Chile and Her People of To-day

To the jealousy of Francisco Pizarro was due the discovery and conquest of Chile. Reports having reached Pizarro that there were regions to the south yet virgin, and teeming with wealth richer than that of Peru, he sent Diego de Almagro, one of his lieutenants, with an expedition to conquer these unknown lands. Almagro failed, and later he sent Pedro de Valdivia with another expedition. There was another reason for sending these expeditions, for Pizarro hoped that neither of these men would return to Peru, since he feared their shrewdness and popularity.

Valdivia succeeded in establishing a permanent settlement, but himself fell a victim to the hardy tribesmen of the central valley of Chile, who were far different from the soft and mild Incas enslaved by Pizarro. He had found that it was no easy task he had undertaken, and the sturdy race of Araucanians was still unconquered when the Spaniards were driven out of the country by the generations that had grown up from the time of its first settlement.

The Chileans have ever been independent in thought and action, and they have proved to be the best soldiers of South America. The temperate climate, the mountainous character of the country and its isolation, and the admixture of blood with the unconquerable Araucanians, who most nearly resemble the North American redmen of any of the aborigines of South America, have all contributed to the development of this characteristic.

The government is now as stable and hopeful as that of any of the South American nations, and, because of its natural formation, Chile has developed into the strongest maritime nation of that continent. Its fine bays and harbours, its coal supplies and its long seacoast, undoubtedly destine Chile to be the master of the southern seas in the ages yet to come. Furthermore, its vast and fertile valleys, where every product of the temperate climate grows, and where immense herds of cattle may be fed, its mineral wealth and vast nitrate fields, undoubtedly destine it to a greatness on land as well as on the sea.

The history of Chile has always appealed to the writer, in common with thousands of other people, and it has been a pleasure to trace the development of the country from its incipiency to its present condition. The same care has been exercised in the preparation of “Chile and Her People of To-day” as in the other books of the series, which have been so well received. Any repetitions that appear of expressions or ideas are intentional and not the result of hasty or careless preparation.

The author wishes to acknowledge his obligation to The Pan-American Bulletin for two or three photographs which appear in this work, and also to the Bureau under which it is issued for many courtesies received at the hands of the Director and his associates.

Nevin O. Winter.

Toledo, Ohio, January, 1912.

The republic of Chile has one of the strangest configurations of any country on the globe. It stretches over thirty-eight degrees of latitude, thus giving it a coast line of twenty-six hundred and twenty-five miles from its northern border to the most southerly point on the Fuegian Archipelago. It is a long and narrow ribbon of land, at no place wider than two hundred miles, and in places narrowing to sixty-five miles. It has an average width of only ninety miles, while the length is fully thirty times the average width. Placed on the western coast of North America, in the corresponding latitude, this republic would extend from Sitka, Alaska, to a point on the Pacific coast opposite the City of Mexico. If the state of Texas should be stretched out into a narrow strip of land two thousand and five hundred miles in length, it would give a fair idea of the peculiar shape of Chile. It follows quite closely the seventieth parallel of longitude, which would correspond with that of Boston. This strange development has been due to the Andean mountain range, which, with its lofty peaks and numberless spurs, forms the eastern boundary throughout its entire length. For a long time the boundary lines with its neighbours were in dispute, but these have all been successfully adjusted.

Transcriber’s Note: The map is clickable for a larger version, if the device you’re reading this on supports that.

Within these boundaries there is naturally a wide divergence of climate. In the north, at sea level, the vegetation is tropical, and it is semi-tropical for several hundred miles south. If one goes inland the mountains are soon encountered, and the line of perpetual snow is reached at about fifteen thousand feet, but this line descends as you proceed south. On the Fuegian Islands snow seldom disappears from sight, although at sea level it may all thaw. The temperature everywhere varies according to altitude and proximity to the sea. In the north it is milder than the same latitude on the eastern coast, because of the Antarctic Current which washes the shores, and at the south it is warmer than the same latitude in North America. Within these extremes, from the regions which are washed by the Antarctic seas to the banks of the Sama River, which separates it from Peru, and between the shores where the Pacific breakers roll and the Cordilleras of the Andes which mark the boundary with Argentina, there are two hundred and ninety-one thousand, five hundred square miles, and supporting a population of three and a quarter millions of people, of many shades of colour.

One-fourth or more of the territory of Chile is made up of islands. The largest of these, of course, is Tierra del Fuego, of which a little more than one-half is Chilean territory. The coast from Puerto Montt to the southern limits of the continent is notched and indented with fiords and inlets, and scores of islands have been formed, probably by volcanic action. Few of these have claimed any attention, and, of all those lashed by the waves of the Antarctic seas, Tierra del Fuego is the only one that has received any development. The sheep man has taken possession of portions of that island, and hundreds of thousands of sheep now graze on its succulent grasses. The island of Chiloé, near Puerto Montt, is one of the most important of the islands, and several small foreign colonies have been located on its rich soil. Some of the islands are very remote from the mainland. The most isolated one is Pascua, or Easter, island, which is at a distance of more than two thousand miles from the coast. It is almost in the centre of the Pacific Ocean. The San Felix and San Ambrosio groups, and that of Juan Fernandez, the reputed home of Robinson Crusoe, are also at a distance of several hundred miles from the shores of the republic.

From the northern boundary to Concepción, the coast line is generally uniform and indentations are rare. There are only a few bays of any considerable size, and only an occasional cape or promontory. From Chiloé to Tierra del Fuego is a stretch of coast five hundred miles in length, which a glance at the map will show is a perfect network of islands, peninsulas and channels. This is the Chilean Patagonia. It provides scenery as grandly picturesque as the famous fiords along the coast of Norway, and greatly resembles that broken and rugged coast. The bays and gulfs cut into the shores to the foothills of the Andean range. They are of great depth. The Gulf of Las Peñas furnishes an entrance to this labyrinth at the north, and the Straits of Magellan at the south. Some of the passes are so narrow that they seem like gigantic splits in the mountain ranges—grandly gloomy and narrow. Through these openings in the rock the water rushes with terrific force owing to the action of the tides. But, once within, the opening broadens out into little bays, where the waters are as calm and serene as a mountain lake. These channels are a vast Campo Santo, or God’s Acre, of wrecked vessels. Numerous as the disasters have been the sight of a stranded boat is rare, for the grave is usually hundreds of fathoms deep. In every case, however, the wrecked vessel has given her name to the rock that brought disaster, and the official charts are dotted with the names of rocks, which thus form eternal headstones for the unfortunate vessels. One writer has given the following account of these channels:—

“If one can imagine the Hudson River bordered continuously by verdure-covered mountains descending precipitously into the water, and jutting out here and there in fantastic buttress-like headlands, one has some idea of Messier Channel. But add to this a network of long, thin cataracts threading their way thousands of feet down through gullies and alleys from mountain crest to water edge. Far up the mountain sides they are so distant as to seem motionless, like threads of silver beaten into the crevices of the rocks; but near the water their motion can be both seen and heard as they fall amid the rocks to reach the sea.”

The southern portion of the republic terminates in two peninsulas, known as King William and Brunswick, which are separated by the gulfs of Otway and Skyring. The Straits of Magellan then separate the mainland from the Fuegian Archipelago. This channel, which varies in width from one to twenty-five miles, is three hundred and sixty-two miles in length from Cape Pillar to Cape Virgenes, the latter being the eastern, or Atlantic, terminus. It affords a safe passage for vessels, and is used almost exclusively by steamers bound from one coast to the other.

THE ANDES FROM SANTA LUCIA.

After forming the plateau of Bolivia, the Andes, the backbone of South America, stretches down to the lower end of the continent. It is formed by a succession of high mountains, with lofty peaks covered with the eternal snows. At intervals passes are found which permit of access from one side of the mountain to another. The highest point of this mighty range is reached just opposite Valparaiso, Mt. Aconcagua, and from there it descends until, at the Straits of Magellan, it reaches sea level. It probably continues still farther, but its highest spurs are engulfed beneath the ocean. The width also varies greatly, from forty-five to one hundred miles. Along the Chilean border there are more than fifty definite peaks exceeding thirty-three hundred feet in height, and twenty-nine of more than ten thousand feet in altitude. Four are above twenty thousand feet. Most of these were originally volcanoes, but they are nearly all now extinct or quiescent. South of Aconcagua is a succession of lofty volcanic peaks, such as San José de Maipu, San Fernando, Tingueririca and others, all apparently extinct. Then follow Nevado del Chillan, Antuco, Villarica and Osorno, all of which occasionally emit vapour, and, lastly, the Tronador (thunderer) near the southern extremity of the country.

By reason of its peculiar shape easy access is given to all parts of the republic, and the exploitation of its resources has been comparatively easy. In no place are the mountains far distant, and short spurs of railway connect the mineral deposits with the sea. Along the coast there are no fewer than fifty-nine ports, between which regular communication by steamer is carried on. Fourteen of these are ports of entry, in which customs houses are located, and the others are minor ports, at which only national coasting steamers stop.

There are very many rivers in the country, but only a very few of them are any aid to navigation. They are mostly short streams which are formed by the melting snows of the Andes, and then rush onward toward the sea by a more or less direct route. The principal rivers are all in the southern half of the country. In the deserts of the northern section the waters formed by melting snows are evaporated or are absorbed by the parched soil long before they reach the sea. The Yelcho and Palena are the largest rivers of Chile. The latter is the longest, for it cuts through a pass in the Andes and runs back into Argentine territory for seventy-five miles. Others are the Maullin, Calle-Calle, Bio-Bio, Bueno and Maule. Some, such as the Bio-Bio and Maule, are navigable for short distances by vessels of shallow draft. Their importance to commerce is insignificant, however, when compared with the great rivers of the eastern coast. The Bio-Bio, for instance, is only one hundred and sixty miles long. They do furnish water for irrigation purposes, only a small portion of which has as yet been developed. There are several lakes in Chile, of which Llanquihue, Todos Santos, and Ranco are the most important. The two first mentioned have steam navigation.

There are many valleys of very fertile land which can be made among the richest agricultural lands of the world. As a rule these valleys are small and irrigated by streams flowing from the east to the west. The great central valley, which runs in a southerly direction for several hundred miles from Santiago, is one of the most remarkable features of the country and the garden of the republic. This valley is almost six hundred miles in length from north to south, but varies considerably in width. Its average width for the entire length is probably thirty miles. This is the granary of the country, and the source of its principal food supply. All of the cereals grow to perfection in this climate and on this soil. Wheat, barley, corn, rye and oats are cultivated in large quantities. All of the vegetables and fruits that flourish in the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere also grow to large size. Alfalfa makes a fine pasture. And yet even this fertile valley has only been developed in part. Not more than one-fourth of the landed surface of Chile is fitted for cultivation, but of this portion not more than one-fourth has been touched by the agriculturist or ranchman. Hence there are great possibilities of development yet unexploited in this republic. Cattle and sheep are profitable and are increasing in number. The waterfalls, also, give great possibilities of cheap power for manufacturing purposes, and the future will probably find all of the railroads operated by electric power, because of the cheapness with which current can be produced. This result seems to be only the natural outcome of existing conditions.

Such a country, with such a long extent of sea coast, would ordinarily be an almost impossible country to handle. It has, perhaps, been fortunate that the coast is easily reached in all parts, from the inhospitable deserts of the northern regions to the dense forests of the south. No country of equal size in the world has such a marvellously varied configuration. The humming-bird follows the fuchsia clear to the Straits of Magellan, and the penguin has followed the fish almost as far as Valparaiso. The government has done well in managing this ribbon-like country. Coast service has been built up and a longitudinal railway promises an interior development. Cross lines and transcontinental routes will provide much needed facilities for the interchange of commerce. The telegraph and telephone have linked together hitherto remote sections, and a creditable postal service has been created.

Chile is a republic, with the customary division into legislative, executive and judicial branches. It is not a confederation of provinces, as in Brazil and Argentina, but is a single state with one central government. It is divided for governmental purposes into twenty-three provinces and one territory. These are again divided into departments, districts and municipalities. Congress is composed of a Senate and Chamber of Deputies. The former is at present composed of thirty-two members and the latter of ninety-four. Deputies are elected for a term of three years by direct vote, in the proportion of one to every thirty thousand inhabitants. Senators are elected for six years in the proportion of one to every three deputies, and the terms of one-third expire every two years. Members of the House of Deputies must have an income of five hundred dollars a year, and a Senator must be thirty-six years of age and is required to have an annual income four times that sum. Congress sits from June 1 to September 1 each year, but an extra session may be called at any time. A peculiar feature is that during the recess of Congress a committee consisting of seven from each house acts for that body, and is consulted by the President on all matters of importance.

The President is chosen by electors, who are elected by direct vote, for a term of five years. He serves the state for a salary of about eleven thousand dollars, including the allowance for expenses. He is ineligible to serve two consecutive terms and may not leave the country during his term of office, or for one year after its expiration, without the consent of Congress. He has a cabinet of six secretaries, who are known as Ministers of Interior, Foreign Affairs, Justice and Public Instruction, Treasury, War and Marine, Industry and Public Works. The Minister of the Interior is the Vice-President, and succeeds to the office of President in the event of his death or disability. Elections are held on the 25th of June every fifth year, and inauguration of the new President follows on the succeeding 18th of September. The cabinet may be forced to resign at any time by a vote of lack of confidence by Congress, to whom they are directly responsible. In addition to the cabinet there is a Council of State consisting of eleven members, six of whom are appointed by Congress and five by the President, who assist that official in an advisory capacity. Furthermore, when Congress adjourns, it appoints a standing committee of seven from each house, which acts as the representative of that body during vacation. The President must consult with it in certain matters, and the committee may request him to call an extraordinary session if, in their opinion, such a course is advisable.

There is a national Supreme Court of seven members that sits at Santiago, which is the final judicial authority. Courts of appeal consisting of from five to twelve members also sit at Santiago, Valparaiso, Tacna, Serena, Talca, Valdivia and Concepción. There are also a number of minor courts which are located in the various provinces and departments. Each province is governed by an intendente, who is appointed by the President of the republic. The departments are governed by governors, who are subordinate to the intendentes, and the districts by inspectors, who are also appointed. The only popular element is the municipal district, or commune, which is governed by a board composed of nine men, who are elected by direct vote in each municipality.

When the Spaniards reached Chile they found native races occupying it. In the northern portions the tribes were under at least the nominal sway of the Incas, although separated from them either by the inhospitable Andes or dreary desert wastes. In the great central valley, however, the land appeared a pleasant garden, and so rich that nowhere had the Spaniards seen anything similar either for its fertility or the wealth of its fruits and herds. “It is all an inhabited place and a sown land or a gold-mine, rich in herds as that of Peru, with a fibre drawn from the soil rich in food supplies sown by the Indians for their subsistence”—so wrote the chroniclers. They lived in comfort and had a certain civilization. Each cacique had his own ranch house, the number of doors indicating the number of his wives, of which some had as many as fifteen. These people were the Araucanians, who proved to be a brave and courageous race. The Spaniards immediately began their usual cruelties and efforts to enslave these people, but succeeded only temporarily. The natives soon rose in rebellion. Three hundred years of warfare decimated their ranks, but did not subdue them, and when the Spanish rule ended these people were as unconquered as when it began. Their history has been written in blood, but it is the struggle of a heroic race, and it is not dimmed by the excesses and cruelties that attached to the Spaniards in their efforts to subjugate and enslave these valiant people.

After he had conquered Peru, Pizarro sent an expedition south to explore the country and take possession of it in the name of the King of Spain. One of his lieutenants, Diego de Almagro, was placed in charge. He crossed the great nitrate desert and reached as far as Copiapó, where he was driven back by hostile Indians. He had reached a valley called by the natives Tchili, which signified in their language beautiful, and that name was given to the country. A few years later, in 1540, another expedition was fitted out under Captain Pedro de Valdivia, which was more successful. He marched as far as the present city of Santiago, and founded a city, which has ever since remained the capital. Although colonists came from Spain, little progress was made for a long time because of the hostility of the Araucanian Indians. These attacks continued until 1640, when a treaty was concluded with these indomitable natives by which the Bio-Bio River was established as the boundary, and both together were to resist the English and Dutch buccaneers, who had begun to harass the coast. Early in the nineteenth century the spirit of independence reached Chile, and insurrections against the Spanish authorities broke out.

On the 18th of September, 1810, the Spanish authorities were deposed and a provisional government was set up. Troops were poured in by Spain, and it was not until 1818, when the Spanish troops were defeated in the battle of Maipu by the Argentine general, San Martin, that freedom from the foreign yoke was secured. General Don Ambrosio O’Higgins, an Irish patriot who had greatly distinguished himself in the war for freedom, was chosen as the first President, and he introduced many reforms and endeavoured to ameliorate the condition of the natives. The Jesuit missionaries followed in the wake of the soldiers and began their work of converting the natives. Since that time there has been considerable internal struggle between rival political factions, and some foreign troubles. There was a brief war with Spain, a frightful conflict with the neighbouring republic of Peru, and disagreements with Bolivia and Argentina. A few years ago war with the latter country seemed inevitable over the international boundary, but wise counsels prevailed and the matter was successfully arbitrated. At the present time peace prevails, although there are continual mutterings in Peru, and that country only needs a hot-headed leader to bring about another war with Chile over the lost revenue from the nitrate fields.

The Chileans are a brave and a courageous people. The natural boundaries have no doubt aided in developing a national spirit and love of independence. Truly no people in South America have fought so long and so hard to achieve national independence. The Araucanian mixture has brought virility and industry into the race—a far different element than the Inca blood farther north. These Yankees of the South American continent have accomplished much, and there is still greater promise for the future.

Cruising along the west coast of South America is a delightful experience. It is the perfection of ocean travel. One is always sure of fine weather, for it neither rains nor blows, and the swell is seldom strong enough to make even the susceptible person seasick. In defiance of our idea of geography the sailors speak of going “up” the coast, when bound towards the south. The boats along this coast are built for fair weather and tropical seas. They have their cabins opening seaward, and the decks reach down almost to the water’s edge. Some swing hammocks and sleep on deck, and it is very comfortable. Such vessels would not be adapted for the stormy Atlantic, and would not live long in a storm upon the Caribbean Sea. Sailors say that the wind is never strong enough to “ruffle the fur on a cat’s back,” and this immense stretch of sea might be likened unto a great mill pond. It is this part of the ocean, between the Isthmus and Peru, that suggested to the Spaniards the name of Pacific.

Near the equator the days and nights are equal. The sun ceases doing duty promptly at six, and reappears at the same hour the following morning. There is no twilight, little gloaming, and darkness succeeds daylight almost as soon as the big red ball disappears in the western sea. At night beautiful phosphorescence may be seen. The water is so impregnated with phosphorus, that each tiny wave is tipped with a light and the vessel leaves a trail of fire. From above the Southern Cross looks down upon the scene in complaisance. And thus the days pass in succession one after the other. The temperature is not uncomfortable, as the Antarctic Current tempers the tropical sun, and there is generally a southerly or southwesterly wind that aids. It is a pleasanter ride, and subject to fewer inconveniences than the ride along the eastern coast of the continent.

THE WEST COAST.

When the Stars and Stripes have faded from view at Balboa, and the jagged backbone of the continent has disappeared into the mists on either horizon, towards Nicaragua and Colombia, one feels that a new world has been reached. The real South America has been entered, and, when the good ship crosses the Line, about the third day out, home and the rest of the world seem very far away. It is a long journey to Valparaiso, Chile, if one takes a steamer that stops at all the intermediate ports, as it lasts more than three weeks. There are swifter vessels, however, that avoid Ecuador and make the journey in twelve days. The slower vessels follow the coast line, and the passenger is given many a view of the Andes, whose peaks are crowned with eternal snows but are frequently wrapped in fleecy clouds. At Guayaquil, the westernmost city of South America, it is even possible on occasions in clear weather to see Chimborazo, eighty miles from the sea. Nowhere in the world is there a greater assembly of lofty peaks than will be seen as the vessel proceeds along the coast. The Spaniards called these “sierras,” because their uneven summits resembled the teeth of a saw. Some of the peaks are regular in outline, but more often they are irregular and even grotesque, so that the imaginative minds of the natives have fancied resemblances to works of nature and have given them corresponding names. Nowhere in the world are there stranger freaks in geological formations, or more startling contrasts. Near the coast run the foothills, which gradually become higher and bolder until they end in the loftiest peaks. Back, and beyond all, an occasional volcanic peak may be seen lifting itself in solitary grandeur.

At the mouth of the Guayas River, in Ecuador, there is a dense growth of tropical vegetation. It seems to be a veritable hothouse of nature, where plants and trees wage a desperate war for existence against the vines, mosses and other parasites that attack them. This is the end of such scenes, however, for days and days. It would be difficult to find a more dreary aspect than the coast of South America from the boundary of Ecuador almost to Valparaiso. From the water’s edge to the Andes chain of mountains stretches a yellow and brown desert, unrelieved by a tinge of green, except where irrigation has been employed. At midday all is clear, but in the evening a purple haze covers the whole landscape. It bears a close resemblance to parts of Arizona and New Mexico in general characteristics. Cliffs three hundred to four hundred feet high, and which are scooped out into fantastic shapes, often form the water’s edge. The distant mountains look gloomy and forbidding. It very seldom rains there, perhaps once in six or seven years is a fair average. In other places a generation can almost grow up and pass away without an experience with rain. When it does rain, however, the desertlike plains and slopes immediately spring into life. Where for years there has been nothing but drifting sands appear meadows of nutritious grasses, and flowers and plants spring up in great confusion. Wherever the seeds come from is a mystery, but every nook and corner is soon ablaze with vegetation.

The boats stop at many ports from Ecuador to Chile. These little towns will be found nestling in little hollows at the foot of the hills, or tacked on the hillside. Each one is walled away from the other, and each is a gateway to a fertile valley or rich mining section. Sometimes a narrow gauge railway runs back into the interior, but there are no connections coastwise. The steamer furnishes the only communication with the world beyond, and the arrival of the boat is an event of great importance. Each town has its own specialty. At Guayaquil and Paita many merchants will come aboard with Panama hats, and good-natured bargaining will then be carried on with the passengers. Buying a hat is a tedious matter. The seller does not expect more than about one-third of the price he asks. If the passenger looks indifferent the native will hunt him up and reduce his offer. “How much would the señor give?” “Thirty soles! That would be robbery.” But the ship’s gong strikes and the time of departure is at hand. “Here, señor, is your hat. Muchas gracias. Adios!” The deal is concluded, and you have your hat at the price you offered, if you are shrewd enough to see that a cheaper hat was not substituted at the last minute. Deck traders board the vessel and stay with it for days, doing a good business in almost everything from vegetables and fruits to dry goods, and jewelry. Parrots, monkeys and even mild-eyed ant-eaters are offered the passengers for pets. Passengers join the boat at every stop, and, instead of hat boxes, as American women would be burdened with, the women here all bring on board their bird cages with their noisy occupants. Swarthy Spaniards and the darker-hued natives join the boat, many of them dressed in gay attire, and particularly wearing gaudy neckties and waistcoats. The boat always anchors at some distance from the shore, while passengers and freight are brought out either in lighters or row-boats. At some places a dozen lighters may be filled with freight for the steamer. The ship’s crew bring up from the hold scores of bales and boxes with labels familiar and unfamiliar. International commerce becomes real—almost a thing of flesh and blood. Each sling load brought up from the hold has its own tale to tell, and everyone becomes commercialized. The crowing of roosters at night, the bleating of sheep and bawling of the cattle remind you of a country barnyard at times, for the boat carries its own live stock, which are killed as the conditions of the larder demand. Thus it is that these slow galleons float along the coast past Paita, Pacasmayo, Salaverry, Pisco and the rest of the little ports. Five minutes after the ladder would be lowered the deck would become a floating bazaar.

Guayaquil is the port for the equatorial republic of Ecuador. Quite a business is done there, for more than one-third of the world’s supply of cacao beans, from which our chocolate is made, comes through this port. It is generally infested with more or less fever, and most people prefer to make their stay as short as possible. One of the curious things to attract the traveller’s attention is to see the mules with their legs encased in trousers. This is not due to any excessive modesty on the part of the inhabitants, for children several years old may be seen without as much clothing on. The purpose is to protect the legs of the animals from the bite of the gadfly, which is very numerous here. It was near Guayaquil that Pizarro landed with one hundred and eighty men to conquer the empire of the Incas. The capital of Ecuador, Quito, lies in a saucer-shaped cup at the foot of Mt. Pichincha, with many other lofty peaks in sight. It perhaps retains more of the original characteristics than any other city of South America. It vies with the City of Mexico the distinction of being the oldest city of the Americas. For centuries prior to the coming of the Spaniards it was the capital of one of the branches of the Incas, and Atahualpa used to eat his meals off plates made of solid gold. Hitherto accessible only over a long and difficult mountain trail, which was impassable during half of the year, Quito can now be reached by a railroad—thanks to American enterprise. No less than twenty volcanoes are visible from the track, of which three are active, five dormant and twelve are classed as extinct.

Callao (pronounced Cal-ya-o) is the principal port of Peru. It is always full of steamers and masts and has a general aspect of business. More than a thousand vessels touch here every twelve months. Its history has been exciting and there are many monuments to its heroes. Some warships are generally floating in the harbour. Lima is distant but seven miles from Callao, and it is a ride of only twenty minutes by an excellent electric road of American construction throughout. To the hum of the trolley one is hurried past irrigated fields, beautiful gardens and villas, and Inca ruins many centuries old. As the boats remain at Callao for a day the traveller is able to spend a few hours in the “City of the Kings,” as Pizarro christened it. Lima is a wonderfully interesting city, and its history is full of romance. It preserves in wood and stone the spirit of old Spain as it was transplanted into the New World. Carved balconies, which were patterned after their native Andalusia, still overhang the narrow streets of the Peruvian capital. Up-to-date electric cars whirl past old monastery walls where life has scarcely changed in three centuries. The Limaños are an easy-going, pleasure-loving people, among whom the strenuous life has few disciples. It has been the scene of many revolutions, and the marks of street fighting are numerous. Churches and ecclesiastical institutions abound on every hand, and ecclesiastics are numerous on the streets. The cathedral, in which the sacristan will show the alleged bones of Francisco Pizarro, is a fine specimen of architecture—one of the best in the world. On another corner of the plaza is the passageway from which the conspirators emerged on their way to assassinate the conqueror. The building which was the headquarters of the Inquisition in South America occupies still another site on the plaza.

A MILK BOY IN PERU.

Pisco is the next port of importance, and it is situated near a rich and fertile irrigated valley where sugar-cane grows abundantly. It is the port also for the interior towns of Ayacucho and Huancavelica, where numerous rich mines are found. Just a few miles out at sea are the Chincha Islands, from which Peru obtained such a large revenue for the guano found there. These deposits, once considered inexhaustible, because in places they were eighty feet or more in depth, have been almost exhausted. The great wealth received from them and nitrate has been dissipated.

At Mollendo, the last Peruvian port, there is a railway that runs to La Paz, the capital of the inland republic of Bolivia. It is a surf-lashed port where vessels are sometimes unable to land their passengers and freight. In fact the landing is through a “sort of Niagara Gorge gateway of rock, which gives to the mere landing some of the noise and a good deal of the excitement of a rescue at sea.” It takes three days’ travel to reach La Paz from Mollendo, as the train only runs by day. The first stage of the trip, as far as Arequipa, is over an almost trackless desert, where the wind piles the sand up in movable half-moon heaps. The sand-storms of the centuries have covered everything with these whitish particles, and the dusted peaks and hillocks stand out without relief of any kind. The second day brings the traveller to Lake Titicaca, the sacred lake of the Incas, which is crossed by boat, and a side trip will take the traveller to Cuzco, the capital of the Inca confederacy. Lake Titicaca is the highest and one of the most wonderful lakes in the world. It is larger than all the lakes of Switzerland together, and lies in a hollow two and one-half miles above the waters of the ocean. Lying in a peaceful valley, in a scene of desolate grandeur, where the trees are stunted and only a few of the hardiest plants survive, lies La Paz. The City of Peace, its name indicates, but this city has been the scene of turmoil and strife entirely foreign to its name ever since the Spaniards invaded these solitudes. Bolivia is another Tibet—one of the highest inhabited plateaus in the world, as well as one of the richest mineral sections.

In no part of the world, perhaps, is there such an abundance of life in sea and air as along the coast of Peru. Soon after leaving Callao the tedium of the voyage is relieved by the flight of millions upon millions of birds. There are gulls, ducks, cormorants, divers of all kinds and great pelicans with huge pouches under their bills. The sea is as animated as the air, and schools of fish, innumerable in numbers, may be seen darting through the water with their fins showing above its surface. Danger besets them from above and from beneath. The divers poise on wing every few minutes and then drop suddenly into the sea like a flash. For a few seconds they disappear beneath the surface, and then reappear with a fish in their bills. The lumbering and stately pelicans drop with a mighty splash that sends up a dash of spray. These greedy birds continue this foraging process until their pouches are so filled with fish that they are unable to rise out of the water until the load is digested or they disgorge themselves. The seals and sea lions keep themselves as busy as the birds, and constantly display their sinuous and shiny bodies above the surface, as they pursue the fish or come up to breathe.

We passed by the famous guano islands just before nightfall. The air was filled with birds, all of which were flying toward a great island that lifted up its rocky surface above the blue of the sea. At some distance above the sea were the smaller birds, which, at a distance, looked like mere specks against the sky. A little lower were the pelicans flying in single file, and in flocks of from twelve to thirty. They seemed to play the game of “follow the leader,” for if the leader poised his wings or lifted himself higher all did the same. Near the surface were divers, called “pirates” in the local parlance, in flocks of a thousand or more. They sailed along just above the surface of the water and continually altered their formation. With the naked eye the number of birds was myriad, but the telescope showed ten times as many. As far as one could see there was the same multitude of birds, all heading for this one island. The island itself was black with the birds already settled for the night, but each new arrival seemed to find a resting place either on the surface of the rock or in the caves underneath. For countless ages these birds have occupied these sterile volcanic rocks as their resting place, and have deposited the guano which has brought millions of dollars of wealth into the Peruvian treasury. A glimpse of this remarkable bird life shows how the guano has accumulated in such enormous quantities.

ROW BOATS CROWDING AROUND A STEAMER.

The northern part of Chile contains the dreariest section of this forlorn coast. There are no harbours, and a tremendous surf which rolls half way around the world before it strikes a breakwater dashes into foam upon these beaches. Several prosperous towns are located here as a result of the workings of nature’s laboratories. To reach these ports it is necessary to trust yourself to one of the boatmen, who crowd around the ladder as soon as the vessel drops anchor. Judicious bargaining is always advisable, and never pay the boatman until he has returned you safely to your floating hotel. The boat is guided through the surf with amazing skill, and it is very seldom that an accident occurs. They sometimes crowd each other off, however, in their eagerness to get the best position at the bottom of the ladder and secure the first passengers. But all these men are good swimmers, and the only result is a good wetting and much amusement for the steamer’s passengers who welcome any diversion.

Arica is the first port of importance in Chile at the north. It is only a day’s journey from Mollendo, the last Peruvian port. The Peruvian heaves a sigh when he enters Arica, but there is some hope in it, for he trusts to add this province to Peru’s possessions at some time in the future again. But at Iquique the hope fades, for sovereignty is lost for ever. Although not a large town, Arica has been the scene of several memorable events. It was here that were built the boats which carried the troops for the conquest of Chile. It was at that time a place of some importance among the natives, and the valleys back of it were densely populated and were cultivated by means of irrigation. Sir Francis Drake touched at this place in 1579, and found a collection of Indian huts on the shore. It is supposed to have been founded in 1250 by the Incas. It is like an oasis in the desert to the traveller who has coasted along the shore for days or weeks without seeing vegetation. At the present time it is famous for its oranges. They are grown in the rich valleys that lie behind the rather unattractive and forbidding hills next to the coast, and through the opening in the flat-topped hills one is permitted to catch glimpses of these valleys. Near the coast is a prehistoric cemetery filled with dead bodies, which were embalmed with almost as great skill as the mummies of Egypt.

Arica is a pleasant little place of several thousand inhabitants. There is a handsome little plaza which encloses a plot of shrubbery adorned with morning-glories and purple vine trees. One of the striking features is the brilliant colouring of the houses. There is also a rather imposing parochial church which is painted in the gaudiest colours that I have seen in any country; and it would be hard to duplicate it anywhere, even in Spanish America, a land of rich colouring. It used to be a great market for the skins of the vicuña, which are so beautiful. In late years, however, the skins are becoming less plentiful and the prices have jumped accordingly. The harbour is commodious and well sheltered. Interesting glimpses of native life are afforded by the Indian women coming to town. Some of them ride astride, being almost concealed by the huge panniers containing their market produce. Others trudge along by the side of the animals.

From this city a highway runs into the interior of Peru and Bolivia, which was constructed by the Incas a thousand years ago and has been used ever since. To-day caravans of mules, donkeys and llamas may be seen constantly passing up and down this ancient trail. They bring down ore and take back mining supplies and miscellaneous merchandise. It is known as the “camino real,” and is several hundred miles long. Near here is supposed to be the underground outlet of Lakes Titicaca and Poopo. One argument advanced in favour of this theory is that a certain kind of fresh water fish that abounds in that lake is caught in considerable numbers in the ocean near this town. It has been the scene of several disastrous earthquakes. On August 13th, 1868, it was almost washed away, and many of its inhabitants perished in a tidal wave which came without warning and devastated the coast for a hundred miles. Two United States men-of-war, which were in the harbour at that time, were lifted from their anchorage by waves sixty feet high and carried inland a mile over the roofs of the town. One of the vessels, the Fredonia, was dashed against a ledge of rocks and entirely destroyed, while the other, the Wateree, was left lying in the sand. Everyone on the former boat was lost and about half of the latter. For many years the boat lying on the sand was used as a boarding house for the railway employees.

THE HARBOUR OF ARICA.

On June 7th, 1880, Arica was the scene of a furious battle and a terrible massacre. At one end of the town, and directly on the sea front, is a promontory, which rises six hundred feet above the sea almost precipitously. On this rock, which is known as the Morro, the Peruvians had erected a powerful battery to defend the harbour. The Chileans, however, landed a force of four thousand men several miles below at night. In the morning the Peruvians found themselves attacked in the rear with no means of escape. As their guns were pointed to the sea they were useless to defend against those back on the landward side. Although short of small arms and ammunition, the Peruvians made a heroic defence and engaged in a hand-to-hand contest that lasted for an hour. At the end of that time the commander leaped over the precipice into the sea, and his body was crushed to a pulp among the rocks. Several hundred of his soldiers followed him, preferring to die that way to having their throats cut by the Chileans. For months afterward their bodies could be seen lying where they had lodged on the jutting rocks below. It is claimed that seventeen hundred Peruvians were killed, as this was the total strength of the garrison and no prisoners were taken. On a slab near the slope of the rock is an inscription in whitewashed stone, “Viva Battalion No. 4.” It was placed there by the victorious Chileans to commemorate the heroism of the enemy.

Arica is in the province of Tacna, which is the most northerly province in the republic, and is about the size of New Jersey. Agriculture in this province is very limited, and there has not been much of mineral development. There are some veins of copper and lead, and some scattered deposits of nitrate as well that have not been worked. A railroad from Arica runs back to the city of Tacna, the capital, which is one of the oldest railroads in South America. It is quite an important town, and is situated in a valley made fertile by irrigation. A railroad is now being built across the Cordilleras from this city to connect with the Bolivian railways. When that is completed it is believed that this line will be the best one, as it is the shortest, and every traveller is anxious to escape as much of the dust in crossing the desert region as possible. It is only a little over three hundred miles from Arica to La Paz. This road will add to the importance of Arica, for it will be one of the main arteries of commerce from Bolivia to the outside world, but it is not likely to help Tacna any in its growth.

The next province adjoining Tacna is Tarapacá, which is one of the wealthiest sections in the Americas because of its nitrate deposits. It contains the richest nitrate region in the world. From Arica the cliffs rise up almost perpendicularly from the sea for the first day’s journey. Pisagua, the first port as you travel “up” the coast, is a city of about five thousand. This port does not differ much from a mining town in the States. Although considerable shipping is done here, Pisagua fades in importance beside its more important rivals.

“We do not want rain in Iquique.”

This statement was made to me by the manager of the nitrate trust, who lives in that prosperous city of thirty thousand or more inhabitants, and which is one hundred and eleven miles south of Arica. It was the first time I had ever heard of a community that did not desire rainfall. Water used to be brought by boat from more favoured regions, and was peddled through the streets at so much a quart or gallon. At times it is said to have sold as high as two dollars per gallon. A pipe line one hundred and fifty miles long now supplies this necessary liquid to this city, and it is sold by the metre instead of being put up in pint or quart bottles.

A walk through this city on the edge of the sea, with bare, brown and rugged hills for a background, showed not a blade of grass, except on the public squares and in a few diminutive courtyards within the houses, where the hand of man supplied the necessary water for growth. It is little wonder that lawn-mowers are a drug on the market in Iquique. The sun is fierce, and its unrelenting rays, absorbed and reflected by the vast area of desert waste, inflame the air to almost furnace heat. The streets are dusty and the fine particles get into your ears and nostrils, and you can almost taste it on your tongue. Many of the houses have a piazza on top, or a second roof, to break the force of the sun’s rays. The Arturo Prat Square has been made quite attractive, and is ornamented with a very creditable statue of that hero. Business around the shipping quarters is always lively, as it is bound to be where such an enormous export and import trade is carried on. In 1891, during the revolutionary fighting between the Balmacedists and Congressists, the custom house was the scene of a stubborn battle. The town was set on fire and confusion and disorder reigned supreme. At the present time Iquique is an important port and more than one thousand vessels enter it each year.

The dreariness and unattractiveness of the surroundings is hard to describe. Street cars with girls as conductors, good stores, the telephone and other modern conveniences, and even comfortable clubs do not make up for the lack of green vegetation. The groceries are filled with condensed milk from England, sardines from France, sausages from Germany, cheese from Holland, jellies and jam from Britain, and macaroni from Italy. But fresh vegetables and meats are at a premium, and unnatural tastes are developed. Many English live in Iquique. They are great brandy drinkers, and show discrimination “in not exhausting the wealth of the nitrate beds by taking too much soda in their brandy,” as one writer says. Nevertheless the people are happy, for wealth lies at their very doors and rain would cause great loss. By reason of this Iquique has grown until it is second only to Valparaiso in commercial importance. It has grown with a swiftness than can only be compared with our own western towns. In the first days of the saltpetre era nothing went slow and the town spread like magic. Much of the population is a rough one and hard to govern, but the authorities have done well. The battles that have been fought with fortune in Iquique and on this coast have cost many lives and much privation. A few have acquired fortune, but more have not even obtained a modest competence in return for the deprivation and sacrifice endured. Whatever has been gained at the cost of much labour and privation has been fully earned by some one—and perhaps by one who did not reap the reward.

A STREET SCENE, ANTOFAGASTA.

The province of Antofagasta joins that of Tarapacá on the south. Tocopilla is the first port of importance, but Antofagasta, a little over two hundred miles from Iquique, is the principal city. This province is a desert in appearance similar to the other, and this city can boast no advantages over its more northerly rival. Antofagasta is almost on the Tropic of Capricorn, and is in about the same latitude as Rio de Janeiro, on the Atlantic coast. It lies almost at the foot of some hills that are quite high, and is a city of about twenty thousand. The dull-coloured houses can scarcely be distinguished from the sombre hills at a distance. The dust is anything but pleasant. A great deal of nitrate and some copper are shipped from Antofagasta. There are several small wharves, but everything has to be transferred to lighters. The harbour is a wretched roadstead and, to get ashore, one has to brave a lashing surf. The pride of the city is a little plaza, where considerable coaxing has caused a little evidence of green from the grass and a few trees. A narrow gauge railroad, two feet and six inches in width, runs from here to La Paz, and a great deal of freight is transshipped to Bolivian towns.

The province of Atacama comes next, which does not differ much in physical characteristics from the three previously named. In some of the valleys, where water can be secured for irrigation, a little agriculture is attempted. There are also a number of minerals to be found, but not so much as in Tarapacá and Antofagasta. Caldera, the principal port, is two hundred and seven miles from Antofagasta, and has a well sheltered bay. The oldest railroad in South America connects this port with Copiapó, the capital of the province. This city is situated in a fertile valley on the banks of a river of the same name. It is an old and quite important town, and has a number of educational institutions. It will soon be connected with Santiago by the longitudinal railway.

The last of the northern provinces is that of Coquimbo. This province is really at the end of the dry zone, and there are a number of rich valleys where the land is fertile and agriculture flourishes. It is a mining province as well, and a great deal of mineral wealth has been discovered. Guayacan is a port, but the principal port is Coquimbo, which is only a couple of hundred miles from Valparaiso. It has a population of probably ten thousand. The city extends along the bay in an irregular manner for some distance. The capital of the province is La Serena, and it is only a few miles from Coquimbo. There is nothing especially in its favour, although an attractive little city, but it is a relief from the dreary places farther north which have been mentioned.

COQUIMBO, A TYPICAL WEST COAST TOWN.

Every one going this way is bound for Valparaiso. The voyager, who has journeyed twenty-six hundred miles along the Pacific coast, hails with delight the beautiful half-moon bay in which that city is located. He welcomes the splash of the anchor, which means a speedy transfer to the shore and the comforts of a good hotel. Many disasters have been recorded in this bay. In the winter terrific storms arise, and steamers oftentimes lift their anchors and steam out into the open sea for safety. The largest steamers are tossed about like eggshells, while the buoys bob around like water-sprites. The enthusiastic Chilean loves to compare it with the Bay of Naples. But it is not Naples. The waters are not so blue, nor the skies as perfect, but it has a charm all its own. A row boat or launch quickly transfers the traveller to the landing steps, and courteous officials promptly pass the baggage. Then a short ride in a rickety carriage, and the doors of the Royal Hotel hospitably open to receive the guests.

Val-paraiso means the “Vale of Paradise,” and it is the name of both a province and a city. The name is so incongruous on this unattractive shore as to cause a smile, for the location of Valparaiso does not merit any such appellation. It was so named after a little town in Spain, which was the home of Juan de Saavedra, the man who captured the Indian village located at this point in 1536. There is only a narrow strip of land between the bay and the barren hills behind it, which, in places, rise up to a thousand or fifteen hundred feet in height. At one place it is wide enough for only two streets, which are very close together. At other places this ledge creeps back farther, but nowhere does the gap between sea and hills exceed half a mile, and a part of this has been reclaimed from the sea. Through the centre of this level space runs Victoria Street, which follows the coast line the entire length of the city and is several miles in length. It is the main commercial street, and is lined with business houses, public buildings and even private residences.

AN “ASCENSOR” IN VALPARAISO.

It used to be that all of the city was built on this narrow strip of land. Little by little, however, the city has crept up the side of the hills, and the streets rise in terraces one above the other. On the edges of the cliffs in many places the poorer classes have built for themselves dwellings of the rudest kind from all sorts of debris. Some of these are perched upon almost inaccessible rocks, and are propped up with wooden supports. On the extreme upper part of the rock has been built the real residence quarter, and many fine homes are found there. It is reached by steep and winding roads, which tire the pedestrian not used to them; but there are a dozen inclined elevators, or “ascensors,” as they are called in Valparaiso, which carry the passenger to the upper heights for a very small sum. Up the steep roadway the poor horses may be seen drawing their loads, while the drivers beat them and vociferously berate them with their tongues.

From the heights one has a magnificent view of the bay, which is like a half-moon, and is one of the prettiest bays in the world. It has a northern exposure, however, and is subject to terrific storms in the winter season, which lash the seas into a fury and the waves beat upon the sea front with destructive force. It is still to all extents and purposes an open roadstead, although plans have been drawn for a breakwater to provide a sheltered harbour. The drawback has been that the bay is very deep only a short distance from shore, and the problem of building such a protection is a difficult one. The surface of the bay is always dotted with vessels from almost every quarter of the globe. One can at any time see the flags of a half dozen or more different nations floating from the mastheads. Then there are hundreds of small lighters which are used to carry the freight between vessel and shore, as no docks have been constructed at which vessels can unload. In the far distance may be seen, on a clear day, the backbone of the continent, the Andes, with its serrated ridges and snowy summits glistening in the sunlight. The hoary head of Aconcagua, the highest peak of the Cordilleras, can easily be distinguished from the others by reason of its superior height.

Next to San Francisco, Valparaiso is the most important port on the eastern shores of the Pacific. This city of two hundred thousand has as much commerce as the average town of double that size, as it is the port for Santiago and the greater part of Chile. A business-like character is impressed upon the entire city. Here live the men who design and carry out the vast nitrate and mining enterprises of northern Chile, and practically all business, except that of politics, is managed from this city. The docks and warehouses are at all times busy places, and are crowded with boxes and bales from almost every commercial nation. Banditti-like rotos drive carts and wagons filled with merchandise. One of the first sights after being set down on the landing-stage is the two-wheeled dray of Valparaiso. It is drawn by two or three wiry and sweating horses, on the back of one of which rides the driver, who lashes the horses unmercifully. The ridden horse is hitched by a trace just outside the shafts, and he is trained to push at the shaft with his shoulder, or pull at right angles when the occasion arises, and in every way is as clever as any Texas bronco. One of these drays with the driver lashing his team might well figure on the escutcheon of this city.

The “U. S.” mark is less frequently seen in Valparaiso than that of Hamburg or London, for the United States has not become such an exporting country of manufactured products as those commercial nations of the older world; nor is the Yankee in flesh and blood. The predominance of the British is shown by the prevalence of the English language. Nearly every one engaged in business has at least a slight acquaintance with that tongue. One can not go far without crossing the path of some ruddy Briton or voluble Irishman. Many of the best stores bear English names, and one will see the same goods displayed as in New York or London. In fact it is more predominantly English in appearance than any other city of South America. There are cafés where they meet to drink their “half-and-half” or other beverages, and there is a club where the Times, Punch, and other favourites can be read. It is said that the foreign population almost equals the native in numbers. Only a small part of this foreign element is English, as there are many Italians, Germans and French, but the English are the bankers and tradesmen, and have impressed their characteristics more forcibly upon the city than the other nations. There are amusements in plenty, for there are clubs, concerts and an abundance of theatres to provide recreation as a relaxation from the strenuous life. There are tennis grounds, football fields and a golf course at Viña. There are many monuments over the city in the plazas and on the new alameda, erected to the nation’s heroes, and one to William Wheelwright, the American who did so much to aid Chile in developing her transportation facilities. The naval school, which crowns one of the hills, is one of the most attractive places in Valparaiso, and provides one of the finest views of the bay and surrounding hills.

“One of the great advantages of life in Valparaiso,” says Arthur Ruhl in “The Other Americans,” “is the absence of a professional fire department. The glorious privilege of fighting fires is appropriated by the élite, who organize themselves into clubs, with much the same social functions as the Seventh Regiment and Squadron A in New York, wear ponderous helmets and march in procession in great style whenever they get a chance. One comes upon these bomberos practising in the evening, on the Avenida, for instance, in store clothes and absent-mindedly puffing cigarettes, getting a stream on an imaginary blaze. In any emergency they perform much the same duties as our militia.

“It is the delightful privilege of the bombero to drop his work whenever the alarm is given, dash from his office to the blaze, and there man hose-lines, smash windows, chop down partitions, and indulge to the fullest one of the keenest primordial emotions of man. Inasmuch as buildings are seldom more than two or three stories in height and built of masonry, there is comparatively little danger of a large conflagration, and the average of one fire in four days is ‘just about right,’ as one of my Valparaiso acquaintances explained, ‘to give a man exercise.’ Their only unhappiness, he said, was that there were about fifteen hundred firemen in town, and they were getting so expert that what one could call a really ‘good’ fire was almost unknown.”

Like its commercial rival, San Francisco, Valparaiso suffered from a destructive earthquake in 1906. Slight quakes are quite common in this city, but the inhabitants do not seem to fear them, and go along the even tenor of their way as though such a thing as an earthquake was unknown. In one year as many as thirty-five shocks have been recorded, but the one mentioned above is the only one for a half century or more in which any lives were lost. In fact Valparaiso has had its full share of troubles and vicissitudes of all kinds. It was captured and sacked three times by buccaneers, twice by the British and once by a Dutch pirate. It has suffered severely from earthquake shocks on half a dozen different occasions, was destroyed by fire in 1858, bombarded by the Spanish fleet in 1866, and much property was destroyed in the Balmaceda revolution a little later. Few cities in the New World have had a career so troubled and diversified.

The most disastrous experience in the history of Valparaiso occurred in 1906. On the 16th of August of that year, only four months after the destruction of San Francisco, the greater part of the city was destroyed by an earthquake and the fire that followed. The day had been unusually calm and pleasant. About eight o’clock in the evening the first earthquake shock was felt, which was almost immediately followed by others. The whole city seemed to swing backward and forwards; then came a sudden jolt, and whole rows of buildings fell with a terrific crash. The electric light wires snapped, and gas and water mains were broken. The city was left in intense darkness, which was rendered all the more horrible by the shrieks of the injured and terrified inhabitants. Fires soon started which, fanned by a strong wind, soon became conflagrations. Between the fires and earthquake a large proportion of the lower town was completely destroyed, but the upper town was practically uninjured. Many of the better-built business houses withstood the earth’s tremblings, and the wind blew the flames in the opposite direction.

The authorities acted promptly in the matter, so that patrols of troops and armed citizens were soon on guard. The progress of the fire was impeded by the use of dynamite. Appeals for help were sent to Santiago and other cities, which were responded to as promptly as possible. There was necessarily some delay, for telegraph lines and the railroads had likewise suffered. The shocks continued for the two following days at irregular intervals, which likewise interfered with the work of cleaning up the city. A terrific downpour of rain also added to the confusion of the first night, for the vivid flashes of lightning and the clanging of the fire-bells made it a night not easily forgotten by the inhabitants. The killed and injured numbered at least three thousand persons. But fifty thousand or more were rendered homeless. Thousands of these were camped on the barren hills above the city, and thousands more were cared for by boats in the bay.

Strangely enough no damage was done to the shipping in the bay. The destruction was not confined to Valparaiso alone, but extended inland as far as Los Andes, and many of the small inland cities near Valparaiso suffered more or less damage. The property loss in Valparaiso has been estimated at one hundred million dollars. Like San Francisco, however, a new Valparaiso is arising which will be superior to the old. The greater part of the destroyed district has been rebuilt in a better and more enduring manner. The national government has advanced large sums of money to the municipality, which, in turn, has given it under certain conditions to those who suffered losses. To-day in the business section of Valparaiso it would be almost impossible, after only five years, to find evidence of this disastrous earthquake, but a little farther out its handiwork can quickly be traced.

There is a quaint side to life in Valparaiso. A visit to the market reveals many things of interest. One will first be impressed by the fine fruits of Chile, for nowhere in the world can one find more delicious pears, peaches and plums. The marketers bring their produce in huge two-wheeled carts drawn by the slow-moving ox. The stalls presided over by men and women fill every available inch of space, until it is almost impossible to force one’s way through. Everywhere are groups bargaining over fruits, vegetables or household articles, for these people dearly love a bargain. Many show by their faces a tinge of the Indian blood that runs in their veins.

A CHICKEN PEDDLER, VALPARAISO.

The peripatetic merchants, who carry supplies from door to door, come to the market for their stock in trade. It is invariably carried on the back of a donkey or mule, as it is difficult to draw a loaded wagon up the steep ascents. Their quaint cries may be heard in almost any part of the city during the morning hours. As a rule this merchant carries only one article, or possibly two or three, if it is vegetables. The chicken peddler has built little coops for his birds which take the place of a saddle. It is interesting to watch him gesticulate and praise the excellence of his fowls to the good housewife, or the servant who comes out in answer to his warning cry. The scissors-grinder and dealers in notions swell the list of perigrinating business men who make the streets vocal with their calls. The milkman carries the milk in cans swung over the back of his mule or donkey, or else drives the cows themselves from door to door.

“Leche de las burras y vacas,” meaning donkey’s and cow’s milk, was the cry that reached my ears one morning in Valparaiso. On looking around I saw a man leading two donkey mares and three cows through the streets. Each donkey mare was closely followed by its pretty but comical little colt. This is a custom imported from Spain and Italy, where goats are also taken from door to door and oftentimes up three or four flights of stairs to be milked. It might even be possible to find a milkman with donkeys, cows and goats in his collection, so that a regular department store variety of milk could be provided his customers. Add to these the camel and reindeer, and you have the sources of the world’s milk supply. Donkey’s milk is used a great deal for babies in South America, as it is considered better for them than the milk of either cows or goats. Milk delivered in this way does not need a sterilized label upon it, or a certificate from the department of health. Furthermore, there is very little danger of adulteration. The housekeeper reaps the benefit of this style of milk delivery, but it must be a slow and costly method for the dairyman. It is another evidence that primitiveness has not entirely disappeared from Chile.

A VENDER OF DONKEY’S MILK, VALPARAISO.

One other peculiar feature of life in Valparaiso is that the conductors on all the street cars are women. This innovation was introduced in the time of war with Peru, when men were hard to secure for that work. They did the work so well that they have been employed continuously ever since. It can not be said of them that they are especially attractive, or even look very jaunty in their uniforms of blue surmounted by a sailor hat. The fares are the cheapest I have ever found. The cars are all double-decked. For two cents one can ride inside, and it costs only half that rate to ride on the upper deck, which is a far better way to see the city. The service is good, and there are more than twenty-five miles of trolley in and about the city. The electric current for this as well as lighting is generated by water power a few miles north of the city, where a huge dam has been built across a stream.

A night view of Valparaiso from the bay is delightful. The many electric lamps in all parts of the city illuminate the otherwise dark shadows, and are reflected in the waters near the shore. Here and there move streaks of light in the lower town, as the electric cars dash along from one end of the city to the other; similar lines of light move up and down in a dozen places, as the “ascensors” carry their loads between the upper and lower town. At such times Valparaiso looks like a city of enchantment, a chosen bit from fairyland.

A trolley line leads out to the aristocratic suburb of Viña del Mar, where the rich people of Chile also have their summer residences. There are some beautiful homes in this city, of splendid architecture and surrounded by luxuriant foliage. In these villas the wearied and worried man of business finds rest after business hours. For a few months in the summer this resort is the centre of the social life of the republic, and the hotel is so crowded that it is difficult to secure accommodation, unless arranged for beforehand. There are delightful drives, when not too dusty, and then there are tennis courts, golf links, polo grounds and other places of recreation. A fine club building has been erected, where the devotees of games of chance can find the alluring games that their natures seem to crave. At Miramar is a small bathing resort, but it is extremely dangerous, for just a short distance from shore the bottom seems to drop to a great depth. It is used principally as a place for promenades and dress show for the society folks, and every day a long line of carriages wend their way out to that pleasant little bit of beach.

AN ATTRACTIVE HOME, VIÑA DEL MAR.

The great attraction of Viña, however, is the race course. Sunday is, of course, the gala day, and the race course is crowded with lovers of the sport. The people of Chile have passed the bull-fight period in civilization, for the bull-fight and lottery have both been banished by statutory enactment, and the horse races have taken their place. They vie with the residents of Buenos Aires in their devotion to this sport. The residents entertain house parties on that day and all attend the track. They become very enthusiastic, and few who have the money neglect an opportunity to stake it on the horses, for all are posted on the records of the various animals listed in the races, and each one has his or her favourite.

The province of Valparaiso does not extend quite to the Cordilleras, but it does reach out several hundred miles into the Pacific. Some four hundred miles west of Valparaiso lies the island of Juan Fernandez, which is generally known among English-speaking people as Robinson Crusoe’s Island.

Thus runs the old nursery rhyme with which all of us are familiar. There are few reading people, young or old, who have not read that fascinating tale of adventure, written by Daniel Defoe, which depicts the adventures of Robinson Crusoe. And yet, perhaps, there are not so many who are familiar with the location of the island which Defoe pretends to describe.

The island of Juan Fernandez, generally known among Chileans as Mas-a-Tierra, is a great mass of rock almost twelve miles long by seven miles wide, a large part of which is as barren as a desert. One side, however, where fruits grow and the wild sheep and goats find their sustenance, is covered with a luxuriant vegetation. It is in a desolate location, for it is away from the trade routes and there are few vessels that pass that way. The fishing boats that ply between Valparaiso and the island keep up communication with the mainland. The waters of the Pacific teem with fish, and the fishermen have found the little bays of this small island profitable waters for their trade. It is a great lobster-fishing ground also, and the largest lobsters by far that I ever have seen were caught at this island.

Even to-day there are very few people who live on the island of Juan Fernandez. Only about half of it is fertile, and access to it is so difficult that it does not appeal to many. There is one settlement at San Juan Bautista—St. John the Baptist—where the boats land, and one or two other little groups of houses where a few colonists live. The attempt that has been made by the Chilean Government to colonize it cannot be called a success, for fewer people live there to-day than there did a few years ago.

Were it not for the story woven about the island few people would be interested in it to-day. It was here among these barren hills, and in the natural caves which abound on the island, that Alexander Selkirk lived for four years and four months, more than two centuries ago. It was here that he met and adopted a lone Indian, whom he named Friday, because of the day he first found him. It is little wonder that existence was lonesome, and it is even a greater wonder that he did not lose his mind from lack of association with other human beings. At last his watch fires attracted the attention of a passing schooner and the lone wanderer was taken to England, where, for a time, he became quite a hero. He was found, as the captain of the boat said, “clad in goat-skins and was running about as though he were demented.” There is a rock on the island which is called “Robinson Crusoe’s Lookout,” because it is said to be the place where the signal fires were built. It is on a high hill and commands a view of the sea for many miles. A large cave, which is as large as the average parlour, is supposed to have been his home. In the sides of this rock are rusty nails said to have been driven into it by pirates who used to make the place their rendezvous.

A marble tablet has been erected on the “Lookout.” This was placed there by some English naval officers in 1868, for Selkirk himself was a naval officer. Among other things this tablet says:

IN MEMORY OF
ALEXANDER SELKIRK
MARINER.
A NATIVE OF LARGO, IN THE COUNTY OF FIFE,
SCOTLAND, WHO LIVED ON THIS ISLAND,
IN COMPLETE SOLITUDE, FOUR YEARS
AND FOUR MONTHS.

HE WAS LANDED FROM THE “CINQUE PORTS”
GALLEY, 96 TONS, 18 GUNS, A. D., 1704, AND WAS TAKEN
OFF IN THE “DUKE,” PRIVATEER, 12TH FEBRUARY, 1709.

HE DIED LIEUTENANT OF H. M. S. “WEYMOUTH,” A. D.,
1723, AGED 47 YEARS.

THIS TABLET IS ERECTED NEAR SELKIRK’S LOOKOUT
BY COMMODORE POWELL AND THE OFFICERS
OF H. M. S. “TOPAZ” A. D., 1868.

Although Defoe’s tale is not wholly true, and some of the descriptions are incorrect, yet the story was suggested by the adventures of the marooned mariner, and the terrors of loneliness, solitude and fear which overwhelmed Robinson Crusoe were the same as those undergone by Alexander Selkirk.

Pascua, or Easter, Island is situated considerably farther out in the ocean than Juan Fernandez, and farther north. It was so named by a Dutch navigator, who landed on the island on Easter morning, in 1722. He carried back with him to Amsterdam the first record of its strange monuments. The greatest length of this island is eleven miles, and its greatest breadth is four miles. Yet here on this little speck in the ocean, an island no larger than Manhattan Island, where the sun is warm both summer and winter, and the climate is enervating, at one time lived a strange and marvellous people. None of the inhabitants of the island at the time of its discovery knew anything about the monuments or the race that built them. The traditions which were handed down from father to son shed no light on that subject. Some claim that they were a race of giants, evidently inspired by the gods whom they worshipped. Others claim they were a race that antedated the flood. There is also a theory, based on these monuments and those on other islands of the Polynesian Islands, that this entire group were once a part of a continent now submerged.

These people hauled mammoth stones from quarries that face the sea, carved on them faces and cut with rude implements upon all the four sides the story they wanted to tell. These stones were transported to chosen sites and set up with engineering accuracy, until almost the whole island became a gallery of monumental sculpture. Then came a new era; the race of builders disappeared, and no one is now able to decipher the hieroglyphics. In all there are over five hundred of these carved statues, colossal heads and other samples of the art of these prehistoric people. Except in a few cases the monuments face the sea, and to the east, and they range in size from a mammoth monolith seventy feet in height to a pigmy the size of a small boy. Some of them weigh several tons and were transported from quarries distant as much as eight miles. How this was done without the aid of mechanical devices is a mystery.

Besides the statues there are several immense platforms constructed of large cut stones piled together, as if they had been shaped to conform to the plan of an architect, and all are set with true edges without cement and plaster. These platforms are about thirty feet high, and from two hundred to three hundred feet in length. After a fashion they look like immense banquet tables or council platforms. Around or upon these tables the prehistoric chiefs may have sat in stone seats and deliberated or made plans to conquer enemies.

On this island there are some peaks which rise as high as twelve hundred feet above the surface of the sea, and there are walls of stone formed from lava which for scores of centuries have lain there, and small lakes formed in natural cups and bowls which were probably once the open mouths of volcanoes. There are the remains of what was once a house of stone. As the tumbled blocks now lie they mark out a structure one hundred feet long, twenty feet wide, with walls five feet thick. Some of the slabs are marked with geometrical figures and with representations of animals and birds. These suggest a gigantic species, larger than any that exist to-day. In fact all their representations of life suggest a heroic mould. But the peculiar feature of this house is that the ceiling was not more than five feet high, which would seem to render it unsuited for a dwelling place. It might have been intended for a storehouse of some sort. At the present time there are only a few hundred people living on the island who are of the Sawaiori race, and resemble very strongly the natives of Tahiti.

“We will call this city Santiago (Saint James), for he has guided us thus far,” said Pedro de Valdivia, as he staked out the level ground surrounding a lofty rock into square blocks, one of which was given to each of his followers.

Few cities in the world have as fine a location as this City of Saint James. It lies in the centre of a magnificent amphitheatre, about forty miles long and perhaps eighteen miles wide, which is enclosed by a mighty wall of mountains on all sides save one, half of which are covered with perpetual snows. The Mapocho River, which flows through the city through an artificial channel, escapes from the valley through the opening on the south, which leads into the great central valley that forms the real heart of the republic. The great amphitheatre in which Santiago is situated is divided into large haciendas, on which are erected magnificent mansions that resemble the ancient baronial homes of England. In these the owners live and rule almost like lords of old.

Santiago was founded as the first town in Chile. Valdivia erected a stronghold on the rock, which he named Santa Lucia, and then set to work to build the city at its base, which he had named after the patron saint of Spain. The squares were laid out with the lines running east and west, north and south. Each of his followers to whom was given a square for a garden, was required to construct a house for his own use. Thus it will be seen that Santiago is not a new city, nor has its growth been of the mushroom variety. Founded in the sixteenth century, it preserves in wood and stone, to a great extent, the spirit of old Spain transplanted to the New World. The Spanish cavalier stalked in complete mail through the streets of Santiago before the Mayflower landed the pilgrims on the shores of Massachusetts. The priests were chanting the solemn service of the church here long before the English landed at Jamestown. Dust had gathered on the volumes in the municipal library of this city centuries preceding the building of the first little red school-house in the United States. Before New York was even thought of, the drama of life was being enacted daily in this beautiful valley after Castilian models.

SANTA LUCIA.

But let us take a look at this ancient capital. At one side of the city is El Cerro de Santa Lucia, a mass of volcanic rock almost as high as the Washington Monument. It has a base of several acres, but gradually narrows as it rises precipitously above all the buildings, until it ends in the jagged piece of rock which crowns the summit. After the fortress was removed it became the burial place of Jews, Protestants, infidels and all who were forbidden burial in consecrated ground. When these bones were finally removed they were dumped in a corner of one of the Catholic cemeteries, and the church authorities erected a monument with the inscription “exiles from both heaven and earth.” This freak of nature, which geologists say was dropped by some wandering iceberg, has been made into a delightful place, partly by private subscription and partly at public expense. The summit is reached by several winding roads and walks that are enclosed by walls in a most picturesque manner. In the crevices of the rocks flowers, bushes and curious plants are growing. Eucalyptus trees rise up, and gigantic ferns reach out so that the hill seems a veritable garden in the air. At intervals are kiosks for music or refreshments, and half way up is a theatre where vaudeville entertainments are occasionally given for the entertainment of the people. Terraces, fountains, winding walks and steps cut out of the rock add to the beauties and comforts of Santa Lucia. On the summit is a little chapel where the remains of Mr. Benjamine Vicuña Mackenna, who planned this scheme and gave large sums towards its completion, lies buried. On the way up one passes one wonderful rock formation after another, delightful grottoes and cozy nooks, until at last all Santiago is spread out before you like a panorama.

ALAMEDA DE LAS DELICIAS, SANTIAGO.

Below is a vast expanse of flat roofs, out of which here and there rise trees and a wealth of green. These are in the patios, or inside courts, of the larger houses. Here and there rise the towers of the numerous churches with which Santiago is provided. The many streets cross each other in checkerboard fashion, thus dividing the city into square blocks. At one side can be distinguished the Alameda de las Delicias, with its double rows of great poplar trees, which furnish an arbour of dense shade from one end of the city to the other, a distance of three miles, and which leads out to the parks known as Quinta Normal and Cousiño. This avenue, which was formerly the principal road leading into the city, has been laid out as a broad highway more than three hundred feet in width, with a promenade in the centre and a wide driveway on either side. Fronting this Alameda are many very fine residences—the finest in the city. Some of the houses are very large, containing fifty rooms or more, and the furnishings are elaborate. The ceilings are very high, which gives ample opportunity for decorative effect. One striking feature is the absence of chimneys, for the Chileans are averse to artificial heat. In the winter time it is nothing unusual for a guest to be received by the host and his family wearing furs and heavy wraps. A few of the newer houses have installed heating plants. With these homes the best and most attractive part is usually hidden from the street. There are several stands along the Alameda at which military bands discourse music frequently. The promenade is broken by many statues of Chile’s heroes, and others commemorating events important in Chilean history; and at every few feet throughout its length are stone seats on which the people rest.

One of the finest private residences in South America is that belonging to the Cousiño family, which was erected by the late Señora Isadora Cousiño. It was designed by a famous French architect and will compare favourably with those of New York. It is built of brick, stuccoed in the usual manner to resemble stone, and is imposing. Its interior decorations are elaborate, but rather the style one would expect in a public building than in a private home. They are all French scenes, as the work was done by French artists. It is still one of the show places, although the señora has been dead for many years, and her descendants have more modest taste. She was a remarkable woman, and her chief concern seemed to be to expend her enormous income. Her extravagance was frequently the gossip of Europe as well as her native land. Herself the richest woman in Chile before marriage, she married the richest man, and all his wealth was willed to her at his death. She had millions of dollars in herds, mines, railroads, steamships, real estate, etc. Another magnificent château at Lota was built by her, and the estancia of Macul, an hour’s ride from Santiago, was almost a principality in itself. The land stretched from the environs of the city to the distant Cordilleras with their mantle of snow.

DANCING LA CUECA, THE NATIONAL DANCE.

Señora Cousiño did one good thing for Santiago; she presented to the city beautiful Cousiño Park. It is a large park of several hundred acres, which is the popular playground of the masses. It has cheap cafés, merry-go-rounds and other amusements, and is the nearest approach to a Coney Island that the capital affords. There are a number of stands for dancing where, on a Sunday especially, one may see the Chilean national dance, La Cueca, which is a sort of refined can-can. The couples pair off with handkerchiefs in their hands, and dance face to face, while the musicians sit on benches near-by and thrum guitars, pick mandolins, or play other instruments. Each dancer waves his handkerchief in the air with graceful gestures, and sways around in attitudes which are supposed to show grace and suppleness. A race track has also been constructed in the centre of the park, called the “Club Hippico,” where races are held almost every Sunday afternoon and frequently on holidays. This is the most popular amusement in Chile. Another park, the Quinta Normal, has been provided for the people, and in it is quite an extensive zoological garden. Among the many “strange” and “fierce” animals kept in cages are several species of dogs and cats, which seem very much out of place in such surroundings. A very interesting museum also occupies a pretty site near the entrance. A botanical garden and experiment station is also maintained here, and an exposition building in which agricultural fairs are held each year.

There are a number of very fine public buildings in Santiago. Perhaps the finest is the Palace of Congress, which is a large building of modern classical construction covering an entire square—not differing much from many public buildings that one will find in the United States. I attended a session of the Senate and the proceedings seemed very strange. The members talked at random without even addressing the chair or rising from their seats. In fact the proceedings were the most informal of any legislative body I ever attended. Not infrequently, however, the sessions are very stormy, and the reputation of the Spaniard for excitability is well maintained. The National Library is almost opposite this building, but is not an imposing building, although it contains an interesting and valuable collection of books. La Moneda is the name given to the residence of the President, and it also contains the offices of many of the government departments. It is a large three-story building with quite imposing surroundings. The President is generally attended by a military guard during his drives around the city. Other buildings are the Palace of Justice, in which the highest courts sit, the Army Building, and the Intendency, or City Hall.

At one place in Santiago a beautiful marble monument has been erected on the site of a church that was burned in 1863. Church festivals have always played an important part in the social life of the capital. At the time of the Christmas festivities of that year a gorgeous fête was in progress in the Jesuits’ church, which was known as the Feast of the Virgins. The interior was festooned and decorated everywhere with light gauze, wreaths of paper flowers and other inflammable material. Candles had been attached to these flimsy decorations. The church was crowded with women while high mass was being celebrated by the bishop. Suddenly the hangings caught fire, the burning candles fell among the crowd of worshippers and everyone rushed for the doors. As usual, the doors opened inward, and the crowds, jammed against them, made it impossible for them to be opened. It is claimed that almost three thousand women and girls lost their lives in this terrible holocaust. After the fire the bodies were found packed in a solid mass against the doors. The church was afterwards razed to the ground by order of the government, and this monument erected on the site. Scarcely a leading family in Santiago escaped bereavement, and the Feast of the Virgins has ever since been celebrated with mourning in Chile.

There are many worthy charitable institutions in Santiago. Some of these are municipal institutions and others are church charities. Among these are numerous hospitals for the care of the sick and unfortunate. There is one very large orphan asylum, which cares for many hundreds of unfortunate children—many of them of unknown parentage. The method of reception of these unfortunate, and generally unwelcome, infants is unique. In the rear wall is an opening with a wooden box in it which swings in and out. The mother wishing to get rid of her baby places the little mite in the box and swings it in. The automatic ringing of a bell notifies the nuns inside and the baby is taken charge of by them. No effort is ever made to find the mother, and she is thus enabled to rid herself of her charge. Some moralists would criticize this practice, but it is certainly better than infanticide, which is said to be an almost unknown crime in Chile, where the ratio of illegitimate births is very large.

The Opera House is a municipal institution and is a very fine building. During the season opera is given here several nights each week, and generally by Italian companies. Not only is the building furnished free, but a good subsidy is given the management each year in order to bring good talent here. The seats and boxes are sold by subscription for the season as a guaranty fund and are paid for in advance, although many sell their seats occasionally if there is a demand for them. The audiences are very interesting, for the people dress exceedingly well and are lavish in their wearing of jewels. There is a large foyer in which the people promenade between acts and there are refreshment rooms where all kinds of refreshments are served. A special box is reserved for the President of the republic and the intendente of the city. There is also a mourning box protected by screens, where those in mourning may watch the performance without being themselves seen.

The city of Santiago is a municipality within the province of the same name. A little more democracy has been infused into the government than used to prevail. The city is divided into ten sections or wards. Each of these wards, called circumscripciones, elects three councillors, all the members together constituting the municipal legislative body. They must be citizens of at least five years’ residence in the city, must not have any interest in national or municipal contracts, and must not hold any other public office or commission. The three members from each ward have certain local powers and duties principally in connection with the elections. From its members the council elect three alcaldes, or mayors, fixing the order of precedence among the three, also a secretary and treasurer. The powers and jurisdiction of this body extends to the entire government, subject only to the constitution and the organic act under which the municipality is organized. The principal revenues are derived from a personal tax levied for school purposes, a tax on liquors and tobacco, a license for industries and professions, revenues derived from city property and an annual grant from the national Congress.

A GROUP OF NEWSBOYS, SANTIAGO.

It is in the market-places that one can best study the common people. There are two markets in Santiago, both of them on the bank of the Mapocho. At the newer one one will be sure to find some newsboys plying their trade. “La Union” and “El Mercurio” are the cries of these busy little newsboys, as they flit in and out among the marketers of Santiago. They are barefooted ragamuffins, most of them, but they industriously ply their trade. Their complexions are of different shades, for some of the boys have Indian blood in their veins, which gives them a deeper colouring. I posed two small boys for a picture, but before I could take it a half dozen had crowded into it, making an interesting group. The boys of South America, just like their counterparts in the United States, want to take a part in everything that comes within their range of vision.

It would be difficult to find a more interesting place in Santiago than the old market, which will soon be abandoned. Around it will be seen the huge, two-wheeled market carts in which the produce has been brought. Many of these marketers have been on the road for two or three days, bringing in the products of their fertile fields for the people in the city. The meek-eyed oxen stand or recline while chewing their cud, no doubt enjoying to the full the brief respite from their work. The produce displayed in the market is good. The fruits of Chile are simply delicious in flavour, and they are large in size. The pears and peaches of California are not better than those grown here below the equator, and yet they have been grown with very little care in their cultivation.

One must bargain with or pay an exorbitant price to these market men and women. If it is only a melon, or a dozen juicy pears, twice as much will be asked as is expected. If you shake your head when a price is given, the man or woman in charge of the stall will immediately ask, “What will you give?” On the outside of the market building dozens of women will be seen seated on the ground with a little pile of tomatoes, radishes, potatoes or melons heaped up in front of them. The housewife or servant will pass around among them making purchases and gradually filling up the basket which she carries, or hires some boy to bear for her.

A MARKET SCENE, SANTIAGO.

The poorer Chileans are a hard working people—the most industrious of the South Americans. A walk through the sections of the city occupied by them shows much grinding poverty. Across the Mapocho penury stretches on all sides. The dwellings are low, with floors oftentimes below the street level, and the interiors show unsanitary conditions and an entire lack of the comforts of life, let alone the decencies. The improvement of such surroundings should command immediate attention from the authorities. The wages paid this class are not very large, so that they are compelled to live in comparative poverty. They drink a great deal on Sundays and holidays. Monday is a bad day to get anything done, for the peons must have a few hours to recover from the previous day’s celebration. It is a sort of a “dias non,” a day that is not. Holidays are greatly desired, and it takes five of them to properly celebrate the “diaz y ocho de Setiembre,” the 18th of September, the anniversary of Chilean independence. Fiestas are held in every park and plaza, and all the banks and business houses close. Everybody, young and old, engages in the festivities with zeal and enthusiasm. The poor people save up their money for weeks and months in order to celebrate this occasion in the only way that seems appropriate to them—that is, by carousing. Saturday is beggars’ day, and every mendicant in the city is out with open palm. On other days only the licensed beggars appear. Some beggars even come out on horseback, for horses are remarkably cheap in Chile.

Another good view may be had of the poorer classes on the occasion of a church celebration, such as the festival of Corpus Christi. Both church and state take a part in this fiesta. The troops appear in their finest uniforms. The infantry are gorgeous in their blue and yellow, with helmets surmounted with white plumes. The cavalry wear blue plumes and the bands are adorned with red plumes. The religious procession consists of the Procession of the Cross, which is composed of various societies, the Dominicans, Franciscans, Augustinians and other orders. The parochial clergy follow with the Archbishop in the lead. During the procession hundreds of women and children, and some men, kneel in the streets. Some men doff their hats, while others look on in seemingly idle curiosity without any special attitude of reverence.

The wealthier people take life easy. The real life is only for this class. After breakfast, which is served from eleven to twelve o’clock, comes the siesta. This meal is frequently an elaborate and formal function if guests are present, and is more like a dinner. On the door of many business houses one will see the sign “cerrado de las 12 a 1½ horas,” which means that they are closed between these hours. Business calls are usually made between two and four. At six o’clock every person who owns or can hire a carriage goes out to Cousiño Park. Everyone dresses in his best, the men wearing silk hats and frock suits, and the women having on fashionable gowns and large hats. In the park the carriages parade up and down the principal drives and the occupants nod to their acquaintances. It is quite the correct thing for men to make audible remarks about the personal appearance of ladies, if they are complimentary. After about half an hour of this parade they adjourn as by mutual consent to the Alameda, which is twice as wide as Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, and the parade continues up one side of the imposing avenue and down the other for another half hour. There are all kinds of vehicles—drays, victorias, landaus, four-in-hands and automobiles. The driving is superintended by mounted policemen, and the scene is quite imposing, though rather stilted in the eyes of an American. The parade then breaks up and all drive home to partake of the dinner, which is the principal meal of the day. The politeness of the Chileno is excessive. He will always give the lady the inner side of the street, and would cheerfully step off the sidewalk in order to render this courtesy. The man always extends the first greeting also to a lady of his acquaintance.

Club life is greatly enjoyed in Santiago, for the resident of that city is very much of a night-hawk. The Club de la Union is the best club in the country. It was my privilege to be entertained there a number of times. The real life does not begin until rather late, and there is always a representative crowd of men to be found there after ten o’clock, and gambling is sure to be indulged in in some form. While the men are at the club the women stay at home, or attend the theatre.

When Italian opera is not being given, one-act comedies are the favourite plays. Going to the theatre, however, usually means looking in for a zarzuela or two during the evening. Three or four of these one-act pieces, or zarzuelas, are usually put on in an evening, and the house is cleared after each performance. Those who dine late usually drop in for the second turn, which begins about half-past nine; or one can catch the last one, which does not begin until about eleven o’clock. Some of these zarzuelas are one-act musical plays, abridged from popular operas, but most of them are melodrama or grotesque comedy. The audiences are very alert and are quick to respond to appeals from the stage.

“Oh, Mamacita, let us go around the plaza once more, for the band has not yet quit playing,” plead the little girls and young ladies of Santiago. On Tuesday, Thursday and Sunday evenings a band plays in the Plaza de Armas, which is the centre of life and business in the Chilean capital. Then occurs the paseo, or promenade, so common in Spanish towns. It usually begins before the light has yet faded from the highest peaks of the Andes, and while the newsboys are still calling out “Las Ultimas Noticias.” The girls and young ladies, the boys and young men, all come here on these evenings. The former are always accompanied by their mothers, as the social customs are very strict and the girls do not enjoy as much freedom as their cousins have in North America. The mothers sit on the benches, while the younger women and girls walk around the plaza in pairs and groups. The young men, among whom are many officers in German uniforms and with clanking swords, walk around in the opposite direction, and pass audible comments on the girls who pass. Their remarks are irritating to an Anglo-Saxon who understands the Castilian lisp, but the girls only laugh or smile, for they are quite accustomed to it. The same attentions bestowed on young ladies on the average American street would result in an interference by a man in blue uniform, and possibly a gentle use of the “big stick.” The young men exchange a few words with those with whom they are acquainted, but not for long, for mamma keeps her vigilant eyes on them. The girls, even little tots, are finished coquettes, and they aim to attract attention. This is one of the few opportunities afforded to the young people to see each other. If a young man observes a girl by whom he is attracted he will begin inquiries as to who she is, and perhaps even his folks will aid him in his effort to make the acquaintance of his inamorata.

THE OLDEST BUILDING IN SANTIAGO.

Within almost a stone’s throw of the Plaza is all of Chile—those who rule and those who own—the principal club, theatres, public buildings and residences of diplomats. The chief business streets converge at this plaza, and the leading business houses are near it. The great cathedral and archbishop’s palace occupy one entire side, the post office and a government building another side, and the portales, or corridors, under which are many booths and stores, fill up the remaining two sides. The stores around the plaza are small and like those of old Spain. This is the oldest business section in Santiago and was in existence two centuries before our own national capital. Some of the stores are like holes in the wall, with goods stacked up in the doorway and even on the street outside. They are far different from the larger and more modern establishments near the corner of Ahumada and Huerfanos, a block away. There one will find splendid stores where goods from all parts of the world can be purchased. A fine large department store has recently been opened up in the city, which is a great improvement over any of the old establishments. The prices in the windows look very high, but an article marked five dollars means only about one-fifth that amount in United States currency.

During the day many shoppers may be seen. The women trip along two by two or roll up in their broughams, victorias or automobiles. In the morning the women wear black gowns and the mantas, which are shawls folded into a sort of bonnet which gives a very demure setting to the black-eyed, oval, and, oftentimes, beautiful faces underneath. This is the dress worn to the morning mass, and is not changed until after the breakfast hour. One may sometimes see the roguish eyes of the wearer peering at him from beneath this manta, even while the owner is fingering her beads and uttering her prayers in the cathedral. Some one has described the manta as “that graceful euphemism which shields the poor and disarms the vain, hides bad taste and clumsy waists, and wrapped about the head and nipped in in some marvellous fashion at the nape of the neck, envelops all femininity in gracefulness and mystery.”

One’s visit is not complete without seeing a sunset from Santa Lucia. Santiago is situated in a valley, surrounded by lofty mountains on every side. At its back are the Cordilleras of the Andes, with their lofty peaks which lift their eternal snows far up into the blue ethereal canopy overhead. As the sun creeps slowly into the western sky it illumes the red tile roof of the city and the many spires. Then its rays fall full upon the snow-clad peaks, and long after the fiery ball has dropped behind the lower range of mountains, which separate Santiago from the sea, its rays continue to glisten upon the loftier peaks that form the eastern horizon. Then, as darkness slowly falls over the landscape, the electric lights of the city flash forth beneath you like visions in fairy land. The whole scene, with its variations and transformations, is one that will long linger in memory.

The heart of Chile lies in the great central valley which extends south from Santiago, through Concepción and beyond, for a distance of almost six hundred miles. It lies between the Andes and the less lofty range of mountains that follows the coast line. This used to be Chile almost, but the development of the nitrate industry to the north has made that section of much greater importance than formerly. The climate in this valley is delightful, neither too cold nor too wet, and its nearness to the charms of the capital has made it an attractive dwelling place for the Chilenos for several centuries. The climate is very similar to that of California. The same crops and fruits are raised in both places, and the conditions of farming are also very much the same.

After leaving Santiago the railroad passes through numerous orchards and extensive vineyards which grow around this proud city. Over the fences of mud and stone trail the branches of peach trees, and along the roads stretch eternal rows of solemn poplars and stiff clumps of the eucalyptus. The waters of the Maipo ripple along near the track. There is an appearance of enterprise and industry everywhere. Great carts drawn by oxen, some of them with solid wheels like those of Pharaoh’s time, are lined up at every station, as well as pack mules awaiting their burdens. As a contrast a luxurious French or Italian automobile may be seen. Fine estancia buildings surrounded by vineyards loom up prominently along the route, while, as a contrast, are the rude buildings inhabited by the peons, which show absolutely no advance over centuries ago. There is the same contrast in farming methods. Rude ploughs which merely scratch the ground may be seen at work nearer to outfits which are strictly modern.

The valley varies in its outline, for in places the surrounding mountains press in and diminish its width. Numerous streams which have their origin in the Andes cut across it, and their milky-white waters restlessly rush onward to the sea. Among these are the Cachopoal, Maraquito, the Bueno, the Maule and the Claro (clear), whose waters are more transparent than the others. The altitude becomes lower and the temperature correspondingly warmer. On the eastern side the lofty volcanoes of Maipo and its companions are plainly in sight. Cattle may be seen grazing on the rougher lands, while great fields of wheat and other grains grow in the more tillable portions. At the stations farther down girls, who show by the darkened complexion their admixture with the Indians, offer baskets of all shapes and sizes, from one the size of a pea, to the passengers as souvenirs. In this admixture the natives have conquered the would-be conquerors.

One of the most important places passed is Talca, which is one of the largest cities of Chile. It has plenty of rainfall and is surrounded by wheat farms. It has a very pretty plaza, and is ornamented with some statuary brought from Peru at the time of the war with that country. Two snow-clad volcanoes lift their hoary heads to the skies on the eastern horizon, although at a considerable distance. It is situated at a distance of about one hundred and fifty miles from the capital. The streets are many of them lined with poplars, and magnolia trees lend their fragrance. Vegetables and fruits grown here are of the finest, and the inhabitants of Talca are able to live on the good things of life after approved fashion.

As old as is this valley, there is still much undeveloped land in it. This land is partly covered with the bramble or other scrub growth. The only trees to be seen for hundreds of miles are those that have been planted. Some of the soil is very rich, while some is stony and hard to cultivate. Where irrigation has been developed the soil responds readily to the hand of the agriculturalist. The silt carried down from the mountains by the streams acts as a fertilizer when deposited on the surface of the valley. South of the Bio-Bio River no irrigation is employed, or is necessary. The coast range gradually becomes lower until it disappears. Evergreen trees take the place of the common forms of deciduous trees. The Rio Itata is quite an important stream, but all the rivers of this valley fade in importance by the side of the famous Bio-Bio. Up to 1884 this river was the frontier boundary, all the land beyond being under the sway of the Araucanian Indians, who were a sturdy and independent tribe. Many battles have been fought near this stream with the Indians, who resisted Spain and the succeeding republic for more than three hundred years. The iron horse has now crossed it and opened up the regions beyond, although all of the southern section has a much newer appearance than that on the other side of the river. The newer towns remind one very much of the frontier communities in the United States. Many of them are settlements of Europeans, and some of them have had hard struggles for existence. Onward the route leads through Victoria, Temuco, and Valdivia to Puerto Montt, a port and the last town of any importance until Punta Arenas is reached. It is also beyond what might be termed the valley proper. Nearly all of this region is extremely fertile, and contains some of the richest land in the republic. It only needs irrigation in the north, and a clearing of the forests in the southern portions, to make it blossom with wheat and other valuable grains for the support of mankind. From the orange groves of Santiago to the apple orchards of Temuco this valley ought to be one immense garden.

A PLANTATION OWNER.

This great central valley is parcelled out among large landowners, many of whom own almost princely estates. As agriculture has always been the chief occupation of the Chilenos, fully one-half of the population being engaged in it, these estates have been held in the same family for generations in many instances. A farm of a thousand acres is small, and there are many which number thirty or forty thousand acres. Upon the product of these broad acres the owner lives in luxury almost like the feudal lords of old. Hundreds of peons work on the haciendas, just as their forefathers did before them, and they really form a small army of retainers, who used to be ready to fight the battles of the hacendado at a moment’s call. Now they work for them for small wages, and are always in debt. So long as they are indebted to the master they can be compelled to remain and work it out.

Irrigation has been considerably developed in some parts. Each hacendado is a subscriber to or shareholder in an irrigation canal. These have been constructed at a great expense and are protected by very strict laws. They consist of main canals starting well up among the hills, and are pierced by many small outlets, called regadores. Each of these has an outlet of a fixed number of litres per second. The fields are traversed by parallel and intersecting smaller channels, and the water is thus conducted from place to place. Movable dams of canvas stop the flow into these intersecting channels, so that the amount flowing can be regulated as the needs require.

DRAWING AN AMERICAN THRESHER.

It is seldom that one will see fences of wire or boards, for most of the estates are hemmed in with walls of stone. The absence of barns on the landscape is a striking feature, and the only buildings of any size are the low, rambling structures which form the residence of the hacendado, his administrador, and other heads. These usually consist of one-storied buildings, which are built around a central patio, and have wide porches floored with brick. The patios are laid out in pretty little gardens, in which the palm is sure to have its part in the attempt at ornamentation. Great avenues of lofty trees usually run out in every direction along the roads or irrigation channels. The most of the estates are fairly well kept, for the Chileans are quite progressive agriculturalists. One will find on many of these great farms the very latest of farming implements, including steam or gasoline tractors for certain phases of the work. Especially is this true of their harvesting machinery, which includes the latest North American patterns. But in one respect there are some antiquated features, and that is in transportation. If animal power is employed it is almost invariably oxen, and not horses or mules. They plough the ground, haul the timber, and behind them the thousands of bushels of grain produced in this valley are conveyed to market. These animals are yoked by the horns, which seems a very cruel way to treat these humble but faithful servants of man. It looks to the onlooker as though every jar of the great carts must give pain to the oxen, and oftentimes their eyes seem almost darting from their heads.

The vineyards of this valley cover thousands of acres, for the Chileans drink wine as the Germans drink beer. A meal without the white or red contents of a long-necked bottle would be incomplete. The vines are dwarfed, and are planted in rows five or six feet apart. In many cases they are trained upon wires, and the vineyards are not unlike those in some parts of France. The abundance of a certain species of snail is said to be one of the worst enemies of vitaculture. The Chilean wines, both red and white, have quite a reputation, and the exports are increasing each year.

The abundance of dogs about these Chilean haciendas impresses the traveller. The Chilenos are very fond of these animals, and everybody seems to keep many of them. Most of them are obliged to forage for a living. They naturally become rather unsavoury scavengers under such circumstances. It is not advisable to approach a farm, especially at night, without being accompanied by some one connected with the place, as the dogs seem to consider it their duty to protect the household from intrusion. Furthermore, the people living there are free to fire at any unauthorized person, because of the prevalence of petty thieving.

Temuco is at a distance of a little less than five hundred miles from Santiago. It is situated on the Cautin River, and is the capital of the province of that name. Only thirty years old, this city already has a population of twelve thousand, and covers about as much space as an American town of the same size. Like an American town, also, its houses are mostly of wood, a striking contrast to the older towns, farther down the valley toward the capital. Although the temperature becomes quite cold here at times the houses are built without chimneys, for the people believe that fires are unhealthful. Churches, clubs and hotels have been built, and there are saloons where almost pure alcohol is dished out to the poor peons.

Back into the wilderness from here and other places the government has pushed short spurs of railroads in order to open it up. The government locates the stations and lays out the lots, which are sold at low prices to actual settlers. The lands round about are sold at auction in good sized blocks of fifteen hundred acres or more. This land will bring from one to twelve dollars per hectare (about two and a quarter acres). A farm of two thousand acres of choice land could probably be secured for five thousand dollars in United States currency. The sales are generally made upon the basis of one-third cash, and the balance is distributed over a period of years. The only provision exacted by the government is that the purchaser must fence in his newly-acquired possessions, but this is oftentimes a great expense. This land when heavily stocked with cattle is said to yield very good returns.

A few years ago every new immigrant was promised one hundred acres of land, a team of oxen, a barrel of nails and enough boards to build a small house. He was also advanced the money necessary for his transportation. All of this had to be repaid, however, and the land alone was the only actual gift. Under these terms many Germans were induced to come to this land of promise. Many of these settlers have done well, and some towns, such as Valdivia and Puerto Montt, are largely German cities.

The first German settlers arrived about 1850, and they continued to come in considerable numbers for the next decade. The first emigrants arrived in the German barque Hermann, after a journey of one hundred and twenty days from Hamburg. She brought seventy men, ten women and five children. They had been lured by the promises of an immigration agent who described the country as flowing with milk and honey. When they arrived everything was in hopeless confusion, for titles were uncertain and the country was an almost unbroken forest. The colonists began work under these discouraging conditions and the face of the country soon showed alteration. Puerto Montt was founded, and a good road built through the trackless and swampy woodland to Lake Llanquihue. The influx of Germans has continued even to this day, and many will be found who can speak no other tongue than that of the Vaderland.

On the journey from Santiago to Puerto Montt no less than a dozen provinces are passed. Many of these are comparatively small, such as O’Higgins, which is about the size of Delaware, to Llanquihue, which corresponds with our own state of Indiana. Most of them run from the Andes to the coast, but Arauco and Maule are purely coast provinces. The names of the provinces in this section, and their order beginning with the one adjoining the province of Santiago, are as follows:—O’Higgins, Colchagua, Curico, Talca, Maule, Linares, Nuble, Concepción, Bio-Bio, Arauco, Malleco, Cautin, Valdivia, and Llanquihue.

Along the coast between Puerto Montt and Valparaiso are several ports of more or less importance. Among these are Constitucion, situated at the mouth of the River Talcahuano, and Coronel. The latter is the Newcastle of Chile, for it is in the midst of many coal mines. Many of these mines run out under the Pacific for long distances. The seams of coal are from three to five feet thick. They are under a strata of slate and shale, which is so compact as to be absolutely water-tight. It is a strange experience to run out in these mines, which form a veritable catacomb of corridors and chambers, and realize that perhaps at that very moment some of the great ocean steamers are majestically sailing the blue waters directly over you. I know of no similar mines except those of Whitehaven, England, where the galleries run out several miles under the sea and seem to be headed for the Isle of Man.

Lota is also another mining town on this same bay, and is a town of about fifteen thousand people. This city and Coronel are really twin ports. Lota was founded by Matias Cousiño, who opened up the mines and established smelter works in 1855. The company owns a large amount of property and employs several thousand men. It furnishes huts, free medical attendance, a church, schools and a hospital for its employees. The sight of this town is the wonderful palace built by his widow, which was constructed at a cost of many thousands of dollars. It is a château of white Italian marble, and stands in the centre of a French landscape garden. There are ravines, fountains, statuary, arbours, terraces, grottoes, artificial lakes and a small zoological exhibit on the grounds. It blends French and English landscape gardening with some original ideas. Few country homes in Europe can compare with it. It is said that all the material was brought from France in the Señora Doña Isadora Goyenecheo de Cousiño’s own ships, and the interior is adorned with fine furniture and decorations by famous French artists. Cousiño Park at Lota has become the pride of Chile.

By far the most important town is Concepción, also in the coal district, and which is known as the southern capital. It has had many serious struggles with the Indians, gaunt famine and the still more terrible earthquake. It is really a fine city of about fifty thousand inhabitants. The last serious earthquake occurred in 1835, when nearly the whole town was destroyed. It is situated on the banks of the Bio-Bio River, and has for its port Talcahuano at the mouth of that river. Talcahuano has a splendid harbour, and is better protected than Valparaiso, as it is sheltered by the island of Quiriquina. Whaling ships now leave it for the Antarctic seas and bring back considerable oil and whalebone. There is a factory here for the manufacture and refining of whale oil. It is the Chilean Annapolis, as it is the principal naval harbour, with arsenals and dockyards, and is also the site of a naval school. It will eventually be the Pacific terminus of a transcontinental railroad running to Bahia Blanca, in Argentina.

Concepción is the supply centre of Southern Chile, and does a large wholesale business as well as some manufacturing on a small scale. Quite a foreign colony is found there, and there are as good clubs and hotels as in Valparaiso, its northern rival. It has forgotten all about earthquakes and has risen above its former disasters. It is arranged very much as other Chilean cities. There is an alameda bordered with poplars, and there is a plaza. Lord Cochrane (pronounced Coch-rah-ne by the Chileans), and Admiral O’Higgins are remembered in the nomenclature of the streets. You can sit under municipal vines and fig-trees, or the pear or cherry loaded with blossoms, if you happen to be there in September. The markets are overflowing with fine vegetables, such as cauliflower, lettuce, artichokes, carrots, radishes, potatoes, cabbage, etc., etc. Indian faces are very numerous at the market and on the streets. Bands play two or three nights in the week and the music is good. The flat plain on which the town is situated is not especially beautiful, but it gives unlimited opportunity for growth, and the Bio-Bio, especially when at flood, is an impressive stream. The galvanized iron used so extensively in construction does not add much to the beauty of the town. As Southern Chile develops, Concepción becomes of greater and greater importance, and it has a steady and healthy increase each year.

Osorno is a thriving city a little ways inland on a branch of the Rio Bueno, and was a place of considerable importance in the Spanish days. Corral is at the mouth of the river that leads back to Valdivia, a dozen miles inland. It has a trade of considerable importance with the other ports, and is distant from Valparaiso almost five hundred miles. The coast is not so densely wooded as farther south, and the tide is not more than one-fourth as high on the average. Puerto Montt is a prosperous and progressive little town situated on Reloncavi Bay. It has a well protected harbour and enjoys a considerable trade in lumber, wheat and leather. The lofty Andes are plainly visible on a clear day, especially the volcano Cabulco, which is only twenty-two miles distant. A half century ago this port had a commerce of considerable value and was even then exporting food products, although its population did not much exceed a couple of thousand.

VIEW OF PUERTO MONTT.

Courtesy of Bulletin of the Pan American Union.

There are innumerable islands, which lie close to the mainland, from Puerto Montt to the Fuegian Archipelago. The largest of these is Chiloé, which is a hundred miles long by from thirty to fifty miles in width. It is generally considered to be one of the sloppiest islands in the world, for that was the reputation the naturalist Darwin gave it, and his opinion has been corroborated many times. Its length runs parallel to the mainland, from which it is separated by a quite broad bay. The shores are generally wild and rather inhospitable. If one lands any place, excepting where a settler is located, the dense growth will be found almost impenetrable, with all branches dripping with moisture, and only an occasional sunbeam being able to push its way through the openings in the evergreen shrubbery. Moss-covered bogs abound in which one may sink to the waist in the mire. On this moist land everything grows with wonderful rapidity that does not require a great amount of sunshine. Moss, yards in length, and of great delicacy and beauty, hangs from the branches, while ferns and polypodia scramble up the trunks. Beautifully scalloped lichens, in brown and gold and lavender, decorate the fallen trees wherever they can take hold, and fungi covers the larger trees. Tough-fibred climbers of great length also decorate the trees. They are oftentimes employed to tie up the fences instead of nails, and are also used in weaving some of the beautiful baskets made by the natives. Brooms made of it are likewise exported. This dense growth abounds everywhere, with the exception of barren pampas which sometimes stretch for a quarter of a mile or so. Cattle will sometimes wander into these thick meshes, and no one but an Indian accustomed to the tangle can penetrate with anything like facility in their efforts to find the recalcitrant animals.

Several thousand Indians dwell on this large island. They have been semi-civilized for two or three centuries. They seem to have been less warlike than the Araucanians on the mainland. Their clothing is modelled somewhat after that of the rotos, for nearly all sport a white cotton or linen shirt, which is oftentimes worn under the gaily-coloured indigo-dyed poncho. The shoes are generally simply made of a piece of raw oxhide fastened to the feet with thongs of leather. Their houses are the very simplest of contrivances. The family that starves does so only through indifference. Land is cheap and nature productive. Most of them live near the seacoast or rivers, where fish are very abundant, and edible wild-fowl of many kinds, including ducks, geese and pigeons, are easy to capture. The forests yield a number of wild fruits and vegetables. Among the wild fruits may be mentioned strawberries of a delicious flavour, and a species of myrtle which bears a palatable berry. The fruit of the luma, or kow-chow, is very abundant, and is used in making a fermented liquor much used by the natives. They have remained as poor as when the Spaniards came, and the population has actually decreased in the last century. This island, as well as others, was a feudal holding and the tyranny of the proprietors and abuses of the merchants account for that. Justice and humanity were frequently unknown terms. Churches are not wanting, for at one place nineteen can be counted on islands and mainland when the weather is clear. The church is always an important and conspicuous building in every community. A few colonists, German, French and British, have located on this island, and have succeeded in carving a home out of the wilderness if sufficiently industrious. Nevertheless many of them have endured great hardships. The Chilean government brought them over but had neglected to provide the necessary roads.

Chiloé is the name of a province composed entirely of islands. In addition to the large island just described, it includes the archipelagoes of Chonos and Guaytecas, and embraces altogether no less than a thousand islands. Many of them contain only a few inhabitants, although the natural characteristics are similar to Chiloé itself. There are several towns on Chiloé. One of them is Chacao, which, for two hundred years, was the principal port. It was founded in 1567, but was practically abandoned three hundred years later. Castro was the capital until it was transferred to Ancud in 1834. These towns were plundered by Dutch freebooters and also destroyed by earthquakes. Ancud is situated pleasantly, but the bay seems to be filling up so that large vessels have to anchor several miles out at sea. Lord Cochrane once attacked this town and wrested it from the Spaniards. Living in this town is very cheap, for the necessities of life can be purchased in the ample market at very low prices. South of Ancud there is only one town of importance, Mellinca, on the Guaytecas archipelago. With the exception of Punta Arenas it is the most southerly settlement of any size in Chile. To-day it is much less important than formerly, although still somewhat of a village with probably less than a thousand population. The first establishment in these towns is usually a distillery of aguardiente (brandy), and its product is not a good friend of either native or settler.

The life both in air and water is very abundant. The sea is most lavish in life of all kinds, and can furnish an almost exhaustless supply of food for those living farther north. The robalo is a Chilean fish of fine flavour. The corbina, which is as large as a good-sized cod, is another good species. The pege-ruge is a sort of smelt, and the herrings abound in countless numbers. Oyster beds too are numerous. They are all natural beds, however, but systematic farming might make them as good as those along our own Atlantic coast. Other mussels and edible crabs of several species abound.

With such an abundance of sea life it is only natural that birds of the fishing tribe should be plentiful. Huge pelicans, those dirty, unwieldy birds, are attracted here by this abounding life. Cormorants are equally numerous, as they are all along this coast. Penguins are also found here. The grube, whose skin is in such demand, is also quite common. The Antarctic goose is abundant, and the white gander on guard is a rather beautiful black and white bird. He always occupies some prominent rocky point, keeping watch and guard over his mate intent upon domestic duties. Insect life is also very busy, and a red bee almost as large as some humming-birds is especially characteristic of this region. It flies rapidly and hovers around among the flowers almost like the humming-bird.

Opposite Chiloé, on the mainland, is the Palena River, the largest river in Chile. The excessive rains and melting snows from the lofty peaks, which are plainly visible when the mists have cleared away, keep the banks filled with water. Every cloud that sweeps in from the Pacific comes down in rain as soon as it encounters the mountains. The slopes are dotted with wood clear up to the snow-line. The woods here, as well as elsewhere, are seemingly impenetrable. There are many flowering trees which add their beauty to the scene. A tall cane from which the Indians used to make spears grows in great confusion almost everywhere. It grows in great stools like giant bunches of rushes. The genii of vegetation takes possession of the riches of the ground. The beautiful green of the Chilean pine predominates. The mouth of the river is a stretch of delta. Of course it cannot compare with the streams on the Atlantic coast, but it is a striking river. Dancing mountain streams join it here and there—sometimes with a leap from the hills, thus forming numerous cascades. These white streaks of the cascades are visible on the mountain slopes in many places. The mists keep shifting and shimmering around the various peaks,—now revealing and again hiding the silent glens or gullies. The abundance of wooding oftentimes almost overcomes the beholder with the helplessness of humanity in such a region. The north winds which bring the rains are usually warm, while the south winds which blow up from the Antarctic regions are dry and cold. These and the west winds, which have such a stretch of sea to blow over, bring the worst storms, for they are not impeded for thousands of miles.

These facts lead one to speculate on the possibilities of timber development in Chile. This republic probably contains almost as great a proportion of wooded land as any country in the world. From the Straits to Valdivia it is almost an unbroken forest. The trees are sometimes almost covered with parasites. In places they are almost matted together with the climbing bamboo, and at others they are covered with soft cushions of the graceful liverworts and green mosses. In the extreme southern part of the republic the trees become more stunted and gnarled, and are not large enough to be of commercial value for lumber purposes. This primeval forest probably extended along the coast as far as Valparaiso, since that place was originally selected as a seaport because the rich woods near at hand afforded material for shipbuilding. Those forests have entirely disappeared. In the southern part of the central valley they are being ruthlessly destroyed. It is simply cut down and burned, while the republic as a whole imports hundreds of thousands of dollars’ worth of timber products from other countries. It is quite probable that an important lumber industry is still awaiting development in Southern Chile. Much of it will certainly be valuable for wood pulp if for nothing else, so that of the making of books and periodicals there may still be no end. The dangerous nature of the coast may make navigation perilous. The Pacific Ocean down there is not always so pacific and peaceful as farther north. The change is felt soon after leaving Valparaiso on the journey southward bound.

Chilean Patagonia, which stretches along the Pacific coast for five hundred miles, is little known, but it is a region of wild beauty. It is a perfect labyrinth of channels and islands, to which there is an entrance at each end, and one near the centre through the Gulf of Trinidad. These entrances are through narrow channels which are difficult to find, as they are so similar to other channels which lead into cul-de-sacs. Powerful currents and cross-currents rush through these contracted channels, so that vessels have to make them at full speed or run the risk of being dashed helplessly upon the rocky barriers. Once within the enclosure, however, the waters are calm even when the most violent storms rage outside. Terrific rains which are veritable deluges frequently fall, and impenetrable mists at times enshroud everything. The barometer moves up and down by leaps and bounds. Suddenly a rift will appear in the clouds, denoting the breaking of the storm, and the blue sky and bright sun will be revealed. Then the scenery becomes glorious in its radiant beauty—an amphitheatre of overhanging mountains with glittering snow-dad crests against a sky of dazzling blue. Then all about will be seen little islets, covered with trees and bushes of brilliant green and flowers of many hues.

In spite of the snow-clad mountains the temperature is usually not extreme. The jungles will rival the Amazonian jungles. It is a perfect compress of hollys, ferns, beeches, orchids, vines and countless thorny bushes. It is indeed

The surface is a spongy mass, and a foothold less than knee deep is rare. This exuberant vegetation is caused by the excessive moisture which is here precipitated. Flower-bearing bushes are numerous, and genuine field daisies are as plentiful in places as on a New England meadow. Cataracts are everywhere in sight and mark the mountain sides like long white streaks. At times when the boat is near the shore their roar can be heard. An occasional wreck may be sighted, but more of them lie unseen, buried beneath countless fathoms of water, for the shore descends down in an almost perpendicular line to fathomless depths. Few vessels thread these narrows, but it is a sight never to be forgotten by one who has had the privilege of making the trip.

The future of this great undeveloped region remains to be seen. At present there are no inhabitants, except occasionally a stray settlement of Indians. Exploring itself is no child’s play, and there are still tracts of untrodden forest, although the government has had numerous surveying parties in the field. The boundary commission has done a great deal in making this territory better understood. It differs widely from the broad reaches of pampa of Argentine Patagonia, where rain is scant and desert stretches are not uncommon. When development has taken place it may far exceed in fertility and wealth the eastern slopes, and the broad leagues of rich plain between the Andes and the Atlantic Ocean.

“Tierra del Fuego,” meaning the land of the fire, exclaimed the followers of Magellan, as they saw the wreaths of smoke ascending through the frosty air. It was merely the signal fires of the Indians dwelling on one of the islands of that remote southern archipelago, when they beheld the strange white-winged vessels of Magellan sailing through the Straits, since named after him. The name has clung to the group of islands during the succeeding centuries, although thousands of white people have since placed foot on them and the name is known to be a misnomer, for no volcanic fires exist there.

Beginning in Alaska, a chain of gigantic granite vertebrae extends clear to Cape Horn. It clings close to the Pacific coast throughout the entire distance, and ends in grandeur near the Antarctic Circle. Some say that the lower end of this backbone of the American continents was shattered by a convulsion, in which mighty masses of rock were thrown off into the ocean, thus forming the numberless islands which lie at the southern extremity of South America. The better theory, however, is that they were formed by the submerging of the lower end of the Andes Mountains. When the land sank the stormy water beat through the valleys and chiselled the shores into incongruous shapes and labyrinths.

Between the islands and the mainland are the Straits of Magellan. Some of the finest scenery in the world is found in this intricate waterway, especially in what is known as Smyth’s Channel, which separates Southern Chile from the group of islands. Smyth’s Channel is very narrow, so that most vessels take the broader Straits. The depth has never been fathomed. There is a grandeur in the serrated peaks, and cliffs, snowy crests, cascades and the glaciers under a brilliant sun and deep blue sky that is simply overwhelming. Numerous mountain peaks reveal themselves, of which Mt. Sarmiento is the noblest, and lifts its snowy head to a height of over seven thousand feet. Its beauty is enhanced by numerous blue-tinted glaciers, which descend to the waters of the sea like a multitude of frozen Niagaras. Floating glaciers are common in the Straits, and vessels, unequipped with ice-making machinery, often tie up to one while the crew chop enough ice to fill the refrigerators.

Few places on the earth’s surface within easy reach can compare with the Straits of Magellan. This channel has become the great trade route between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Few boats, except sailing vessels, now take the longer route around Cape Horn, because of the storms that lash the Antarctic seas into fury. For several hundred miles the Straits furnish a succession of beautiful scenes; green shores alternating with the eternal glaciers of the mountain peaks, blue waters contrasting with the shimmering crystal of the floating icebergs. These masses of ice are as imperishable as the glaciers of Greenland, and they add a feature to the scenery that is not to be found elsewhere within the ordinary course of steamers. It is a region of marvellous sunsets as well as rugged scenery, when the weather is clear, but mist, snow or rain often dim the view.

IN THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN.

The eastern entrance to the Straits lies between Cape Virgenes, on the mainland, and Cape Espiritu, on the island, a distance of about fourteen miles. For some distance the channel is wide, with the mainland gently undulating and covered with grass. Then come the first narrows, and afterwards the second narrows. These narrows are about two miles in width, and there is generally a strong current through them. In the spring the tides are thrown up to a height of fifty feet, and this is the reason sailing vessels prefer the open waters around Cape Horn, even though the seas are more tempestuous. When nearing Punta Arenas the mountains become higher, and at times the way seems blocked by them. Stunted bush and underbrush appear. After leaving Punta Arenas the shores grow bolder and more picturesque. The snow-covered mountains and glaciers resemble the Alaska coast or that of Northern Norway. The islands are as numerous as in the St. Lawrence or Georgian Bay.

Nodales Peak and Mt. Victoria lift their hoary heads on the mainland, while Mt. Buckland and Mt. Sarmiento rise to a still greater height on the islands. The latter beautiful and majestic peak is the noblest of them all. Its snowy head rises to a height of seven thousand three hundred feet, with a broad base and two distinct peaks. It is generally more or less hidden by vapour. The three Evangelistas keep their lonely vigil where straits and ocean join on the north. Cape Pillar, the western end of the Straits, is two hundred and forty-five miles from Cape Virgenes, but the steamer route is almost half as long again. Old voyagers were wont to take eighty days in this passage when the weather was a little unfavourable. The western end is the stormiest, and the pilot books give it a very bad reputation. South of them the Antarctic seas are seldom free from the storm king. The weather is nearly always bad, and oftentimes worse. In one recent year it is said that eighty-two sailing vessels and thirty-nine steamers were lost—a fearful toll claimed by old Neptune.

Fernando de Magelhaens, although of Portuguese birth, had entered the Spanish service. In charge of a fleet of five small ships, the largest of only one hundred and thirty tons, boarded and manned by a crew of sixty-two men, he sailed from Seville on the 10th of August, 1519. The voyage was an arduous one, and was beset not only with terrific storms at sea but mutinies among the sailors that were scarcely less terrifying. Only two of his vessels remained faithful, but he conquered the mutiny with the loss of only one vessel. On the 21st of October, 1520, he entered the eastern entrance of the channel, and it was a month later, after almost unheard-of difficulties, that he emerged into the broad Pacific. Of the subsequent expeditions that attempted this route the experiences were most unfortunate. In nearly every instance almost one out of every three vessels was wrecked, some in one channel and some in another, for there is a perfect labyrinth of channels around and between the many islands. Some of the names indicate the experiences or impressions of these early navigators. Fatal Bay, Port Famine, Famine Reach, Escape Beach, Last Wreck Point, Dislocation Harbour, Thieves Island, Useless Bay, Fury Islands, Breakneck Peninsula, Desolation Harbour, Preservation Cove, and last, Hope Inlet, are a few of the names that may be located on the map. In 1578, Sir Francis Drake, an English explorer as well as freebooter, by accident found the route by the way of Cape Horn. This great discovery stimulated navigation around South America, for the Spaniards guarded the Straits route to the best of their ability. The Spaniards described Drake as “a man of low condition, but a skilful seaman and a valiant pirate.”

The Fuegian Archipelago covers a goodly territory. The islands contain as much land as Nebraska, and are several hundred miles long from east to west. A perfect labyrinth of tortuous, wind-swept waterways separate the hundreds of islands which form this group. They are not all a desolate mass of ice and snow, however, but contain plains which are covered with succulent grasses, and slopes which are thickly wooded. The Chilean portion of these islands, and the mainland along the coast beyond the fiftieth parallel of latitude, is included in the territory of Magellanes, the largest territorial division in the republic. The largest island, called Tierra del Fuego, land of the fire, is half as large as Illinois. It is divided longitudinally between Chile and Argentina, by far the largest portion belonging to the former nation, and the best part of it too.

Thirty years ago this entire island was roamed and hunted over by the aborigines. The fact that the northern part consisted of open country, with few ranges of hills, caused the white man to look upon it with envious eyes, as it promised good pasturage for sheep. Then began a warfare against the Indians which almost resulted in their extermination. Thousands of sheep now quietly graze in the rich valleys and on the verdant plains, and thrive very well indeed. Very little of the land is cultivated, although probably susceptible of cultivation, but the marketing of the products would be a difficult feature at the present time, and the season is short. Its latitude is about that of Southern Greenland, but the climate is probably milder, and its longitude is approximately that of Eastern Massachusetts. In the summer the grass is green, but in the winter the chilly winds change it to a rich brown. The ground rats are a terrible nuisance to the farmer, as they burrow in the fields so much that they destroy half the usefulness of a good meadow. The mountain slopes are covered with a thick growth of trees, ferns and mosses up to a height of a thousand feet or more, due to the great amount of rainfall, but above that distance the growth is very stunted. It seems strange to see green trees and green grasses amid snows and glaciers, but such is the contrast offered by this “land of the fire.” The trees are mostly evergreen, not very high, but very close together. A deep bed of moss, into which a man may sink knee-deep, generally surrounds them, and large ferns with leaves a yard long grow in places otherwise bare. Even bright flowers make the sombre landscape seem almost gay when the sun shines on a summer day.

Desolation Island, on the Chilean side, is a bleak and barren island well indicated by its name, while other names are Clarence, St. Inas, and Navarin. There are many others, from islands twenty miles in length to some so small that a good baseball pitcher could toss a stone clear over them. Cape Horn is a monster rock which thrusts its jagged outline into the Antarctic seas. It is a couple of hundred miles south of the Straits of Magellan, and more than a thousand miles nearer the undiscovered South Pole than the Cape of Good Hope. It is surrounded by waters that are tossed by terrific storms which mariners fear. The hulks of wrecked vessels can be seen on every hand as reminders of the terrible tribute which has been here levied. Glaciers are always in sight, and masses of ice hundreds of feet high are frequently seen, seeming to threaten the venturesome mariner for invading those beautiful waters.

A WRECK ON THE COAST OF CHILE.

A number of years ago a steamer was wrecked on these shores, but the crew managed to save sufficient provisions to sustain all those rescued for some time. While sinking shallow wells they discovered a strata of black sand that sparkled with particles of gold. Their reports led to great excitement over the discovery of gold on Tierra del Fuego. Although adventurers had sailed through the Straits for centuries, looking for the wealth that they might obtain either honestly or dishonestly, yet the gold deposits remained undiscovered until 1867. Their covetous eyes had gazed upon the gold-bearing shores, and they had even filled their water-casks in the gold-bearing rivulets without seeing the wealth. In the few years following a number of Argentine explorers visited that region, and found the source of some of the gold. The gold was almost exclusively found in free particles in a layer of black sand, which was found under the surface sand. As soon as the report of their find reached the settlements, a number of expeditions were fitted out and sent to that region. The best payings were found right on the beach, which was washed by the waves of the sea at a high tide and during storms. It was also found that the tides brought in fresh gold-bearing sands from the seas. The miners used to sit down and smoke their pipes until the storms passed, and then dig up the black sand with the gold in it after the surf had gone down.

It all seemed to be pockets, so that where the gold would be found in considerable quantities for a while, it would soon become so scarce that mining it under the crude conditions prevailing became unprofitable. The prospectors sailed in and out of the stormy and dangerous bays, and many of them lost their lives. The hidden reefs and whirling tornadoes form combinations that made navigation in the small catboats that were used extremely perilous. Many, who were wrecked, were obliged to live upon whatever wild food they could find for weeks, and others were killed by the hostile Indians. The original stories said that nuggets as big as kernels of corn were plentiful, but they were not true to fact. No gold quartz veins were ever discovered, but in all the finds it was simply particles mixed up with the black sand. Gold mining to-day is not prosecuted in that region as much as it was a couple of decades ago, although some gold is washed each year. If the whole story was known, it would probably be found that there were more skeletons of dead miners left on those inhospitable shores than records of wealth acquired in Tierra del Fuego. Most of those who did find wealth got no farther than Punta Arenas with it, for that city was to that region what San Francisco was in the early days of California, and mining prospectors are the same the world over.

The first attempt to establish a settlement on the Straits of Magellan was in the latter part of the sixteenth century. Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa was placed in command of this expedition. His instructions were as follows: “For the honour and glory of God and of the Virgin Mary, His Mother and Our Lady, whom you, Captain Pedro Sarmiento, are to take for Advocate and Patron of the ships and crews under your orders for this discovery and enterprise in the Straits of Magellan.” After several narrow escapes from shipwreck the expedition landed, and established a settlement not far from the present city of Punta Arenas. From the very first misfortune seemed to follow the colonists, and the Indians soon became hostile. At the end of the second winter the three hundred or more colonists had dwindled to eighteen, who were finally rescued. They had been obliged to live on berries, shell-fish, oysters, and such other ocean life that they were able to catch. The Indians had driven the guanaco and other wild game into the interior where the colonists could not reach them.

GENERAL VIEW OF PUNTA ARENAS.

The continent of South America extends much farther south than Africa. The southernmost point is Cape Frowards, which is a dark mass of rock five hundred feet high joined by a low neck of land to snow-clad mountains. At almost the southernmost point of the mainland lies the little city of Punta Arenas (Sandy Point). It is situated on the Straits of Magellan, which is sheltered from the worst storms by the many islands that lie between it and the Antarctic seas. Punta Arenas is the southernmost city in the world, eight hundred miles farther south than Cape Town. There is plenty of building space left in this city still, but a few years ago, when the boom was on, the people had visions of a southern Chicago. Fabulous prices were asked for building lots, and real estate agents were almost as plentiful as the Indians. That time has passed, and the town has dwindled in population. Its latitude is about that of Labrador, but it is much more equable than that country and the weather is not so severe as many imagine. It is so named because built on a sandy beach that runs out into the Straits. It is now a city of twelve thousand people, and they seem to be contented. It is a very mixed population. You can hear Spanish, English, German, Italian, Russian and even the Chinese mingled with the guttural tongues of the Indians. The Scotch are probably the most thrifty of the inhabitants, and many of them have lived there two or three generations.

There are many rough characters in Punta Arenas, some even who have drifted from the mining camps of our western states. It is said to be bad policy to ask a man where he came from, or what his name was before his arrival, as it might be an embarrassing subject. The loafing places are the bars, where many brawls occur during the long winters. There are probably as many saloons to the number of inhabitants as in any other place on the globe, for nearly every other door seems to bear such a sign. Much gambling is also done at these and in the clubs. There are clubs, where the well-to-do gather and have their games just as they do the world over. The principal club is the Cuerpo de Bomberos, which means the Society of Firemen, and was organized as a volunteer fire department. Most of the buildings are cheap one-story affairs, frequently being built of the corrugated iron so common in this land. Punta Arenas is a free port, and this fact has aided in its prosperity. All the vessels passing through the Straits call there for supplies and coal, and this business, together with the trade in whaling products, wool and furs, furnish the inhabitants with employment. It is one of the great wool-exporting ports of the world, having shipped more than sixteen million pounds of that commodity in a single season, and four hundred thousand pelts. The trade in furs is very large. One of the prettiest things sold here is an ostrich robe made of the breasts of the young birds.

PORT FAMINE, IN THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN.

Punta Arenas is the business centre of the region extending from Port Desire, on the Patagonian coast to Cape Horn, and from the Falkland Islands on the east to the westernmost limits of Chile. The little settlement that originally was established there was called La Colonia de Magellanes. On the 21st of April, 1843, Chile first planted her tri-coloured banner at a place near here, which was called Port Famine, because of the disastrous end of the Sarmiento settlement, which had been located there a couple of centuries previously.

Chile had a double purpose in establishing this post. One was its desire to hold the territory as a national possession, and the other was to establish a penal colony which would be so far away from the capital that the prisoners, even if they escaped, could not return. Several hundred prisoners were generally confined there, who were kept in subjection by a small company of soldiers. On two occasions the convicts rebelled and took possession of this settlement. On one of these the governor and many of the guards were killed and the mutineers boarded a ship that chanced to be in the harbour, but they were overtaken by a Chilean man-of-war and overcome. The men were hung, and it is said that a man was seen hanging from every yard-arm of the war-ship. After the first revolt a new settlement was established on the present site of Punta Arenas, which was given the old name. The tongue of sand there, however, the English-speaking people called Sandy Point, and thereafter the name Punta Arenas, which means the same in Spanish, was given it; at least it is entirely known by that name now.

In 1877 the last revolt occurred, when the convicts revenged the cruelties to which they had been subjected upon the commander of the garrison and many of the soldiers. When a man-of-war appeared they fled into the interior, where most of them died from starvation and hardships. The establishment of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company was the cause of the abandonment of this place as a penal colony. It proved to be a convenient stopping place for the steamers to take on coal and supplies, and this gave it a new life. Later came the discovery of gold, which brought many to the settlement. Still later a Scotchman brought some sheep from the Falkland Islands, and found that the region around Punta Arenas and on the island opposite was well adapted for sheep raising. Others took advantage of this experience, until the neighbourhood around became noted for its sheep culture. Some day, if a freezing establishment should be established here, Punta Arenas will become a still more important place, and it is undoubtedly only a question of time until such will be done. The town itself makes a poor foreground for the magnificent setting of nature. It is laid out on the usual checkerboard plan, with several streets running from the shores back up the hills. It has a plaza and the streets are unpaved. The beach is sandy and the streets are either filled with loose sand or mud.

Across the Straits the green hills of Tierra del Fuego may be seen rising, and over to the south the snow-capped peaks of Mt. Sarmiento and its neighbours appear above the horizon. To the west are mountains which are ever green and rise boldly up to the western edge, while to the north the hills are generally bare. At one time it was thought that coal had been discovered and the mine was opened up; some track was built and an old locomotive brought down. It proved, however, to be only lignite, and so the mine has been practically abandoned.

A considerable trade has been developed in Indian curios and goods. The Indians from the pampas and islands come here to sell their furs, feathers, bows, hides, etc. Passengers passing through the Straits on the various steamers usually lay in a supply of these goods, some of which are genuine and others are prepared especially for such passengers. One wonders at the number of palms and plants which are seen in this town so far beyond all other settlements, for even wild flowers of certain kinds seem to grow in great profusion, while ferns and lichens everywhere delight the eye.

South of Punta Arenas there is only one settlement of any importance, and that is Ushuaia. This town is situated on the Argentine side of Tierra del Fuego, and, small as it is, it is the capital of that territory. It stands nearer to the South Pole than any other civilized village in the world. The barriers created by nature are almost insurmountable. To the south is the unknown Antarctic, to the north the impassable barrier of snow-clad peaks, and in all other directions are the fathomless channels separating it from the other islands. Established first as a mission settlement, its site was selected as the capital of the territory. The Argentine flag was first unfolded over the first building erected for the use of officials in 1884. Shortly after that work upon prisons was begun, and it became a still more important settlement. Here, in this isolated quarter of the globe, guarded by a few score of armed men, are confined several hundred men, many of whom are the very dregs of humanity sent from Buenos Aires. These unfortunates work on the roads, dress stone for new and stronger walls, or make the garments worn by themselves and their fellow prisoners. Few attempt to escape and fewer still succeed, for the loneliness and desolation alone would keep a prisoner where human companionship may be found.

Small and unimportant as this town is to-day, and wretched as it would seem to many people, yet it has a full complement of officials with their secretaries and servants. There is a complete list of judicial officers and police officials, even though the police have no patrol to beat and the court has no docket. About the only part of the official equipment that has any work to do is the culinary department, for it takes a great deal of cooking and preparation to provide food for every one there. Out of a population of several hundred to-day, made up principally of prisoners and officials, there are only a very few plain common citizens who dwell there.

Most of the buildings in Ushuaia are frame structures, which have been erected near the bay that bears the same name as the town. It is situated on Beagle Channel. The houses consist of plain unpainted wooden walls, with a roof of corrugated iron. The governor’s palace itself is not much better than the other buildings. A few of the buildings have little green patches, enclosed with picket fences, in which they are able to grow a few vegetables. For a location so far south the climate is not so bad as one would expect, as the snowfall is not as great as in the same latitude in northern regions. In the winter time the nights are very long and the days short. The mountains just at the back of the town cut off the sunlight when the sun is low, so that the town only receives about four hours of daylight. It is certainly a cheerless sort of existence that the people lead in this southern capital. There are still one or two missions that are conducted by English missionaries on this coastland, but they have had very little influence upon the natives. One of the missions consists of quite a large ranch, where the minister in charge of the mission lives and employs the natives to do his work.

For several hundred miles north of Punta Arenas lies the formerly unknown land of Patagonia—the land of the Pata-goas, the “big feet,” as they were named by Magellan. One can see in that city almost any day descendants of that race in the Tehuelche tribe of Indians who come there to sell their furs and skins. Out upon the broad pampas away from the town, the traveller will occasionally stumble upon the toldos (huts) of the Tehuelches. These are simply made huts of the skins of the guanaco sewn loosely together at the edges, and supported squarely upon awkward-looking props, or posts, forked at the top to admit the ridge-poles. The skins are fastened to the earth by wooden pegs. The Tehuelches are the native Indians of Patagonia—the so-called giants—and are well built specimens of manhood. These Indians live almost as their ancestors did hundreds of years ago. They are still nomads, and exist entirely by the chase. They do not cultivate anything whatever, but sometimes own a few cattle. In general they still dress in skins, although some of them have purchased store clothes at the settlements. As a rule they are mild mannered, when sober, and do not deserve the name of being bloodthirsty savages. Their numbers have greatly decreased, since the first discovery of Patagonia, through dissipation and disease, and some have estimated that the total number yet remaining will not exceed a few hundred.

Only a few years ago the geographers labelled Patagonia “no man’s land.” To-day millions of sheep graze over its fertile plains. It is as large as several of our western states. It is a land of big distances and enormous holdings. In the pasture section it is often a ride of three or four days from one ranch to another. Most of these ranches are near the coast or along the few rivers. As one travels into the interior a white face becomes more and more rare; empty leagues surround you on every hand. One accustomed to cities only would find it very lonely indeed on these plains. One seems to stand alone with only the wind, the mirages and the limitless distances, and the blue sky above for a canopy. The last land to have been the habitation of the greater beasts of preceding ages, according to geologists, Patagonia is one of the last to receive its proper share of the human population.

There are three races of Indians who inhabit these Fuegian islands, the Yahgans, Alacaloofs and the Onas, all of whom are very low in intelligence. They are commonly known under the general characterization of the Firelanders. None of them are as far advanced as the Esquimaux, who build warm igloos for their habitation. Even though the climate is very cold the greater part of the year these aborigines formerly wore very little clothing, but greased their bodies with fish oil that keeps out the cold. In recent years, however, they have begun to wear warmer garments, when such can be obtained. The Yahgans are very treacherous, and many murders have been traced to them. They will mingle very little with white people, but always hold themselves aloof. Their houses are of the most primitive character, and are frequently little more than a rude construction of thatch on a skeleton of sticks stuck in the ground.

These Yahgans live almost entirely on sea food. They divide their time between these rude huts and canoes, or dugouts made from the trunks of trees, in which they paddle through the tortuous channels from one island to another. Should a storm overtake the boat and it becomes necessary to lighten it, the men show their instinct for self-preservation by throwing the women and children overboard. They are not particular about food, as to whether it is very fresh or not. There is frequently a dearth of food, and then it is that they are driven to eat the flesh of a stranded whale or of an animal found dead. Ground rats and the fishy-flavoured penguin are included on their regular bill-of-fare. Their camping-places can generally be located by the mounds of shells that accumulate. They are as near to primitive savages as it would be possible to find on the Americas. As usual among savage tribes, the women do the most of the work, and assist in the hunting and fishing as well as prepare the meat after it has once been caught. The Yahgans are short and muscular and below medium height. Their lower limbs seem rather stunted, but above the waist they are heavily built. Marriage is a matter of purchase and sale, and wives are sometimes exchanged. The marriage ceremony consists in painting the girl in a peculiar way, and then the husband takes her to his hut or that of his parents.

The Alacaloofs, or Alakalufs, occupy the western islands and are similar in their habits to the Yahgans. Their canoes are made of strips of bark or planks fastened together with vines and caulked with moss. Their huts look like New England haycocks made of boughs and covered with skins or bark strips. They frequently row out to meet passing steamers and beg for food. They are not an attractive people. In colour they strongly resemble the North American red men, but they are not much over five feet in height. The only domesticated animal owned by them is the dog. With this tribe, as well as the Yahgans, everything is held in common and it is no crime to take of your neighbour’s fuel or food.

The Onas are a hunting tribe and they are larger than either of the other tribes. They occupy the prairie lands and open bush of Tierra del Fuego. The men are active and athletic, and they are especially skilful in stalking the guanaco of that island. They are expert in the use of the rude bows and arrows which they make for themselves. The bows are fashioned out of a native wood cut with shell knives, and the arrows are made out of reeds armed with a flint or glass point. Horse meat is a great delicacy with them. The struggle for existence has made these people inexpressive in features and stoical in actions. A good fortune or an ill fortune is met in much the same way. Their homes are generally saucer-shaped hollows that have been scraped out, over which poles and brush are piled and guanaco skins are used as doors. All the family lie down together, and the dogs are included for warmth. They are nomads and wander from one place to another in search of food. Fire is made with bits of iron ore or flints and dry fungus. Some of this tribe are now employed as servants by the white people, but most of them prefer the wild life in the open.

With all the hardships that seem to fall to the lot of these Indians who live so far to the south, they seem to be fairly happy and are contented with their surroundings. This is truly fortunate. People who live in the temperate zones are inclined to think that they are the only truly happy ones. By travel one’s view is broadened, and at last he realizes the truth expressed by Oliver Goldsmith in the following lines:—

The trip across the continent of South America is now made very comfortably by train. The start is from the very pleasant station of the State Railway of Valparaiso. For a number of miles the tracks run almost along the water’s edge, and thus afford many beautiful views of the blue bay of Valparaiso. The trains on this road are very comfortable, for the Chilean State Railway is one of the very few railroads in South America that provide Pullman cars for their patrons. After leaving Viña del Mar the line soon abandons the bay, and threads its way through the coast range of mountains. One gets many glimpses of the higher Andes through the passes, and there are also green glens where advantage has been taken of the running water for irrigation. Cacti become very abundant, and one is reminded of the plateaus of Mexico, for these silent sentinels seem to keep watch over the herds of sheep and goats that feed on the slopes. Any one who has seen Southern Chile first will notice the difference as soon as the train leaves Santiago. The progressive dryness of the climate has a pronounced effect on the vegetation. The cacti are frequently from twelve to fifteen feet in height, and their entire surface is covered with stout, curved spines.

THE ACONCAGUA RIVER.

After creeping along the shore and then through a valley, the railroad soon joins the Aconcagua River, which leaps and foams along, thus forming a series of diminutive cascades. In the winter time the change in temperature is very marked as the upward climb continues. In places the valley spreads out to quite generous proportions, and one will see haciendas that are well kept up and which show evidence of careful cultivation. Contrast is afforded by the sight of oxen drawing one-handled, wooden ploughs. How powerful must have been the Moorish influence in Spain, for these ploughs are exact duplicates of the plough of ancient Chaldea and Egypt, which was carried along the coast of Barbary into Spain, and left there as a heritage to the Spaniards, who introduced it into the New World. The general impression left with the traveller over this route, between Valparaiso and Santiago, is one of comparative barrenness and desolation.

Viña del Mar, Limache and Quillota are three quite important towns that are passed en route, the latter two of which have some important manufacturing establishments. Llai Llai (pronounced Yi-yi) is about half way, and this is the diverging point for the two routes. One leads to the capital, and the other is the continuation of the transcontinental railroad. Llai Llai is a pleasant little town of five or six thousand inhabitants, and is situated about twenty-six hundred and twenty-five feet above sea level. A number of fruit sellers are sure to be at the station, and one who does not purchase a few of the delicious pears or peaches, that are sold so reasonably, misses a great treat. They are grown in a rich valley below which is a sort of agricultural Arcadia.

The through cars are switched to another track, a different engine is attached to them and the traveller is soon bound for Los Andes. The journey does not differ greatly from that already described. The city of San Felipe is the largest town passed and it is situated amidst well cultivated fields. It is a city of about twelve thousand. Soon afterwards the train reaches Santa Rosa de Los Andes, which marks a break in the journey. Here it is necessary to change trains, and frequently to stay over night. It is at the foothills of the Andes, and one can find many pleasant little excursions into the foothills here, if he has the inclination to tarry for a few days. The climate is good, and the physical wants of the traveller are very well looked after at the hotel. A few Americans will be found there, for the railroad is operated by that nationality.

LOOKING TOWARDS ACONCAGUA.

If it is the summer time one will find Los Andes a very pleasant little place, with quite an abundance of vegetation around it. The altitude is about twenty-six hundred feet, which gives it a delightful climate. Fruits grow abundantly, and the fruit-canning industry has been considerably developed. This is in the province of Aconcagua, which contains some of the most notable elevations in the entire republic, and, in fact, in the entire world. This province is about as large as Connecticut and Rhode Island combined. In addition to the eastern boundary of lofty peaks there are numerous low hills, between which lie fertile valleys. Through the use of irrigation agriculture flourishes in these valleys, and there is a considerable production of grains and wine. There are also a number of silver and copper mines in the province. San Felipe is the capital, and is distant about seventy-eight miles from both Santiago and Valparaiso.

“Vamonos,” says the conductor of the narrow gauge train, as it pulls out of the station on its way to the limits of Chilean territory. One will begin to take notice of his fellow-travellers. The passengers will be found to be of many nationalities, and of many shades of colour, for, since the railway journey is continuous, fewer people take the much longer route via the Straits of Magellan. There will be Chilenos, with big hats and ponchos, and Chilenas, whose faces are coated with powder or paste. There will be priests in beaver hats and black gowns, which reach to their feet. Soldiers in uniforms modelled after the German army are quite likely to be companions as far as the border. Americans, British, French, Germans, Italians and Argentinians—all of these nationalities go to make up a potpourri of nations and national characteristics. As the start is generally made in the morning, one sees the stars disappear and the dawn break over the mountains. The gray skies turn to a steel-blue, then to a rosy pink, until, at last, the highest peaks are illuminated by the rays of the sun. One may leave Los Andes clad in its summer plumage, with myriads of butterflies and moths flitting about, but these characteristics soon disappear, for the upward climb begins almost immediately. In the next thirty-five miles this rack and pinion road climbs upward more than seven thousand feet. It is a much steeper ascent than on the Argentine side, for it requires three times the distance to reach the same level on that slope.

The track follows the course of the Aconcagua River. This river is at no time a great stream, yet the total volume of water carried down in its swift-flowing current must be considerable. Many glimpses of the simple natives, and their primitive means of conveyance, are afforded on the ancient highway that threads the same valley. On the mountainside an occasional mud hut may be seen around and over which climb creepers and flowering vines. The scenery is beautiful and full of variations. Every turn of the tortuous track reveals a new scene of beauty, and there are few railway journeys in the world that will afford a greater variety of views than this overland route to Buenos Aires. The mountains grow from grand to grander, as if Ossa had been piled upon Pelion. When sunlight and shadow play upon the rock the contrasts are dazzling and the senses gladdened. There is a prodigality of colours such as even the Yosemite, the Grand Cañon or the Dolomites do not surpass. Guardia Viega, the “old guard,” is one of the stations, and is so named because it was for two centuries a guard station on the Antiguo Camino, or ancient road between the two republics. The vegetation becomes scanter as the altitude increases, but, scant as it is, it is a pleasing change to the traveller coming from the other direction. Juncal, which for several years was the terminus, is passed. One of the most beautiful views afforded is that of the narrow gorge, known as the Salto del Soldado, the Soldier’s Leap, through which the tempestuous waters of the river foam and toss. There is a tradition connected with this strange freak of nature of which the Chileans are proud. During the war of independence it is said that a Chilean pursued by the enemy, leaped across this chasm and saved his life. Owing to the width it is an almost impossible tale to believe.

THE SALTO DEL SOLDADO.

Just beyond Juncal is a beautiful little lake, which is as opalescent and translucent as any of the lakes of Switzerland, and several thousand feet higher. It is the Lago del Inca, the Lake of the Incas. Pure as crystal, and clear as an unclouded sky, this little body of water rests tranquilly amidst as harsh and severe a setting as one could well find. Masses of rock seem poised on ledges ready to project themselves down into valleys with destruction in their path. The mad gods who formed these eternal peaks must have paused for a moment in their work in order to add this one touch of real beauty to the landscape.

Here one may also see the huge condors, flying at such heights that they look no larger than a swallow. The glass will sometimes reveal others that can scarcely be distinguished with the naked eye. They sail and circle around in the rarefied air with scarcely a flap of the wing. In the winter time the condor may be found near the coast, but in summer they always return to the highest Andean peaks, where they rear their young. The eggs are deposited in lofty clefts or caverns, where no form of animal life exists that might destroy the young birds. A young condor during the first year clings to the parent bird, for its body is too big for its wings. This royal bird figures on the national escutcheon of Chile as an emblem of strength and independence. The Indians surround it with many legends, and some of them believe that the souls of the lost enter the bodies of the condor and are thus poised between heaven and earth, so as to see the glories of both and be able to enjoy neither, like the doom of Tantalus.

At last Caracoles, the name given to the little station at the Chilean end of the international railroad, is reached, at an elevation of a little more than ten thousand feet above sea level. The tunnel is just about the same length as the altitude, for it is ten thousand three hundred and eighty-five feet from entrance to exit. Near the centre of this hole bored through the Andean rock the international boundary is passed, and, when the train emerges at Las Cuevas, the other terminus, the traveller catches his first glimpse of Argentina. It is a scene of vast desolation that meets his gaze. It is a picture of solitude, with nothing to relieve it in the way of vegetation. The vivid colourings of the stratas of rock and the white summits of the many peaks in sight, however, make it a scene of wild glory that uplifts the soul at the majesty of nature. One stands aghast at the marvellous richness of colouring that is revealed on every hand.

REFUGE HOUSE ALONG THE OLD INCA TRAIL.

The traveller may be thankful that he has not been obliged to traverse this pass in the winter time. Nothing can surpass these vast ridges clad in their winter dress. White and cold, they form a veritable valley of desolation. It is the cold of death, the white mantle of annihilation—something that the brain can scarcely compass. The feeling of solitude in the midst of the whiteness everywhere almost overwhelms the traveller with despair. In places the snow is frequently as much as fifteen feet in depth, deep enough to bury a horse and rider. Sudden storms are likely to overtake the traveller, and he would be snowed in in one of the casuchas. These are shelters that were built at intervals along the pass for the protection of travellers. They are dome-shaped structures which remind one of lime-kilns. They have a small door, but no windows, and will accommodate as many as twenty people at a time. The interior has a brick floor and is absolutely bare. Although protected from the weather, woe be to the traveller obliged to spend a day or two there with a group of arrieros, for filth is everywhere and the stench is almost overpowering.

Although fewer travellers ventured over this pass in the midst of winter, the mail service continued uninterruptedly, and there was seldom a day that some one did not attempt the crossing. A capitas, who was generally a man with a little capital, would undertake to carry the mails or other freight over the pass at a fixed price. He would then engage his force of porters as cheaply as possible, agreeing to furnish them with board and lodging so long as they remained with him. As time was not specified in the mail contract, if a traveller came along the capitas would dump the mails and carry his baggage at an exorbitant price. Everything was done up in packages weighing about sixty pounds. Some of the porters would even undertake to carry two of these—a terrible strain on a rough road. It is little wonder that this and unrestrained dissipation usually gave these men a short life. Sometimes they slid over a precipice, or were hurled to their doom by a falling stone. There are many graves of those who met an untimely end along this route, and it seems almost marvellous that they are not more numerous. After the highest point was passed the porters would toboggan down the slopes, seated on a sheepskin and guiding themselves with pointed staffs. In this way the descent was quickly accomplished. The packages were simply tumbled down, and oftentimes reached the bottom in a very dilapidated condition.

The Trasandino Argentino Railway threads its way out through the valley of the Uspallata, and follows a small stream which gradually becomes larger as little rivulets of melted snow join it. It soon becomes more of a stream, and is given the name of Rio (river) Mendoza. At a distance of less than a dozen miles the station called Puente del Inca is reached, which is so named because of a natural bridge of stratified rock at that place, which is very similar to the Natural Bridge of Virginia. Underneath it bubble up boiling waters which are claimed to have great medicinal value. It is said that the Incas in pre-Spanish times knew of the value of these waters, and their chiefs came here to receive the benefits of its curative waters. Near here one catches a glimpse of a marvellous freak of nature, called the Cerro de los Penitentes, the Ridge of the Penitents. The scattered rocky peaks and points standing up through the sloping debris of the ascent, with their remarkable imitations of toiling wayfarers, must have greatly impressed the Spanish pioneers when they first came upon this scene.

The route continues a picture of desolation, caused by volcanic upheavals and the erosion of countless ages. The Mendoza River, coloured by the various metals of the rocks over which it pours, tumbles along near the railway as both follow one pass after another. Las Vacas, Uspallata, La Invernada and other small stations are passed. About thirty miles before Mendoza is reached a change begins, and poplar and larch trees, alfalfa fields and the grape enliven the scene. Irrigation is utilized and the melted snows cause the land to bloom with remarkable fertility. At last the train runs into the creditable station of Mendoza, and the second stage in the transcontinental journey is ended.

THE CHRIST OF THE ANDES.

At Mendoza a change is made to the broad gauge trains of the Buenos Aires and Pacific Railway, which will carry the traveller over the remaining leagues of the journey. After leaving the irrigated lands of this neighbourhood, another stretch of miserable scrub land is crossed before the level pampas are entered. From there to Buenos Aires the route is over as level land as is to be found on the earth’s surface. Hour after hour the train rolls over these pampas, past small towns and through great stretches of grain and alfalfa. At last, after about a day and a half’s journey, the train enters the suburbs of Buenos Aires, and finally, with a shrill shriek, rolls into the Retiro Station, which is the end of the trip.

Grand and wonderful as is the ride through and across the Andes by railroad, the traveller has missed one of the most striking features of these solitudes. Almost immediately over the tunnel, and nearly three thousand feet higher, stands the famous statue, known as the Christ of the Andes. This statue was erected in 1904 as a symbol of perpetual peace between the two neighbouring nations. It was cast in bronze from the cannon of the two nations, which had been purchased through fear of impending war. Its location is on the new international boundary line that had just been established by arbitration. Near it is a sign with the words “CHILE” on one side, and “ARGENTINA” on the other side.

The figure of Christ is twenty-six feet in height. In one hand it holds the emblem of the cross, while the other is extended in a blessing, and as if uttering the one magic word “Peace.” On one side is a tablet with the inscription: “Sooner shall these mountains crumble into dust than the people of Argentina and Chile break the peace to which they have pledged themselves at the feet of Christ the Redeemer.” On another side is the inscription:

The Cumbre, as this ridge is called, is the highest point on the old trail. Travellers and baggage were transported over it by mule-back or in carriages, if the almost springless vehicles could be called by such a name, during the summer. It is a very zigzag trail up which the carriages wound, where as many as twenty twists and turns can be counted. On the downward trip the horses ran and jumped, until the timorous traveller began to have visions of disaster. Accidents were rare, however, and seldom was a vehicle overturned. Corners were turned on two wheels, with only a few inches between the outside wheels and the edge of the precipice.

One of the most striking aspects which impress the traveller crossing the Andes is the terribly bleak and desolate outlook that they present. Blades of grass here and there, or perhaps a few stunted shrubs, are the only signs of vegetation, for of trees there are none. There seems to be no tree line, as in most mountains. A huge expanse of yellow sand and stone spreads out everywhere with peaks rising up on every side in clearly defined and rugged stratification, whose many-coloured hues are almost bewildering to the eye. Great torrents flow down the middle of the valleys, the water being of a dull brackish hue. The fording of these streams is a very dangerous task for the explorer, as the torrents are exceedingly rapid and full of deep, treacherous holes.

THE SOLITUDE OF THE ANDES.

On either side rise high peaks, and the traveller is always interested in knowing the names of these peaks. If he asks the average native which is Aconcagua, or which Tupungato, he is likely to be misinformed. There is to the inexperienced mountain traveller a disappointment when he finally has one of these lofty peaks pointed out, and which he knows to be above twenty thousand feet in height, because he has expected, perhaps, to see an isolated peak rearing its snowy head to the sky for a distance of four miles or more above the level on which he stands. The traveller forgets that he himself is above the sea level almost half that distance, before he gains a good clear view of the higher peak. It is well established that Aconcagua is the loftiest peak of the Andes, but it is a little uncertain whether Tupungato or the Mercedario is the second in height.

Ten thousand miles of majestic mountains stretch from Alaska to Cape Horn—the grandest range of mountains that can be found on the earth’s surface. Throughout this series of connected mountains, from the wilds of Alaska to those of Patagonia, and including the tropical plateaus of Ecuador, there are many peaks that pierce the ethereal blue of the skies. These are generally termed the Sierras, which is the Spanish word for “saw,” and the name is applied to mountains because of the fancied resemblance of their outlines to that of the carpenter’s tool. A dim knowledge of the majesty of mountains is obtained from the smaller ranges of North America, such as the Appalachian Mountains, but Mt. McKinley, highest of North American mountains, must yield in majesty to a number of peaks in the lofty Andean range of mountains.

The lure of altitude seems to have caught at the spirit of man from early times, and led him struggling up almost unscalable peaks. In recent years the fascination of mountain climbing has become the romance of geography. During the last half century daring explorers have conquered more mountains, and gathered more geological data, than in all the previous centuries. Many lives have been lost by devotees of this science, while pitting skill and strength against nature and her secrets. It has not been long since the elevations of the southern half of this continent were an unknown land; some lofty peaks were unexplored and unnamed, and only dim suggestions of their majesty and splendour had reached the scientific world, but they now hold an interest second to none. The loftiest peaks in the world, excepting only the Himalayas, are found along the western coast of South America. They are in truth and reality the mountain monarchs of the western world. In travelling along the west coast of South America by steamer the serrated backbone of the continent is ever in sight, but its hazy outlines are at such a distance that they give but a dim idea of their real height from the steamer.

It remained for European mountain climbers, men who received their schooling in the Alps, to first conquer these lofty giants of nature. Chimborazo (20,498 ft.), the “white watcher of the western seas,” was the first to yield its topmost secrets to Edward Whymper, who fought his way up the rugged snow-clad slopes to the very top. Next he conquered Cotopaxi (19,615 ft.), and has given this volcano the following recommendation: “Cotopaxi is an ideal volcano. It comports itself, volcanically speaking, in a regular and well-behaved manner. It is not one of the provoking sort—exploding in paroxysms and going to sleep directly afterwards. It is in a state of perpetual activity, and has been so ever since it had a place in history.” Could any volcano in the world show a stronger recommendation? It is certainly an exemplary exponent of the volcanic art. The explorer spent a night on the very edge of the crater, peering into the cavernous recesses that belched forth fire and smoke, and must have been under its hypnotic influence when inditing the above.

Going farther down the coast one reaches the mighty peaks of Peru and Bolivia. An American woman, Miss Annie S. Peck, has scaled Mt. Huascaran (22,051 ft.), and holds the unique record of having climbed higher than any other woman. It was an achievement that deservedly brought her great honour. Mt. Illimani (21,490 ft.) is the loftiest peak in Bolivia. It means “bright condor,” according to the generally accepted derivation. Its frozen crest was conquered by an Englishman, Sir Martin Conway, and the Union Jack was planted on the very summit. This mountain, and its neighbour, Mt. Sorata (21,490 ft.), were worshipped as gods by the Incas. A band of superstitious natives, on learning his intention to invade the sanctuary of their god, who dwelt on Illimani, made an attempt to murder him, but did not succeed in finding the party. Their tradition asserts that a great cross of gold was planted by the god on the summit, and they were afraid these strangers would carry it away. At the foot of these mountains lies Lake Titicaca, the sacred lake of the Incas.

The hardships endured on these climbs are almost indescribable. The intense cold and the rarefied air almost overcome the reserve vitality. The weakening effect of diminished atmospheric pressure is so enervating that exertion can only be made a few steps at a time. Headache, nausea and blood running from the nose and ears are the more violent effects. It is almost impossible to keep the feet from being frost-bitten, and they have to be rubbed occasionally to restore circulation. Says Mr. Conway: “I asked myself more than once whether the game was worth the candle, for there was something so cold and unsympathetic about the gloom and the ice and the bare rocks, that for a time it weighed like a nightmare upon my spirits.” The exhaustion is so great that it is almost impossible to enjoy the triumph of success. Speaking of this the same explorer says: “The moment was one of satisfaction, in that our toil ceased; but we had no sense of triumph, nor was there breath enough left in any of us for an exclamation of joy in the hour of victory. Nothing was said or done for several minutes; we just sat down and rested.” As compensations, however, there are frequently magnificent cloud effects. Out of the white sea of snow there mount, under the uplift of hot air currents, great towers of cloud, which rise high into the air like the smoke-discharge from a volcano. Huge caves and cloud avenues are formed, wherein dark-blue shadows gather, with occasionally a high mountain top peeping forth like the foundation stone of a gigantic cloud castle. Then one’s vision is so broadened that he seems to stand on the very top of the world itself.

In “Argentina and Her People of To-day,” the writer has given an account of an ascent of Aconcagua by Mr. E. A. Fitzgerald’s party, and in this work some mention will be made of the conquest of Tupungato by the same party. This mountain can be seen clearly outlined against the sky from the Pass of the Cumbre, although it is distant fully thirty miles. The route lies down through great masses of fallen rock, the stones being on an average twice the size of a man’s head. The stones are hard and unworn by the forces of nature, presenting a surface of sharp, jagged edges. It is an extremely difficult pass to traverse because of these rocks and danger of slipping, which in many cases would hurl the traveller many hundreds of feet below. Sudden and violent storms also rage around this mountain, which renders the work of climbing still more difficult and dangerous.

The distances, as in almost all mountain climbing, are very deceiving, and what oftentimes seems to be but the work of an hour may require many hours to accomplish. Terrific wind storms at times spring up, against which it is almost impossible for a man to stand, and this also adds to the dangers because of rocks which are sometimes hurled down the mountain sides. As the altitude increases the rarity of the atmosphere and the consequently intense cold render progress almost painful. It is necessary for the mountain climber to stop every few minutes to rest, as the cold and the wind and rare atmosphere all combine to exhaust the vitality. Three times Mr. Fitzgerald’s party attempted the ascent of Tupungato, and as many times were they compelled to abandon it. Bleeding at the nose, frozen extremities and weakness of the heart attacked the various members of the party, and compelled them to descend to lower altitudes. A fourth attempt, however, was more successful. Each failure had taught something, so that each effort was made under slightly better conditions and with better equipment.

Here is the description by Mr. Vines, as it appears in “The Highest Andes:” “I was on the summit of Tupungato at last, and all my efforts and disappointments were more than repaid. I stood on a great mound in shape like a pyramid, with a blunted top some two yards wide rising several hundred feet above the general surface of the dome. In the whole expanse of sky around over ocean and land I could not discern a single cloud. Only in the direction of the Pacific a haze hung over the mountains. In the brilliant air the spectacle that lay before us was one of vast extent and grandeur. Range upon range of mountains stretched away towards the great plain of Santiago, forty miles to the west. Far away, beyond the hills that almost seemed to lie at our feet, stretched the great waters of the Pacific, a tract of blue ocean sparkling to the horizon, and clearly visible, although the distance from Tupungato to the seacoast is not less than one hundred and thirty miles.

“The view from the top of Tupungato is in many ways even finer than that obtained from Aconcagua. The expanse of ocean visible toward the west is less vast, but there is ample compensation in the outlook over the great unknown plain on the eastern side. The Pampas of Argentina stretch almost without a break from our very feet to the South Atlantic Ocean. The Andes seem to rise up from Santiago in ever ascending gradations, until at last they culminate in the immense mass of Tupungato; behind, they fall brokenly away; the mountains disappear; and a country almost fen-like in its monotonous flatness succeeds. The only break on the Argentine side is that of the Sierra de la Plata, not many more than twenty miles to the northeast. On the Chilean side a score of dark peaks rear their heads, a sinister array of precipitous impossibilities from which any climber would turn away in despair. To the north and to the south the same great barriers arise. Looking along this distinct and sharp edged chain to the north and south it was hard to understand how any frontier question between the republics could come about.

“That Aconcagua was a high mountain we well knew. We had all suffered from its height, but, when near at hand, it was quite impossible to realize the vastness of its proportions. Not so from where we now stood on a pinnacle sixty miles away. I had long known it was over four thousand feet higher than any mountain within thirty miles of it, but it looked ten thousand feet higher as it reared its immense head and shoulders from amongst its brothers, like some huge rock projecting out of the waves of the sea. It stood before me without rival, even the great ridges of Juncal did not challenge it, although they were almost thirty miles nearer. Behind Aconcagua, but almost forty miles farther, and too far off for comparison, I could see the white slopes of Mercaderio.”

The guanaco and llama are animals which are peculiar to the Andean regions. The former is especially plentiful in Patagonia and the southern Andean ranges, and many of them are found in Southern Chile. To the natives it means food, garments and tents, so that it is hunted both for its meat and skin. Without the guanaco the question of existence would be a difficult one for those people to solve. The vicuña, which is found in Northern Chile and Bolivia, is of the same family but smaller and more beautiful. Its fur is very valuable and this animal is becoming scarce. The alpaca is still smaller but flocks of this animal are maintained as we herd sheep. The wool is almost as fine and soft as silk, and, after a year’s growth, becomes almost a foot long.

Of this animal family, which is closely allied to the camel, the most important is the llama. To one who has never seen the llama, except in a menagerie or “zoo,” its real usefulness is not apparent. Before the arrival of the Spaniards on the west coast this gentle animal was the only beast of burden known to the Inca races. Thousands upon thousands of these American camels were used by the natives in transportation on the plateaus and across the lofty mountains. Like the camel it can go for days without food or drink. Even to-day, with the introduction of the horse and mule, there are probably as many or more llamas in use than when Pizarro first landed on the shores of South America. It is to the Andean native what the reindeer is to the Lapp—milk and flesh for food, skin for garments, hair for cloth, sinews for thread, etc. Some are black, with pretty little white kids, while others are almost white and have black little llamas following them.

The llama is one of the proudest animals in the world. No matter where you see this aristocrat of quadrupeds he holds his head high up in the air, and looks out upon the earth as though he owned it. Unlike the camel the llama never sulks, although sometimes stubborn. I have seen camels grunt and groan as the loads were placed on their backs. They will sometimes snap viciously at whoever passes near, and at other times tears will flow down a camel’s cheeks like a baby’s, so it is said. The llama always carries his burden with a proud air, scanning the landscape as he goes, and pricking up his ears with interest at every new or strange thing. He will carry a load of just so much, about one hundred pounds. If a greater load is strapped on his back than he is accustomed to carry, the llama will neither grunt nor groan, but he calmly kneels down and will not move until the burden is lightened.

The llamas are the most common burden-bearing animals in Bolivia and on the high plateaus of Peru to-day. They will also be found in the extreme northern part of Chile on the Andean slopes. They form the great freight-carriers in that portion of the Andes, but cannot be worked successfully at a lower altitude than two thousand feet. They are never seen as near the coast as Lima, the Peruvian capital. One will see llama trains every day in La Paz, or the other towns of Bolivia, and herds of these animals feeding on the plains around Lake Titicaca are a common sight. They are principally used in the carrying of ore from the mines to the smelters or nearest railway station. These little animals, which are said to have the head of a camel, the body of a sheep and the legs of a deer, are only about four and one-half feet high and are really beautiful creatures. They are gentle when well treated, and become very fond of their masters. The Indians pet them and talk to them much as though they were human beings. They sometimes dye the wool on the backs in different colours, and tie bright-coloured ribbons through holes which they make in the llamas’ ears. The wool of the llama is much coarser than that of sheep, but one can see the Indian women spinning this wool into threads, and then weaving it into cloth in many places. It can easily be used in the coarse garments worn by these people. If offended the llama has a curious habit of spitting on the offender, which is rather disagreeable, as I know from experience. As the llama is a cud-chewing animal it seems to have this material always ready for such occasions.

The great desert of Tarapacá, which stretches along the coast of Chile for hundreds of miles, has proven to be the most valuable of its entire possessions. And yet it is as barren a desert as one could find on the surface of the globe. Darwin thus describes a part of it that he travelled over: “A complete and utter desert. The road was strewn with the bones and dried skins of the many beasts of burden which had perished on it from fatigue. Excepting the vulture which preys on the carcasses, I saw neither bird, quadruped, reptile, nor insect. On the coast mountains at the height of about two thousand feet, where during the season the clouds generally hang, a very few cacti were growing in the clefts of the rock, and the loose sand was strewn over with a lichen which grows quite unattached. In some parts it was of sufficient quantity to tinge the sand, as seen from a distance, of a pale yellowish colour.” It is this dry climate that has made possible the existence of the great nitrate deposits along this coast. Rainfall, even in moderate quantities, would dissolve the nitrate. These deposits lie as a rule just within the coast range of mountains.

Many theories have been advanced as to the cause of this chemical composition. The most ingenious one, perhaps, is that nitric acid is formed by a flash of lightning passing through a moist atmosphere, and electrical storms are very common in the Cordilleras. The other is that this coast was originally submerged in the ocean, and was gradually upheaved. This would leave a line of lagoons and marshes, in which seaweed and other plants flourished. As the lagoons successively dried up, the plants would be decomposed and nitric acid and iodine formed. This, united in combination with the gypsum-yielding soda found there, formed nitrate of soda. At any rate, Nature, by some mysterious process, has formed a chemical combination which has been of inestimable value to the world in general.

This desert coast is not all productive of nitrate. Some sections are valueless, and some produce other chemical products. One can take a narrow-gauge train at Antofagasta and travel inland for hundreds of miles across the Andes and into the plateaus of Bolivia, and the entire distance is almost as void of green as the great Sahara Desert. Occasionally there is a scrubby tree which looks forlorn in its loneliness. There are salt plains which reach to the hills on either side. In one place there is a great salt field that is estimated to cover more than eighty thousand acres. This produces almost pure chloride of sodium in crystallized form. The thickness of the salt layer is not known, but some wells are as much as eighty feet deep and the bottom of the deposit has not been reached. It is a good quality of salt. There are borax lakes along the route, where enough borax can be secured to supply the entire world. But it is from the beds of nitrate of soda that the greatest wealth of this region is secured. To it is due the prosperity of all the ports from Pisagua to Taltal.

This chemical product, which we call Chilean saltpetre, and which is locally known as salitre, is found over hundreds of square miles of territory. The only visible boundaries between the different owners are marked by white posts at the corners of the different properties. With this exception there are no marks whatever on the landscape, and no signs of life except the factories, known as oficinas, the numerous homes of the employees made of corrugated iron, and the workmen who are engaged in blasting and hauling away this mineral. The nitrate beds follow the coast line at a distance of from fifteen to a hundred miles from the sea, generally at an elevation of from four thousand to five thousand feet, and in deposits which vary from one to four miles in width. They reach from near Antofagasta to a point some distance north of Iquique. In some places the deposits play out, but they reappear again a little farther on. The fields that have been exploited look as though they had been ploughed over by gigantic ploughs, for immense clods are scattered here and there wherever the work has been carried on. On either side of this strip there is simply a mass of sand and rock, which extends from the sea to the topmost peaks of the Andes. There is, however, a wonderful colouring on the slopes of the mountains, and one will see many tints of violet, green, lemon and gray within the horizon.

Nitrate of soda is seldom found pure, and the nitrate rock, called caliche, will vary from ten to sixty per cent. of the pure mineral. In some fields it is found on the top of the soil, and in others it is as much as forty feet beneath the surface, with the strata of salt rock on the top of it. It varies considerably in composition. Holes are dug or drilled down through the caliche until a bed of gravelly material is reached, into which charges of dynamite or blasting powder are placed, and the nitrate rock is thus loosened up. When first exposed the nitrate is sometimes as soft as cheese, but it hardens on contact with the air. The lumps thus broken are then dug out with picks or crowbars and hauled in mule-carts to the oficinas.

There are many of these mills throughout the nitrate fields, and they are busy places. The lumps are first crushed, and are then lifted by elevators and placed in huge tanks filled with sea water. These tanks are encircled by coils of steam pipes, which heat the water that is poured in with the rock to any desired temperature. Nitrate is soluble in water, and this purifying process rests upon the fact of its greater solubility in water heated to the boiling point, than the other salts with which it is associated. When the water has become supersaturated in the boiling tanks, the nitrate of soda in solution is drawn into shallow vats which are exposed to the air. At this state it looks like pale maple molasses. As it cools, the nitrate of soda crystallizes in the vats, together with a little common salt and a small amount of other impurities, and the sides become covered with white sparkling crystals like alabaster. These crystals are then shovelled upon drying boards and exposed to the sun for a time, after which they are graded and put into bags weighing a little over a hundred pounds each. This product, which is ninety-six per cent. chemically pure nitrate of soda, is then transported to the seacoast, from whence it is shipped to Europe or the United States, the latter country receiving about one-fifth of the whole.

Another product of these nitrate beds is iodine, which remains in the liquid after the removal of the nitrate. This liquid is poured into smaller pans, and is chemically treated until the iodine is precipitated in the form of a black powder. This is then heated in a retort which changes it to a vapour, and it is again condensed into beautiful violet crystals. The iodine is packed in small casks which are shipped with bullion and other valuables, for each cask is worth several hundred dollars. As the consumption of iodine is not very large the oficinas refine only a part of the iodine in order to keep up the price.

More than two million tons of nitrate of soda were shipped from Chile last year, which is the greatest amount that has ever been produced. It has been found especially valuable for increasing the growth of the sugar beets in Europe, as it seems to provide the soil with the essential elements for their growth. The consumption in the United States is increasing rapidly, and it is looked upon as the best fertilizer provided by nature. According to horticultural authorities it has been found especially efficacious in stimulating the growth of vegetables, such as cabbages, onions, carrots, beets, etc., and for field crops of many kinds. It is said that even the Incas of Peru were acquainted with its value as a fertilizer. It is also extensively used in the manufacture of gunpowders and other high explosives, which in itself makes a considerable demand.

The discovery of the value of nitrate as a fertilizer was by accident. A poor Scotchman, who lived near where Iquique now stands, had a small garden which he cultivated with great care. One day he noticed that a part of his garden, which had been banked up with soil containing this mysterious white substance, flourished much more than the rest. This led to experiments and some of this soil was sent back to Scotland. The success of the experiments that followed gradually led to the development of the present industry, but the discoverer died as poor as he was born. The first nitrate works were established at Noria in 1826. It was not until after the war between Chile and Peru that the industry reached great proportions. Then an Englishman by the name of North began its development and soon afterwards became known as the “nitrate king.” Other nitrate princes rose, and thrived like the bonanza mining kings of Mexico and Peru in their best days. Englishmen became peers of that country through the influence of colossal fortunes paved with saltpetre. In its raw state the nitrate contains some properties injurious to plant life, but these are removed. As this process requires the latest modern machinery to do the work economically, the business has drifted into the hands of big combinations of capital.

As the government of Chile exacts an export tax on every sack of nitrate of soda exported, the revenue from this source is enormous and pays more than two-thirds of the expenses of that extravagant government. Chile owns practically all the nitrate of soda in the world. Small quantities have been found elsewhere, but in this region are the only deposits that can be operated at a profit. Most of the nitrate fields at one time belonged to Peru, but Chile appropriated them as indemnity, after a disastrous war was waged between the two countries in 1880, in which Chile was victorious. You can not meet a Peruvian anywhere to-day who does not swear vengeance against Chile, for thus robbing his country of her greatest source of wealth.

LOADING NITRATE.

English capital has developed this great industry in Chile, and no less than one hundred million dollars in British sovereigns have been invested in these dreary wastes. Almost one hundred million dollars’ worth of this salitre has been exported in a single year. The ports are at all times filled with vessels which have brought coal and merchandise, and are awaiting a load of nitrate. It is seldom that the Stars and Stripes are seen floating from a masthead, but it is a welcome sight to an American. The profits for a few years were so great that an overdevelopment followed, and the price greatly dropped. Then a trust agreement was, arrived at limiting the output, but even that was not a success and the production is again unlimited. The population of the nitrate district is a cosmopolitan one, and represents almost every nation on the face of the earth. It gives employment to many thousands of persons. A homesick and stranded American is not an uncommon sight.

It is estimated that at the present rate of mining the known fields of nitrate of soda in Chile will be exhausted in fifty years, or less. The official board of engineers has recently reported to the Chilean government that there are in sight four and a half million quintals (220.4 lbs.) of nitrate in the deposits of the country. A previous estimate had fixed the visible quantity at less than half that amount. It is doubtful whether either of those estimates is very reliable. At any rate the government and owners of the oficinas are pushing the sales in every way, and exploiting the use and value of nitrate as though it was inexhaustible. It is possible that similar deposits may be found on the Sahara Desert, or some of our own desert lands where similar climatic and atmospheric conditions exist. The value of nitrate lands in Chile has risen rapidly in recent years, and nearly all the undeveloped fields are now owned by the Chilean government, which auctions them off as the need for money arises.

The nitrate industry has very naturally overshadowed all other mining enterprises in Chile, and especially in the northern section. And yet there are many more mining industries even in that part of the republic. The Spaniards cared for nothing but gold and silver and set thousands of Indians at work in the mines at Tucapel, Valdivia, and Quillota. The Malga Malga mines, near the latter town, and the Madre de Dios (mother of God) mines, near Mariguina, were the best producers of the yellow metal. The district around Taltal also produced gold and silver. By the primitive processes of the Spaniards only a portion of the ore was extracted. The refuse has since been refined, and even houses have been torn down that had been constructed of the by-products of the old amalgamation process. Some of this refuse contained as much as sixty ounces of pure silver to the ton. The total production of silver and gold to-day is not great when compared with the other gold-producing nations. Among the best mines now being worked are the Caracoles silver mines, which are inland from Antofagasta a little over one hundred miles, and the Inca Caracoles mines, which are fifty miles further inland. The total output of these mines during the years they have been worked reaches big figures, but the balmiest days have passed. Some of the workings have reached a depth of twenty-five hundred feet. The ores are generally chlorides or iodides, with mixtures of sulphides, but pockets of almost pure silver are occasionally found.

Copper production is next in value after nitrate. There are smelting plants at Caldera, Cerro Blanco, Jarilla, Antofagasta, and other places. Central Chile is the copper country, although Lota is one of the greatest producers. The surface oftentimes shows the green outcroppings of the copper deposits. The superior attraction of the nitrate fields has at times caused a scarcity of labour there so that the development has been greatly hampered. Nevertheless the copper industry has been a fairly profitable and steady one. The annual output ranges from thirty-five thousand to forty thousand tons, but it is doubtless capable of considerable further development, with the aid of more modern methods and the installation of the latest machinery.

Iron ore has been found in only small quantities. Chile has the best coal mines in South America, which, in 1909, produced a little less than a million tons, not quite half of the consumption. Coal was first discovered at Lota more than a century ago, but the deposits were not worked until a half-century later. The only mines now being worked are in the provinces of Concepción and Arauco. As small veins have been found at Punta Arenas, it may be that the seams of coal run all the way between those points. It is rather an inferior quality of bituminous coal. More than a million tons are imported yearly, of which a little more than one-half comes from England and the balance from Australia. The shipping rate is very low as the boats come after cargoes of nitrate and will carry coal at a very cheap rate rather than be obliged to make the long outward journey in ballast.

The people of Chile are descendants of Spaniards and native races. About one-third of the entire population are pure white. The Spaniards who came here were Basques and Aragonese—a hardy and industrious people who made thrifty farmers and merchants. They are among the best class of Spaniards, for they are much more energetic and have less of the Moorish admixture than those from Southern Spain. These people were not a mere army of occupation, but they set about developing the real resources of the country. The native element too were probably the hardiest of any of the native races of South America. Notwithstanding the difference in numbers, the Creoles, the name given to the descendants of Spanish immigrants, rule the country absolutely and own the most of the property. In few countries have the landed aristocracy exercised such absolute power as in this narrow and elongated republic. The half-breeds form the labouring class of Chile, and one will find those two classes all over the republic, with the lines between the two strongly marked. There is no clearly defined, well-developed middle class.

The Chileans delight to call themselves the “English of the Pacific,” or the “Yankees of South America.” In neither case is the comparison a perfect one, although they are probably the hardest working race on that continent. The Chileno is very proud of the progress that his country has made, and this pride sometimes carries him to peculiar extremes. It at least causes the average Chileno to become more or less of a braggart. He is inclined to take all the credit for this advancement to himself, when, in fact, much of it has been due to the English and German elements in the country. His ideals of life, however, are not German or English, but rather French, with its love of polished surface and general dislike for disagreeable truths. Peru has retained more of the old culture and grace of the Spanish cavalier than Chile, but the latter is far more robust. The climate of Chile is remarkably healthful, and it has produced a vigorous race. This is a general truth, whether applied to the race amalgamated with the virile Araucanian of the south, or to the mixture with the more delicate and refined descendant of the Inca at the north. The ordinary roto is tough and wiry, and capable of prolonged fatigue on the poorest and simplest of food.

The creoles have inherited all the traditions of the original conquistadores—love, sentiment and passion, and the habit of intrigue. It is not uncommon to see in a family the natural children of one or the other parent, generally of the father, living side by side with the legitimate children. The percentage of illegitimacy is very large, as shown by the government statistics, for they do not attempt to cover up this flagrant fault. The café and club life of the cities appeals to the Chileans, and they have acquired a love of alcoholic stimulants. The light wines, with which most of the people of Spanish blood are content, do not satisfy, but they must have the stronger alcoholic beverages. As a result there is much drunkenness in Chile, more than in the neighbouring republics. It is an unfortunate fact, but true, as all who have made a study of the subject agree. The first establishment in a new community is generally a factory for the production of aguardiente, brandy made from sugar cane, wheat or some vegetable. Some of it is as bad and ruinous to the health as it is cheap.

Chile has perhaps suffered in recent years from too great prosperity. Like the child born with a silver spoon in its mouth, this country found itself with seemingly inexhaustible treasure within its borders. Its training under the autocracy of Spain was not a good education in representative and democratic government. Then came the wealth of the nitrate fields, after a successful war with Peru. The government coffers were filled to overflowing with practically no effort on the part of the government, and little tax contributed by the average citizens. As a result, the habit of office holding and the desire for sinecures have been a bad thing for the country. The enormous revenue has been used up, and there is little to show for much of it. In public offices the officials are oftentimes almost tumbling over each other, and everything is checked and counter checked over and over again. Positions are created and no equipment for carrying out the work provided. So long as the government does not complain the appointee does not, and many salaries of that kind are paid year after year for services unrendered. I verily believe that the official work of the government could be carried on with less than one-half the force employed. But the members of Congress have friends, or sons of friends, who must be provided for, and the government revenues are thus subject to a constant drain.

Politics is the most genteel occupation in Chile to-day, for the army, navy and church, formerly so popular with the Spaniards, no longer appeal to the Chileno of good and influential family. A government appointment means easy or no work, fair pay, and less danger than martial occupations, where the call to arms might come at any time. It is not because of lack of courage, for no braver or more courageous people can be found in South America than these same Chileans, who sit in the cafés and drink their spirits or puff tobacco wrapped in thin paper. With the Chilean a valiant spirit covers a multitude of sins. His greatest boast is the courage of his race. He is willing to make almost any kind of a personal sacrifice for his country, if the occasion demands, but to pay taxes is a hardship.

The Chileans resemble very much the Irish in some of their characteristics. One of these is their love of fighting, and the Chileans have made about the best soldiers of any of the South American people. They have an intense spirit and patriotism, which has shown itself in their wars and revolutions. In addition to the Spanish blood a large percentage have more or less of the blood of the Araucanian Indians, who were the most stubborn race to conquer of any that the Spaniards encountered in South America. As soldiers the Chileans have no sense of mercy, and this characteristic has shown itself in all of their wars. They are impetuous, impulsive, passionate and generous, but have very little self-control. Many of them fight simply for the love of fighting, just as do many of the Irish, who seem to scrap simply for the sake of scrapping.

The Chileno as a rule has a fiery temper. He loves a fight. It is not a fist fight that he will indulge in, but it must be a fight with revolvers, or, better yet, with knives. The knife is an indispensable equipment with the roto. It used to be said that as many lives were lost in a Chilean fair as in a decent battle. It is a sad fact that murders are extremely frequent, and scarcely a day passes in Santiago or Valparaiso without some fatal affray. Aguardiente may be placed at the bottom of most of these, just as rum is the primary cause of most of the murders in the United States. It inflames the naturally hot temper of the race and brings out all the passions of envy, hatred and jealousy. The death penalty is seldom inflicted, although sentence is frequently imposed. The prisoners are kept in confinement, and their sentence commuted from time to time. If the convicted one belongs to a family of prominence, he will eventually be released; if of poorer origin, he may be sent to some remote section of the country and set to work. Among the rotos there is a general contempt for death, which also adds to the prevalence of murders, and sometimes of brigandage in the mountains. A little judicious weeding out of some of these criminals would not be a bad thing for the country.

The rotos constitute the masses in Chile. In the country the roto is a peon or inquilino,—an agriculturalist; in the city he is a longshoreman—a roustabout. In all of them there is a race admixture with the white race. Of the native races this mixture is not all Araucanian, for there are at least ten distinct aboriginal tribes. This roto is not always an agreeable companion, for he is not generally so cleanly as he might be. But he is not a hopeless element in society. His vices are generally the result of a lack of restraining power of the passions. His virtues are independence and industry. He is a prejudiced individual, and persists in his prejudices. He is intensely patriotic, and has fought the battles of his country—and always in the ranks. Neither in the army nor in the navy has he been permitted to rise above this position.

Peonage is the common form of labour on the large landed estates, although it is somewhat more favourable to the labourer than in Mexico or Peru. The labourer, or peon, is rented a small tract of land, including a little hut, and is allowed to grow his own vegetables. He may also be allowed to pasture a few animals. In return, he must work, or provide labour, for the hacendado as required. For this he is paid a certain small wage. The landlord allows him credit for supplies at the store, which is invariably a part of the establishment, at prices which mean a good profit. As long as he is indebted to the owner, the peon must stay on the place. If he is even in his account, he is at liberty to depart wherever the notion takes him.

The proprietor is a magistrate, and has power to put a man in irons if he deems it necessary. As a rule the peons do not change employers often, and it is seldom that one is compelled to leave. They are not ambitious, and a living, permission to celebrate holidays, and, perhaps, get drunk occasionally, constitutes their idea of happiness. So long as these conditions exist the peon does not seek anything better, for, to his mind, such a condition is ideal in itself. He has,

The landlord, on his part, is satisfied, for he has labour at hand at a small cost, just as his fathers had before him. It is true that it takes more labourers of this kind to accomplish a given amount of work, but the total cost is still comparatively small.

The rotos in the city are not attractive individuals. Their appearance is often hard and repellent, and the stranger is almost inclined to fear them. They are restless, too, and serious labour disturbances have occurred in the cities, for trade unionism has entered the social fabric there. A few years ago a wild mob resulted from a strike against the steamship companies, and it took to destroying property after the most approved fashion. The offices of the Chilean companies were burned, but foreign property was not disturbed, although the grievance was the same. Santiago has also had a grievous experience with strikes. This was due to a tax upon cattle imported from Argentina, which resulted in an advance in meat prices. Rioting and the destruction of property were again the forms it took.

These instances show that a social question has been developed in Chile as well as other countries. How much is due to socialistic propaganda, it is difficult to estimate. It is probably only a protest against the condition in which this class finds itself. The roto holds a grievance against the Church, also, because that organization possesses immense wealth and pays no taxes. He feels that he does the real work, but is always kept in an inferior station, a ball to be kicked and rolled around at the will of the governing and military classes. It is no doubt true that the roto has many legitimate grievances, and the government will eventually be compelled to recognize them. Thousands of rotos have emigrated across the Andes to Argentina, being drawn there by the higher wages that can be secured. Whether the movement will become greater or not, the future alone will reveal.

The rotos of Chile work hard when they work, but they are generally improvident and do not think of saving money. The only occasion which leads the average roto to save any money is the prospect of a holiday ahead, for which he will sometimes save a little surplus, in order that he may have sufficient funds to celebrate the occasion in the way he thinks it should be celebrated,—and that is by carousing. His idea is that he must imbibe plenty of liquor in order to get the proper effect. This is not universally true, for the savings banks of the country show that thousands of those in the unskilled occupations have at least small bank accounts. As wages are comparatively small, this indicates considerable thrift.

Drinking in Chile has become a curse. Monday is said by employers of labour to be a very unsatisfactory day, because so many of their employees have not yet recovered from the dissipation of the previous day. This is likewise true after some national holiday, such as the 18th of September, for which occasion five days are set aside, as this is the Chilean 4th of July. The better element of the Chileans have long realized that the drunkenness incident to these celebrations is a serious menace to the country, for, on the day following, the hospitals are oftentimes filled with wounded. There are always several deaths by violence, because every Chilean peon does not consider himself properly dressed until he has a knife placed in his belt where it can be easily reached.

To correct the errors resulting from this excessive drinking, a society has been formed in Chile, which has become quite prominent, and is called La Liga Contra el Alcoholismo, which, literally translated, means an organization against excessive alcoholism. It is not, as one might think, a prohibition or total abstinence society, for such an organization would be very unpopular among all classes of Chileans. Its object is to restrain as much as possible, both by legislation and persuasion, the appetite for liquor, and cultivate habits of moderation in its indulgence. The courts have been asked to impose certain restriction upon the sale of liquors, and employers of labour have been asked to change the method of paying their help.

“The women of Chile are as pious as the men are proud,” says a writer. Nowhere will one find women more conscientious in the performance of their religious duties. The morning mass is always crowded with women and children in attendance upon these ceremonies. One is impressed by the piety of the Chilenas when he sees the penitentas—as women who are doing penance for some sin are called. Skirts of white flannel are worn with the manta by these women. They will be seen hovering around the churches, where they will sometimes rest on their knees for hours before the altar of some saint. They may be clustered around the confessional awaiting absolution from the confessor. Some of these women have committed sin, while others are simply carrying out a vow, in order to perfect themselves and thus get nearer to heaven. They will go about the street with downcast eyes and recognize no one—not even a friend. Among these penitentas one will find women of high social rank, as well as young girls of wonderful beauty. Those who feel that this more simple method will not atone for their sin, or raise them to a state of absolute perfection, retire to a convent in the suburbs of the city, called the Convent of the Penitentes. There they dress in sackcloth, feed on mouldy bread, and scourge themselves with whips. These scenes are more common during Lent, or at the end of the social season. It is said, however, that the number of women doing penance is becoming less each year. It is also a fact that one never sees a man humiliating himself and proclaiming his wrong-doing in this public way.

The women of Chile, the Chilenas, are of medium height and well formed. The real slender type is the exception, and the average maiden is well-rounded and plump. As the women grow older they run to adipose tissue, and many of the matrons are decidedly fat. They look healthy, and a vigorous body carries with it a corresponding appetite, and this, together with little exercise, is responsible for the later development. The type is quite uniform. Black hair, and dark, lustrous eyes are almost universal. Dress is as much sought after by the Chileans as in any part of the world. Paris creations are in demand by those who can afford them, and the others purchase the best gowns that their means will permit.

Etiquette is very carefully observed by the Chileans. There is an etiquette for a man toward a woman, and one for a person of a lower rank toward one better born. And all are scrupulously observed. A man must always speak to a woman first. A girl of the better families could not appear on the street alone without her mother, aunt or servant with her. A little nurse girl, though of no earthly use, is a sufficient compliance with the requirement of etiquette. Her best young man, instead of being a protection, would be an occasion for the severest tongue-wagging. These things are the inherited restraints upon the liberty of women which have come down from a thousand years of custom.

A young man and young woman have little opportunity to become acquainted before marriage. In many instances the young people have very little to say about the matter, supposed to be one of hearts, and are scarcely consulted. About the only way he can learn anything about the disposition of his intended is for a young man to bribe the servants and thus get first-hand information. He can never see her except in the parlour, surrounded by all the family, or at dances, where she is always under the eye of her chaperon. In fact, during the whole of her maidenhood a girl is closely watched, and is seldom permitted to be out of sight of her mother’s vigilant eye. The girl naturally thinks that these restrictions are unnecessary, but mamma thinks that they are essential, father approves, and so the custom remains. The lover bears the name of novio, and his sweetheart is novia. Neither dare pay any attention to another, and for a novio to dance with any other girl than his novia would be a direct offence, and probably cause a breaking of the engagement.

Every girl looks forward to marriage as her sole career. The independence of the American girl has not influenced her, and the suffragette agitation has not reached Chile. Marriage is the beginning of freedom for a woman, for up to that time she is practically kept in a cage, or is tied by a string to some guardian. When the priest performs the wedding ceremony, however, the shackles are broken. Nevertheless they make good wives, for their tastes are domestic; and they make good mothers, to whom children are welcome, and the more of them the better they are satisfied. Musical clubs, literary clubs and missionary societies do not exist to interfere with domestic duties. A houseful of servants are usually kept to do the work, for each servant will only do the particular duties for which he or she was hired. The groom often takes his bride to his father’s house, and one will frequently find several families living under the same roof in seeming peace and harmony.

A GROUP OF CHILEAN GIRLS.

The colonies of Chile, such as Valdivia, Osorno and others around Lake Llanquihue, are principally made up of Germans and Dutch. Most of these were poor and ignorant when they came to their new homes, and some have remained so. They have built up several prosperous communities, however, and there they will be found, a quiet, peaceable and an intelligent population. This frontier had quite a boom at one time, and thousands were attracted here by the seductive literature sent out by the wily agents stationed in Europe. Town after town sprang up. Men who had never done a day’s work on a farm and ne’er-do-wells came over. Few of them had any money. For several years there was much hardship. The government was not always prompt in carrying out its pledges, for the officials could not see why “to-morrow” would not do just as well. Some finally returned, and others drifted into the larger cities. But many were very successful and now have good farms to show as a reward for their industry. After the war with Peru many of the disbanded soldiers were granted tracts of land here. Considerable lawlessness followed, as they robbed the unresisting Germans of their cattle and other animals. The outlaws being in league with the officials, no redress could be secured, and the colonists complained with good reason. These conditions have ended. The Teutons have generally remained apart from the Chileans, and the percentage of intermarriage has been small. Some have not even mastered the Spanish tongue, and few take any part in the government. These two races may become amalgamated eventually, and it would be a good thing for Chile to receive into its fold this sturdy Teutonic blood.

Of all the nationalities, other than Spanish, that have entered Chile, the British is the most prominent and has been the most prosperous. It is likewise the most numerous. Britons, such as the O’Higgins, Lord Cochrane and Captain Prat, have helped to fight Chile’s battles, and their financiers have advanced the money that has developed her resources. Hence it is not surprising that one will find the characteristics of that tight little island impressed upon the country, and, in many instances, upon the people. English names are quite common among prominent Chilean families, for they have become nationalized. Men who came there a generation or two ago married the daughters of Chile, and the families are essentially Chilean, although bearing English names. Many of these English-Chilenos are very prominent. One man, who had been a member of the Chilean Congress, told me that one-fourth of the members of that body, at the time of his membership, had had English fathers or grandfathers. The progress of Chile in many lines can be traced to this influence.

Valparaiso bears many British characteristics. A walk along the principal business streets will show almost as many English signs as those in Spanish. The English language will be heard on every corner. The Anglo-Saxon face is a familiar sight. In the banking and shipping quarters nearly everything is British, with a sprinkling of the Teuton. At Iquique and Antofagasta it is still more marked, for the nitrate and copper interests are almost entirely in the hands of English capital. Each year scores of young men come out from the home land and accept positions with the banks, railroads and manufacturing interests. Some of them remain permanently, and others claim only a temporary domicile. Most of them do not assimilate very readily with the Spaniard. There is both a racial and religious antagonism. This wears away after a while with many, for they are shut off from home ties and the restraints of society.

Homes in the proper sense are not open to these aliens, and their quarters are devoid of home comforts. Hence the young Englishmen seek companionship where they are sure to be welcome. Always criticising the loose morals of the Chileans, they generally do nothing to better conditions, and oftentimes end by taking a part in the dissipation. They frequent the bars and clubs and indulge in great quantities of strong liquors. Shut off by social customs from the better homes, they oftentimes unite themselves with the freer and easier strata of society. As an English writer expresses himself of his own countrymen: “We have done much to aid in developing the country along certain defined lines; but we have done little or nothing to ingratiate ourselves with the people, or to aid in raising the moral tone of those we affect to despise. The English in Chile commonly remain like a bed of cabbages in a Chilean flower-garden—self-satisfied and self-aggrandizing, usurping all the nourishment they can obtain, and neither specially ornamental nor specially interesting.” Chile has provided homes and, in many instances, fortunes for the English, and they should return more to such a hospitable mother than has been done heretofore.

The most indomitable of the native races in the New World, with the exception of the red men of North America, have been the Araucanians of Chile. They are the proudest, richest and bravest of the Indians of South America. At the time of the conquest this race occupied the greater part of Chile, and had spread across the Andes into a part of Patagonia, which country they shared with the Tehuelches, the so-called giants. For three hundred years they waged a successful warfare against the Spanish invaders, and the republic of Chile which later succeeded the Spanish province. It was not until 1884 that they were finally conquered, and submitted to the Chilean government after certain rights and privileges were guaranteed to them. So long as the Chileans attempted to conquer the Indians by brute force they failed, just as had the Spaniards before them. It was not until some tact and judgment were used that any real progress was made in the subjugation of these people.

According to the early account the Araucanians were given to agriculture, and the valleys south of the present city of Santiago teemed with an industrious and energetic race. The Incas had spread their sovereignty south of Santiago as far as the Maule River, and this probably accounted in part for the agricultural development there. Some writers claim that the Incas had enslaved the Araucanians and compelled them to do their work. At any rate the Spaniards encountered little opposition in their conquest before that river was reached. The fact is that these people were really divided into three different tribes. The tribes that lived along the coast were fishermen, those that lived on the higher lands were hunters, while those who occupied the more fertile valleys were agriculturists. It was estimated by some of the early writers that there were at that time no less than a half million of these Indians. This estimate is no doubt excessive, and half that number would be nearer the truth. They knew not the use of any metals, excepting silver, which they worked into various forms. Silver breastplates were worn by the wives of the caciques, or chiefs, which told of the number of their children, as large families were their boast. They also wore large crescent earrings and great silver suns as breastpins, with hieroglyphics upon them which told of a nature worship. Bracelets formed of a multiplicity of minute silver beads were also fashioned very attractively, and in later years silver stirrups were manufactured for the head men. Even to-day this race is noted for its silver work.

Down upon this stronghold of the Araucanians came Pedro de Valdivia, in 1550, with two hundred horsemen and some other troops. This force no doubt made an imposing appearance, as it marched along with their coats of mail, helmets, swords and spears flashing in the sunlight. The only firearms were clumsy arquebuses borne by the infantry, and fired from a wooden support by the aid of a fuse only kept alight with great difficulty. And yet the Spanish soldiers at that time were considered to be the best in the world. They continually marched in order of battle, preceded by an advanced guard and carrying their baggage in the centre. From the time he reached the river Itata his march was a continuous conflict, although he managed to get as far as the River Bio-Bio.

How two hundred men were able to make this trip through a thickly populated country can be explained by reason of the superior weapons and armour of the Spaniards, as well as the fact that they used horses. These animals at that time were unknown among the native races, and inspired them with terror just as they did the Aztecs in Mexico. The Indians had only wooden lances, arrows of the simplest manufacture, and clubs; and yet they managed to stand against the Spaniards at times until hundreds of them were slain. On one occasion the Spanish records say that Valdivia was beset with twenty thousand Indians. As fast as one body of the Indians was routed another took their place. Compact masses of the Indians at times surrounded the Spaniards. The horses were clubbed, and this together with the war-cries of the attacking force created a terrible confusion. When the Indians were finally beaten off the ground was literally covered with the dead bodies of their comrades. Every Spaniard was wounded. This battle is known as that of Andalien.

The cruelty of the Spaniards in this invasion was something terrible at times. After the battle of Penco, where, according to the chroniclers, forty thousand Indians attacked the invaders, Valdivia cut off the nose and right hand of two hundred prisoners, and sent them back to terrorize their comrades in this mutilated condition. They treated the natives with absolute contempt, and endeavoured to reduce them to abject slavery. Valdivia practically had no choice in the matter. Each soldier had to be paid a grant of land, with a certain number of slaves. The soldiers were of a fierce and intractable character, and it was almost impossible to maintain any sort of discipline among them. Valdivia founded the city of Imperial, fortified it and employed the natives in washing the gold found in this district. He also established the city of Villa Rica, which means the rich village, and was so named because of the wealth and fertility of that valley, and another town that was named after himself. In fact he endeavoured to establish a string of fortified outposts throughout that entire section of the country. The Indians were parcelled out among the conquerors, Valdivia retaining for himself about forty thousand. Although at this time the Spanish population of the valley did not exceed one thousand, yet they were able after a while to force the Indians to do their work. The men were attended by a numerous retinue of servants wherever they went, and even the women wanted to be followed by a large concourse of slaves when they attended church. Rank and importance seemed to be indicated by the number of menials.

The end, however, was not long in coming. It was due to an Indian boy, named Lautaro, who had been raised in the household of Valdivia himself, that their freedom was finally obtained. He had learned to manage horses, and to use the Spaniards’ weapons. Taking some of these animals, he joined his people and stirred up a general insurrection. A public assembly of the tribes was called, and Lautaro presented a definite plan for a campaign against the enemy. When Valdivia arrived on the scene to put this revolt down he found some of the towns already in ashes. Lautaro, although only twenty-one years of age, had shown a genius for war and was in command, and had already established some discipline among his troops. Not a single Spaniard escaped in a battle, or series of skirmishes, that was fought, although thousands of the Indians fell. Contrary to the example set by the Spaniards Lautaro simply killed his prisoners by beheading them without any preliminary torture.[1] Valdivia himself was captured by the Indians. That general at once offered him two hundred sheep for his release, and promised to withdraw all of his troops from their territory. The Indian caciques, however, would not consent to this, and, at a prearranged signal, one of the Indian soldiers struck him on the head with a club and killed him. It is said that his body was afterwards eaten by the assembled caciques, in order to give them heart in the struggle against the Spaniards. This seems to have been a custom among many primitive races.

Thus was a struggle begun which lasted for three centuries. During this time the Spaniards frequently penetrated the country of the Indians, and were as many times driven back again. The number of horses owned by the Indians soon increased, and they also secured many arms from the slain Spaniards, so that by the latter part of the sixteenth century they were in a better position to fight. In 1599 they were able to muster no less than two thousand mounted troops. They had also developed herds of cattle and sheep from original stock secured from the Spaniards. Plagues broke out at different times, and these, together with the numbers lost in battle, greatly decimated the natives.

The death of Valdivia was the beginning of a heroic age for the Indians. The whole country was soon in arms, and the Spaniards were ousted from most of their settlements. Villagran, successor of Valdivia, was driven out of the valley, but soon afterwards returned with reinforcements and commenced a war of extermination. He employed bloodhounds as auxiliaries, and these animals destroyed many Indians, especially women and children. He destroyed the crops wherever possible, and this brought on starvation and plague. He rebuilt some of the forts and established others, for he was at the head of a splendidly appointed army of several thousand men who had come there from Peru.

At one time Villagran hung thirty caciques. One of the chiefs requested that he be hanged on the highest tree, in order that his countrymen might see him dying for his country. Another chief, who died a natural death, asked that his body be burned, in order that he might arise to the clouds and continue fighting the dead Spaniards who dwelt there. At the same time he asked that a successor be chosen, in order that the war might be continued against those below. In a later battle the Indians dug pitfalls for the cavalry, and, when the horses stumbled into these, they fell upon the riders and almost annihilated them. The Spanish leader cut off the feet of many prisoners in order to terrify their compatriots. Nevertheless, in spite of these cruelties and some successes on the part of the invaders, the Indians were victorious, so that the Spaniards were again obliged to withdraw. A severe earthquake, which occurred at this time, also destroyed some of the town, as the shocks continued for several months.

In 1599 seven Spanish cities were destroyed by the Indians. The city of Imperial was besieged for sixteen months, during which time the greatest heroism was shown by both besieged and besiegers. The Indians ingeniously diverted the river that supplied the town with water. It finally succumbed and was destroyed. Another Spanish city held out against the Indians for three years, until practically all those within the fortifications were slain, starved to death or captured when seeking food. In one year there were no less than twenty-four murderous Indian raids. Thus after a conquest of half a century no permanent results could be seen. The Indians had learned much from their oppressors and were better fighters. They, as well as the Spaniards, had captured many prisoners, and the Spanish women had been taken over as wives by the caciques. As a result of this prolonged conflict the Spanish government established the river Bio-Bio as the frontier line, which in itself was quite a victory for the Indians.

In 1641 the independence of Araucania was acknowledged. A few years later, however, the treaty was broken by the Spaniards in their slave-hunting expeditions. Another war of conquest was also begun. The events of the preceding century were repeated in a number of instances, until 1703, when the King of Spain ordered the raids into the Indian country to cease. For a half century or more there was comparative peace, although the Spaniards conducted some desultory raids against the natives.

During the war of independence some of these natives fought on the side of Spain, and others were found on the side of the revolutionists. As soon as independence was secured, however, the authorities began to use the same methods towards these people that the Spaniards had, and thus alienated whatever good will might have been felt by them. Several more or less severe combats followed which really made it a local civil war. It was not until Colonel Saavedra adapted a more conciliatory policy that bloodshed ceased. The heroic age of the Araucanians had probably passed away, and the later wars were not so fierce as those of former years, for the vices of the Spaniards, especially a liking for brandy, had fastened themselves upon many of them. Since 1884, the date of the final agreement with the Araucanians, they have become more widely scattered, but those who live in the southern provinces still follow the old habits and customs of the early centuries. The people north of the Bio-Bio River also had much Indian blood in their veins by this time, and it is unquestionably true that the Chilean soldiers of to-day, who are considered brave, owe very much of this valour to the Araucanians with whom they have become intermixed.

OX CARTS.

Many Araucanians may be seen in Temuco, Osorno, Puerto Montt and other southern towns. They come there to trade. Some are on horseback, both men and women riding astride, others come in clumsy ox-carts with their wheat, corn or other produce. The women wear bright-coloured blankets, which are so fastened at the shoulders that the arms are left bare. The skirts are belted at the waist and fall about half way between the knee and ankle, and they are generally barefooted as well as bareheaded. Those who can afford it wear immense silver earrings and breast plates, and fasten their garments with silver buckles. The men also wear blankets and a poncho, which is a blanket with a hole in the centre through which the head is thrust. Few wear hats, but a red handkerchief or a band around the head answers for a head covering. Both sexes are fond of bright colours.

This race bears a very strong resemblance to the North American Indians. They are somewhat lighter in colour, but they have the same high cheek-bones and straight black hair, with little or no beard. Polygamy is common among them, and it is no rare thing to find two or even three women in the home of an Araucanian. They seem to get along fairly well together, and each woman looks after her own brood of children. Between them they look after the master of the house and assist him with his crops. The houses are generally very simple structures, with low thatched roofs, and one big door which can be closed up with skins. The floor is usually the earth beaten down hard and covered with sheep skins. The cooking and other household utensils are of the very crudest and simplest design. Some of the Araucanians are very good farmers, and have even progressed to the point where they have adopted American ploughs and reapers. Many work on the haciendas of the rich Chileans, and they are said to make very good hands. The government allotted lands to these people with a condition that it can not be sold, which was a very wise provision. When an Araucanian acquires a liking for alcohol he would trade his land, silver jewelry, his wife or anything else of value in order to indulge his appetite for drink. When sober they are very clever traders, and usually manage to secure full value for their goods.

The Araucanians have never adopted the religion of the Spaniards as did the Aztecs and Incas. It is true that there are some churches among them, but the impress has not been very great. They still believe in their old superstitions. The men purchase their wives and then go through the farce of stealing them. The “medicine man,” who is oftentimes a woman, is supposed to be able to ward off evil spirits and troubles of all kinds. With these people the evil spirits are believed to be at the bottom of sickness, bad crops and all other woes. They believe in a great father who watches over them, and in a happy hunting ground somewhere in the beyond to which all those departed go.

One of the interesting characters met with along the Pacific coast of South America is the calaguayas, or the Indian doctor. One will find him everywhere, from Panama to the Araucanian country, carrying with him a pack filled with dried herbs, cheap jewelry, handkerchiefs, ribbons, mirrors and other notions, which he sells to the people. He may be met with on the trains, the coast steamers or any other place, and generally carries with him nothing but the suit he wears and a bright-coloured poncho, which is thrown over his shoulders for additional warmth. He may be seen sunning himself in the plaza of a town or tramping over mountain trails. This man is both a trader and tinker, and his sources of livelihood are many indeed. He can mend a clock, a tin pan, or a broken piece of crockery. He can tell fortunes, interpret signs and omens, or prepare love philters. He is a magician, and can do all sorts of sleight-of-hand tricks. He is a conjurer; he helps people who have been bewitched, and altogether has a reputation for superior wisdom, which he applies on all possible occasions.

The chief business, however, of this unique character is that of healing the sick, whether man or beast, for he is equally successful as a veterinary surgeon, or as a physician for the human race; and it is really remarkable, as many white people testify, the knowledge he has of certain climatic ills to which the people there are subject, and of herbs which will relieve them. They claim to have herbs that will cure everything to which humanity is subject. It is a fact that there is no section of the globe to-day where so many modern drugs come from as the northern half of South America, and it is quite probable that these primitive doctors first discovered the medicinal value of many plants that are now common pharmaceutical terms. Many stories are told among miners and others, who have been obliged to live in the interior, where regular physicians were not obtainable, of climatic fevers and other illnesses which have been cured by these doctors.

“I have herbs that will cure everything,” said the calaguayas to a doctor who doubted his skill. As a proof he handed a leaf to the doubter and asked him to smell it. As the man did so his nose began to bleed, and he was unable to stop it. After a time the calaguayas handed him another leaf, and told him to smell that. The hemorrhage immediately stopped.

The botanical knowledge which they possess, for their medicines are all herbs, has been handed down from generation to generation, from the time of the ancient Incas. In fact their origin is supposed to date from that ancient race, when the medical men had an official position at court and in the cities. As it was a fixed law of the Incas that the son should follow his father’s occupation, the knowledge of the father in the use of herbs was passed by him to his son. The natives have much faith in the skill of these doctors, so much so that if one of them pronounces a man incurable, further effort to relieve the afflicted person is generally abandoned. In fact with some of the tribes the sick are then exposed, in order to hasten their death, so it is said.

There is also said to be a sort of free-masonry among these doctors for mutual protection, and they have built huts on some of the lonesome trails, where the wandering medical man can seek shelter and make himself as comfortable as possible. In these rude shelters the calaguayas is able to take shelter for himself, if overtaken by storm, for he always carries in his pack a little jerked beef, parched corn, beans, and some cocoa leaves, the chewing of which relieves hunger to some extent and gives strength for prolonged exertion. In these wild haunts they also collect in secret their healing herbs, for they will never allow any one to accompany them on such expeditions. It is impossible to get one of them to tell of what his herbs consist, as they preserve the greatest secrecy concerning all of them.

The coming of the calaguayas is usually very welcome to the communities that he visits, because he knows everybody; and travelling from one village to another he carries news and personal messages, frequently, between friends. He thus makes himself a travelling post-office as well as a peripatetic newsmonger.

Modern Chile owes little to the mother country for its educational system. With the exception of the establishment of a university at Santiago, and one or two minor institutions, Spain almost entirely neglected education in this province. The wealthy classes sent their children to Europe for their education, and the poorer classes were given a little instruction by the church. The Indians and peons were taught the catechism and church doctrines in a desultory way. With that all attempt at general intellectual development was ended. It is little wonder that only a small proportion of the population were able to either read or write, when the Spanish yoke was thrown off, or that even to-day, when Chile has celebrated the centennial of her declaration of independence, her educational system will not compare favourably with those found in the Anglo-Saxon and Teutonic nations of the world.

Education in Chile is absolutely free, though not compulsory. Within the last few years the Chilean government has given considerable attention to public instruction, and has been greatly extending the school system all over the country. According to government reports there were, in 1907, twenty-two hundred and fifteen elementary schools, with forty-seven hundred and twenty-nine teachers, and an attendance of one hundred and seventy thousand eight hundred and twenty-seven pupils. This is only a small percentage of those of school age, according to standards in the United States. Besides these public schools there were more than one hundred private schools for elementary instruction, which were subsidized by the government.

The school system is divided into primary, elementary, secondary and the higher education. The secondary education, which corresponds to our high school, is provided in the National Institute at Santiago, and at lyceums located in various parts of the republic. One of these lyceums is maintained in every province in the republic, no matter how small, and in every city or town of any importance. In the same year, above cited, thirty-nine of these institutions were for men and thirty for women, having a total attendance of almost twelve thousand. For the higher education there is a national university at Santiago, which is an old and well-equipped institution, and fifteen normal schools located in various parts of the republic. For technical instruction there are a number of institutions located in different parts of the republic, which are conducted by various societies.

THE ESCUELA NAVAL, VALPARAISO.

For instruction in agriculture schools are maintained by the government at Concepción, Santiago, Talca, San Fernando, Elqui and Salamanca. These schools are all under the supervision of the National Society of Agriculture, and the government contributes liberally toward their maintenance. There is also a school conducted at Chillan for practical agricultural instruction. A number of model farms are maintained by the government, of which the principal one is the Quinta Normal in the capital, and a number of experimental institutions for the cultivation of vines, trees, etc., are also supported by the national government. The agricultural schools, as well as those for the furtherance of industries and mining, hold expositions from time to time, in which, the products of the soil and factories are exhibited, as well as the latest processes and appliances. To these exhibitions the government contributes liberally, in order to acquaint the public with the latest scientific development. The societies themselves are formed by a large number of prominent Chileans, who devote considerable time and energy to the development and improvement of these industries.

Commercial schools have been established at Iquique, Antofagasta, Valparaiso, Santiago, Concepción, Vallenar, Coquimbo, Talca and San Carlos. A number of industrial schools are conducted under the direction of the society for the improvement of industries, where technical instruction is given to those preparing them for such occupations as engineers, electricians, architects, plumbers, masons, etc. At Copiapó, Santiago and La Serena, the government has established schools for the practical instruction of mining engineers and mining in general.

Military and naval education is given in ten different academies, located in different parts of the republic. One of the best of these is the Escuela Naval at Valparaiso, which is situated on a commanding location overlooking the lower town and bay. As the navy of Chile commands great consideration this branch of the educational system receives considerable attention, and the cadets are put through a very thorough course of instruction by able instructors. The University of Santiago, as well as a university under the supervision of the Catholic Church, gives instruction in law, political science, music, dentistry, civil engineering, physics and mathematics. Then, in addition, there is a National Conservatory of Music, a School of Fine Arts, a National Observatory, an Institute for the Deaf and Dumb, and a School for the Blind.

A number of public libraries have been established in various cities, at the head of which is the National Library at Santiago, which contains a valuable collection of books and manuscripts. Next to this in importance is the public library at Valparaiso. Several other cities have followed the lead of these two and established free public libraries. Museums of natural history and also of arts are maintained in Santiago.

The newspaper in Chile is as much of an institution as it is in the United States. In the cities of Valparaiso and Santiago one will find the newspapers equipped with an energetic staff of reporters, who have, what Americans would call, a good nose for news. Each one, like his American counterpart, is trying to beat his competitor, and acquire at least temporary notoriety and fame.

El Mercurio is the most noted newspaper of the country, and publishes editions in Valparaiso, Santiago and Concepción. It ranks with La Prensa, in Buenos Aires, and the Jornal do Comercio, in Rio de Janeiro. In the two former cities El Mercurio owns fine buildings, which are superior in their equipments to the average newspaper office in the United States. It has not only provided good quarters for its editors, reporters, printers and other employees, but has dining-rooms, private parlours, baths, bedrooms, assembly-rooms, and other features which American newspaper plants are not equipped with. In these rooms entertainments are given for the public, noted visitors to that country are entertained, and many other features of more or less public interest are provided for the people. The owner of El Mercurio is Mr. Augustin Edwards, who is a member of a famous banking family of Santiago, and has occupied various official positions in the country. El Mercurio was founded in Valparaiso in 1827 and in Santiago in 1900. It has long been one of the show things in Chile. The editorials in the editions are the same, but the news columns differ considerably because of local interest.

One will find the editors of these papers as well informed as the editors of the leading newspapers in the United States, and their information covers the whole world, perhaps better than the average American editor. If there is any distinguished foreigner visiting the country the reporters eagerly interview him, and the matter is displayed in headlines which are quite similar to the land of yellow journalism. In fact, in general make-up the Chilean newspapers more nearly resemble those of the United States than the journals of any other country of South America. In foreign news one will find two or three pages of cable dispatches in El Mercurio, much more than is printed in papers published by newspapers in cities of similar size in the United States. The vida social (society column) has much news concerning las distinguidas señoras y señoritas. Interspersed with accounts of balls, parties, weddings, visitors, etc., will be obituaries and notices of funerals. Echoes of the get-rich-quick commercialism will be seen in the advertising space, where columns of advertisements of banks, nitrate companies and promotion companies appear. Rates of exchange, the movement of the stock market and other items of commercial interest occupy a prominent place. Sport is prominent, of which football is an integral part, having been made popular by the British residents. The entries in the horse races, together with the various riders and their weights, form a part of the racing gossip, much as in English newspapers. In fact these cosmopolitan publications provide much interesting reading for all who can read them.

Zig-Zag of Santiago, and Sucesos, of Valparaiso, are two illustrated weeklies, which are really admirable and enterprising publications. Each edition is practically a pictorial record of the week both at home and abroad. There will be photographs of those prominent in the social and political life, pictured scenes of the leading events of the week, cartoons and news of the world depicted from the illustrated publications of other countries. There is one English newspaper published in Valparaiso. One feature, which is always displayed in the Chilean newspaper, is an editorial on the foremost topic of the day. It is given the leading position, every one reads it, and it is generally the topic of conversation for the following day. These editorials are generally well worth the reading, for they not only display knowledge but a catholicity of treatment that speaks well for the Chilean.

La Union also publishes editions in Santiago and Valparaiso, and it is a well edited and well conducted paper. Other newspapers of more or less importance are El Dia, La Lei, La Patria, El Chileno, La Reforma, El Diario Popular and Las Ultimas Noticias, and others. In all there are more than two hundred publications of all kinds. Every one who can read at all generally reads about all the newspapers, so that even though the reading class is not as large as with us, yet the circulation of these newspapers is very creditable. Nevertheless one wonders how they are all supported and manage to survive.

Like all Spanish people the writers, though not numerous, are usually voluminous. The number is not great because of the lack of readers and library privileges. One Spanish writer says that the circle of readers in each Spanish-American nation is in smaller numbers than in a single street in London, a square in Paris, or a district in Italy. Such a statement is not true of Chile, for Santiago, Valparaiso and Concepción have large numbers of educated Chileans. But it is true that the writer has a small circle as compared with the clientele of an American, English or German author. Chilean writers have been the most prolific of any of the countries on the Pacific coast of South America. The comparatively stable rule for four decades was conducive to literary development. The French influence in literature is more noted than any other, and especially so in literature of the lighter vein.

Before independence the chief subjects were history, religion and poetry, and many of the writers were ecclesiastics. Since the establishment of the republic fiction, philosophy and political economy have been prominent, and lay writers have taken precedence over ecclesiastics. Ramon Briceño and Venturo Marin are two well known writers of modern philosophy and ethics. Other Chilean writers along similar lines were Errázuriz, Casanova, Aracena Lopez, Arrasco, Albano and José Lara. Andres Bello is a name that towers above all. Says Professor Currier: “I regard him as one of the most extraordinary men that the Western Hemisphere has produced. Entirely a self-made man, he explored almost every field of human knowledge, and his numerous works testify to his labours. Poet, philosopher, linguist, philologist, litterateur, historian, educator and jurist, such was Bello. His civil code of Chile places him among the world’s legislators. It is, perhaps, to be regretted that in his earlier years his attention was so much divided among various subjects that many of his labours remain unfinished. Few countries can boast of a man so versatile and of such intellectual activity as Bello.”

Journalism in Chile, like the other Spanish-American republics, is an important profession. One of the greatest journalists Chile has produced was Zorobabel Rodriguez, who exercised immense influence on public thought for many years. His editorials were the ordinary topics at the breakfast table, and were looked for by all parties from day to day. Rodriguez was also a poet, novelist and all-round literary man.

Chile has produced a number of historical writers. Among these might be mentioned the brothers Miguel Luis and Gregorio Victor Amunategui, Manuel Bilbao, Vicuña Mackenna and Diego Barrios Araña. Many have dropped into poetry, for such a form of writing is popular and natural with the Spanish race. The drama is also an important branch of Spanish literature and Chile has produced her fair share of dramatists. The best known is probably Carlos Walker Martinez, who succeeded in touching a sympathetic and patriotic chord. A number of novels have also been written by Chilean writers, but they are unknown among English readers.

The artistic is a strong element in the Latin character. Foremost with the Italians, perhaps, it also bears a vital relation to the Spaniard. Any one who has visited any of the Latin-American countries has not failed to observe this trait, for art has been well preserved in the New World, wherever either Spaniards or Portuguese have held sway. In Chile this art has not been tinged so much with Indian influences as in Mexico. Here is found the transplanted art of the Spaniard with very little modification. There are many fine churches, of which the cathedral of Santiago is the most noted example. It is a fine specimen of ecclesiastical architecture. Hospitals and other public buildings are built with an eye to the artistic. Plazas are arranged with skill, and fine statues abound all over the cities. Municipal theatres have been built in several cities. The Municipal Theatre of Santiago is a commodious building and of artistic design. Although it will not compare with the Colon Theatre of Buenos Aires, or those in Rio de Janeiro or Sao Paulo, Brazil, it is an artistic building. Through the aid of a subsidy from the national treasury operatic talent is brought from Europe for at least a few weeks each season.

Peace as well as war has its heroes. In the industrial development of Chile there are two names of North Americans that deserve to stand side by side with those of O’Higgins and Cochrane, heroes of the war of independence. In Valparaiso will be found a monument to the memory of William Wheelwright, who had the vision of a Franklin. Chance determined the destiny of this remarkable man. Wrecked on the shores of the Rio de la Plata, in 1823, the youthful Wheelwright saw the needs of this great continent, and he determined to devote his energies towards the development of harbours and transportation. He became a supercargo on a vessel bound around Cape Horn, and in this way reached Valparaiso. At first he was looked upon as a dreamer. American capitalists turned down his scheme, and even the British did not welcome him at first.

“If that insane Wheelwright calls here again,” said an English consul to his servant, “do not admit him.” Nothing daunted, however, Wheelwright went to London and succeeded in interesting some moneyed men in a scheme for direct transportation between England and the west coast. The first steamship traversed the Straits of Magellan under this concession and reached a Chilean port in 1840. This was the beginning of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, which proved of inestimable benefit in the upbuilding of Chile and Peru. It was not many years until this company was operating vessels as far as Panama.

The next vision of this master of industry was the problem of conquering the Andes. Could they be penetrated? Could the seemingly insurmountable difficulties be overcome? He planned a railroad from the port of Caldera across the Andes. This port was opened and the railroad constructed as far as Copiapó. This scheme got no farther, but it was only the beginning of colossal schemes. He planned and built the railroad from Valparaiso toward the capital as far as Llai Llai, but there it stopped because of lack of funds. His struggles with the opposition to this line read like some of the contests in the English Parliament over the first railroad projects. Wheelwright then turned his attention to Argentina and built the first railroad in that republic, a line from Rosario to Cordoba, a distance of two hundred and forty-six miles. His last public work was a short railroad running from Buenos Aires to Ensenada, in 1873. Although he had further plans for public improvements his health failed, and he sailed for London to seek medical advice, where he died that same year. His remains are buried at Newburyport, Mass., the place of his birth, where they lie amidst a long line of sturdy Puritan ancestors.

In Catskill, New York, a boy was born on the 7th of July, 1811. His name was Henry Meiggs. His history reads like romance, for he made and lost several fortunes both on the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts. Elected as treasurer of San Francisco County, California, he loaned public money to friends who did not pay it back. He then fled as a defaulter to South America. He first landed in Chile. The uncompleted railroad to the capital, that had been begun by Wheelwright, first engaged the mental activities of this remarkable man. For a decade the government had been planning to extend this railroad “to-morrow.” Meiggs negotiated with the government and finally secured the contract. With characteristic Yankee ingenuity he succeeded in getting a clause inserted giving a premium for each section completed within a specified time. He succeeded in building each section in the shortest period and collected the maximum premium. The result was that Meiggs realized a profit of more than a million dollars, and made a great reputation for himself. Since that time the Chilean government is very chary about such bonuses.

Meiggs married a Chilean woman and built a magnificent residence in Santiago. But his later enterprises were in Peru. He built the railroad from Mollendo to Arequipa. His greatest undertaking, however, was the famous Oroya Railroad over the Andes, the highest railroad in the world and one of its wonders. Great gorges were surmounted, rushing streams spanned with bridges where such work seemed impossible, tunnels bored where men had to hang over precipices by means of ropes to secure a start and other obstacles of nature were overcome. Before the completion of the road Meiggs was compelled to use his own private fortune. But he accomplished the task. One hears many tales of this eccentric man in Chile and Peru. It stands to his credit that, although he lived in luxury and spent money lavishly, he paid all his debts back in the land of his birth in order to stand before the world as an honest man.

The problem of connecting the widely separated sections of Chile with easy and convenient means of transportation has been and is a serious one. It was but natural, owing to the long extent of coast line, that the first attention of the Chilean government was given to ocean navigation. Furthermore, the Chileans have proven to be good navigators, and the record of their steamships has been very good. There has been the further advantage in developing this means of transportation in the fact that no part of Chile is very far distant from the Pacific coast. This has developed a large number of short railways, which run from the ports to the mineral or agricultural districts of the interior. There are in all sixteen ports open to international commerce, and forty-four inferior ports which are used in the coast trade. The different character of the northern, central and southern sections has created a demand for exchange of products between those sections, which has made the coast trade of great importance.

The ports of Chile were opened to the commerce of all the world as soon as the independent government was fully organized. It is a historic fact that among the first vessels that arrived in Chile, after independence had been achieved, was a frigate from New York, which brought one of the first printing presses to South America and also some American printers, who established the first Chilean periodical. At first Valparaiso claimed nearly all of the tonnage, because of its nearness to the capital. At that time, also, the Chilean seacoast was not more than half as long as it is at the present time. Vessels soon began to operate under the Chilean flag, although most of the first vessels were owned by foreign capital. As early as 1834 there were no less than one hundred and thirty-four national vessels, principally engaged in the coast trade. When William Wheelwright organized the Pacific Steam Navigation Company a new era in Chilean prosperity was begun. Two vessels, the Chile and Peru, both of them small boats, constituted the beginning of the fleet which finally developed into the great company, which for many years plied between the west coast and Europe. It has recently been absorbed by another English company, the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company.

THE HARBOUR, VALPARAISO.

This English company, as well as other companies, were subsidized by the Chilean government, in order to get better coast service between the various ports. This service was eventually extended to the city of Panama. In 1870 the most powerful Chilean company was organized under the name of the Compañia Sul Americana de Vapores, which soon became a very active competitor of the English company. The number of its vessels was continually added to, most of them being built by English shipbuilders, until to-day this company has more than twenty boats. Many of these are very comfortable steamers, of considerable capacity, and operate all the way between Puerto Montt and Panama. In addition to this company, there are a number of small companies, owned by Chilean capital, and other steamers belonging to private individuals, or business houses which carry on a coast trade more or less extensive. The Chilean company and the English company, which for a long time were active rivals, have at last entered into an operating agreement. By the terms of this agreement the government subsidy is shared, and the two companies operate an alternating service between Valparaiso and Panama. The laws of Chile governing maritime transportation are very liberal, and the fees levied at the various ports are exceedingly reasonable. It has been recognized by Chile that the development of commercial relations with the various countries of America depends, to a great extent, upon the existence of regular and rapid lines of navigation which will transport products at reasonable rates.

The government has spent a great deal of money in recent years in dredging the channels, placing buoys at the dangerous points and erecting lighthouses along the coast, until to-day there are more than fifty lighthouses which are regularly maintained by Chile.

What will eventually prove to be the backbone of the Chilean railway system is termed the Longitudinal Railway, work upon which is being prosecuted actively by the government at various places. When completed it is planned to have a continuous railway from Tacna, in the north, to Puerto Montt, at the south, a distance of almost two thousand miles. It has been found that wherever the railroad has been extended, development has followed. This has been especially true of the great central valley through which rails have been laid as far as Osorno, only seventy-eight miles from Puerto Montt. This line has been constructed entirely by the government. It is built of standard gauge width, and also upon the same gauge for some distance north of Santiago. Through the north central part of Chile the government roads have all been built upon the narrow gauge plan, one metre in width, because the occasional transverse spurs of the Andes, which run toward the coast, have made construction more difficult, and it has been easier to make the necessary curves by using that gauge, so that the line could be built as inexpensive as possible. At the present time nearly all of the energies of the government are being applied to the completion of this great project, which has already cost it many millions of dollars.

A little more than one-half of the railway mileage in Chile has been built and is owned by the government itself. It has not been a profitable enterprise, for it costs about ninety-five per cent. of the gross income for operating expenses and maintenance. One reason for this, of course, is that the government lines, many of them, have been built through thinly-settled territory, and where traffic up to the present time has been very light. Then, again, the charges upon these state railways are entirely too small, for nowhere can one travel so cheaply as upon the government railways of Chile. Then there is also the problem which a government must always face, in operating a public utility enterprise, that the officials, whose duty it is to look after the work, do not apply to it the same careful attention to detail, do not get as much work out of their employees as a private corporation, and are likely to take a chance at some form of graft when the opportunity affords. The question has been seriously considered by the government of placing the operation of the principal lines in the hands of a private company; in fact, one company has made a proposition to operate the road between Santiago and Valparaiso, and take for its profit simply what it can save in the cost of operation over the present cost.

In the northern provinces there are a number of railways operating from the coast up a greater or lesser distance inland. The oldest railway in the republic, as well as in South America, runs from Caldera to Copiapó. As heretofore mentioned, this great undertaking was due to William Wheelwright. It was his plan to continue this railway over the Andes, and it is said by engineers to present fewer difficulties than the one finally chosen, which was partly on sentimental grounds. It is quite possible that the dream of the American captain of industry may some day come true as development continues. It was never extended further than the first terminus, over which the first locomotive was run in 1851. The first locomotive exported from the United States was used on this railroad. A number of short branches have now been built connecting with this main line, but rail connection with the Federal capital is still a thing of “to-morrow.”

The most northern railway runs from the port of Arica to Tacna, and is only about forty miles in length. From Arica an international railroad is being built across the Andes into Bolivia, in accordance with a treaty entered into between the two countries. It will not pass through Tacna, as an independent route has been selected which promised fewer difficulties. It is only about one hundred and forty miles to the Bolivian frontier by this route, and only a little greater distance from there to La Paz. This will make the shortest and most direct route to the Bolivian capital. The contract has been let for the entire work, but it is proceeding very slowly.

Proceeding along the coast the next railway centre is in the nitrate district, where a number of short railways connect Iquique, Pisagua, Tocapilla, Caleta Buena and other towns in that district, making up a total of nearly four hundred miles. Antofagasta also has some short spurs which run back into the mineral regions, and carry the ore down to that port. The principal line at this place, however, is the international railway which runs from Antofagasta to the Bolivian city of Oruro, and there connects with a Bolivian railway which runs to the capital, La Paz. This railway is constructed upon an extremely narrow gauge of thirty inches. The Chilean section of the railway ends at Ollague, a distance of two hundred and seventy-five miles. This railway was originally built to aid in developing some of the rich mines in Potosi, Bolivia. By the aid of a government subsidy, it was finally completed in 1892. This is the largest private railway enterprise in Chile. It would be difficult to imagine a more dreary route over which a railway could be planned than the Chilean section of this railway. At first the question of a water supply for the engines was a serious problem, as the water which they were able to secure easily was so permeated with minerals that it destroyed the boilers. The concession of supplying the city of Antofagasta with water was finally conceded to the railway company, and, with that monopoly as an aid, pipes were laid for a distance of more than two hundred miles to supply the water tanks of the railway and the city of Antofagasta. The freight hauled over this road is quite considerable, since it is one of the two lines which at present reach from the coast to the republic of Bolivia. Half or more of the freight, to and from that inland republic, is shipped by this route, in addition to the product of the mines of the famous Huanchaca Company.

In the province of Coquimbo there are several short sections of railroad, all of which were constructed by the government. In all these lines total about two hundred miles. It will not be long until Coquimbo will be connected with the main line by a longitudinal railway. In the northern section of the country there are no less than fourteen different lines, and at least three different gauges of track.

The railways of the central valley from Santiago south form the most extensive system in the republic. All of these railways, with the exception of a very few branches, belong to the state, and they form a single system which unites the principal sections of population throughout that section. The main track follows the longitudinal valley from north to south in a line which keeps to the same general direction until it ends at Osorno. In its course this system crosses no less than a dozen of the provinces of Chile. Construction has been fairly difficult, and the expense of bridges has been unusually high. There are many long and high bridges, such as those across the Maule, Maipo, Mallico, Laja and Bio-Bio rivers. Most of them have been of French construction. From Santiago to Llanquihue, there are a number of cross railways which run from this main line to the ports, and also some that run inland toward the Andes for a short distance. These were built by the government in its efforts to open up the unpopulated sections. In the carboniferous zone around the Bay of Arauco there are a number of branches which connect the mines, the mining towns and the ports. It will not be long until the railway will be extended to Puerto Montt, which will complete the present plans of the government for southern extension.

There are no less than half a dozen transandine railways which have been planned, and for which concessions have been granted by the government of Chile. Two have been completed, two more have had actual work done in the way of construction and the other two are still visionary. One project, which bodes very fair to reach completion, is a railroad that will have for its terminal points the Chilean port of Talcahuano and Bahia Blanca, Argentina. It will run through Monte Aguila and Cholguan, and cross the Andes at Lake Laja. There it will connect with the Great Southern Railway of Argentina, which has already been built from Bahia Blanca to Neuquen, and which is now being extended from there to Chos Malal. The Andes at this point are not nearly so high as farther north, so that fewer difficulties will be encountered in the construction than on those transandine railways which have already been built. It will necessitate a tunnel about one mile in length only to pass the summit. Engineers who have surveyed this route report it as very feasible and strongly recommend it. It is several hundred miles south of both Valparaiso and Buenos Aires, passes through an extremely rich agricultural country and ought to be constructed before many years. It will be of distinct advantage to both republics.

Interest in railroad construction in Chile in recent years has centred in the transandine railway via Juncal and Uspallata pass, the historic route by which General San Martin led his conquering legions into that country. Its completion in the spring of 1910 was a significant event, which was duly celebrated by both Chile and Argentina. Just a half century had passed since Wheelwright first suggested to English capitalists the feasibility of a railroad across the Andes to connect the Atlantic with the Pacific, when the first train passed through the two mile tunnel that pierced the international barrier of rock at this point. Trains are now running regularly, and the interruption caused by the winter snows is at an end. This is the first line to connect the two oceans, and, to the South Americans, it was as great an event as the opening of the first transcontinental railroad in the United States. The distance from Valparaiso to Buenos Aires is eight hundred and eighty-eight miles, and the trip is made in thirty-eight hours. It is hoped by the officials, however, to reduce the running time to twenty-nine hours in the course of time.

JUNCAL STATION.

The first practical steps in this undertaking were made by two English-Chilean engineers, John and Matthew Clark. They obtained the necessary concession from Argentina in 1872, and from Chile two years later. The Chilean government guaranteed seven per cent. on a capital of three millions of dollars. But this concession was unsatisfactory. In 1889 the actual work of construction was begun, but it was stopped after less than twenty miles had been completed. The old concession having lapsed a new one was granted in 1903 to the Transandine Construction company on a five per cent. guarantee for twenty years. In 1906 the road was opened to Juncal, and in 1909 to Caracoles, the mouth of the Chilean end of the tunnel. The entire distance from Los Andes to the tunnel is forty-eight miles. In that distance the altitude rises almost eight thousand feet. The grade in places reaches eight per cent. There are several miles of the Abt system of cogs. Tunnels and bridges are numerous, and a number of avalanche sheds have been built. The Chilean slopes of the Andes are much more abrupt than those on the Argentina side, and the work of construction has been correspondingly more difficult. It provides a grand scenic route for the jaded continental traveller that furnishes scenery as grandly picturesque as anywhere else in the world.

One unfortunate feature is the differing width of track. It will be necessary to reload freight three times in the journey across the continent. From Valparaiso to Los Andes the gauge is standard. Between Los Andes and Mendoza it is one metre, and from Mendoza to Buenos Aires it is five feet eight inches. This may possibly be changed in the future, but it will be many years. In the meantime much trouble and extra work will be necessitated in freight traffic. To the passenger it means only a little annoyance, but not much delay.

TRANSANDINO CHILENO RAILWAY, SHOWING ABT SYSTEM OF COGS.

In order to fully understand the anomalous position occupied by Church and State in the Spanish-American republics, it will be well to go back several centuries and study for a moment the development of the clerical policy of Spain, and its relations with the Church of Rome. With the discovery of the New World, the Church was placed in a position where it felt called upon to do something which it was next to impossible to undertake independently. It felt the responsibility of evangelizing the heathen in the newly-discovered countries, and yet it appreciated its inability to assume this burden, because it had not the means to propagate religion amongst a hostile people, which could only be advanced efficiently by means of a costly expedition. Hence it was necessary for the Holy See to proceed to convert the inhabitants of the New World through ecclesiastics, or other persons who followed the invading forces.

In compliance with this view the Pope issued the famous bull of Alexander VI, in 1493, which is in part as follows: “We give, concede and assign them (lands in the New World) in perpetuity to you and the Kings of Castile and of Leon, your heirs and successors: and we make, constitute and depute you and your heirs and successors, the aforesaid, lords of these lands, with free, full and absolute power, authority and jurisdiction.”[2] This absolute power granted to Spain was not used against the Church, as subsequent events showed, for the priests and monks everywhere accompanied the soldiers, and conquests of the civil power were invariably attended with at least the nominal conversion of the natives to Christianity. This alliance placed in the absolute power of the king of Spain the privilege to name the priests, or other ecclesiastics, who might accompany the expeditions, and gave him absolute power over their work. All causes of friction between bishops, priests and other dignitaries were decided alone by the sovereign or his representatives in the New World, although it might be regarded entirely as a spiritual matter. Under the interpretation given to this papal authority, the King of Spain had it within his power to define the boundaries of the archbishoprics and bishoprics, and the Church was even compelled to secure his consent for the erection of vicarages, churches, monasteries, convents and other places for religious worship.

One decree of the King of Spain, which is similar to many others, reads as follows: “We wish and command that there shall not be created, instituted, founded or conceded any cathedral or parochial church, monastery, hospital, votive church, or any other pious or religious place without our express command, or that of the person who shall have our authority of commission for this purpose.” And again, “That there shall not be instituted or established any archbishopric, dignitary, canonry, prebend, benefice, curacy, or any other benefice or ecclesiastical or religious office without our consent or presentation.” At another time it was decreed: “If in effect, or by dissimulation, any person shall make or begin to make any of these edifices without this prerequisite the viceroys, audiencas or governors shall cause them to be demolished, and everything reduced to its previous state without cause or delay.” For the erection of the cathedral churches the royal treasury contributed one-third.

These privileges were at first jealously guarded by the royal authorities. In maintaining the right of patronage the civil courts were given jurisdiction instead of the ecclesiastical courts, which likewise gave the civil authorities an advantage. There was in each bishopric, however, an ecclesiastical court over whose decision appeal might be made to the archbishop. The cases which might be brought before this court were those which concerned tithes, patronages, marriages, legitimation, funerals, donations to churches and such other pious matters. If a case arose in which a layman brought action against a priest, this was tried before an ecclesiastical church, but, if a priest brought action against a layman, the cause was tried before a secular tribunal. The Church likewise had a general council, which was composed of a number of archbishops, cardinals and other high church officials. It was the general aim of the Church to have the ecclesiastical division correspond with the civil divisions of the territory, thus making the political capitals also the seats of religious authorities, although there were exceptions to this rule. One of these was in Chile, where, although the captaincy-general of Chile was independent of the vice-royalty of Peru, yet the Bishop of Santiago was subservient to the Archbishop of Lima. Thus at every step in the administration of ecclesiastical affairs in America, the authority and domination of the civil power was recognized. In the first century of the colonial period the Archbishop of Lima was the metropolitan for all of South America under Spanish rule, but this was later divided.

Wherever the Spaniards established themselves in America, they made the natives serfs, and forced them to approximately unrequited labour. Looking upon these natives as an inferior race, it soon became unpopular among the Spaniards to perform any labour which might be considered menial. This made the opportunities for profitable employment comparatively scarce. The doors of the monasteries were always open, however, and the life within the cloisters, although seemingly one of self abnegation and denial, in reality offered opportunities for intellectual development, for vague contemplation and day dreaming, and also a chance to enjoy more of the things of the world than fell to the lot of the average man outside of the cloistered walls. Furthermore, the fact that the ecclesiastical offices were at the disposal of the representatives of the Crown gave opportunities to those persons to favour friends who wore the cloak of the Church, which they could not do if the same persons were following secular pursuits, because of the limited number of positions at their disposal in civil life. Hence it was that the ranks of the ecclesiastics came to be recruited not so much from those who were religiously inclined, as from those who sought ease, indulgence in the appetites and passions, and were ambitious for power and authority.

A century after the beginning of Spanish rule, the missionaries on the frontier had lost their enthusiasm to make converts, and thereafter assisted in advancing the civilization of the natives very little. The cupidity of those priests, who were not noted for their piety, was excited by the opportunities which their position gave them. There were numerous opportunities to charge fees and perquisites for the services required of them, and they took full advantage of it. Furthermore, they sold to the Indians various articles, such as rosaries and images, at an enormous profit, and persuaded them to labour upon their buildings and in their little settlements without compensation other than a bare living. Likewise many persons who had acquired great wealth in the New World, but had probably lived reckless and immoral lives, when nearing the end of life were anxious to secure absolution for their sins, and as short an experience as possible in the purgatory of the next world. The representatives of the Church urged upon them the necessity of giving all of their worldly goods into its keeping, in return for the desired absolution. The mysticism with which the Church surrounded itself was favourable to the securing of such a boon, and the monastic and convent orders accordingly accumulated great wealth.

Thus it was that the power of the Church in the later period of colonial rule was greatly increased through the accumulation of wealth, and through the access to its ranks of men who were influenced by political and covetous, rather than pious principles. After a century or more from the beginning of Spanish rule the church dignitaries were able to a great extent to defy the civil authorities. As a natural consequence, the civil authorities then sought the aid and influence of the ecclesiastics. The evil effects of these various influences upon the Church can be traced down even to the present time in Chile, as well as the other countries in South America. Most of the political troubles have been the result of friction between the conservatives, who were aided by the Church, and the liberals, who were intent upon restricting the power of that body.

A CHILEAN PRIEST.

The wealth of the Catholic Church in Chile is still enormous, even after a considerable portion of it has been taken by the government for public uses. Many of the public school and college buildings were formerly the property of the Jesuit or other monastic order. It is said that the church property in Santiago alone is worth not less than one hundred million dollars in gold. It owns some of the best business blocks, as well as hundreds of houses, and great haciendas upon which wine is manufactured and other products raised. A great part of this wealth is owned by the various orders established in the country. The Carmelite nuns of Santiago are a very wealthy organization and possess an enormous income. These nuns never allow their faces to be seen by men. The monastic order, known as the Dominican Friars, is also a very wealthy body. They dress in black hats and gowns, with white flannel undergowns which reach clear to the feet. This gives them quite a strange appearance to one not familiar with the sight of such costumes worn by religious orders.

The Catholic Church of the west coast of South America is less liberal than on the east coast. The reason for this condition, probably, is that it has been less influenced by outside causes, because of the comparative isolation of the countries and remoteness from Europe. One will find still less liberality as you proceed along the west coast from Chile northward. In Chile, there is an element of tolerance towards other forms of worship, at least on the part of the officials. Protestant churches exist in nearly all of the towns of any size, and quite a number of mission workers are busily engaged in spreading their doctrines. In Peru, a few Protestant congregations exist. They are not allowed to own churches, and their congregations are gathered together by printed invitations, which is simply a means of evading the letter of the law that is permitted by the authorities. In Ecuador, although the government attempts to observe religious tolerance, yet the power of the priesthood is so strong that Protestant workers outside of Quito and Guayaquil are oftentimes exposed to danger of violence.

“The religion of the republic of Chile is the Roman Apostolic Catholic to the exclusion of any other.” These are the words of the Constitution of Chile, which thus gives to the Roman Catholic Church the protection and support of the government. Nevertheless religious freedom prevails for, by an act of July 27, 1865, it was established that those who do not profess the Roman Catholic religion are allowed to worship within the enclosure of private buildings, and are permitted to establish and maintain schools in the doctrine of their respective faiths. From a religious standpoint the republic is divided into one archbishopric, three bishoprics and two vicarages. The cathedral at Santiago is the church of the archbishop, and a magnificent residence for his use stands alongside of the church. The bishoprics are known as Serena, Concepción and Ancud. Two ecclesiastical vicarages have been established at Antofagasta and Tarapacá.

The Catholic Church in Chile, however, is as different from the same church in the United States as it is possible for two branches of the same general head to be. There is no spirit of liberality, and no general purpose to recognize religious freedom except as it is compelled by law. The influx of foreigners has naturally modified things to some extent, because many of those coming in have been members of Protestant denominations, but the old condition of affairs has not yet been entirely eradicated.

It is the women who support the Church, and they are intense devotees of its worship. The men are generally absolutely indifferent to religion in any form. As a prominent Chilean gentleman told me, “we leave the women attend to the religious duties.” This statement seemed to be borne out by the facts, as a number of visits to different churches at the hour of mass showed that not one out of perhaps fifteen or twenty present were men. The others were entirely women, girls and small children. The power of the priesthood over the women is very strong, and it is in this way that they exert whatever influence they have, as the women will blindly do anything that the priests advise them to do.

This condition of affairs would be less reprehensible, if every member of the priesthood was an intelligent and proper person. It is an unfortunate fact, however, that many members of the priesthood come from the lower strata of society, rather than from the higher. They are persons of low intelligence, rather than men of high attainments. To this class of priests is due many of the strange practices which one will find in the churches, or see done in the name of the Church in the remote districts. Some of the processions are so grotesque that they seem almost ridiculous, and certainly would not have the direct approval of the Pontiff. As one of the priests said: “The ignorant people of these regions are fond of demonstrations in which they can participate, and it does them more good to carry a banner and walk in a procession than you can imagine. If the Church does not provide such amusements, the politicians will do so, and it is very important that we keep our people under our own control.” It is upon this theory, that the ignorant natives demand these public processions, that they are permitted to exist. But the fact that they also provide a considerable source of revenue probably has something to do with their continuation as well.

In the city of Santiago a festival is held each year, which is a fair illustration of the origin of many of these local celebrations. On the fifth of May, 1848, there occurred in that city a most disastrous earthquake. It was learned that a woman in that city, who had been disgusted with the refusal of her particular saint to answer her prayers, tore the image from the altar, and, stripping it of its decorations, threw it into the street. At that very moment the earthquake began. As it happened, however, a priest who was hurrying away from danger saw the image, picked it up and carried it into a neighbouring church, where it was reverently placed upon an altar. At that very moment the earthquake ceased, and so from that time to this the fifth of May is a holiday, which is second in importance only to Independence Day. It used to be that this image was taken from the altar on these occasions, carried through the streets under a scarlet canopy, and was followed by a procession which included the president of the republic, his cabinet, members of congress, justices, archbishop, bishop and all of the other prelates of the Church and thousands of people with bands of music and regiments of soldiers. This saint became known as Saint Cinco de Mayo (Saint Fifth of May), because the woman who threw it into the street and her family were killed in the earthquake, and it was impossible to ascertain what particular saint it was originally intended to represent. In recent years, however, this celebration has lost much of its importance, although the Church still recognizes it as a regular holiday in its calendar.

The high fees charged for the services of the Church have been much criticized, and deservedly so. In most places not a single service will be performed without the payment of the fee in advance. This is specially to be condemned in the case of the fees that are charged for marriages. Although a marriage to be legal in Chile must have a civil ceremony, for which only a small charge is made, yet those who are devoted to the Church consider the religious ceremony the essential one. As the priests will not perform this ceremony without the regular fee being paid, which amounts to several dollars, and the contracting parties do not consider the civil ceremony as of any value, because they are so instructed by the priesthood, the result is that neither ceremony is performed, and an injustice is done to all parties concerned. Even in the higher circles great confusion sometimes arises where the man, for instance, considers the civil ceremony necessary, and the woman, under the advice of her counsellor, is not willing to have it performed. The result has been considerable confusion, and also has made the Church and civil authorities unnecessarily opposed to each other in many instances.

Many claim that South America is not a legitimate field for Protestant missionary work. Their theory is that the country was at one time evangelized by missionaries, and therefore should not be touched by other missionary effort. The fact is that religious conditions in South America savour much of the darkness of the Middle Ages. There is to-day an unbelief and utter indifference to spiritual things among the men, which is hard to realize until one has had actual contact with it. Whatever effort can better these conditions, and thereby improve the morals of the people, should be encouraged. The Roman Catholics pursue their efforts among the strongest Protestant countries, and they should not be criticized for so doing. If they can reach a class or element that has not been touched by Protestant effort, they are thereby doing good for that nation and the world in general. True religion and true Christianity should be recognized and encouraged under whatever name it may be found. It would be far better if the Catholic Church in Chile, and other South American countries, would welcome the Protestant ministers, and join hands with them in their efforts to raise the standards of living among the people.

One will find signs of the Protestant invasion of Chile from Arica, in the extreme north, to Tierra del Fuego. The movement has generally been accompanied by educational enterprise, of which there are several splendid examples in Chile. One of these is the American College for Girls, and the Instituto Ingles, an institution for boys, both of which are in Santiago. The former, which is under the control and direction of the Methodist Episcopal Church, has achieved more than a national reputation in Chile, and many of the very best families send their girls to that college for their education. It is recognized as giving the very best education that can be obtained in the Republic, and the enrollment has included the names of the children of presidents of the republic, and many others in high authority. The same may be said of the latter institution, which is under the control of the American Presbyterian Church, and which is always crowded to its utmost capacity, with many names upon the waiting list who cannot be accommodated. The patrons of the two institutions understand that the schools are Protestant schools, that the Bible is read and studied, that morning prayers are compulsory, but beyond that the students are at liberty to attend any religious services that may be desired by the parents. Outside of the regular religious services, no effort is made to alienate the students from the church in which they have been baptized. The Methodists also conduct grammar schools at Concepción and Iquique, and schools of the primary and lower grammar grades at other places. In all more than fifty day schools are conducted by these two denominations. The work that has been begun is a beneficial one in a moral way, and the results have been very satisfactory to those engaged in the work.

At the present time the American Presbyterian and the Methodist Episcopal Churches are the only American denominations that are aggressively doing missionary work in Chile. The former began their work in 1873, and the latter in 1878. The Methodists have thirty missionaries and a large number of native workers assisting them, and have established fifty-eight stations. The Presbyterians have twenty-six missionaries, and these workers, together with native helpers, are at work in sixty-five different communities. Both in Valparaiso and Santiago there is a Union Church, to which members of various Protestant bodies come for the religious services, and both of these churches are doing a very effective work.

The Protestant Anglican Church was the first to begin any evangelistic work in Chile. Its first mission was established more than sixty years ago. They began work in the extreme south, and still have stations on Tierra del Fuego for the Indians. They also have churches at Santiago, Valparaiso, Iquique, Concepción and Punta Arenas for the English-speaking people who live in those cities.

The American and British Bible Societies have aggressively spread over the country. The colporteurs of these societies have gone up and down over the country, by train and coach, on foot and mule-back, with copies of the Scriptures in various languages. These books are sold for a very small sum, and, if the person is too poor to buy, they are freely given. The work has not always been easy or pleasant, for such deep prejudice is oftentimes encountered that insults and little indignities have followed.

The subjugation and colonization of Chile was due to two causes. Pedro de Valdivia, who had distinguished himself in Peru, wanted an empire for himself, and Francisco Pizarro was desirous of ridding himself of so formidable a rival. Valdivia was therefore graciously permitted to march into and conquer at his own expense the country south of Peru. After many months of preparation Valdivia set out on his expedition with one hundred and fifty Spaniards, provided with horses and arms, one thousand Indians, mostly carriers, and a supply of cattle, pigs, poultry and seeds of many European plants. Thus equipped this cavalier set out from Lima, and marched across the deserts of Arequipa, Tacna, Tarapacá and Atacama. He reached the central valley of Chile without the loss of a single Spaniard through sickness or desertion—a remarkable record.

The first few years were hard ones for these colonists. Santiago was founded and made the capitol. The Indians were hostile, and dissensions soon arose among Valdivia’s followers. Several small parties of reinforcements arrived, but the Spaniards’ position was always precarious because of the fierce Araucanians. After Valdivia’s death in 1551, misfortune followed misfortune in the new colony. Garcia Hurlado de Mendoza, one of the viceroys of Peru, succeeded him as governor. This man was a mere youth with no experience, and his rule was fraught with disaster. He established churches and monastic orders, provided magnificent shows and spectacles, but did not materially improve the condition of the colony. Then came Francisco and Pedro de Villagran and a number of other governors,—some good and more of them bad. The colony slowly increased in numbers, but constant war with the Indians prevented it from growing rapidly. The coast was swept several times by Dutch and English pirates. Earthquakes and plagues reaped their harvests from the inhabitants. But wealth was increasing. Thus passed the sixteenth, seventeenth and part of the eighteenth centuries. It would be impossible within the limits of this volume to detail all events, but some of the Indian wars are mentioned in another chapter.[3] The usual narrow-sighted policy of Spain toward all her dependencies was followed, and the local disaffection grew more acute each year.

It was Voltaire who said that “cruelty leads to independence.” The colonial system of Spain in South and Central America, of which the writer has had occasion to treat before, was one of selfishness, cruelty and tyranny. Only the merchants of Cadiz were allowed to sell goods to the colonists, and the colonists were permitted to sell their products only to the same traders, who managed to reap a profit, owing to the monopoly granted them, of as much as three hundred per cent. Local human rights were not recognized by the government of Spain. It was treason for a man to assert his freedom, or to seek a free field for his labour. The natives were compelled to labour for the conquerors without profit. Imposing buildings were constructed, cities were encircled with massive walls, great monasteries, churches, and convents rose on the hills, all by the unrequited toil of generations of these impressed natives. Education was denied, and the local government, including the church officials, united in this system of repression and disregard of human rights.

There was, however, another element which entered into final independence. For this we must hark back to Spain for a moment. Charles IV had resigned his throne in favour of his son, Ferdinand VII. The colonists accepted this change because of their loyalty to the heredity in line of succession, which had to them a religious as well as political significance. Charles IV afterwards regretted his abdication and appealed to Napoleon, who was then in the height of his power, alleging that the abdication had not been voluntary. Napoleon poured troops into Spain, and it was not long until Ferdinand VII was compelled to yield. Napoleon then placed his favourite brother, Joseph, upon the throne of Spain. Joseph was a well-meaning monarch, a man of far more principle than his brother, who, perhaps, would have done well by the colonists, had he been permitted to work out their destinies. The colonists, however, felt no loyalty toward him, and would not recognize his authority. When Ferdinand VII was finally restored to the throne after the downfall of Napoleon, he became a tyrant, and violently opposed all liberal ideas. The despotism that Napoleon had overthrown was reestablished. These mistaken moves on the part of Ferdinand, a period of a few years during which the Crown had been opposed, and the free air of America all had tended to induce a spirit of liberalism and opposition to monarchy in the New World. It was not long before Chile was caught in the same whirl as the rest of the Spanish-American provinces.

The approach of the end of almost three centuries of the colonial system in Chile does not speak well for Spain. Trade was still restricted. The post-office was a monopoly that had been farmed out to a private person. A mail vessel arrived at Montevideo from Spain once in two months, and from there the mails were transported across the Andes. There was a post once a month between Concepción and Santiago, and twice a week between Santiago and Valparaiso. Most people used private couriers or travellers for their despatches. The only manufactures were the making of brandy and wine, drying beef and tanning hides.

No city, except Santiago, had more than six thousand people, and that city had perhaps thirty thousand. Horse racing, cock-fighting, bull-fighting and cards were the only amusements. The buildings were creditable, but the streets were dirty, unlighted, and unsanitary. People who went abroad at night had their servants carry lanterns before them. Vice and disorder was everywhere. Robbery, brawls and assassination were frequent. Begging was an intolerable curse. Titles of nobility were common, and had been purchased by many unworthy persons. Decorations of membership in orders of nobility had been scattered broadcast. There was not even a school for girls in Santiago. The majority of the people still lived in the country in homes that were without conveniences. They had little furniture, but all were provided with an oratorio in which each wandering missionary was expected to celebrate mass. The Indians were held in practical slavery, and the landlords administered justice over their tenants. A sentimental attachment, and also fear that a bad condition might be made worse, kept these poor humans from leaving. Diseases often became epidemic through the unsanitary conditions, so that thousands were at times swept away. Concepción lost a fourth of its population one year through the ravages of smallpox. It is probable that at the beginning of the nineteenth century the total population of Chile, exclusive of the Araucanian Indians, did not exceed a half million.

There are two men by the name of O’Higgins prominent in Chilean history. The first, Ambrosio O’Higgins, was born in Ireland in 1730, of humble parentage. His uncle, a Spanish priest, sent the youth to South America, and he finally landed in Chile. He first became a trader and peddler, and then an engineer. During this latter employment he built the casuchas, as the rest houses in the Uspallata pass are called. He also distinguished himself in fights with the Indians, so that he received government recognition. Plain Ambrose became Don Ambrosio. Then the Irish youth, once a ragged, barefooted urchin, became successively Marquis of Osorno, governor of Chile, and, finally, Viceroy of Peru. He died at the age of eighty, in Peru, while he was filling the latter office. His administration was marked by indefatigable activity. It was not until he was sixty-eight years of age that he became captain-general of Chile, which position he held for eight years. He introduced a number of agricultural reforms and set aside many of the abuses on the plantations. He constructed a passable road between Valparaiso and the capitol, where none had hitherto been built, as the Spaniards were content to ride on mules and carry their goods the same way. He improved the road over the Andes via the Uspallata pass, as trade by this route had greatly increased. Altogether the things accomplished by this energetic Irishman were remarkable; his efforts and talents worked a great deal of good for Chile and Peru. Had all the governors and viceroys been men of similar character history would probably read differently.

The year 1810 was fraught with direful consequences for Spain. In that year Hidalgo sounded the grito of independence in Mexico, and the memorable assembly met in Buenos Aires, which was the forerunner of a successful revolution. The news of the latter event, which happened on the 25th of May, soon reached Santiago and fanned the fires of revolution. On the 18th of September three hundred and fifty electors met in that city and elected a junta to take charge of the government. A quiet submission to the new order of things followed for a few months. A Congress was elected and opened with solemn religious ceremonies and many eloquent speeches. But jealousies soon arose over the personnel of the government junta, and several years of conflict with Spain and internal dissension followed. The leaders of the patriot forces were Bernardo O’Higgins, of Irish descent, Lord Cochrane, an Englishman, and San Martin, an Argentinian. The disturbing element was contributed in the main by three brothers, named Carrera. Though leaders for a while these brothers, of whom José Miguel Carrera was the ablest one, all met violent deaths at the hands of their indignant countrymen.

JOSÉ DE SAN MARTIN.

Bernardo O’Higgins was born in Chillan, Chile, in 1776, an illegitimate son of Ambrosio O’Higgins. He was educated in England, where he imbibed republican sentiments. He returned to Chile a few years before his father’s death, and immediately identified himself with the revolutionists. By the year 1813 he was at the head of their forces. He proved to be a man of wonderful activity, although not of military training. Troubles between the Carreras and O’Higgins were unfortunate for the patriot cause, but the latter was in the right and the jealousies of the former thwarted him at every turn. After several years of possession of the capitol by the revolutionists the loyalist forces under General Osorio recaptured Santiago, and O’Higgins was compelled to flee. The general fled to Mendoza and there joined General San Martin, who was greatly impressed by the Irishman. For several years the destinies of these two men were linked and intertwined.

José de San Martin was a noble character, and his life was actuated by unselfish principles. There was, according to the best accounts, a moral grandeur in his character, which places him in the rank of the world’s great leaders and patriots. No doubt he had his faults, which may have been serious enough, but his life was far above his contemporaries, and he has given us a sample of self abnegation which is well worth remembering. He gave his sword to the best interests of the human race, and when he found that his presence might not serve the cause of humanity in the nations he had liberated, he went into exile and poverty.[4]

Here is a pen picture of San Martin written by one who interviewed him at Lima: “On the 25th of June I had an interview with General San Martin on board a little schooner anchored in Callao Roads. There was little at first sight in his appearance to engage attention, but when he arose and began to speak his great superiority over every other person I have seen in South America was sufficiently apparent. He received us in a very simple style on the deck of his vessel, dressed in a surtout coat and a large fur cap, seated at a table made of a few loose planks laid along the top of two empty casks. Upon this occasion his views and feelings were decidedly stated. ‘The contest in Peru,’ said he ‘is not a war of conquest and culture, but entirely of opinion. It is a war of new and liberal principles against prejudices, bigotry and tyranny. I do not want military recognition; I have no ambition to become conqueror of Peru; I want solely to liberate the country from oppression.’”

In 1822 San Martin decided that he wanted to meet Bolivar. A meeting was arranged between the two to take place at Guayaquil, on the coast of Ecuador. Bolivar had driven the Spaniards from Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador, but had not proceeded farther south. San Martin wished to cooperate with him in the subjugation of Peru. Bolivar came to the city with some fifteen hundred men, and entered the city under arches of triumph. San Martin arrived by sea on a little vessel called the Macedonia. He landed and passed through files of soldiers who had been drawn up to do him honour. When the two heroes met they embraced, entered the house arm in arm and were left alone. What actually occurred no one knows, as neither of the principals ever revealed the conversation. It is known, however, from subsequent events, that San Martin decided upon self abnegation, which, he believed, would be best for the cause of liberty. A great ball was given to the two heroes, which was preceded by a banquet. Bolivar loved these festive occasions, but San Martin avoided them whenever possible.

After his return to Peru San Martin wrote to Bolivar as follows: “My decision is irrevocable. I have convened the Congress of Peru; the day after its meeting I shall leave for Chile, believing that my presence is the only obstacle that keeps you from going to Peru with your army.”

Upon his resigning his office San Martin delivered a speech, of which the following is a part. “I have witnessed the declaration of independence of the states of Chile and Peru. I hold in my possession the standard which Pizarro brought to enslave the empire of the Incas. I have ceased to be a public man. Thus I am more than rewarded for ten years spent in revolution and warfare. My promises to the countries in which I warred are fulfilled—to make them independent and leave to their will the elections of the governments. The presence of a fortunate soldier, however disinterested he may be, is dangerous to newly constituted states. I am also disgusted with hearing that I wish to make myself a sovereign. Nevertheless, I shall always be ready to make the last sacrifice for the liberty of the country, but in the class of the private individual, and no other. With respect to my public conduct, my compatriots (as is generally the case) will be divided in their opinions. Their children will pronounce the true verdict. Peruvians! I leave your national representation established. If you impose implicit confidence in it, you will triumph. If not, anarchy will swallow you up. May success preside over your destinies, and may they be crowned with felicity and peace!”

There were at least five great battles that decided the liberty of South America. One of the greatest of these was that of Maipo, or Maipu, which was fought on Chilean soil. Although this battle lasted only a few hours, it was the result of years of careful preparation by San Martin. In 1814 San Martin, who was then in Buenos Aires, decided that the best way to free Argentina was to drive the Spaniards from the West Coast, as that was the principal seat of their power. He accordingly sought the governorship of the province of Cuyo, which bordered on Chile, and repaired there to begin his real preparation. The junta, that governed Buenos Aires, gave him a small body of troops, which San Martin had already drilled and made effective soldiers. To these were added Chilean exiles, slaves who had been freed, and others whom he could gather at Mendoza, in the foothills of the Andes, which was his capitol. For two years he trained these men, gathered his artillery and ammunition and made his preparation to cross the passes of the Andes. No detail had been omitted by this careful organizer. To no one did he reveal his plans until he was ready for the start, then his army, which numbered about four thousand, was divided into two bodies, which proceeded through different passes across the border into Chile. More than seven thousand mules had been collected for the soldiers to ride, and every mule was shod. Specially designed sledges had been constructed on which to carry the guns. Jerked beef, parched corn and other supplies had been prepared for food in large quantities.

The lonely and desolate passes of the mountains suddenly disgorged a well-equipped and disciplined army on Chilean soil. The royalist forces were taken by surprise, although reports had from time to time reached the commander. General Maroto concentrated his forces on the ridge of Chacabuco, whose yellowish-brown hills are almost devoid of vegetation. There was no definite road over this ridge, which consisted of an intricate complexity of steep-sided little valleys, or barrancas. General San Martin divided his forces, the command of one section being given to O’Higgins. Both sections attacked the Spanish forces vigorously, and the latter soon gave way through the very force of the onslaught.

O’Higgins formed his infantry in a solid column, and with drums beating, advanced against the enemy’s front. The men were greatly fatigued by their march, and the sun was beating down fiercely. After a slight repulse O’Higgins and his infantry made a bayonet charge. The shock was terrible, and the Spanish lines first wavered and then broke and ran. The defeat was decisive for the royalist forces. The Spaniards left two-thirds of their number on the field of battle or in the hands of the victors. The loss of San Martin was insignificant, for his casualties did not exceed one hundred and fifty. The Spanish governor abandoned Santiago that same night, and General San Martin and his army entered it two days later, on the 14th of February, 1817, in triumph.

When the army reached Santiago a popular assembly was convened. The dictatorship was offered to San Martin, but he declined. O’Higgins was then selected and accepted. The country, however, was in a deplorable condition. The new dictator exiled a bishop and many priests, shut up traitorous women in convents and began vigorous measures to preserve order. But the war was not yet over. Several sanguinary engagements followed.

General Osorio landed with an army at Talcahuano and slowly proceeded northward. San Martin and O’Higgins endeavoured to entice him as far as the river Maule, after the country had been thoroughly devastated. General Osorio made an unexpected night attack at Cancha-Rayada and inflicted a terrible defeat on the patriotic forces. San Martin retreated in good order, and took up his position along a ridge of low hills about two miles from Santiago. Osorio established himself on a similar ridge. Between the two forces was a plain about half a mile in width. On this plain was fought the battle of Maipo on the 5th of April, 1818.

The day was exquisitely beautiful, and the sky was clear and serene. San Martin opened with a strong artillery fire from both his right and left flank. He then ordered a general advance. The horse grenadiers, who had accompanied him from Argentina, charged the Spanish lines furiously. Other battalions charged the royalist right, which was made up of veterans of the Peninsular wars. The Spanish cavalry were driven from the field. San Martin brought his reserves into action and the Spaniards began an orderly retreat. They withdrew to the buildings and walled enclosures of a hacienda. These were soon broken down by the patriot guns. The closing scenes were horrible. The infuriated patriots showed no mercy, and the patios and gardens were soon littered with the dead. The result, after several hours of fierce fighting, was of a most decisive character. The Spaniards’ loss was nearly three thousand. The remainder were flying in every direction, with the enemy in close pursuit. Osorio finally reached Talcahuano with only ten men, the remnant of the original force of five thousand that entered the battle of Maipo. The revolutionists’ loss was eight hundred killed and one thousand wounded. Spain at last realized the strength of her opposition.

The war for liberty now turns toward Peru. Soon after the decisive battle of Maipo San Martin reverted to his original plan to invade Peru. The junta at Buenos Aires commanded him to return to Argentina and aid them in that city. But he refused to be drawn into the local struggle between the different factions that were seeking to obtain control of the government. He began work on his new expedition with the same careful and methodical plans to gather about him an effective army as he had at Mendoza. The survivors of that army were loyal to their commander, and they willingly volunteered for this new enterprise. Others were added, and all were carefully drilled. Supplies and ammunition were gathered. It was not until 1820, however, that San Martin was ready to embark for Peru with an army of four thousand one hundred men. This force was conveyed to the Peruvian coast by the Chilean navy under command of Lord Cochrane, who played an important part in driving the Spaniards from this coast and liberating Chile and Peru from their domination.

The name of Lord Cochrane is an honoured one in Chile, and the visitor will find numerous monuments and memorials to that British soldier of fortune. Thomas Cochrane was the tenth Earl of Dundonald, and was born in Armsfield, Scotland, on the 14th of December, 1775. He became a member of the House of Commons, and was an officer in the royal navy. One writer says of him: “He was, after the death of Nelson, the most notable naval commander in that age of glory.” He had made a reputation for himself as a daring officer during the Peninsular War. In 1814 he was accused of spreading a report of the death of Napoleon, and was fined, and expelled from the navy and Commons. He was also sentenced to a year in prison, which he served.

Angered and embittered by what he considered the unjust treatment of his country, Lord Cochrane accepted a commission from the revolutionary party of Chile to take charge of their little navy. He arrived in that country on the 28th of November, 1818. For the construction and equipment of this little fleet ladies had given their jewels, and even church plate had been contributed. He arrived in time to cooperate with San Martin in the movement that was then being formulated for the advance against the Spaniards in Peru. Maipo had already been won. With four little vessels conveying the transports Cochrane started for Callao and arrived there safely. The Spanish gunboats were anchored under the protection of the batteries on shore. A terrific fire was opened on the O’Higgins, which was the flagship, as the other boats were not able to get within range because of a calm. Cochrane’s enthusiasm was caught by the crew, and they successfully withstood the onslaught of several hundred guns. The Esmeralda, the best ship of the Spaniards, was captured by strategy. Cochrane always led his men in person, and was ever in the midst of the greatest danger. His courage and recklessness soon won for the doughty admiral the name of “El Diablo.” He declared and maintained a blockade of the entire Peruvian coast. He used fire-ships which scattered terror amongst the enemy. His vigorous tactics made his name feared by the Spaniards and Peruvians, so that the battle was half won before it was begun. And yet his crews and officers would be generally considered unsatisfactory, for they were composed for the most part of adventurers. He captured Valdivia by a clever ruse, which was the strongest fortified place on the Pacific coast.

Cochrane had the misfortune of a bad temper, and quarrelled with nearly every one in authority. He could not understand San Martin’s deliberation in attacking Peru, so that these two men, both able and honest, could not work together. He quarrelled with O’Higgins and others. He drove the Spanish fleet off the Pacific waters from Guayaquil south. He cleared the waters of pirates, and to him in great part was due the emancipation of Chile and Peru—all of this in two and one-half years. Cochrane finally left Chile and commanded the Brazilian navy from 1823-5, which position he resigned because of charges of insubordination. He then went to Greece and commanded their army for two years. Finally his good name was cleared in England and he returned to his native country, and had achieved the high rank of rear-admiral in the British navy when he died at the ripe old age of eighty-five.

The victory of Maipo, although won at great loss, forever settled the Spanish power in Chile. Absolute independence from Spain was at once proclaimed. O’Higgins managed to introduce a few reforms, but the country was still lawless, disturbed and unsettled. Armed bands of robbers, calling themselves royalists, attacked haciendas and villages, and murdered travellers. The dictator did the best he could and introduced many reforms in procedure. Even these improvements seemed to bring discontent. He was always optimistic, which was not for the best. Some men in whom he placed confidence betrayed it. The priests were insidious in their preaching, as they favoured the royalty. The Indians were incited to rebellion whenever possible.

Traitors arose among the malcontents. Others were jealous of O’Higgins. San Martin and Lord Cochrane were both appointed to head the opposition, but each declined. One General Freire consented. An assembly was convened, which the dictator attended. After a stormy scene O’Higgins resigned his office rather than plunge the country into civil war. The withdrawal of his firm but kindly hand was a great loss to Chile. He went to Peru, where he died an exile at Lima in 1842.

The long struggle with Spain had accustomed the Chileans to military service, and the control of the country naturally fell into the hands of the military element. Once the common danger disappeared, intrigue and personal ambition ran riot and led to a condition of affairs bordering on anarchy. Chile, however, never acquired the revolutionary habit to such an extent as its neighbours, for there was a powerful landed aristocracy whose interests lay in the cultivation of the soil, for which peace was necessary. Anarchy lasted only for a few years, and then followed four decades during which time four successive presidents ruled the country for two terms of five years each.

After the resignation of O’Higgins, in January, 1823, Congress offered the dictatorship to General Freire, who was then marching against the capital with a considerable force. A constitution was promulgated, but it proved to be only so much waste paper, for Freire soon suspended it. He quarrelled with the Church authorities, banished the Bishop of Santiago and issued decrees confiscating ecclesiastical property. Congress was dissolved. A new election was ordered, but only a few members were chosen. Political confusion followed, but another Congress was elected that limited the dictator’s powers. He maintained his position only by the use of sheer force.

In 1826 Freire succeeded in driving the Spaniards from the island of Chiloé, which was their last stronghold. This victory temporarily strengthened his prestige somewhat, although the liberals were daily becoming stronger. A financial crisis was impending as the expenses exceeded the revenues. Freire was temporarily replaced by Manuel Blanco Encalada. But things became worse and Freire was recalled. This restoration lasted only a few months when he resigned in favour of General Pinto. Pinto succeeded for a while in suppressing the disturbances, and endeavoured to introduce some reforms in the army and finances. A new Congress wrestled with the constitutional problem. Rivalries among the leaders were too much for him. It was too easy for the aristocratic landlords to get up an army from among their peons, or inquilinos. A whole series of presidents and dictators followed in the next couple of years. Social as well as political anarchy reigned supreme. Disorders were prevalent, robberies occurred daily and life was unsafe.

Order was gradually coming out of chaos, however, for peace began to appear above the political horizon. With the battle of Lircay the conservatives, under General Prieto and Bulnes, won a decisive victory over the other elements. Freire fled and a horrible slaughter followed, for the victors were merciless. Freire himself and his partisans were banished to Peru, and his sympathizers removed from the army.

CONGRESS PALACE, SANTIAGO.

At the election in 1831, General Don Joaquin Prieto was chosen chief magistrate. Although he owed his elevation to the military power, the new President did not attempt the role of dictator at first. He was ably seconded by his chief cabinet officer, Señor Portales, one of the ablest statesmen that Chile has produced. After two years of careful preparation a new constitution was promulgated in 1833. Although it has been amended from time to time to meet new conditions, just as has our own constitution, this instrument has remained the fundamental law of the land. It gave to Chile a strong and stable government. The foundation of the government, under the franchise conditions, was the property-holding class. Political power originated in an oligarchy which obtained control of Congress. Although such a possibility was not designed in the constitution, it gradually developed a government by dictators. This was due to the turbulent character of the people. Extraordinary powers were granted from time to time in order to suppress revolutionary outbreaks. These powers included the right to suspend the constitutional guarantees, to imprison and exile political suspects without trial, and to adopt such other arbitrary measures as the executive might deem advisable. All of these powers were invoked by President Prieto before the end of his first term.

As there was no constitutional inhibition against a second term Prieto was reelected in 1836, and Portales retained his portfolio. All branches of the government had been reformed over the former chaotic conditions, and industrial progress had been rapid. The credit of the country was good, and interest was paid promptly. Life in the new republic, however, was not dull. It was sometimes necessary to put down disorders with a firm hand. Opponents were banished without mercy. Peru seemed to have favoured those who sought refuge on her soil, and war was declared against that republic. Several battles were fought, and Chile captured the entire Peruvian navy, consisting of three vessels. Portales was killed, and a serious repulse finally compelled Prieto to make peace. This caused trouble at home, and it gave Prieto’s enemies a chance to denounce the war and its outcome. A new expedition was sent against Peru under General Bulnes, and this expedition was successful. The Bolivian-Peruvian dictator was overwhelmingly defeated, and this success made Chile the dominant power on the Pacific Coast, a position which it has retained ever since.

At the election in 1841 General Manuel Bulnes was chosen president. He was a very distinguished soldier. Owing to his training as a soldier, President Bulnes had little idea of any method of administration other than by force. His course toward political opponents was severe, and all attempts to dispute his authority were crushed with an iron hand. Nevertheless, during the ten years administration of Bulnes, prosperity made great strides and Chile became a nation of influence and importance. The growth of the customs revenues placed the government finances on a sound footing. The President fostered education and other reforms. A more liberal religious atmosphere began to grow up. Mines were discovered and opened. The Liberals began to be more numerous, but Bulnes was outspoken in his opposition to them. In spite of their opposition he succeeded in selecting Manuel Montt as his own successor in 1851.

The new President was a civilian and had been a member of the Supreme Court, and many reforms were expected from him. More would probably have been granted by him, for his standing was of the highest, had not a serious disturbance broken out just a few days after his inauguration. The headquarters of the revolutionists were at Concepción. Proceeding toward the capital they won several small victories. The decisive battle of Loncomilla followed, however, in which the government was victorious, but not until five thousand Chileans had lost their lives in this internecine warfare. Peace and general amnesty followed this victory, and equilibrium was quickly established. Montt welcomed liberals among his followers. A number of administrative reforms were adopted, although the liberal program was strenuously opposed. New treaties with the leading commercial nations were negotiated. Nevertheless the policy of centralizing the entire government with the bureaucracy of Santiago was followed up. Many leading liberals were exiled. During his second term Montt attempted to grant a greater degree of political liberties, but insurrections broke out in the north and south, and there was bloody rioting in Valparaiso. This led to a renewal of drastic measures. Montt finally came into open rupture with Congress, because it favoured the return of his political enemies, among whom were some of the ablest men in the republic. The clergy were angry because they were compelled to submit their decisions to the civil tribunals. He became more and more dictatorial in his methods. Newspapers were suppressed, meetings dispersed, and agitators imprisoned. President Montt succeeded in putting down the various insurrections. In spite of defeat on the field of battle the liberals in fact won a victory, for their cause was forced on the government. It was obliged to make some concessions in order to prevent a renewal of the conflict. The government was in this condition when Montt’s second term reached an end in 1861.

José Joaquin Perez, a man of high personal prestige, was unanimously chosen as Montt’s successor. From the very commencement of his administration Chile began to enjoy a freedom unknown in the preceding thirty years. Criticism of the government was encouraged, instead of being treated as a crime to be punished by imprisonment or banishment. The policy of President Perez was one of conciliation, in order to unite the discordant elements. A law was at once passed granting amnesty to political offenders. The extraordinary powers heretofore granted to dictatorial presidents was not even asked for by Perez, nor did he need it. Railroads were opened up, and colonists began to come in. Fierce parliamentary struggles over certain reform measures followed in Congress, and there were many changes of ministry.

The only serious disturbance of the Perez administration was a brief war with Spain, which occurred in 1864-5. The dispute was primarily between Spain and Peru, but Chile took the part of the latter, for fear that Spain might seek to reestablish her authority in South America. As a result Valparaiso was blockaded by the Spaniards and bombarded. Millions of dollars worth of property were destroyed in a few hours, but the Chileans would not yield and grant the apology demanded. Public feeling ran very high for a few months. Chile had only one war-ship, but this boat captured a Spanish gunboat. This so humiliated the Spanish commander, Admiral Pareja, that he suicided. Although the war did not officially end for many years, nothing hostile was done by Spain after the bombardment of Valparaiso. Perez was reelected as a matter of course in 1866, and finished his second term. Pressure for amendments to the constitution had become very strong, for the foreign influences were becoming noticeable. A measure was passed forbidding a president to be reelected to succeed himself, and this marks an important step in the evolution of political ideals. A desperate effort was made to enfranchise all who could read and write. This measure, although favoured by Perez, was defeated, but the property qualification was greatly reduced. In every way the two administrations of President Perez marked the beginning of a new era in Chilean affairs. The rights of the people began to receive greater consideration from politicians.

The election of 1871 was hotly contested. The liberals were very aggressive. The conservatives united with the moderates, and Federico Errázuriz, an astute politician, was chosen. This election practically marks the elimination of the conservatives as an important element for several presidential terms. It was not long after this election until more radical elements controlled Congress, and Errázuriz sided with the liberals in their program of reforms. The great issue was the amenability of the clergy to the civil law. The anti-clerical party forced through this law, and made concessions to Protestant worship. The requirement of obligatory teaching of the Catholic religion in the public schools was greatly modified. The Archbishop promptly excommunicated all who voted for these laws, and the breach between the liberals and clericals was further widened. The administration of President Errázuriz was marked by considerable internal improvement and the beginning of a greater navy, which was soon to be very useful. Political reforms went forward with increasing momentum, but not without the usual results. As soon as the liberals had things in their power, the various factions into which they were divided began to intrigue among themselves for congressional majorities. Material prosperity had continued until the great world panic of 1873. The government customs fell and financial troubles followed, but the debt was successfully refunded. One of the most remarkable features of this administration was that the same Prime Minister held his office during the entire term of four years without interruption.

The election of 1876 brought out several candidates. In former years the retiring President had practically selected his successor. More liberal ideas now prevailed, and the Chileans were called upon to decide for themselves who should be their chief magistrate. There were three active candidates, among whom was Señor Anibal Pinto, who was nominated by the moderates and elected. President Pinto was a man of studious habits and a strong advocate of peaceful measures. And yet this man of peace was called upon to preside over the nation during one of its most severe trials. Never did he falter, even when war became necessary, and never did he waver in his determination to protect Chilean interests.

The dispute with Argentina over the southern boundary had by this time become acute. Public feeling in both republics had reached such a stage that peace was threatened. A previous treaty had declared that the boundary should be the same as in colonial times. This was hazy and uncertain, because that section had been and still was uninhabited. No one had ever been concerned about it. Chile had always claimed the Andes to the east and Cape Horn to the south. Punta Arenas had been founded thirty-five years previously without serious opposition from Argentina. For years this controversy continued between the two countries, but impending war with Peru hastened a treaty. The territorial limitations were finally decided upon and Chile practically got all that she had contended for. Chile obtained practical control of both ends of the Straits, although the channel was declared neutral and neither nation can erect any fortifications along it.

A severe economic crisis, due to the depression in the mining industry, also disturbed this administration, but this situation was met as well as it could be. But all the troubles of President Pinto pale before the sanguinary war conducted against the combined forces of Peru and Bolivia, in which the lives of twenty thousand of his subjects were sacrificed.

The early Spaniards were very little interested in geography, and the boundaries between the provinces were often very vaguely described. Since the independence of the various provinces these boundary lines have been the cause of many disputes, and, in many instances, have nearly plunged neighbouring republics into bloody war. The most serious dispute still unsettled is between Peru and Ecuador, which involves a large part of the territory of the latter republic.

The older readers will remember that, when they studied geography, Bolivia had a stretch of sea coast along the desert of Atacama. For a considerable time after independence was secured little attention was paid to Atacama, since it was regarded as worthless for colonization. Chile claimed sovereignty, and its jurisdiction was generally recognized. The year 1840 brought a change. In that year the wealth of fertilizer along that coast began to be exploited. Disputes soon arose between Chile and Bolivia as to the boundary line. The various claims made by Bolivia were inconsistent. War threatened, and diplomatic relations between the two countries were broken off. The outbreak of hostilities between Spain and Peru united the two countries against what they considered a common enemy. A treaty was drawn up in 1866 by which the 24th degree of south latitude was agreed upon as the actual boundary, although the Chileans were allowed to continue their operations in the nitrate regions beyond that line. Furthermore, Chile was to pay over to Bolivia half the customs received between the 24th and 25th degrees, and Bolivia was to hand over to Chile half the customs received between the 23rd and 24th degrees, south latitude. It was also provided that neither party to the treaty could alienate its rights to a foreign government.

DIGGING NITRATE.

This treaty gave rise to continual disputes. Chile regarded this settlement as a final solution of the dispute, but Bolivia refused or neglected to live up to her part of the agreement. By a later treaty Chile renounced her claims between these two degrees, with the agreement on the part of Bolivia that the export duties on mineral products from that zone should not be increased, and that Chilean industries and citizens should not be subjected to higher taxes than then prevailed. This treaty was to remain in force for twenty-five years. The capital invested in that zone was almost exclusively Chilean, and the labourers employed were also of that nationality. Peru had large interests in the nitrate industry and began to intrigue with Bolivia, in order to prevent a ruinous competition in the market. So long as Chilean enterprise was left free this monopoly was impossible. As the interests of Peru and Bolivia were opposed to those of Chile, these two republics, in 1872, entered into a secret treaty of alliance. Like many state secrets this one became public, and Chile began to prepare for a conflict, which seemed impending, by purchasing ironclads and in other ways strengthening her navy.

In 1870 a revolution occurred in Bolivia, and a new government came into power which refused to carry out the provisions of the last treaty entered into with Chile. It, furthermore, at the alleged suggestion of Peru, attempted to increase the taxes upon all nitrate exports, in absolute violation of its treaty obligations. The manager of a Chilean company was imprisoned, and the property was confiscated on his refusal to pay the enhanced tax. Chile issued an ultimatum through her diplomatic representative. Upon the refusal of the Bolivian government to recede, Chile landed troops at Antofagasta and took possession of that city. Bolivia declared war against Chile on the 1st of March, 1879, and, because Peru refused to abrogate the secret treaty between it and Bolivia, Chile declared war against Peru the following month. Most writers lay the blame for the war entirely upon the aggressiveness and covetousness of Chile, but a careful study of the situation shows great moderation on the part of Chile for a long period of time.

It was generally believed that the Peruvian navy was far superior to that of Chile, but, as a matter of fact, they were pretty evenly matched. For several years Chile had steadily strengthened her naval forces. Peru had suffered from internal dissensions and corrupt administrations, and was ill prepared for war. Bolivia was in still worse condition. At the time of the outbreak of hostilities the only available arms were fifteen hundred Remington rifles, and the stock of ammunition was small; the rest of the army was equipped with old flint-lock muskets. The bulk of both the Peruvian and Bolivian armies were Indians. The Chilean army was not large at the time of the declaration of war, but its personnel, man for man, was far superior to either of its adversaries. The Chileans were likewise prompt and energetic in their preparations for war. The land forces were increased, and both naval and army supplies were accumulated at strategic points. Because of the long stretch of sea coast it was inevitable that the navies of the two countries would bear the brunt of the fighting, as subsequent events proved.

The naval war was opened with the blockade of Iquique by the Chileans. With Iquique as a rendezvous the Chilean navy visited various ports, and inflicted serious damage to commercial interests. The aim was to deprive Peru of her main source of revenue. Peru had an intrepid and doughty admiral by the name of Grau, who commanded the Peruvian fleet, of which the Huascar was the flagship. While the main part of the Chilean navy was away from Iquique, two Peruvian boats appeared in that harbour. The Huascar rammed and sank the Esmeralda, one of the best of the Chilean ships, after four hours of heavy firing. It was at this fight that Arturo Prat, who was in command of the Esmeralda, made a hero of himself by leaping upon the deck of the Huascar. “Follow me,” said this brave officer, as he boarded the Huascar, sword in hand. The ships, however, separated so quickly that only one man was able to follow him. Prat rushed along the deck of the ship as though he himself had captured it. “Surrender, Captain,” said Admiral Grau, “we wish to save the life of a hero.” Prat refused, and was soon cut down while still fighting with his sword. The Esmeralda sank with colours flying, and only fifty out of a crew of two hundred were saved. Before the conflict ended, however, Peru also lost one vessel, the Independencia, which ran upon the rocks while pursuing the Chilean Covadonga.

For four months Admiral Grau traversed the Pacific coast from Arica to Valparaiso. He prevented the transport of the Chilean army northward. Discontent grew rapidly. The Chileans decided that they could do nothing until they rid themselves of this doughty seaman. Their navy was divided into two squadrons, both of which began patrolling the coast. The Huascar was accompanied by the Bolivian Union. These two vessels were cruising together near Antofagasta on October 8th, 1879. When the mist, which had been thick, lifted, they made out three distinct clouds of smoke toward the northeast. These were soon recognized as one of the Chilean squadrons. Admiral Grau fled, but soon ran into the other squadron approaching him from the direction in which he was fleeing. The Admiral at once decided that the only thing to do was to close with the Cochrane before the other boats could come up, and steamed straight for that boat. None of the shots of either boat were effective until they were in close quarters, when a chance shot disabled the Huascar’s turret. Grau tried to ram the Cochrane, but the latter was too quick for her. By this time the Chilean Blanco had come up and added her shots to those of her sister boat. A shot struck the conning-tower, in which the Admiral was stationed, and blew that commander into atoms. A little later the second officer, and then the next one in seniority, were killed, which demoralized the Peruvian crew. One-third of the officers and men had been either killed or wounded when the vessel was finally surrendered. This fight is interesting not only because it was one of the deciding events of the war, but it was the first fight between modern ironclads. The entire engagement lasted but little over an hour. After repairs the Huascar was incorporated into the Chilean navy.

The capture of the Huascar gave the Chileans the absolute command of the sea, and enabled them to land an army wherever they pleased along the coast. Nor did the Chileans delay their onward march. A Chilean army of ten thousand men, well-equipped, had been landed at Antofagasta, and other regiments were in Valparaiso ready to embark as occasion arose. On the 28th of October this army was embarked on fifteen transports convoyed by four men-of-war. The destination was kept a profound secret, but a few days later they steamed into the harbour of Pisagua. A small force of Bolivians defended this port, but they were unable to prevent the landing of the Chilean troops. A brief skirmish ensued but the Bolivians were soon in retreat. The allied forces of Peruvians and Bolivians had an army of some nineteen thousand men at Iquique. These men were marched out to meet the invaders. The march of these forces across the desert regions was difficult because of the lack of provisions, and especially the scant supply of water, from which the troops greatly suffered in many instances. The Chileans had established themselves at Dolores and San Francisco, where there was an abundant supply of fresh water.

The majority of the allied armies were Inca and Aymara Indians. They had generally been recruited by force. Villages would be surrounded, and all the men that could be caught were impressed into the ranks. They were generally obedient and brave, and were capable of enduring hunger, thirst and fatigue such as would have overwhelmed white troops. They were unequalled in their capacity to make long marches with scant supplies of food and water. In no other way could the Chileans have been withstood. The wives of many accompanied them. These women are called rabonas, and were regularly recognized. As soon as a halt was made these women immediately busied themselves in preparing the food. After the battles they ministered to the wounded. Callous to all danger hundreds of these faithful helpmates met death on the field of carnage.

The first battle occurred at San Francisco and Porvenir. The vanguard of the allies was made up of Indians from the Lake Titicaca district. They were led by the brave Colonel Espinar. As these forces led a charge against the Chilean guns a bullet pierced his forehead, and he fell mortally wounded. A cry of grief and horror fell from his countrymen and their courage failed. Disputing every inch of ground they fell back to the main body of troops. The battle so gallantly fought resulted in a decisive victory for the Chileans.

General Buendia, commander of the allied forces, retreated to the village of Tarapacá, which was a collection of mud huts. It is situated in a narrow but fertile valley not to exceed six hundred yards in width, and he there awaited the attack which he knew was soon to follow. With practically no cavalry and a dozen antiquated field-guns the prospect was not alluring. The odds seemed hopeless. He was not kept long in suspense. A force under Colonel Arteaga consisting of picked men, cavalry and artillery soon appeared. The aim was the complete destruction of the allied army. For this purpose the force had been divided into three divisions.

A mist hung over the little valley while the Peruvian army rested with stacked arms. Suddenly a muleteer galloped up to the commander and reported the enemy approaching. Then two others reported the other divisions. It looked as though they were being surrounded and caught in a trap. Then came the call to arms. The men responded and advanced up the bluffs against a withering fire. The stoical Indians saw their leaders fall, but they set their teeth and continued the advance. The Chileans at last found their equals. The allied forces were embarrassed by a lack of artillery, but fought desperately. Many were the deeds of heroism of that day. After a few hours of fighting they captured some guns from the enemy and used them to good advantage. The result of the battle was a decided victory for the allies, their only real victory of the war on land. San Francisco was atoned for, and the loss of the Huascar avenged. The total loss was twelve hundred men, about equally divided. The allies nevertheless retreated across the desert to Tacna, as it was impossible to maintain an army in the interior and they were not strong enough to recapture Iquique. In this way General Buendia saved the flower of his army. In several battles of this campaign several thousand troops were lost on each side, but, as a result, the Chileans came into control of all of the nitrate country. Several months later Tacna was captured, and, with the battle of Arica, which has heretofore been described, all of present-day Chile was in control of the victors.

The disasters to the armies of the allies caused revolutions in both Peru and Bolivia, and the President of each of those countries fled to Europe. Armed revolts arose and fighting took place in the streets of Lima. The position of Peru was desperate. With her navy destroyed Peru could no longer defend herself against the aggressions of the enemy on the sea. The Chileans blockaded Callao, and a marauding expedition under Captain Lynch bombarded a number of coast towns. Captain Lynch had been ordered to ravage the whole coast north of Callao, and he executed his instructions to the letter, destroying government and private property in every direction. Several Chilean boats were sunk in the harbour of Callao through ingenious schemes of the Peruvians. On one occasion the Chileans saw a boat loaded with fresh provisions. They began to transfer these supplies to the Loa. As the last of the cargo was being hoisted aboard, a terrific explosion occurred that sank the Loa. It was no doubt due to an infernal machine that had been placed in the bottom. The Covadonga was destroyed by a similar explosion on a small boat captured in the harbour by the Chileans.

The United States offered its mediation in October, 1880, and commissioners of the three countries met on board the corvette Lackawanna of the United States navy, in the harbour of Arica. The first meeting took place on the 22nd of October, when the American minister took the chair and announced the purpose of the convention. He added that the American representatives would take no part in the discussion, but would be glad to help with friendly suggestions. The Chilean commissioners presented a memorandum of their demands, which was in substance what was eventually granted, but the Peruvians refused such hard terms, thinking that foreign intervention would save them. Chile absolutely refused arbitration or a full war indemnity, and the convention broke up without any progress having been made towards peace.

The delay of a few months in the progress of the war had enraged the volatile Chileans, and those in charge of the war finally decided that it would be necessary to capture Lima. An expeditionary force of thirty thousand men of all arms was organized, transports were purchased and the resources of the country were taxed to the utmost to carry on this expedition. The army was formed into three divisions, one of which, under Captain Patrick Lynch, was ordered to land at Pisco. A second division was instructed to disembark at Curayaco Bay, which was one hundred miles nearer the capital than Pisco. The first division was ordered to march by land northward to join the second division in the final attack upon the capital.

At Lima all was confusion as the news of the actual advance of the Chileans towards the capital reached that city. “The City of the Kings,” as Pizarro had named it, the wealthy and prosperous capital of modern Peru, was now threatened with all the horrors of war. The population of the city at that time has been estimated at one hundred thousand souls, of whom at least fifteen thousand were foreigners. The inhabitants were pleasure-loving, and there was a very large irresponsible element, composed in part of negroes and Indians, that meant trouble in those dark days. The flower of the Peruvian army had been destroyed. Thousands rested on the deserts of Tarapacá, and the sand hills of Tacna and Arica. Those seasoned troops that were in the city had become more or less disorganized. A decree was issued ordering every male resident in Lima between the ages of sixteen and sixty, of whatever trade, profession and calling, to join the army. Gay and thoughtless youths, students, idlers and the vicious were all brought together in the ranks under this order. It is easy to make such decrees, but a decree does not make an army. It takes months to create an efficient fighting force. However brave these Peruvians might be, they were not trained in military service, and they lacked the qualities of the seasoned soldiers of the Chilean army. From three to six in the afternoon all business was suspended by Presidential decree, and these drafted troops were drilled. The call to arms was made by the tolling of the bell in the great cathedral. The artillery was inferior, and it could not compete with the Krupp and Armstrong guns with which the invaders were provided.

Nicolas de Pierola, who was at the head of the army, with the title of Supreme Chief, realized the danger, and strove in the best way possible to prepare for it. At a meeting of all the generals and naval officers, plans were evolved to protect the city. As soon as it became known that the invading army had landed to the south of Lima the preparations were devoted to protecting the city from that direction. As the time was short it was not possible to prepare extensive fortifications. A chain of sandhills, which ran through Chorrillos, about ten miles from the city to the south, was chosen as the first line of defense. These hills formed a sort of natural barrier, and breastworks were thrown up at various places along them, and these newly-recruited and hastily-drilled troops were stationed along this first line of defense, which was at least six miles long. A second line of defense just outside Miraflores, and four miles nearer the capital, was established, and thousands of these troops were stationed there. The time was too short to create very formidable fortifications.

The first division of the Chilean army landed at Pisco on the 13th of December, and immediately began its march overland. Villages and plantations were destroyed along the route, and the record of Captain Lynch is a rather cruel one. On the 25th a junction of the two divisions was made at Curayaco. These two bodies proceeded to Lurin, a small village lying in a beautiful little valley, and remained there about three weeks, while making their final preparations for the capture of the capital. This time was spent in reconnoitering and collecting provisions for the final campaign. The Chilean army at this time consisted of an effective force of twenty-six thousand men, with seventy long range field guns, and a considerable body of cavalry. Most of these troops were thoroughly disciplined men, who had had experience in previous campaigns. They were under the command of General Baquedano, who had made a record for himself in this war.

The battle of Chorrillos began at dawn on the morning of the 13th of January, 1881. The Peruvians were taken by surprise, but resisted bravely. It was not long, however, until their right flank was driven back, and then various other points of defense were carried at the point of the bayonet. The Chilean cavalry completed the victory by pursuing and cutting down fugitives in every direction, until the plains for several miles were covered with the dead bodies of the Peruvians. The Peruvians fell back in more or less disorder to the second line of defense, which was only six miles distant from the city itself. An armistice was arranged by the diplomatic corps at Lima on the 15th, in the hope of preventing any more bloodshed and averting the horrors of a battle just outside the capital. This was done at the request of the Peruvian commander-in-chief, and the Chilean general agreed that it should last until midnight of the 15th. Through some misunderstanding some shots were exchanged, and each party believed that the other had violated its agreement, so that the battle of Miraflores was fought on that date. The defense of the Peruvians was brave, as they were fighting for their homes and the city which all of them loved. The battle extended over the entire line of the second defense, which was not less than four miles. The battle began early in the afternoon, and a number of warships in the harbour near there assisted in the assault by firing their long range guns. The ammunition of the defenders ran low and the defense began to weaken. The Chileans made a bayonet charge, and one breastwork after another was captured. For almost four hours the defense was maintained, but at the end of that time the Chileans were victors. The village of Miraflores was burned; the pleasant country homes surrounding it were sacked, the crops destroyed and the work of devastation was terrible. On the 16th, Lima was surrendered to the Chilean general by the Municipal Alcalde, and possession was to be given on the following day. The intervening night was a night of terror, and, had it not been for the voluntary service of the foreign colony, the whole city might have been sacked by the disorderly elements in it.

The Chilean commander entered Lima on the 16th and established himself in the palace. He immediately took possession of the revenues, policed the city, and endeavoured to restore peaceful conditions to such an extent as they could be under a military government by a hated foe. A million pesos a month was levied upon the citizens, and they were required to meet it. The conduct of the Chileans was reprehensible in that they became vandals. A great part of the valuable library, filled with almost priceless volumes, was looted and some of it sold as junk on the streets. Pictures and statues were removed and taken to Chile, where they may still be seen. The Chileans, coming from the same stock and claiming allegiance to the same church, did not seem to have any consideration for a fallen foe.

Before a treaty could be entered into it was necessary to have a government established with which to treat. Several attempts were made, but no one could be found who dared sign a treaty that would permanently alienate a portion of the country. The Chileans refused to treat with Pierola, so that he resigned. Calderon assumed the presidency, but the congress refused him authority to alienate any territory. Admiral Montero next attempted the seemingly impossible and failed. At length General Iglesias called a convention of his compatriots in the northern districts, and it was decided to adopt measures that would secure the speedy retirement of the Chileans, no matter at what sacrifice. He declared himself President, and his pretensions were supported by the Chileans. A treaty was arranged with Chile, which was signed provisionally on the 23rd of October, 1883, and is known as the Treaty of Ancon. Five days later the Peruvian flag was again hoisted in Lima, and the Chileans left the country. It was a number of years later before a treaty of peace was arranged with Bolivia, although no further fighting took place.

It is quite possible that the last word has not yet been spoken in the nitrate controversy between Chile and Peru. The feeling of Peruvians toward their late foe is intensely bitter. They all look forward to another day of war, and predict that Peru will retake from Chile all that she has lost. If some ambitious leader should arise in Peru and secure the presidency, another war might easily follow. At the present time Peru’s finances would not warrant such a step. It is to be hoped that both nations will seriously consider the ultimate consequences of war, and make unnecessary the reference of mooted questions to the arbitrament of the field of battle.

The successful conclusion of the war with Peru and Bolivia began a new era in Chile. The control of the nitrate fields meant an immense revenue for the government, and everyone wanted a chance to reap some profit. Politics absorbed the public attention, and the holding of office became the most popular occupation. Material prosperity followed. The Chileans believed themselves invincible on land and sea. With outside troubles settled for the time being internal dissensions arose, and the fight between the clergy and the anti-clericals broke out with renewed energy. The time seemed ripe for the settlement of disturbing questions arising out of the union of church and state.

A new presidential election became necessary soon after the capture of Lima, and while the victorious troops were still in possession of that city. Through the influence of President Pinto, Don Domingo Santa Maria (which, in English, means Sunday Saint Mary) was chosen as his successor. The opposition tried to centre on General Baquedano, the popular hero of the recent war, but the prestige of the government was too powerful. He was a liberal and had been banished for his opinions by President Montt. The conservatives by this time were in a great minority. Santa Maria was bitterly opposed to clerical influence in political affairs, and this led to bitter opposition from that quarter. The President proclaimed that the time had come for absolute liberty of conscience, civil marriage and the secularization of the cemeteries. Heretofore the priests alone had charge of the registers of births, deaths and marriages, were alone able to perform marriages, and in the cemeteries only those baptized into the Roman Catholic church were permitted interment in consecrated ground. All other political questions were held in abeyance during this controversy, and feeling became intense. The President was obliged to use all his official prestige in order to secure a majority in Congress, but he succeeded in passing a law requiring civil marriage, freeing the cemeteries and establishing a special official for the registration of births, deaths and marriages. These were, indeed, valuable reforms, and reflect credit on the administration of Santa Maria. Serious disorders resulted as the 1886 election approached, in which several persons lost their lives. Several men had the presidential bee in their bonnets and were backed by an active following. Nevertheless, in spite of all opposition, Santa Maria’s chief cabinet officer, and the man who had been most active in carrying out his program, Balmaceda, was chosen to succeed his chief, through the active aid of the administration and its official influence.

Since the close of the war with Peru, the most noted name in Chilean history is that of José Manuel Balmaceda. He was inaugurated President on the 18th of September, 1886, and his term was destined to be marked by stirring events. This man was, as a contemporary describes him, “about fifty years of age, six feet in height, of spare build and broad sloping forehead, with a good, humourous eye and wears generally on his face a half-playful, half-cynical smile.” His opponents call him a tyrant, a usurper and a dictator, but historians generally credit him with being a man far ahead of his time.

The first position of prominence held by Balmaceda, except as a member of Congress, was in the cabinet of President Santa Maria. Educated for the priesthood, he had been saved from that career by the opposition of his father, and later he became one of the most radical opponents of the Church, and one of the leaders in the fight for the separation of Church and State, which had been carried on during the term of his predecessor. He had been one of the most active and influential advocates of the radical programs of the reformistas. At the time of Balmaceda’s election the country was divided into no less than six different parties, ranging from the fiercest radicals to the most conservative churchmen. The civil marriage law, which had been inaugurated during the term of Santa Maria, as well as some other anti-church legislation, had aroused the opposition of all the clergy. The priests went so far as to refuse to perform a religious ceremony for any one who had been married by civil officers, and had even excommunicated the President and his cabinet who supported that measure. The women, who were especially under the domination of the priests, used all of their influence in opposition to the new marriage law. Nevertheless, with all of this opposition, ladies’ entreaties and priests’ absolution could not prevent the election of Balmaceda, who was chosen by a coalition of the radical elements, even though they were somewhat loosely cohered.

Balmaceda took the reins of government at an exceedingly unfortunate period. I have already had occasion to state the predominating influence of Congress in the government, and the possibilities it gave for an obstinate Congress to embarrass the President. It had become one of the unwritten laws that the resignation of a ministry should follow an adverse vote on any measure. In other words a ministry could only hold office when it represented a majority in Congress. As no power was given the President to dissolve that body when an adverse majority existed, so that an appeal might be made to the country, the President was greatly hampered. The last year of Santa Maria’s administration had brought about a serious condition of affairs. Violent scenes were enacted in Congress in the fight between the supporters of the President and his opponents. The revenue and appropriation bills had expired, and a filibuster on the part of the opposition had prevented new ones from being enacted.

It was at this crisis that Balmaceda was inaugurated. He faced the situation courageously, and proceeded to collect the taxes and pay the expenses in accordance with the provisions of the expired law. This situation was accepted by the country, for a prosperity had fallen upon Chile such as the country had never known. In spite of reckless expenditures the revenues from the nitrate fields, which had been taken from Peru, mounted up so rapidly that the surplus soon reached immense sums. Mining industries of all kinds were exceedingly flourishing. Balmaceda, who was both clever and capable, as well as sincere, entered upon a campaign to educate the people, and no less than fifteen hundred public schools were established by him. Hospitals, health offices, fire brigades and other progressive institutions were aided liberally. Many public works, including railways and colonization schemes, were fostered, salaries were raised, and the Araucanian Indians were admitted as citizens of the republic. New election laws were passed, which had for their purpose the development of real democratic government.

Nevertheless beneath the outward prosperity a smouldering fire was burning. The slogan of Balmaceda “Chile for the Chileans” aroused the opposition of foreign interests. The reduction of ecclesiastical fees and stipends, and the enforcement of the civil marriage law, kept the opposition of the clergy alive. The jealousy of the old families, who had heretofore been supreme in the government, to the new democratic measures advocated by Balmaceda were aroused. Furthermore the election of Balmaceda was really not by a party, but the result of a temporary coalition of three discordant elements. By 1889 Balmaceda had succeeded in arousing the enmity of practically all the parties. The progressive elements had split into nationals, liberals, dissentient-liberals and radicals. Continual changes in his cabinet followed, and one group was substituted for another every few months. It had been the ambition of Balmaceda to unite all the liberal elements into one party, but in this he had signally failed.

Balmaceda soon found himself without a majority in Congress, and with no prospect of securing one. Heretofore a majority had sometimes been acquired by the trading of votes among the different factions in exchange for a share of patronage. Even this method no longer availed. The idea gradually became prevalent that the President was plotting to build up a strong personal following, in order to establish a dictatorship and replace with it the power of Congress. Circumstances, as much as anything else, practically forced Balmaceda into this position. He believed in himself and his own motives, and the selfishness of the different liberal groups irritated him. All of this turmoil was galling to a man of the character of Balmaceda. Reformation of various evils was his aim, but he found himself thwarted at every turn. He soon grasped the fact that if he could control Congress, he could settle the vexed questions which, in his opinion, retarded the development of his country. Furthermore, he gave a wider interpretation to the constitution in relation to the powers of the executive than did the legislative body.

Congress finally refused to pass appropriation bills or vote supplies for the army, and, in retaliation, Balmaceda dissolved Congress, which he claimed he had a right to do under the constitution of 1833. In January, 1890, he appointed a cabinet composed exclusively of personal followers, and these new ministers announced that they would hold office so long as they were satisfactory to the President, regardless of Congress. A definite rupture was inevitable, for the breach had become so wide that temporizing was impossible. Balmaceda must either resign or assume dictatorial powers. He chose the latter.

The Comision Conservada, which safeguards the interests of Congress when that body is not in session, demanded that that body be convoked. Balmaceda ignored the request. A mass meeting in Santiago denounced the President. The opposition finally became so bold that a junta was formed, of which Captain Jorge Montt, a naval officer, was the head. The particular charges made by the revolutionists were that the President had no right to maintain any military forces after the appropriations for its support were exhausted. Balmaceda retaliated with a proclamation that he would follow the precedent established when he came into office, would collect taxes and maintain the public service by executive authority until the assembling of the next Congress. He expressly disclaimed any intention of establishing a dictatorship, but refused to allow Congress to interfere with the executive functions of the government. As neither party would recede actual war soon followed.

Through the influence of Captain Montt the entire navy, with the exception of a couple of torpedo boats, adhered to the revolutionists. On the night of January 6th, 1891, the Vice-President of the Senate and the President of the Chamber of Deputies embarked on the Blanco Encalada with Captain Montt, and the revolution was begun. A cargo of war material designed for the government was captured and the naval stores at Talcahuana seized. On the 10th a skirmish occurred between the shore batteries at Valparaiso and some boats of the navy, and in this engagement the first blood in this civil war was shed. From this time events moved forward with great rapidity. The majority of the aristocracy espoused the cause of the revolutionists, and this move had great influence. Although several attempts were made to produce mutiny among the troops they remained loyal to Balmaceda.

The disaffection of the entire navy was both a surprise and disappointment to Balmaceda, but he immediately placed the army on a war footing and increased their pay. A reward of two years pay was offered to the crew of any man-of-war if the vessel deserted the revolutionary cause, but this inducement had no effect. Balmaceda placed the troops in several parts of the country, where he thought they would be most useful in defense. The natural conditions of Chile, however, hindered him. As the revolutionists had control of the sea, it was impossible for Balmaceda to relieve the small garrisons at Iquique, Antofagasta and Pisagua, the nitrate ports. The revolutionists, after a few short skirmishes, obtained possession of these places. Pisagua fell first, and a couple of bloody battles were fought for its possession and then recovery. The troops at Iquique were withdrawn to resist the land forces, and marines were landed who captured it.

THE MILITARY BARRACKS, SANTIAGO.

The congressionalists then established their headquarters at Iquique, and took possession of the immense revenues derived from the export of nitrate. With this cash they purchased the most modern arms and equipments. Balmaceda, although having means, was unable to get modern rifles, so that his troops were not so well armed as those of the revolutionists. The two torpedo boats, which remained loyal to the government succeeded in sinking the Blanco Encalada, and also in doing other damage to the navy, but not enough to cripple its effectiveness. Blockades of the ports cut off all of Balmaceda’s outside supplies. Balmaceda attempted to purchase ironclads in Europe, but the revolutionists outbid him and he was unable to build up a navy. The long seacoast was also a disadvantage to him, since it was impossible for him to transport his troops by water as the revolutionists could. It was not many months until all the northern provinces were under the control of the revolutionists, but no engagements had taken place in the central or southern provinces. The revolutionists were encouraged by these successes, and public opinion was undoubtedly changing because of the high-handed and arbitrary methods of Balmaceda. Suspected persons were arrested, and many of them executed without trial. The value of human life seemed to sink into insignificance, and a reign almost of terror followed. In one instance a guerilla band composed of young men, some of whom were not more than sixteen years of age, and all belonging to the best families in Santiago, were captured by the government force at a farmhouse. Eight were shot at once and the others, after a court martial, were sent back to the place where they were captured to be executed. This led to a storm of execration against Balmaceda. Furthermore, he had chosen Señor Claudio Vicuña as his successor, and the latter was declared elected after a farcical contest in which no opposing candidate appeared. The congressionalists decided to carry the war into the heart of the enemy’s country, and a large army was embarked at the various northern ports under their control.

On the 18th of August, 1891, the revolutionary fleet of seventeen vessels suddenly appeared at Valparaiso with the entire revolutionary army, consisting of a little less than ten thousand men, aboard. This force was to oppose an army of forty thousand government forces. The former, however, were volunteers, while the latter was known to contain large numbers of disaffected ones. Two days later these troops were landed at Quinteros, not far from Valparaiso, and near the mouth of the Aconcagua River.

At this place the river flows through a flat valley, which is from six hundred to eight hundred yards in width, and is bordered by lines of hills from four hundred and fifty to six hundred feet in height. The government forces numbering six thousand, three hundred and twenty-two men, were located on the southern bank of the river at Concon, where their line was about three miles in length. They were armed with old rifles, while the troops of the revolutionists were provided with Mannlicher rifles of the newest pattern. General Korner, who was in charge of the congressists, did not hesitate before this formidable position. He divided his forces into three parts. One forded the icy-cold waters of the Aconcagua at Concon bajo and attacked the flank of the enemy. The second and third brigades engaged them from the opposite side of the river, and then crossed the river higher up. The ships of the navy also directed their fire against the Balmacedists. The battle was begun on the morning of the 21st. The government troops ran short of ammunition and began to give way. After four and one-half hours of fighting the battle was won. Retreat soon turned into a rout, and the defeated forces fled in every direction. The government loss was seventeen hundred killed and wounded, and fifteen hundred men and all their artillery captured. The revolutionists had only eight hundred and sixty-nine casualties. The result was a decided victory for Balmaceda’s enemies.

Of the Balmacedist troops only two thousand could be mustered after this disaster. But thousands of other troops were hurried to Valparaiso before railroad communication was severed. A slight repulse was given the congressists near Viña del Mar. The army then took a wide detour in order to attack Valparaiso from the southeast. The government forces took possession of the heights at Placilla and awaited the expected battle. Each army at this time exceeded nine thousand men and were evenly balanced. But the government forces were disheartened, even though they occupied an exceptionally strong position. Their cavalry seems also to have been untrustworthy, for they gave no intelligence of this expected move of the enemy. No less than four hundred cavalrymen actually deserted and joined the other army. The country through which the congressists marched was broken, full of small streams and marshes. Hundreds of weary stragglers slept out under the trees. They reached Las Cadenas on the 27th and rested during that night. Early on the morning of the following day they started for the Balmacedist position on the heights, and this seems to have been the first knowledge that army had of the presence of the foe. The revolutionists began the engagement with artillery fire. The advance was stubbornly resisted, but a bayonet charge carried an outpost. A hand-to-hand conflict ensued until the defenders finally threw down their arms. Generals Alcerrica and Barbosa fought valiantly until killed. A horrible slaughter followed and the troops of Balmaceda fled in all directions. The casualties on both sides were heavy. Although the fighting only lasted four hours the government loss in killed and wounded was three thousand, three hundred and sixty-three, and the victors lost eighteen hundred. That same night Valparaiso was occupied, and a night of carousal and lawlessness and bloodshed ensued. Houses were set on fire, and ruffians shot at the firemen as they attempted to put out the flames. The soldiers and mob seem to have been entirely beyond control. The next morning four or five hundred dead bodies were found on the streets.

CHILEAN SOLDIERS.

This battle was the deciding point of the civil war. When the news reached Valparaiso, Balmaceda realized it was useless to continue the struggle. He decided to resign and turn his office over to General Baquedano, a friend of the revolutionists. He issued a proclamation beseeching the citizens to preserve order during the crisis, in order to prevent bloodshed and plunder. On the 29th he turned the office over to General Baquedano in a short and dignified speech. That day being his wife’s saint day, the President had invited in several of his friends to dine. Notwithstanding the changed conditions Balmaceda did not recall the invitations, but acted during the whole evening as a generous host. As soon as his visitors had left, he walked over to the Argentine legation and took shelter. For several days the revolutionists believed that he had escaped the country and fled in disguise. No one suspected that the defeated President was at the house of the Argentine Minister, Mr. Uriburu, afterwards president of Argentina. On the 18th of September, the day upon which his legal term as president expired, the country was shocked to hear that Balmaceda had shot himself that morning at the home of his friend.

Balmaceda feared that his friends might be embarrassed by his presence, and he furthermore believed that his own death would make easier the position of those who had supported him during the trying times of the civil war. It is quite probable, also, that his pride could not brook the idea of a public trial and the humiliation necessarily attending it. To die, also, was to pose in a sense as a martyr. “I could escape,” he said in a letter to his brother, “but I would never run the risk of the ridicule any disaster to such an attempt would entail, and which would be the beginning of vexatious humiliation that I could not endure for myself or my family.” It was, indeed, a tragic end, and was done in a more or less tragical way, as he believed that he thus offered himself as an expiatory sacrifice. He left a message for his friends, which might be called his political testament, in which were these words: “Whenever you and the friends remember me, believe me that my spirit, full of the tenderest love, will be amongst you.” General Baquedano ruled the country for three days until the revolutionary junta reached Santiago, when he relinquished his authority to them. A short time later at a special election Jorge Montt was chosen as Balmaceda’s successor, although Vicuña had previously been selected by the following of the deceased executive. As was to be expected, after such a desperate struggle, Congress was composed of members having a common political platform. It had been decided that the executive should be advised by and rule in harmony with the legislative majority. President Montt accepted the situation and appointed a cabinet acceptable to the majority.

Confidence was soon restored and business quickly adjusted itself. The new President proved to be conservative and non-aggressive. The country was in a bad financial condition, but the nitrate revenues were large. The Balmacedists were gradually brought under amnesty laws, until all were finally permitted to return to Chile. Having been a sailor President Montt took steps to build up a stronger navy, in order to be ready for impending trouble with Argentina. For two years the new administration kept a majority, but a new election gave the Balmacedists the balance of power amidst the warring factions. Montt soon began to experience the same trouble as his predecessors. No party had a majority, and by new combinations of factions the dominating groups were changed. A new cabinet became necessary every few weeks, and no definite policy or program was possible. On the whole this administration was very satisfactory in view of the difficulties under which it laboured. Agricultural and mining depression further embarrassed his administration, but for these no government could be held responsible. President Montt retired from office with the respect of all.

At the election in 1896 Señor Federico Errázuriz, son of a former president of the same name, was elected over his opponent by a majority of one. The new congressional elections still further complicated matters. The liberal groups became more divided than ever. Cabinet crises grew even more frequent, and it was only when Congress was not in session that a ministry could remain in power any length of time. The result was an absolute confusion in legislation. The most serious foreign question was the dispute with Argentina. Excitement in both countries ran high. Warlike speeches were made, and the public mind was unduly excited. Preparations were made for the mobilization of an army of fifty thousand men, and a declaration of war was expected almost daily. President Errázuriz finally took the matter upon himself and asked that the matter be submitted to arbitration. Argentina at last consented. The northern part was to be decided by the representative of the United States in Argentina, Mr. W. I. Buchanan, and the southern section by Queen Victoria, of England. If Errázuriz had done nothing else during his term of office this one act places the whole country greatly in his debt. President Errázuriz died just before his term of office ended, and the duties of the office were filled by the Minister of the Interior, Señor Zañartú, until the inauguration of his successor.

Señor Jerman Riesco was chosen president for the term beginning November 18th, 1901. The same confusion continued during the greater part of his term, so that much useful legislation was rendered impossible. It was not possible for the executive to select a cabinet that would be responsive to his will, but he was obliged to take one selected for him by the legislative body. As President Balmaceda said: “Only in the organization of a popular representative government with independent and responsible powers, and easy means to make that responsibility effective, will there be parties of a national character, derived from the will of the people and ensuing harmony between the different powers of the state.” The several presidents since Balmaceda have realized this condition, but the serious lesson of the civil war has prevented any radical step being taken by the occupant of that office.

At the election in 1906, Pedro Montt, son of Manuel Montt, was elected to the office of President of Chile. President Montt had served his country in many ways, having been a member of Congress for a long time, had held positions in several cabinets, and had also represented Chile as minister to the United States. Owing to his dark complexion Montt was once taken for a negro in Washington and refused admission to a hotel. He proved to be a conservative and able president, who had at heart the best interests of his country. On few occasions, however, did he have the legislative body with him, and many of his good projects failed. He had ability, tact and honesty of purpose, but met the same obstacles as his predecessors. In July, 1910, President Montt visited the United States. He spent a few days in this country while on his way to Europe to secure medical attention, and was shown numerous official courtesies. He was a spectator of the shooting of Mayor Gaynor on board a steamer in New York harbour. Soon after reaching Europe President Montt was attacked by heart failure, and died in Bremen, Germany, on the 16th day of August, 1910. Señor Elias Fernandez Albano, Minister of the Interior, assumed the office of executive on the death of President Montt. In poor health at the time Acting-President Albano survived less than one month after his inauguration, and died on the 7th of September.

On the 15th of November, 1910, Dr. Ramon Barros Luco was elected President of Chile, and assumed office on the 23rd of December, 1910. Dr. Luco was born in 1835, and has had a long and honourable career in politics. He held the office of Minister of Finance and Minister of the Interior under several different administrations. He has also been President of the Senate, and has filled numerous other responsible positions. He now has the opportunity to round out a long life, which has already passed the scriptural limit, with the highest office in the gift of his countrymen.

Nitrates have heretofore formed the chief wealth of Chile, and will continue to do so for some time in the future. But agricultural and industrial development will eventually overshadow all else—even the saltpetre deposits. The great central valley will be the chief centre of a permanent and growing population. In this region all kinds of farming, fruit-growing and stock-raising, flourish. Temperate and semi-tropical products grow, for the orange and the grape, the pear and the apple are found side by side. It not only grows enough for home consumption, but large quantities of grain are exported. The raising of live stock, especially cattle and hogs, is continually on the increase. Agriculture in this valley is susceptible of very great expansion. The proprietors of the large haciendas are satisfied with comparatively small returns from their lands, and this fact retards the development through its lack of encouragement to the small farmer. There is no doubt that small farms would add greatly to the production of this fertile valley, because the effectiveness of each acre would be increased. More than sixty thousand acres are set out in grapes alone. The beet root has been introduced and is said to grow very well.

Then come the forest lands of the southern provinces, which must certainly prove a source of great natural riches in the not distant future. Tierra del Fuego promises great things in the way of sheep-raising. Sheep grow an especially fine quality of silky wool there, which brings a good price in the market. There are already several million head of sheep in that district.

Chile still has a wealth of undiscovered mineral treasures within her boundaries. The labour, transportation and fuel problem have heretofore been the drawbacks, as well as isolation from the world’s consumption. In the northern part of the republic, at the coast ports, coal costs almost ten dollars per ton, a price that does not stimulate its use. In the interior it is still higher because of the cost of transportation. The government has enacted very favourable mining laws. A discoverer of a new claim is entitled to fifteen hectares, or about thirty-six acres. An ordinary mining claim is only one-third as large. No person can file more than one claim at a time in a district, but other names are oftentimes substituted in order to group claims together. Development of a claim is not compulsory, and the tax upon undeveloped claims is very low, so that it is not a burdensome proposition to hold a claim as long as the law allows. Many wildcat companies have been organized in Chile, as elsewhere, and there has been much speculation in these stocks. It is not difficult to interest the Latin people in any form of gambling or speculation.

Chile promises great development in manufacturing. In fact, Chile is more likely to become a commercial nation than any republic of South America. There are already more than eight thousand industrial establishments of all kinds. Tanning of leather, making of shoes, refining of chemical products, woollen and cotton mills, etc., are included in these. The government policy has been one of protection and, in some instances, of actual bounties. Sugar refineries have thus been built up which refine the raw product imported from Peru. They now grind much of their own wheat. Some of the railway equipment used on the national railroads is made in the country. The roto seems to make a competent workman in the factories. The coal mines and prevalence of water power almost everywhere gives Chile a great advantage over her neighbour, Argentina, in the way of manufacturing advantages.

Although the operation of the national railways has been unprofitable, and permeated with gross mismanagement and graft, yet the dogged persistence with which the parallel iron rails have been spread over the country has been most commendable. The longitudinal railway has been pushed little by little each year, and sometimes at the expense of national sacrifice. The first transandine railway is now an accomplished fact, and another route now occupies national attention. After the settlement of the boundary question with Argentina, the vast sums that had been expended annually in preparing for war were diverted to internal development. The beneficial results can easily be traced in both cities and country. The fearful earthquake of 1906 caused a severe back-set, as the government was obliged to step in and aid in the rebuilding of its principal port, Valparaiso.

A MARKET SCENE, VALPARAISO.

The government in Chile is rather different from that of most of the Latin-American countries. In form it is like unto that of the United States; in fact, it is a government of a few of the leading families. In theory the President is the executive head; in practice, that official is very much of a cipher. Absolute powers for the executive, that prevailed for the first half century of the republic, have been abolished, and Congress is now the real ruling power. Whether the country is ruled or misruled the blame must be placed on that body, for its authority is very broad. In it a small group of families, generally said to be one hundred, always predominate. Among these will be some who have become rich through banking or commercial development, but most of them are landowners in families that have been prominent for generations. All the honours and emoluments are kept within this small circle. To it may be added the power of the Church, for that organization has been most powerful in political matters. It has been in times past simply a part of the political system. In recent years the government has insisted on the right to name the Archbishop, and Rome has been practically forced to concede this privilege. As a rule the influence of the Church has been in favour of what might be termed the reactionary element.

As has been stated elsewhere the President is assisted by a body of advisors, the majority of whom are chosen by the parliamentary body. This has led to frequent and oftentimes ridiculous ministerial crises. These numerous cabinet changes embarrass an executive in whatever policy he may be trying to develop. But he is helpless under the theory of parliamentary government that has grown up. Whenever the President proposes a certain cabinet, he is met by a counter proposition from some group or other in the legislative bodies. Sometimes he may gain a little temporary majority by a coalition or fusion of some of the groups represented in Congress. Selfish interests or jealousies, however, soon break the union. It is at times embarrassing to diplomatic representatives, for no sooner have they completed negotiations with one cabinet official than he is succeeded by another. No vice-president is elected, the executive office, if vacated by death or resignation, is filled temporarily by the Minister of the Interior, who is usually a member either of the Senate or House of Deputies. The Congress will then select a new executive. A change in this system, which would make the executive more independent, and provision for a different succession might work marvels. This was the trouble with that able and progressive President, Balmaceda. To carry out his beneficial policies he defied Congress, and a bloody civil war followed.

Politics in Chile seem very much complicated and confused to an American. Instead of two or three parties, the small voting population of the country are divided into no less than seven or eight, with other combinations under new names appearing every year or two. At the present time one can distinguish the following: Conservadores, Liberales, Radicales, Democratas, Balmacedistas, Montinos and Liberales-Democraticos. Of these the most extreme are probably the Radicales, who occupy about the same position in Chile that the Socialists do in our own country. At least they contest for that position with the Liberales, who claim to be the most radical of any of the political parties in Chile.

The Conservadores are the old church party, and are made up of the wealthy land owners, and those who have grown rich in mines, railroads, etc. This party was formerly the strongest political organization, and ruled the country for a long period; but, within the last two decades, it has greatly lost its grip, and the only way in which it cuts much of a figure in the government is when it enters into combinations occasionally with some of the stronger elements. The Democratas are made up principally of the labouring classes, who loudly proclaim what they will do for the downtrodden labouring man, and they are blamed for the strikes and riots in recent years. The Liberales-Democratas are, as the name indicates, in a midway position between the two parties after whom they are named.

The Balmacedistas are those who stand for the things that Balmaceda stood for; that is, for an enlarged power in the executive. This party, it seems to me, is bound to grow because every president is confronted with the domination of the legislative body. The Montistos are made up of the followers of the Montt family, who have been prominent in the country since the downfall of Balmaceda. They include those who favour the rule of the country by Congress.

Politics are no doubt more or less corrupt in Chile, as in many other countries. In this respect the country is neither unique nor original. If one was to believe the statements made in opposition press, just as if one was to believe all such statements made in the sensational “yellow” press of our own country, you would think the entire government was rotten from President down to the lower officials. Free speech and a free press run riot in Chile. There is an inclination to make wild charges, and editorial writers certainly say more than they actually mean.

Elections are oftentimes almost farcical. Nominations for Congress are made very much as with us. Candidates are named, and a campaign is carried on by means of meetings, placards and newspapers. Manifestos and appeals to voters are issued by the various candidates and their supporters. The side that gets control of the election machinery, however, is in a much better position than the one that merely has the votes. They are then counted as the ones in charge desire, and this method is considered proper and legitimate by all parties. Bi-partisan boards and an Australian ballot system are unheard of and unthought—and, furthermore, an undesired innovation. What is the use of having the election machinery in your control and not using it for your candidate? This is the average Chilean view of the subject, and the losers usually acquiesce more or less good naturedly. In this respect the situation is very similar in all the republics south of the Rio Grande River.

In business deals the Chilean is about as honest and reliable as in other countries. Many think the Chilenos are robbers and cut-throats. But it is not so. Those engaged in business in the country give the Chileans a good reputation for honesty. They are procrastinating and slow sometimes in meeting obligations, but they do not attempt to avoid payment; and they are always willing to pay current rates of interest on overdue accounts. My personal experience in Latin countries in that respect has been good, as I have never lost anything whatever from thieves or purloiners in hotels, stations or elsewhere. Many instances of the honesty of hotel servants, cab drivers and other workers are told by foreigners, who have been in Chile. The lottery and bull-fight have both been abolished in Chile, and this speaks well for another form of honour among the Chilenos. The bull-fight has disappeared from a number of the republics, but Chile stands alone in prohibiting the lottery which is one of the curses of all her neighbours. The lottery-ticket vendor is usually one of the first persons seen in a Latin-American country.

Military service in Chile is compulsory. It is not a crushing burden, however, for the regular army does not exceed fifteen thousand men. This proves that military service is not enforced very strongly, as that number would include only a small proportion of those subject to duty each year. One year is supposed to be spent with the colours, after which the conscript passes to the first reserve for nine years, and is then included in the second reserve until he attains the age of forty-five years. Any child born in Chile is subject to this service, so that foreigners sometimes grumble. The instructors in the army are often German officers, and the tactics are strictly Teutonic as well as the costumes. In every way the German influence is noticeable. The personnel of the army is good. The men are hardy, active and vigorous. Their courage has been proved on the field of battle many times. The country is divided into five military zones with headquarters at Santiago.

THE BATTLESHIP “O’HIGGINS.”

Chile has always possessed a good navy. The naval fleet at the present time is composed of forty vessels, among which are nine ironclads and protected cruisers, five gunboats and torpedo cruisers, thirteen torpedo boats, four destroyers, etc. The finest ship is the Esmeralda, which is a boat of seven thousand and thirty tons and capable of a speed of twenty-one knots. She carries two 8-inch and sixteen 6-inch guns. Then come the O’Higgins, Ministro Zentano, Chacabuco, and President Errázuriz—all of them protected cruisers. The Capitan Prat is a battleship of six thousand nine hundred and sixty-six tons and twelve thousand horse-power and a nominal speed of eighteen and three-tenths knots. This boat was built in 1890. The cruisers were mostly constructed from 1896 to 1898 in British and Italian shipyards. Chile has recently placed an order for a Dreadnaught of the latest design, which will still further add to the efficiency of the Chilean navy. In this respect she is following the lead of Brazil and Argentina.

The United States could and should have a much greater proportion of Chile’s trade. Too many manufacturers depend wholly on business houses conducted by English or German merchants—men who naturally prefer the goods made by their own countrymen. Others send representatives who are illy adapted to deal with Chileans and other Latin Americans. An American bank would work wonders in developing trade. It seems strange that American capitalists hesitate about investing their money in such an institution. Foreign banks established in South America have paid good dividends. Among those in Chile are the Anglo-South American Bank, Bank of London and the River Plate, German Transatlantique and the Banco Italiano. The figures of exports and imports given below are in themselves eloquent testimonials of the value of Chilean trade. Branch houses in charge of hustling Americans, or agencies placed with American importers should be the aim of every manufacturer who intends to push the trade into Chile or any of the other republics of Latin America. At the present time there are very few citizens of the United States resident in Chile—probably less than five hundred in the entire republic.

“Why do you not buy your steel work in the United States?” I asked of a wealthy Chilean gentleman who was building a large modern block in Santiago.

“I wanted to do so,” he answered, “but your manufacturers would not grant the terms that were gladly and voluntarily offered me in Europe. As a result, I bought all my steel for this building, which will cost more than a half million dollars gold, in Belgium. The only equipment for the building made in the United States will be a half dozen elevators.”

This simply illustrates one phase of the shortsightedness of our manufacturers in dealing with South America. The field is a large one, and a discriminating one as well. It is humiliating at times to an American to travel throughout the length and breadth of South America, and see the trade that legitimately belongs to us slipping away to Europe, even when some of our own factories in that particular line are idle because of lack of orders. There has been an awakening in the past few years, but there must still be much progress before the American business man catches up with the British and German in the pursuit of the world’s trade.

Chilean trade has reached very respectable figures in recent years. The total exports for the year 1910 amounted to $115,792,811, of which $98,234,035 were mineral exports. Of this nitrate comprised the greatest item. Great Britain took nearly one-half the exports; the United States purchased $24,680,278, slightly more than Germany, which was a decided increase over the preceding year. The imports amounted to $108,627,188. Great Britain sent almost one-third of this, Germany was second with less than one-fourth, and the United States was third with goods valued at $13,369,774, or about one-eighth of the whole. Next in order came France, Argentina, Peru and India. Spain, the mother country, furnished less than one per cent. of the whole. This shows a large per capita importation, amounting to more than $30.00, which is exceeded only by Argentina and Uruguay, and shows a trade well worth looking after. Of the goods imported textiles were one-fourth of the whole. Mineral products, including coal, oil products, etc., are a third, and machinery constituted about eleven per cent. of the whole. Machinery and petroleum products are the principal importations from the United States.

The American firm of W. R. Grace & Co. occupy a prominent position in the commercial world along the west coast of South America, where it is the largest firm engaged in business. Its founder, Wm. R. Grace, was born in Ireland, but came to Peru in his youth. After making a success in business there he went to New York and established the head offices of his company. He became a citizen of the United States, and assisted the government on several occasions. Mr. Grace became very prominent in that metropolis. He was twice elected mayor, and gave a very creditable administration. Mr. Grace died in 1904. W. R. Grace & Co. took over the Oroya Railroad in Peru and completed it. They recently constructed the Chilean end of the Transandine Railway, and have been engaged in many other important public works in Chile, Peru and Bolivia. The foundation of the fortune of Grace & Co. was guano and nitrate, and a line of boats are run between the west coast and New York, although flying the English flag. Branch houses are established in the principal cities of Chile, and an immense business is done in importation and exportation. The principal offices are still maintained in New York, although one of the members of the firm lives in London.

Chile’s dependence upon the sea renders foreign trade an essential element in her prosperity. She has a hardy seafaring population, and thousands are employed in that occupation. She is probably destined to have a much larger part in the coast carrying trade in the future. Next to the national steamers, the British have the biggest share in the carrying trade of Chile.

A TYPICAL COAST SCENE.

The foreign debt of Chile is in the neighbourhood of $100,000,000, most of which is held by the Rothschild interests. Much of this debt was contracted during the period of military expansion. Great quantities of paper money were issued by various administrations, and, as a result, the peso dropped in value. The gold peso has a fixed value of thirty-two cents in United States currency, and the paper peso is worth about twenty-one cents. The gradual drop in value of the currency has made railroad travel on the government lines and postage the cheapest in South America. It has also prevented much internal development. At the present time a number of cities are installing hydraulic electric plants, which are very practical for this country. Several schemes are under consideration for port developments, of which the work at Valparaiso will be the most important. Concepción, Talcahuano and Corral, Iquique and Antofagasta, will also come in for their share. Several irrigation projects are now being constructed which will add almost two hundred thousand acres of irrigated land suitable for agriculture. The electrification of the state railroad between Valparaiso and Santiago will also doubtless be one of the developments of the near future.

The postal and telegraph systems of the republic are good. There are more than one thousand post offices, and the amount of mail transported is very large. Newspapers circulate absolutely free, and domestic postage is lower than in the United States. Foreign letters only cost three cents for postage. There are more than eighteen thousand miles of telegraph wires stretched across the country. A wireless telegraph station has been opened at Valparaiso with a radius of eight hundred miles, and others will be opened very soon at other places, including the Straits district, where the wild and undeveloped nature of the country makes the stretching and maintenance of overhead wires difficult.

Like all the South American republics Chile is greatly in need of immigration. With such a variety of climate it could afford congenial homes for people from almost any country. A few thousand of immigrants come in each year, from three to five, but that number is paltry. Tens of thousands could be assimilated if they were agriculturalists. Argentina, with her broad level acres, is too near, and draws twice as many as all the other republics of South America together. Wages are higher there, too, and the Italians and Spaniards, who comprise the greater proportion of those seeking new homes in South America, are drawn there. A few Boer colonies were established in Chile after the war in the Transvaal, but the total number was not large.

One unfortunate condition in Chile is the unusually high death rate. This has been placed as high as seventy per thousand, but this rate would only be in exceptional instances. It is a fact, however, that the cities of Santiago, Valparaiso and Concepción will frequently show a mortality rate of fifty to the thousand of population. The average for the whole republic is about thirty-five per thousand, which is nearly double the death rate for countries in the temperate zone. As Chile is not in the torrid zone, it is not subject to epidemics of yellow fever or other tropical scourges. Foreigners who live there find the climate, especially in the central part, not only delightful, but healthful, and very old people are quite common. The reason for this condition of affairs is the indifference to personal comforts and sanitation of the roto. This leads to a frightful mortality among the children. Occasionally there are severe epidemics of smallpox, and the measles has caused great ravages among children.

Statistics show that in some years, even with the large birth rate among the lower classes, the births exceed the deaths by only a few thousands. It is a condition that demands action by the state, for the government is paternal in its character, and is depended on by the people to look after these things. The sturdiness of the roto may be due to the law of the survival of the fittest, for only those who possess a sound constitution reach manhood. One who can survive the lack of comforts and harsh conditions of life to which he is subjected, and reach manhood, is at least robust if not cultured or refined. There is, indeed, much room for improvement in the sanitary conditions of the cities in the sections occupied by the poor, and some measures have been taken in recent years. For the nation it would be a good economic policy, as the decrease in the death rate would aid in giving the population so much needed for the development of the country.

Chile dates her independence from Spain from the 18th of September, 1810, and last year was celebrated as her first centennial. On this day, in the year 1910, was laid the corner stone of a great monument in commemoration of that event. This was participated in by the President of Argentina and other officials of that neighbouring republic. This was but natural, for the soldiers of both countries fought and bled side by side at Maipu, Chacabuco and other places. A notable historic parade, with the costumes and military characteristics of that period, was a feature of the celebration. It represented the march of the victorious patriot army into Santiago after its evacuation by the Spaniards. The granaderos, a military organization in Buenos Aires which wears the same uniform as in the time of San Martin, came over from that city to take part. The parade halted in front of the statue of San Martin and saluted that noble hero. Solemn religious services and social events made up a day that will long be notable in the Chilean capitol. Elaborate decorations had been erected all over the city, and especially on the Alameda where the parades took place.

Almost the entire month of September was given up to the festivities incident to this national centennial throughout the entire republic. There was scarcely a town or village that did not have its local fiesta. Horse races, theatrical performances, fireworks, torchlight processions, etc., were all included in the list of events. A naval review was held in Valparaiso, in which four ships of the United States took part with those of Chile and other nations. An industrial Exposition was held in Valparaiso, and an Exposition of Fine Arts in Santiago. The death of President Montt and his successor, both within a month preceding the beginning of the festivities, cast somewhat of a gloom upon the occasion, but it could not mar the festal spirit in a very marked degree.

The relations between Chile and the United States have, in a number of instances, been considerably strained. As a result there was for many years an existant prejudice against the Yanqui. The first occasion arose during the war between Peru and Chile, when the United States offered its mediation, which was resented by Chile because that country desired to reap the spoils of war. Another instance happened during the Balmaceda administration. During his term, and the struggles which resulted between himself and Congress, the sympathies of the United States were with the President. A minister sent to the United States by the revolutionists, after they had established a junta at Iquique, and were in possession of the customs throughout northern Chile, was refused recognition by President Harrison. The steamship Itata, belonging to the Chilean line, which at that time ran as far as San Francisco, was seized and held for some time because she was loaded with arms and ammunition intended for the revolutionists. Although the vessel escaped it was followed by a United States cruiser and overtaken at Iquique, where the revolutionist junta turned it over to the cruiser and it was taken back to San Francisco. This kept the opponents of the government out of much-needed supplies.

Later arose what is known as the “Baltimore incident.” Admiral Schley, in charge of that gun boat, had been sent to Chile to protect American interests. He sailed freely in and out from one port to another, and was charged by the revolutionists with giving information to the government party of their movements. As the navy was all on the side of the revolutionists, they claimed that only in this way could the other party on land have secured certain information. Admiral Schley denied the accusations, and all of these charges were afterwards proven to be false. Near the close of that internecine struggle a number of sailors and others from the Baltimore had gone ashore at Valparaiso. While in a rather disreputable saloon in that city an altercation arose between some Chilean soldiers and the party of American marines. One of the Chileans was knocked down, and a general fight resulted in which the Yankees were assaulted with clubs, knives and revolvers. One American was killed instantly, another died from his injuries a short time later, and a score of others were more or less seriously injured. In the diplomatic correspondence which followed, an indemnity was courteously demanded by the United States, to which an almost insulting reply was made by Chile. International trouble threatened for a while, but Chile made apologies and paid the sum of $75,000 as compensation. The matter was then dropped, but the anti-American feeling did not evaporate as quickly as the war-cloud.

Only a little over a year ago another controversy arose through the demand made by the State Department of the United States for the settlement of a claim which had been in dispute for many years. As a result much anti-American comment appeared in the newspapers of Chile, as though the United States was trying to enforce a rejected claim against a weaker nation. The visit of President Montt to the United States, while on his way to Europe to seek medical advice, only a few months afterward, however, seems to presage that the government of Chile has buried all difficulties and good will is again restored. It was not necessary for President Montt to come this way, and he undoubtedly did it in a spirit of amity and good will.

A great many erroneously place strong reliance upon the favourable effect of the Monroe Doctrine in South America. As a matter of fact the Monroe Doctrine at no period has caused the sale of a dollar’s worth of merchandise in those markets. It has, on the other hand, through misinterpretation of its intended beneficence, caused ill feeling, and, perhaps, prevented the sale of American goods in many instances. If the United States adheres to this doctrine, the completion of the Panama Canal will increase the responsibilities of the United States instead of lessening them. We, of the great North American republic, know that the action of the United States under this doctrine has always been intended for the welfare of the other Americans. Those who should feel kindly toward us, because of it, as a matter of fact rather resent its effect. They feel able to fight their own battles without the aid of the powerful republic on the North American continent. The visit of the United States fleet a few years ago at the various ports of South America, and the trip made by Elihu Root, then Secretary of State, did more to encourage a kindly feeling toward the United States and to develop a Pan-American spirit than anything the United States has ever done. It now needs only a wise and diplomatic policy to strengthen and extend the good feeling engendered by those events.

Chile, like all the west coast republics, is becoming very much interested in the Panama Canal, and the effect that its completion will have upon the country. Unlike the North American, the South American does not become impatient over the probable date of the completion of the canal, for it does not make much difference to him whether it is ten years or twenty-five years hence. The only question in his mind is what may be the ultimate effect of the canal. It is, perhaps, of more interest to a North American, because the North American is interested in the possibilities of trade development with that coast. At the present time there are perhaps 11,500,000 of people living in the republics of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile, which have a foreign commerce, including both exports and imports, in excess of $300,000,000. In addition to this there is the trade with the Pacific coast of Colombia. Then there is added to this the question of the probability of future development of those countries, which are in themselves larger than any European kingdoms, except Russia. The enthusiastic Chilean, for instance, will tell you how many times larger is his country than Holland, and estimates the immense population that his country could support at the same density per mile as that little European kingdom. This, of course, is absolutely impossible, because such large sections of the country are untillable. Furthermore, there never has been as yet such rapid increases in population in any of the west coast countries as the United States, Canada, Argentina and Australia can show. Hence it is not well to think of this section as being likely to have sudden growths of population, but there will doubtless be a slow and steady increase in each of the countries mentioned.

One advantage that will accrue from the completion of the canal will be better transportation between all the ports of the west coast and New York. A direct line of steamers between Valparaiso, and possibly ports farther south, to New York is sure to be established, for business conditions will not only demand, but warrant such a line. By this route the distance from New York to Valparaiso will be only fifty-one hundred miles, including the stops at several intervening ports. When this distance is compared with that from Valparaiso to Liverpool, by the way of the Straits of Magellan, which is ninety-five hundred miles, it shows that New York will be several thousand miles nearer to Valparaiso than European ports by the same route, and the difference becomes greater as you journey along the coast toward Panama. If British steamers should use the Panama Canal it would still make New York nearer to all the ports on the west coast by almost three thousand miles. As it is there are no boats flying the American flag which visit Chilean or other west coast ports, except an occasional tramp lumber schooner which comes down from Seattle, or a boat which comes through the Straits of Magellan now and then from New York for a load of nitrate. Much of the traffic is obliged to go to Callao, Peru, and there be transferred to another steamer to be taken to Panama; then it is shipped by rail across the Isthmus, and again loaded on another steamer destined either for New York or New Orleans.

THE CUSTOM HOUSE, VALPARAISO.

It does not require an especially sharp insight to see the advantage from a commercial standpoint of a direct line between these ports and New York. Furthermore, since the completion of the Transandine Railway, and still more so when the other route farther south may be finished, large sections of fertile Argentina will be nearer to the west coast than to Buenos Aires or Bahia Blanca, on the Atlantic coast. This would mean that shipments which are destined for the United States from those sections would probably be made by the steamers using the west coast route, and through the Panama Canal. Of course that would not be true of grain products, for those shipments go to Europe, as the United States has not yet become an importer of grain, with the exception of flax seed. We do, however, take the greatest portion of wool, hides and certain other products. It will tend, in the opinion of the writer, to not only bring about closer commercial relations, but to develop a spirit of Pan-Americanism, which will mean a great deal for the United States. Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador have been much under the influence of American business interests, and Chile has a natural inclination as well toward the North Americans, but the diplomatic incidents heretofore mentioned have made the Chileans a little bit suspicious of the policies of the United States. This will, however, I believe, be entirely overcome within a very short time. The people of Chile will then realize that the North Americans are their best friends.

THE END.