but the Welsh call it Croes-Oswald (the place of St. Oswald’s martyrdom); Coventry, too, might be from the same root, but Camden says it is a corruption of Conventria (the district of the convent); Daventry, abridged from Dwy-avon-tre (the dwelling on the two rivers); Truro, i.e. Tre-rhiw (the dwelling on the sloping bank, or on the stream); Redruth, in Cornwall, anc. Tref-Derwydd (the Druid’s town); Trefrhiw (the town on the stream), in Caernarvon; Tremadoc (Madoc’s dwelling); Trecoid (the dwelling in the wood); Braintree, Co. Essex (hill dwelling); Dreghorn, in Ayrshire, anc. Trequern (the dwelling near alder-trees); Thrisk, in Yorkshire, anc. Tref-Ysk (the dwelling by the water); Tranent, in Mid Lothian, corrupt. from Treabhairnant (the dwellings in the valley); Crailing, in Berwickshire, anc. Traverlin (the dwellings on the pool); Tring, Co. Herts, anc. Treungla or Treangle (the village at the corner), Welsh ongl, Lat. angulus; Trelech (the dwelling at the stone, called Harold’s grave); Tre-Taliesin (the dwelling of Taliesin, the celebrated Welsh bard); Trenewydd (new dwelling), in Wales; Rhuddry, a parish in Glamorgan, probably corrupt. from Yr-yw-tre (the yew-trees’ home); Tre’r Beirdd (bard’s town); Trefawr, Trefach (great and little town); Tredegar, i.e. Tre-deg-fair-ar (land), (the choice abode); Tre-Wyddel (the forester’s abode); Trefhedyn, i.e. Tref-y-din (hill town).

the elder-tree; e.g. Trim, in Co. Meath, corrupt. from Ath-trium (the ford of the elder-trees); Trummery and Trimmer (places abounding in elder-trees); Tromann, Trumman (the little elder-tree).

a mound raised over a grave, cognate with the Lat. tumulus; e.g. Tuam, Co. Galway, anc. Tuaim-da-ghualann (the tumulus of the two shoulders, from the shape of the ancient sepulchral mound); Toome, on the R. Bann; Tomfinlough (the tumulus of the clear lake); Tomgraney (the tomb of Grian); the Tomies (hills on Lake Killarney); Toomona (the tomb of the bog); Toomyvara, i.e. Tuaim-ui-Mheadra (O’Mara’s tomb).

a bleach-green, Anglicised toor; e.g. Tooreen (little bleach-green); Tooreenagrena (the sunny little bleach-green); Monatore (the bog of the bleach-green); Tintore, for Tigh-an-tuair (the house at the bleach-green), in Ireland.

a little hill or mound, and also a measure of land—Anglicised tulla, tullow, tully, or tulli; e.g. Tullow (the hill); Tullamore (great hill); Tullanavert (the hill of the graves, ferta); Tullaghcullion and Tullycullion (of the holly); Kiltullagh (church hill); Tullaghan (little hill); Tallow, Co. Waterford, more correctly Tealach-an-iarainn (the hill of the iron, from the neighbouring iron mines); Tullyallen, on the Boyne, and Tulliallan, in Perthshire, i.e. Tulaigh-álainn (the beautiful hill); Tullyard (high hill); Tillicoultry (the hill at the back of the land), in Clackmannan; Tullibardine (the bard’s hill); Tulloch-gorum (the blue hill); Tullybody (the hill of the black cow, bo dubh); Tillyfour (the grassy hill, feoiridh). Tully or tilly, however, is sometimes a corruption of teaglach (a family), as in Tullynessle and Tillymorgan—v. W. Skene, LL.D.

a mossy flat, the name given to the vast plains on the Arctic Ocean.

a town or settlement; e.g. Tura, a river in Russia, so called by the Tartars because they made a settlement at the place; Tura, also in Hungary; O’Tura (old town); Turinsk (the town on the R. Tura), in Russia.

a boundary; e.g. Twistleton (the town on the boundary); Oswaldtwistle (Oswald’s boundary); Haltwistle (high boundary); Birchtwistle (birch-tree boundary); Ectwistle (oak-tree boundary).

a cave; e.g. Cluain-uamha (the pasture of the cave), the ancient name of Cloyne, Co. Cork; Drumnahoe, i.e. Druim-na-huamha (the ridge of the cave); Mullinahone (the mill of the cave); Lisnahoon (the fort of the cave), in Ireland. Wem, in Salop, and Wembdon, in Somerset, as well as other place-names with the prefix wem, may be derived from the A.S. wem (a hollow), analogous to the Cel. uaimh. Wamphray, in Dumfriesshire, Gael. Uamh-fridh (the forest-cave).

high, cognate with the Gael. uchda (a height); e.g. Ucheltref and Ochiltree (the high dwelling); the Ochills, a hill range in Perthshire, Lat. Ocelli-montes.

water; e.g. Esk, Usk, Esky, Esker, Eskle, Oise, Ouse, Issy, Ax, Axe, Ux, Ex, Use, Ousel, Wisk, Eska, Esla, Aisne, Isar, Isère, Isen, Etsch (river names); Duffus and Doubs (black water); Marosh (marshy water); the Theis, anc. Tibiscus; Adige, anc. Athesis; the Po, anc. Padusa; Loch Ewe, and Ewes, a parish in Dumfries watered by a stream of this name; Wisbeach (on the beach of the Wysg or Wash), now some miles from the beach by the gradual advance of the land; Knockaniska (the hillock on the water); Killiskey and Killiskea (the church on the water), in Limerick; but Balihiskey, in Tipperary, is from Bealach-uisce (the road of the water); the Rivers Minho and Mincio, anc. Minius and Mincius (little stream); Duffus (dark water); Istria (half land, half water); Argense or Argenteus (silver stream), in France; Caldas (warm waters), in Spain and Portugal; Ischia (the island of waters), abounding in mineral springs; Issny, on the R. Leine, anc. Issiacum (on the water); Metz, anc. Mettis (between the waters), also named Divodurum (on the two rivers); Osimo, in Italy, anc. Auximum, and Osna, in Spain, anc. Uxama (on the water).

water; e.g. Astura (rocky water), a river which gives its name to the Asturias; Illuria (the town on the water); Illuro, with the same meaning, now Maturo, in Spain; Osuno, anc. Ursonum, and Tarazona, anc. Turiaso (the place of good waters), in Spain—osoa, Basque (good); Oloron, anc. Illura (the town on the water)—illia, Basque (a town).

a city; e.g. Orvieto, Lat. Urbs-vetus (the old city).

a valley; e.g. Vallais (the land of valleys), in Switzerland—its inhabitants were formerly called Nantuates, i.e. valley dwellers; Val-de-Avallano (the valley of hazels); Val-de-fuentes (of fountains); Val-del-laguna (of the lagoon); Val-del-losa (of the flagstone); Val-del-Moro (of the Moor); Val-de-Olivas (of olive-trees); Val-de-penas (of the rocks); Val-de-robles (of the oak-trees), in Spain; Val-de-lys (the valley of streams), in the Pyrenees, from an old Provençal word lys (water); Vallée-de-Carol (of Charles), through which Charlemagne passed from his conquest of the Moors; Vallombrosa (the shady valley); Valparaiso (the valley of Paradise); Valtelline, in Lombardy, consisting of a long valley, traversed by the R. Adda and Teglio; Vaucluse, Lat. Vallis-clusa (the enclosed valley); Orvaux, Lat. Aure-vallis (the golden valley); Riéval, Lat. Regia-vallis (the royal valley); Vals (in the valley of the Volane); Vaucouleurs, Lat. Vallis-coloris (the valley of colour), in a valley of the R. Meuse, whose green and smiling meadows have given it this name; Gerveaux or Yorvaux, in Durham, Lat. Uri-vallis (the valley of the R. Ure); Pays-de-Vaud (the country of valleys or of the Waldenses); Clairvaux, Lat. Clara-vallis (the bright valley); Roncesvalles (the valleys abounding in briers); Vaudemont, Lat. Vallis-de-monte (the valley of the mountain); Val-di-chiana (the valley of the standing pool), in Italy.

a fortress; e.g. Kolos-var, Ger. Klausenburg, anc. Claudipolis (the enclosed fortress, or the city of Claudius); Nagy-varad (great fortress); Vasvar, Ger. Eisenburg (iron fortress); Szamos-Ujvar (the new fortress), on the R. Zamos; Sarivar (palace fortress); Foldvar (the land fortress); Szekes-Fehervar, Ger. Stuhl-Weissenburg (the white fortress of the throne); Karoly-Fehervar or Karlsburg (Charles’s white fortress); Varosvar, Ger. Eisenthurm (the red fortress or iron tower), in Hungary; Ersek-Ujvar, Ger. Neuhausel (the bishop’s new fortress or seat).

a town; e.g. Ujvaros (the new town); Also-varos (lower town); Szasz-varos, Ger. Sachsenstadt (the Saxon’s town.

a lake; e.g. Vatnsdalr (the valley of lakes); Arnarvatn (eagle lake); Fiskvatn (fish lake); Langavat (long lake); Steepavat (steep lake); Sanvatn (sandy lake); Miosen-Vand (little lake); Helgavatn (holy lake); Vatster (the lake dwelling); Myvatn (the lake of the midges); Vatnagaard (the farm on the lake).

a plain; e.g. Vega-de-la-neustra-Senora (the plain of our Lady); Vega-Espinarada (the plain surrounded by thorns).

great; e.g. Velikaia (the great river); Velikja-luki (the great marsh), in Russia; Welkawes (the great village or dwelling), in Sclavonia; Welka, Welkow, Welchau, Welchow, etc., with the same meaning.

the alder-tree, Cel. gwern; e.g. Verney, Vernez, Vernois, Vernoy, Verneuil, Vernieres, etc., the names of various places in France.

holy; e.g. Wydale (the holy valley); Wyborg, Weighton, Wisby, Wigthorpe (holy dwelling); Wigan, anc. Wibiggan (the holy building), in Lancashire; Wigton, in Cumberland (holy town); but Wigton, in Scotland (the town on the bay, vig); Sviga (holy river), in Russia; Sviajsk (the town on the holy river); Sveaborg and Viborg (holy town); Sviatos-nos (holy cape); Sviatskaia (holy town, or of the deity worshipped by the Sclavonians, called Sviatovid), in Russia.

a farm, manor, or town, with its derivatives in the Romance languages; e.g. Villa-hermosa (the beautiful town); Villa-franca-de-panades (the free town of the bakers), in Spain. In France: Charleville (named after Charles, Duc de Nevers); Flamanville (founded by a colony of Flemings), in Normandy; Joinville, Lat. Jovis-Villa (the city of Jove, named from a Roman tower near the town); Luneville (the city of the moon), supposed to have been named from a temple to Diana; Offranville, in Normandy, Lat. Vulfrani Villa (the manor of Wulfran); Auberville and Aubervilliers (the manors of Albert); Thionville (the manor of Theodone), Lat. Theodonis Villa; La Ville-tertre (hill town); Deville, formerly Dei Villa (the city of God); Marteville, Lat. Martis Villa (of Mars); Villa-Viçosa (abundant town), in Spain and Portugal; Villa-rica (rich town); Yeovil, in Somerset (the town on the R. Yeo); Maxwell, in Kirkcudbright and in Roxburghshire, corrupt. from Maccusville (the manor or settlement of Maccus, to whom the lands were given by David I.); Philipville or Philipstadt, in Belgium (named by Charles V. after his son); Louisville, in the United States (named after Louis XVI., whose troops assisted the Americans in the War of Independence).

a vineyard; e.g. Le Vignæ, La Vignelle, Les Vigneaux, Vigneaux, Vigny, Vinax, and places abounding in the vine; La Vigne, in France.

a bay; e.g. Leirvogr (mud bay); Laxvoe (salmon bay); Siliavoe (herring bay); Grunavoe (green bay); Westvoe (west bay); Aithsvoe (the bay on the aith or headland); Sandvoe (sandy bay); Kaltenwaag (cold bay); Vaage (on the bay), a town in Norway.

in front of; e.g. Vormbach, Vormbusch, Vormhorst, Vormhagen (in front of the brook, thicket, wood, and hedge).

a ford, cognate with the Lat. vadum and the Gadhelic ath; e.g. Wadebridge (the bridge at the ford), in Cornwall; Wath-upon-Dearne (the ford of the R. Dearne), in Yorkshire; Carnwath (the ford at the cairn), in Lanarkshire; Lasswade (the ford on the pasture-land, laes), in Mid Lothian; Wath (the ford), on the Yorkshire Ouse; Langwaden (long ford), in Germany; Wageningen, Lat. Vadu (on the ford), in Holland, on the R. Leck.

a river-course or ravine; e.g. Wâdi-el-Ain (the ravine of the fountain); Wâdi-Sasafeh (of the pigeons); Wâdi-Sidri (of the thorn); Wady-Solab (of the cross); Wâdy-Shellal (of the cataract); Wâdy-Magherah (of the caves); Wady-Sagal (of the acacia); Wady-Mousa (of Moses); Wâdy-Abou-hamad (of the father fig-tree, named from a very old tree); Wady-Mokatteb (of the writing, from the number of inscriptions made by pilgrims); Wady-hamman (of the wild pigeons).

a wood or waste land; e.g. Walden-Saffron, in Essex (the waste land on which saffron was afterwards cultivated); the Weald, Wold, and Wealdon (the waste lands), in Essex, Kent, Lincoln, and Yorkshire; Waltham and Walthamstow (the dwelling-place near the wood); Waldstadt, Waldheim, Walddorf (dwellings near the wood), in Germany; Waldeck (woody corner, or corner of the wood); Waldshut (the forest hut), in Switzerland; Boëmerwald (the Bohemian forest); Waldau (woody meadow); Waldsassen (the settlement in the wood); Unterwalden (under or below the wood); Zinnwald-Sachsisch (the wood near the Saxon’s tin mine); Finsterwalde (the dark wood); Greifswald (the griffin’s wood); Habechtswald (hawk’s wood); Lichtenwald (the cleared wood); Rugenwalde (the wood of the Rugii, a tribe), in Pomerania; Regenwalde and Saalwalde (the woody districts of the rivers Rega and Saale); Methwald (in the midst of woods), in Norfolk; Leswalt (the pasture, laes, in the wood), in Wigtonshire; Mouswald (the wood near Lochar Moss), in Dumfriesshire; Wooton-Basset, in Wilts (the woody town of the Basset family, so called from the quantity of wood in the neighbourhood).

an embankment, a rampart, a wall, cognate with the Lat. vallum, the Gadhelic balla, and the Welsh gwal; e.g. Walton, on the Naze, where there was a walled enclosure to defend the northern intruders from the assaults of their hostile Saxon neighbours; Walton, also, in the east corner of Suffolk (the town near the wall); also Walton, on the Thames; Walton-le-dale and Walton (on the hill), in Lancashire; Wallsend (at the end of the wall), in Northumberland; Walford, in Hereford (the ford near a Roman fortification); Wallsoken (the place near the wall, where the judicial courts were held)—v. SOC; Walmer (the sea-wall), in Kent; Wallburg, Walldorf (walled towns), in Germany; Wallingford, in Berks, anc. Gallena, Welsh Gwal-hen (the old wall or fortification), A.S. Wealingaford; Wallmill, Wallshiels, Wallfoot, Wallhead, places in Northumberland near the wall of Adrian; Walpole (the dwelling, bol, near the wall), in Norfolk, a sea-bank raised by the Romans as a defence from the sea; but Walsham and Walsingham, in Norfolk, take their name from the Waelsings, a tribe. This place was called by Erasmus Parathalasia, Grk. (by the sea-beach).

foreign. These words were applied by the Teutonic and Sclavonic nations to all foreigners, and to the countries inhabited or colonised by those who did not come from a Teutonic stock or speak their language. In the charters of the Scoto-Saxon kings the Celtic Picts of Cambria and Strathclyde were called Wallenses; e.g. Wales, Gwalia—root gwal or gall, foreign. The Welsh call their own country Cymru (the abode of the Kymry or aborigines)—(the home of the Cymric Celts), so named by the Saxons; Wallachia (the strangers’ land, vlach), so called by the Germans and Sclaves because colonised by the Romans; Walcherin, anc. Walacria or Gualacra (the island of the strangers or Celts); Cornwall (the horn or promontory of the Celts); also Cornuailles (a district in Brittany peopled by British emigrants from Wales); Wallendorf (the town of the strangers), the German name for Olaszi or Olak, in Hungary, peopled by Wallachians; Wallenstadt and Wallensee (the town and lake on the borders of the Romansch district of the Grisons, conquered by the Romans under Constantius); Wâlschland, the German name for Italy. The Celts of Flanders were also called Walloons by their German neighbours; and Wlachowitz, in Moravia, means the town of the Wallachs or strangers. The Gadhelic gall (foreign), although used with the same meaning as wealh, is not connected with it. It is a word that has been applied to strangers by the Irish from the remotest antiquity; and as it was applied by them to the natives of Gaul (Galli), gall, in the first instance, might mean simply a native of Gaul. It was afterwards used in reference to the Norwegians, Fionn-ghaill (the fair-haired strangers); and to the Danes, Dubh-ghaill (the dark-haired strangers); and in connection with them and with the English the word enters largely into Irish topography; e.g. Donegal, i.e. Dun-nau-Gall (the fortress of the foreigners or Danes); Clonegall and Clongall (the meadow of the strangers); Ballynagall and Ballnagall (the town of the strangers, or English). For the further elucidation of these words v. Irish Names of Places, by Dr. Joyce, and Words and Places, by the Rev. Isaac Taylor. The words Gaill and Gallda are applied by the Highlanders of Scotland to their countrymen in the Lowlands, but they have no connection with the name which they apply to themselves—The Gaidheil, derived from an ancestor Gaodal.

a field or strip of land, allied to the Scottish whang, a slice; e.g. Feuchtwang (moist field); Duirwangen (barren field); Ellwangen, anc. Ellhenwang (the field of the temple, eleh or alhs); Affolterwangen (apple-tree field); Wangford (the ford of the wang).

a dwelling; e.g. Kattiwar (the dwelling of the Katties, a tribe); Judwar (of the Juts or Jats); Kishtewar (the dwelling in the wood). In Anglo-Saxon wara means inhabitants—thus Lindiswaras (the inhabitants of Lincoln; Cantwara, of Kent).

a watch-tower or beacon, or a place guarded, A.S. waerdian, Ger. warten, to guard—waering, a fortification; e.g. Hohenwarth, Lat. Altaspecula (the high watch-tower); Warburg (the town of the watch-tower), in Westphalia. In England: Warden, Wardle, Wardley (guarded places, or places where the warden of the district resided); Wardlaw (the beacon hill); Wardoe (beacon island), in Norway; Warwick, i.e. Waering-vic (the fortified dwelling, or the fort of the Waerings); Wöerden or Warden (the fortified place), in Holland; Vordhill, in Shetland, and Varberg, in Sweden (the hill of the beacon); Warthill, or beacon hill, in Westmoreland; Warburton, found as Wardeburgh (the town near the watch-fort)—here Athelfreda, Oueen of Mercia, built a citadel; Warrington (the town with the fortress, waering); Gross-wardein, the German rendering of Nagy varad, Sclav. (great fortress). From guardar, Span. (to defend), we have Guardamar (the sea guard, with a hill-fort at the mouth of the R. Segura); La Guardia (built as a defence against the incursions of the Moors); Guardia-regia (royal fortress); Leeuwarden, anc. Lienwarden (the guarded place near lime-trees), in the Netherlands.

a river island, or sometimes a plot of ground insulated by marshes and secured by dykes. It often takes the forms of werth or wirth, cognate with the A.S. worth or worthing, qu. v.; e.g. Bischopswerder (the bishop’s island); Elsterwerder, Saarwerder (the islands in the Rivers Elster and Saar); Donauworth (the island in the R. Danube); Kirchwerder (church island); Marienwerder (the island or enclosure dedicated to the Virgin Mary); Falconswaart (the falcon’s enclosure), in Holland; Poppenwarth (the priest’s enclosure); Werden, Werder, Wertheim (dwellings near river islands); Worth (the enclosed place), in Bavaria; Worth-sur-Sauer (the enclosure on the R. Sauer); Nonnenwerth (the nun’s enclosure); Furstenwerder (the prince’s island); Verden (near a large island formed by the R. Aller), in Hanover; Verderbruch (the island bridge); Bolswaard (Bolswine’s river island), in Holland; Wertingen (a town on an island in the R. Schmutter); Schönwerder (beautiful island on the R. Unstruth); Werth-sur-Sauer, in Alsace (on an island formed by the Rivers Sauer and Soultzbach); Borumeler-Waard (an island near the town of Berumel), in Holland, formed by the junction of the Rivers Waal and Maas; but Hoyerswerda, in Silesia, is a corruption of the Wendish name Worejze (the town on the ploughed land).