On entering the Museum, the visitor should bear in mind that
the principal front faces the south, so that he will be looking
due north, with the east on his right, and the west on his left
hand.
It must also not be forgotten that a museum in a state of
active growth is continually receiving additions as well as
undergoing changes in the arrangement of its contents, and since
these often occur faster than new editions of the Guide can be
produced, there may be variations in the positions of some of
the specimens from those here given.
Statues and Cases in the Central Hall.
On entering the hall the visitor will notice the bronze statue of
the late Sir Richard Owen, K.C.B., Superintendent of the Natural
History Departments of the British Museum (1856–1884). It is
the work of Mr. T. Brock, R.A., and was placed in the Museum
on March 17th, 1897. To the right of this is a marble statue of
the late Professor T. H. Huxley, sculptured by Mr. E. Onslow
Ford, R.A., which was unveiled on April 28th, 1900. In the
first bay on the left is a bust, by Mr. Brock, of the late Sir W. H.
Flower, Director of the Natural History Departments of the
British Museum from 1884 to 1898. Most of the cases placed
on the floor of the hall illustrate general laws or points of interest
in natural history which do not come appropriately for illustration
within the systematic collections of the departmental series.
Pigeons illustrating Variation under Domestication.
One group, in a case near the entrance to the hall, on the
right, shows the great variation to which a species may become
subject under the influence of domestication, as illustrated by
examples of the best-marked breeds of Pigeons, all derived by
selection from the wild Rock-Dove (Columba livia), specimens
of which are shown at the top of the case.
Fowls and Canaries illustrating Variation under Domestication.
In the corresponding case on the left are further illustrations
of the same subject. A pair of red Jungle Fowl (Gallus
bankiva, or G. ferrugineus) of India represents the species from
which the breeds of Domesticated Fowls are generally considered
to have been derived. As examples of extreme
modifications in opposite directions produced by selection, are
exhibited the Japanese Long-tailed Fowls, in which some of
the feathers (tail-coverts) attain a length of nine feet, and
specimens of a breed in which the tail is absent. There is
also shown a group of Fowls living wild in the woods of the
Fiji Islands, which are descendants from domesticated birds
introduced in the eighteenth century. A pair of Cochin Fowls
is exhibited in the same case to display development in point
of size and in the abundance of feathers on the limbs; while a
pair of white “Silkies” illustrates a modification of the plumage,
accompanied by a rudimentary condition of the tail-feathers.
The pair of Coloured Dorkings exemplifies a breed cultivated
in England.
A series of Canaries is shown in a case in the archway
leading from the east side of the central hall to the north hall,
as an example of a late addition to domesticated animals, these
birds having been first imported into Europe from the Canary
Islands in the early part of the sixteenth century. Specimens
are exhibited of the wild birds, and of some of the modifications
produced by selection.
Ruffs and Reeves, illustrating Changes of Plumage according to Sex and Season.
A case placed to the north of the one containing Fowls
illustrates a remarkable instance of external differences in the
two sexes and changes in plumage at different seasons, not
under the influence of domestication. The birds in it belong
to one species, the Ruff (Pavoncella, or Machetes, pugnax), of
which the female is called Reeve; a member of the Plover
family (Charadriidæ). In the upper division of the case are
shown the eggs, newly-hatched young, and young males and
females in the first autumn plumage; as well as adult males
and females in winter, when both sexes are exactly alike
in colour and distinguishable externally by size alone. The
large group occupying the lower part of this case consists of
adult birds in the plumage assumed in the breeding time
(May and June). In the female the only alteration from
the winter state is a darker and richer colouring, but in the
males there is a special growth of elongated feathers about the
head and neck, constituting the “ruff” from which the bird
derives its name. In addition to this peculiarity, another,
rare among wild animals, may be observed, namely, striking
diversity of colour in different individuals. Of the twenty-three
specimens shown no two are entirely alike.
Wild Ducks illustrating Seasonal Change of Plumage.
Next in order stands a case displaying the variations,
according to season and age, in the plumage of the Wild Duck,
or Mallard (Anas boscas). The most noticeable feature in the
plumage-changes is the assumption in summer by males of an
“eclipse-plumage,” resembling the one worn by females at all
seasons. At other times the males are more brilliantly coloured
than their partners. The eclipse-plumage corresponds to the
winter, or non-breeding, dress of other birds which have a
seasonal change.
Adaptation of Colour to surrounding Conditions.
On the same side of the hall follow two cases illustrating
the adaptation of the colour of animals to their natural surroundings,
by means of which they are rendered less conspicuous
to their enemies or their prey. The first contains a
specimen of a Mountain or Variable Hare (the common species
of the north of Europe), a Stoat, and a Weasel, together with
some Willow-Grouse and Ptarmigan, as well as an Arctic Fox,
in their summer dresses. All were obtained in Norway, and show
the general harmony of their colouring at this season with that
of the rocks and plants among which they live. The second case
displays examples of the same animals obtained from the same
country in winter, when the ground was covered with snow.
Such striking changes as these only occur in latitudes and
localities where the differences between the general external
conditions in the different seasons are extreme, where the snow
disappears in summer and remains on the ground during most
of the winter. Even some of the species here shown do not
habitually turn white in the less severe winters of their southern
range, as the Stoat in England and the Variable Hare in
Ireland. A few permanent inhabitants of still more northern
regions, where the snow remains throughout the year, such as
the Polar Bear, Alaskan Bighorn Sheep, Greenland Falcon,
and Snowy Owl, retain the white dress throughout the year.
The whiteness of these animals must not be confounded with
albinism, or whiteness occurring in individuals of species
normally of a different colour, which is illustrated in a case
on the other side of the hall.
Protective Resemblance of Desert Animals to their Surroundings.
The case on the east side of the hall nearest the great
staircase contains examples of conformity of general style of
colouring to surrounding conditions, as exemplified by some of
the commoner Birds, Mammals, and Reptiles of the Egyptian
desert, placed on the stones and sand amid which they habitually
dwell. The advantage of this colouring in concealing
the herbivorous species from their enemies, and in enabling the
carnivorous to approach their prey unperceived, is obvious. Many
excellent cases of concealment by adaptation to surroundings,
especially in eggs and young Birds, may be seen among the
groups in the Bird-gallery.
Mimicry.
More special modifications for the same purpose are shown in
the adjacent bay on the east side of the hall by Insects which
closely resemble the objects, such as leaves, twigs, etc.,
among which they dwell. The close imitation of a dead leaf,
presented by the Leaf-Butterfly (Callima inachis), when its wings
are closed, could not be surpassed. In a further stage of the
same condition, called “Mimicry,” the object resembled, or
mimicked, is another living animal, belonging to a different
species, family, or even order. The resemblance in these instances
is also believed to be for protection, or to be in some way advantageous
to the animal in which it occurs. We know, however,
so little of the habits and life-history of animals in a state of
nature that many of the purposes supposed to be served by
particular colours or appearances can only be regarded at
present as conjectural. Whatever be the real explanation, the
facts shown by the specimens in this bay are very curious, and
worthy of careful consideration.
Group illustrating Albinism.
The next case on the east side of the middle of the hall
contains a series of specimens illustrating albinism, a condition
in which the pigment, or colouring matter, usually present in
the skin, hair, or feathers, and giving the characteristic hue,
is absent. Individuals in this condition occur among many
animals of various kinds, and are called “albinos.” In some of
the specimens shown in the case the albinism is complete,
but in many it is partial, the absence of colouring matter being
limited to certain portions of the surface. Other examples of
complete or partial albinism are shown in the North Hall.
Fig. 1.—The Leaf-Butterfly (Callima inachis) in Flight and at Rest.
Group illustrating Melanism.
The adjacent case shows examples of the opposite condition
called melanism, depending upon an excess of dark colouring
matter or pigment in the skin and its appendages, such as hair,
feathers, etc., beyond what is commonly met with in the species.
This is by no means so frequent as albinism. A black Leopard
in the middle of the case is a good illustration. This is not a
distinct species, but merely an individual variety of the common
Leopard, born from parents of the normal colour. A black
Bullfinch is introduced as an example of acquired melanism,
this bird having turned black in captivity.
Fig. 2.—The Somali Tsetse-Fly (Glossina longipennis). Enlarged 4 diameters.
Shows the complete closure of the wings in the resting position, and the
prominent proboscis, characteristic of the genus.
Group illustrating Intermediate Forms in Nature.
Another group shows that two forms of Crows which
appear quite distinct, and, judged by their external
characters, might be regarded as different species, may
in a state of nature unite, and produce hybrid offspring.
In the same case is exhibited a series of Goldfinches
to show a complete gradation between birds of different colouring,
which have been regarded as different species. Both
these examples may by some naturalists be considered instances,
not of the crossing of distinct species, but of “dimorphism,” or
the occurrence of a single species in nature in two different
phases. From whatever point of view they may be regarded,
they illustrate the difficulty of defining and limiting the
meaning of the term “species,” of such constant use in
natural history.
Mosquitoes and Tsetse-Flies.
In the middle line of the hall are placed cases containing
greatly enlarged models of certain Insects concerned in the
spread of disease, such as Mosquitoes or Gnats (figs. 3 and 4),
a House-Fly, Tsetse-Fly (fig. 2), and Plague-Flea; also still
more enlarged gelatine models of mammalian blood-corpuscles,
showing the parasites by which they are infested in the
diseases respectively communicated by means of Mosquitoes
and Tsetses. Models of the parasites themselves are also shown
(figs. 5 and 6).
Malaria, or ague, is a disease caused by extremely minute
parasites which live in the red corpuscles of the blood.
Formerly malaria was believed to be contracted by merely
breathing the air of marshy districts, but it is now proved
that the parasites are transmitted from man to man by the
“bite,” or rather “stab,” of a Mosquito or Gnat. The Common
Mosquito or Stabbing Gnat (Culex pipiens), fig. 3, does not
transmit the malaria-parasite; the Spot-winged Mosquitoes
(fig. 4) of the genus Anopheles, abundant in England and
nearly all parts of the world, being the carriers. The parasite
multiplies not only in the human blood, but in the stomach
and tissues of the Gnat—as shown in the models (fig. 5).
Tsetse-Flies are African blood-sucking Flies, with the mouth-parts
adapted for piercing the skins of wild and domesticated
mammals, human beings, and even crocodiles. The blood of some
of the larger African animals is sometimes infected with a microscopic
parasite (fig. 6), which, if sucked up by Tsetse-Flies when
feeding, and subsequently introduced by them into the veins
of domesticated animals such as horses and cattle, produces
the fatal nagana, or Tsetse-Fly disease. Sleeping-sickness in
man is caused in a similar manner, and is conveyed from
infected to healthy individuals by two kinds of Tsetse-Fly,
including that of which an enlarged model, 28 times (linear)
natural size, is exhibited. The parasites and the red blood-corpuscles
are enlarged 6,000 diameters.
Fig. 3.—(a) The Common Gnat (Culex pipiens). Enlarged.
Fig. 4.—(b) The Spot-winged Mosquito (Anopheles maculipennis). Enlarged.
Fig. 5.—Life-History of the Malaria Parasite.
a, malarial germ, or sporozoite, as introduced into the blood by the mosquito;
b, sporozoite after entry into blood-corpuscle; c, growth of sporozoite into an
amœbula; d, division of amœbula to form merozoites; e, liberated merozoites;
f, growth of merozoites into a crescent at expense of corpuscle; g, male,
and h, female crescent; i, male cell with projections, which lengthen and are
set free as spermatozoa; j, fertilisation of ovum by spermatozoon; k, fertilised
egg as the active motile vermicule; sphere formed from the l, enlarged vermicule,
after this has bored through the stomach-wall of the mosquito; m,
segment of sphere at final stage of development, containing countless needle-shaped
spores, which, when it bursts, escape as sporozoites into the organs of
the mosquito’s body and pass through the salivary glands into the proboscis,
and so infect a man bitten or pricked by the mosquito.
The House-Fly—see enlarged models of the perfect insect
and its preliminary stages,—although not provided with a
piercing proboscis, and consequently incapable of biting, sometimes
plays an important part in spreading deadly diseases, such
as cholera and enteric (typhoid) fever. In this case the disease-causing
organisms are carried by the insect either in its
intestine or adherent to the outer surface of its body, and thus
House-Flies may spread disease by contaminating food.
Plague, which is a disease of rats and a few other rodents,
especially the bobac Marmot, is communicated to man by
the bite of the flea known as Xenopsylla cheopis, one of
several species of fleas with which rats are infested. When a
rat dies, the fleas that it has been harbouring seek another
host, and may bite human beings, in which case, if the rat
itself was suffering from the disease, an epidemic of plague may
be the result. The
model of the Plague-Flea
exhibited is
enlarged 200 times
(linear).
The Arachnida,
a group which includes
the Spiders
and can generally
be distinguished
from Insects by the
number of their
legs (four pairs instead
of three pairs),
include also the
Ticks, which are
responsible for the
transmission of many deadly diseases which attack Man and
Domestic animals. Enlarged models of a disease-carrying Tick
are in course of preparation.
Fig. 6.
Trypanosoma gambiense, the parasite of Sleeping-sickness,
very highly magnified. The occurrence
of three kinds of individual, as shown in the
figure, appears to be characteristic of this and
certain other species of Trypanosoma.
(After Col. Sir D. Bruce.)
African Elephant.
In the middle line of the hall is placed a magnificent
mounted skin of an African Elephant (Elephas africanus), fig. 7,
from Rhodesia, standing about 11 feet 4 inches in height. The
skull of the same individual is mounted on a stand below. Near
by are exhibited three tusks, the largest of which measures
10 feet 2½ inches in length. On the north wall, on either side of
the Darwin statue, are mounted two African Elephant heads.
Bays or Alcoves round the Hall.
Most of the bays or alcoves round the hall, five on each
side, are (with the exception of the one at the north end of
the right side) devoted to the Introductory or Elementary
Collection, designed to illustrate the more important points in
the structure of certain types of animal and plant life, and
the terms used in describing them. This has been called the
“Index Museum,” as it was thought at one time that it would
form a sort of epitome or index of the general collections in the
galleries. It is now mainly restricted to a display of the leading
structural features in Vertebrated Animals and in Plants.
The space being limited, the number of specimens is necessarily
restricted. In examining this collection the visitor should
follow each case in the usual order of reading a book, from left
to right, and carefully study the printed explanatory labels,
to which the specimens are intended to serve as illustrations.
Fig. 7.—African Elephant (Elephas africanus).
The skull and tusks seen in the foreground are those of the stuffed specimen,
the tusks in which have been modelled from another individual.
The bays on the west side (left-hand on entering the hall) are
devoted to the Vertebrata, or Animals possessing a “backbone.”
In Nos. I and II are shown the characters of the Mammals,
which form the highest modification of this type; the wall-cases
of No. I containing specimens of the bony framework (internal
skeleton).
Bay I. Skeleton of Mammals.
In the first case (south side of the recess) may be seen a
complete skeleton of a good example of the class—a Baboon
Monkey, with the bones laid out on a tablet, and their names
affixed. Below is a skeleton of the same animal articulated, or
with the bones in their natural relation to each other, and also
named. By examining these two specimens an idea may be
obtained of the general framework of the bodies of animals of
this class. In other parts of the case are exhibited various
modifications of the skeleton to suit different conditions of life.
1. Man, showing a skeleton adapted for the upright posture.
2. A Bat, or flying Mammal, in which, by the great elongation
of the fingers, the fore-limbs are converted into wings
(fig. 8), supporting a web of skin stretched between them.
3. A Sloth, in which the tips of both limbs are reduced to
mere hooks, by the aid of which the creature hangs back-downwards
from the boughs of the trees among which it passes
its entire existence.
4. The Baboon serves as an example of an animal walking on
all four limbs in the “plantigrade” position, i.e., with the whole of
the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet applied to the
ground.
5. A small species of Antelope shows the characteristic form
of a running animal, in which the limbs perform no office but
that of supporting the body on the ground. This animal
stands on the tips of the toes of its elongated, slender feet in
the “digitigrade” fashion.
6. A Porpoise, adapted solely for swimming in the water.
The fore-limbs are converted into flattened paddles, and the
hind-limbs are entirely absent, their function being performed
by the tail. The rudimentary pelvic bones are preserved.
The rest of the case is occupied by details of the skull in some
of its principal modifications. At the top are diagrams of the
structure of bone and cartilage as shown by the microscope.
Fig. 8.—The Skeleton of a Flying-Fox, or Fox-Bat (Pteropus medius).
cl, clavicle; cv, cervical vertebræ; d, dorsal vertebræ; fb, fibula; fm, femur;
h, humerus; hx, great toe, or hallux; l, lumbar vertebræ; mc, metacarpals;
mt, metatarsals; ph, phalanges, or finger- and toe-bones; pv, pelvis; px,
thumb, or pollex; r, radius; s, sacral vertebræ; sc, scapula; sk, skull;
tb, tibia; ts, tarsus; u, ulna.
In the wall-case on the opposite (north) side of the bay the
study of the skeleton of Mammals is continued by illustrations
of the structure of the limbs. At the top of the case is a
diagram showing the correspondence of the hand and the foot
in their complete typical form, with the names applied to the
different bones. The series of specimens below shows the principal
deviations actually occurring from this typical condition,
which, as may be seen, is very nearly preserved in the human
hand. One series shows some of the stages of modification for
special purpose (specialisation) by which a typical five-fingered
hand becomes converted into the single-toed fore-foot of the
Horse; while another series ends with the fore-foot of the
Ruminants, sometimes, but erroneously, called a “cloven hoof,”
in which only two toes remain. Similar changes are shown in
the toes of the hind-foot, illustrating the same common plan
running through infinite modifications in detail, enabling the
organ to perform such a variety of purposes, and to exhibit
such diversity of outward appearance. The existence of this
common plan is now generally regarded as due to inheritance
from a common ancestor.
Teeth of Mammals.
The central case of the bay contains a collection illustrating
the principal characters of the teeth of Mammals.
Its inspection should commence at the north-east corner, where
the visitor will find himself after completing the survey of the
specimens of skeletons in the wall-cases. In the first division
are placed specimens showing the general characters of
teeth, their form, the different tissues of which they are
composed, the two great types of dentition in Mammals,
homœodont and heterodont,5 the names and serial correspondence
of the different teeth, and their development and succession.
The principal modifications of teeth according to function are
next shown by examples of forms adapted for fish-eating, flesh-eating,
insect-eating, grass-eating, etc. The remainder of
the case is taken up by examples of the dentition of the
families of Mammals arranged in order, and prepared so as
to display not only the shape of the crowns, but also the
number and character of the roots by which they are
implanted.
Bay II. Classification of Mammals.
In bay No. II the two wall-cases contain a collection arranged
to show in a serial manner the orders and sub-orders
of existing Mammals, by examples selected to illustrate the
predominating characters by which these are distinguished. A
brief popular account of the characteristics of the group, and a
map showing its geographical distribution, are placed with
each. This is intended to serve not only for an introduction
to the study of the class by visitors to the museum, but also
as a guide to a method of arrangement which may be adopted
in smaller institutions.
Among the illustrations of the order Primates is placed the
skeleton of a young Chimpanzee dissected by Dr. Tyson,
which formed the subject of his work on the “Anatomy of a
Pigmie,” published in 1699, the earliest scientific description
of any Man-like Ape.
Skin of Mammals.
The central case of this bay contains illustrations of the
outer covering or skin and its modifications in the class
of Mammals, divided into the following sections:
1. Expansion of skin to aid in locomotion, as the webs
between the fingers of swimming and flying animals, the parachutes
of flying animals.
2. The development of bony plates in the skin, found among
Mammals only in the Armadillos and their allies. The cast
of a section of the tail of a gigantic extinct species
(Glyptodon) shows a bony external as well as an internal
skeleton.
3. The outer covering modified into true scales, much resembling
in structure the nails of the human hand. This occurs
in only one family of Mammals, the Pangolins, or Manidæ.
4. Hair in various forms, including bristles and spines. The
two kinds of hair composing the external clothing of most
Mammals, the long, stiffer outer hair, and the short, soft under-fur,
are shown by various examples.
5. The special epidermal appendages found in nearly all
Mammals on the ends of the fingers and toes, called according
to the various forms they assume, nails, claws, or hoofs.
6. The one or two unpaired horns of the Rhinoceroses, shown
by sections to consist of a solid mass of hair-like epidermic fibres.
7. The horns of Oxen, Goats, and Antelopes, each consisting
of a hollow conical sheath of horn, covering a permanent
projection of the frontal bone (the horn-core).
8. The antlers of Deer, forming solid, bony, and generally
branched projections, covered during growth with soft hairy
skin, and in most cases shed and renewed annually.
On the wall is arranged a series of antlers of an individual
Stag or Red Deer (Cervus elaphus), grown and shed (except the
last) in thirteen successive years, showing the changes which
took place in their size and form, and the development of the
branches, or tines, in each year. In old age the number of
these tines tends to diminish.
On the north side of the table-case are shown dissections
of the principal internal organs of Mammals.
Bay III. General structure of Birds.
Bay No. III is devoted to the class of Birds. An Albatross
(Diomedea exulans) mounted with the wings expanded shows
the most important characters by which a Bird is externally
distinguished from other animals. The body is clothed
with feathers, which (in the majority of Birds), by their great
size and special arrangement upon the fore-limbs, enable
these to act as organs of flight. The mouth is in the form of a
horny beak. A nestling Albatross shows that at this stage of its
existence the bird is not clothed with ordinary feathers, but with
soft down, which serves to keep the body warm, although it
confers no power of flight. An Emu and an Apteryx in the lower
compartment of the case display the exceptional condition (found
only in a comparatively few members of the class) of Birds with
wings so small as to be concealed beneath the general feathery
covering of the body, and quite useless. In the Penguins,
of which two species are shown in the case, the wings are
reduced to the condition of fins, and are serviceable only for
progress through water.
In the first wall-case the principal features of the skeleton of
the class are shown. Sections of bones exhibit the large air-cavities
within; a complete skeleton of an Eagle, with the bones separated
and named, and mounted skeletons of the Ostrich, Penguin,
Pelican, Vulture, Night-Parrot, Fowl, etc., show the chief modifications
of the skeleton. The Apteryx possesses the smallest,
and the Frigate-bird the longest bones of the wing, the correspondence
of which can be readily traced by means of the
labels attached to them. The under surfaces of the skulls of
various birds are shown with the different bones coloured to
indicate their limits and relations; these are followed by a
series of the different types of sternum or breast-bone.
The second wall-case contains further illustrations of the
anatomy of Birds. In the left-hand part a series of wings of
Birds displays the form characteristic of different groups;
while above them are a few of the different types of tails,
supplementing the series of tails in the table-case. Very
instructive is a series of skins of white chickens of the same
brood at different ages, displaying the gradual replacement of
the down by the adult plumage.
The table-case in the middle of the bay contains illustrations
of the external characters, the beak, the feathers, and the tail, as
well as of the fore and hind limbs, or wings and feet. By the
aid of the explanatory labels, the essential characters and
the principal modifications of all these parts may easily be
followed.
Two cases on the wall in the vestibule leading to the Fish
Gallery illustrate the chief modifications of the eggs of Birds,
and their differences in structure, number, form, size, texture of
surface, and colour. On the side of the main staircase opposite
are specimens illustrating the parasitic nesting habits of certain
Cuckoos and various other Birds; while near by is a remarkably
fine series of the eggs of Cuckoos with those of the Birds among
which they were respectively deposited. On the opposite (east)
side of the staircase the visitor will find a case showing the
remarkable variation in colouring and markings displayed by
the eggs of the Guillemot.
Bay IV. General structure of Reptiles and Amphibians.
The fourth bay on the west side of the hall exhibits the
leading peculiarities in the structure of Reptiles and Amphibians.
Owing to the large number of groups in the former
class now extinct, many fossil specimens, or plaster reproductions
of the same, are shown. The wall-case on the south side
of this bay illustrates the different ordinal groups of Reptiles—living
and extinct. Very instructive are the skeletons of
Tortoises and Turtles, showing the relations of the vertebræ
and limb-bones to the bony part of the shell. Lizards and
Snakes are mostly represented by coloured casts. The extinct
Dinosaurs are represented by a small-sized model of Iguanodon,
together with a photograph of the skeleton and a plaster-cast
of the bones of the hind-foot showing the three toes.
The adjacent side of the table-case shows the modifications
of the backbone, or vertebral column, of the ribs, and of the
limbs, in the different groups of the class. Specially noticeable
are examples of five types of Skink-like Lizards, exhibiting the
gradual diminution in the size of the limbs and their final
disappearance.
The opposite, or north, side of the table-case displays the
different modifications of the skull and teeth of living and
extinct Reptiles. In some, like Crocodiles and Ichthyosaurs,
the jaws are armed with a full series of sharply pointed teeth,
while in others, like the Tortoises and Turtles, they are devoid
of teeth and encased in horn. Very remarkable is the
approximation to a carnivorous mammalian type presented by
the dentition of some of the extinct mammal-like Reptiles, or
Theromorphs, and equally noticeable are the palatal crushing
teeth of certain other extinct Reptiles known as Placodus and
Cyamodus. The peculiar dentition of the New Zealand Tuatera,
and likewise that of its extinct European and Indian ally
Hyperodapedon (fig. 9), are also shown.
Fig. 9.—Skull of the Giant Tuatera (Hyperodapedon gordoni), from the
Triassic Sandstone of Lossiemouth, Elgin, (¼ nat. size). A, upper surface
of skull; B, palatal aspect of skull; C, under side of front of lower
jaw; Pmx, premaxillary bone; Mx, maxillary; Pl, palatal teeth;
Md, lower jaw; O, orbit, or eye-socket; N, nostrils; S, temporal pit;
S’, lateral temporal fossa.
The brain and other internal organs of Reptiles are displayed
in the left half of the wall-case on the north side of this bay,
in which are also shown the eggs of many species, in some cases
with the embryo.
Fig. 10.—Skeleton of the Great Blue Shark (Carcharodon rondeletii), with portion of backbone on a large scale.
pl, functional upper jaw, and su, its reflected portion; md, lower jaw; hy, ceratohyal; br, branchial arches; co, pectoral
girdle; ph, cartilaginous portion of pectoral, or front paired fin; r, dermal portion of pectoral fin; pu, pelvic, or hind
paired, fin; c, centra, or bodies, of the vertebræ; na, neural, or upper, and ha, hæmal, or lower, arch. The median
fins are not lettered.
In the right half
of the same case are
exhibited a number
of preparations
showing the external
form and internal
structure of
Frogs and Salamanders,
or Amphibians,
living and extinct.
The Giant
Salamander of
Japan (Megalobatrachus
or Cryptobranchus)
is represented
by a stuffed
specimen; but the
Newts, Salamanders,
and Frogs are
shown in spirit.
Very curious is the
almost colourless
and blind Olm (Proteus)
from the caves
of Carniola; as also
are the so-called
Cœcilians, or Apoda,
which have the
habits and, in some
degree, the appearance
of large worms.
Special specimens
exhibit the structure
of the extinct
Labyrinthodonts, in
which the hinder
half of the skull is
completely roofed
over by bone; while
the teeth in many instances exhibit a curious in-folded
arrangement from which the group derives its name.
Bay V. Structure of Fishes.
The last bay (No. V) on the west side of the Central Hall is
devoted to the display of the form and structure of Fishes.
The wall-case on the left side of this bay exhibits the external
form of several characteristic types of Fishes, such as the Pike,
Cod, Turbot, Dog-fish, and Skate, with the names of the various
fins affixed. A striking specimen is the skeleton—mainly cartilaginous—of
the Great Blue Shark (Carcharodon rondeletii),
fig. 10, which occupies the greater portion of this case. It
should be noted that, as in all Sharks and Rays, the upper jaw
does not correspond with that of the higher Vertebrates; and
particular attention should be devoted to the structure and
arrangement of the arches supporting the gills.
In the south side of the table-case in this bay are shown a
number of dissections, mounted in spirit, displaying the different
types of skeletal structure presented by the fins in various
groups of Fishes. One of the most remarkable of these types
occurs in Ceratodus forsteri, the Queensland Lung-fish, in which
the skeleton of the fin consists of a central jointed rod, from
each side of which diverge narrower jointed rods. Alongside are
specimens showing special modifications of certain fins, as in
the Flying Fish (fig. 11) and Flying Gurnard (fig. 12), for the
purpose of sustaining the body in the air, or, as in Pentanemus,
to serve as organs of touch. Specimens of the West Indian
Goby and the Lump-Sucker show modifications of the pelvic
fins in connection with a sucker on the lower surface of the
body; while other preparations display the pectoral (Doras) and
pelvic fins (Monocentris) reduced to the condition of saw-like
spines.
The structure of the skull of Fishes is illustrated in another
part of the same side of this case. From this the visitor may
learn how the primitive cartilaginous skull of the Sharks
(fig. 10), Rays, Chimæras, and Lung-fishes has been gradually
modified, by the addition of superficial sheathing-bones, into the
bony skull of modern Fishes, such as the Cod and Perch.
Fig. 11.—The Flying Fish (Exocœtus).
Fig. 12.—The Flying Gurnard (Dactylopterus).
The north side of the table-case in bay V is mainly devoted
to the display of the different types of scales, spines, and teeth
found among Fishes. In one corner are the enamelled “ganoid”
scales of the modern American Bony Pike (Lepidosteus) and the
African Bichir (Polypterus) alongside those of certain extinct
forms. A scale of the Tarpon, or King-of-the-Herrings, illustrates
the largest development in point of size of the modern
“cycloid” type. Spines of the Porcupine-fish show an extreme
development of this kind of structure. Diagrams and spirit-preparations
illustrate the mode of attachment and succession
of fish-teeth. A large series of the teeth of Sharks and Rays
displays the gradual passage from those of the ordinary
pointed form to others arranged in a pavement-like manner
and adapted solely for crushing. Both types occur in the
Port Jackson Shark (fig. 13), but those of some Rays are
solely of the pavement modification. Very remarkable is
the dental structure in the Parrot-fish. The west end of this
side of the case shows the various modifications assumed by the
teeth of the modern Bony Fishes; among which, as exemplified
by the Wrasse, teeth are developed on the bones of the throat,
as well as on those of the jaws. Throughout this case
specimens, or models, of the teeth of extinct Fishes are placed
side by side with those of their nearest living relatives.
Fig. 13.—A Jaw of the Port Jackson Shark (Cestracion philippi),
showing sharp teeth in front and crushing ones behind.
The wall-case on the north side of this bay shows the
history of the development of various Fishes, together with the
form and structure of the gills, brain, heart, digestive system,
and other organs.
Lancelet.
A small case affixed to the pillar at the entrance of the fifth
bay illustrates the structure of the Lancelet (Branchiostoma,
or Amphioxus), by the aid of spirit-specimens, enlarged models,
and coloured diagrams. One of the most remarkable features in
the structure of this strange and primitive little creature is the
outer cavity enclosing the part of the body which contains the
large and complex pharynx. The Lancelet was formerly
included among the Fishes, but is now accorded the rank of
a class (Cephalochorda) to itself.
Leaving bay VI, next the principal staircase on the east side
of the central hall, which is devoted to illustrations of heredity,
especially in relation to the Mendelian theory, and to modes of
Flight in Vertebrates and Insects, we pass on to a table-case
assigned to the illustration of “Mimicry” and kindred phenomena.
Most of the examples shown occur among Insects;
but one example among Mammals and a second in Birds are
illustrated. Very striking is a coloured sketch showing a group
of red and black caterpillars from Singapore grouped side by
side on the stem of a plant so as to present a remarkable
similarity to a succulent fruit.
Bay VIII.
Bay IX.
In bay VIII, on the eastern side of the central hall, is displayed
an exhibition illustrating trees, native to or grown in
Britain. The winter and summer states are indicated by
photographs, and the foliage, flowers, fruits, seedlings, and
texture of wood and bark by specimens, models, and drawings.
Bays IX and X are intended to illustrate the general characters
of the great groups of the Vegetable Kingdom. Bay IX, in
course of arrangement, is devoted to the Cryptogams (Ferns,
Mosses, Fungi, Seaweeds, and Lichens).
At the back of the bay is a fine polished section of a buttress
from the base of the Tapang (Abauria excelsa), the largest tree
in Borneo, which attains a height of 250 feet.
Bay X. Seed-bearing Plants.
The last bay (No. X) is devoted to the Seed-bearing Plants,
which are characterised by the formation of a seed—the result
of the fertilisation of an ovule by the male cell which is
developed in the pollen. The series begins on the left hand
side with the Pteridosperms, an extinct group combining the
characters of Ferns and Seed-plants and forming a link between
them. Then follow the Gymnosperms (Cycads, Pines, Firs,
etc.), in which the seed is borne naked on an open scale which
generally forms, with others like it, the characteristic cone.
Certain points in the development of pollen and ovule recall
similar stages in the Fern group, and indicate that the Gymnosperms
stand nearer to the Cryptogams than do the Angiosperms,
the other and larger group of Seed-plants. The Gymnosperms
are also the older group, and contain many extinct forms. In
the Angiosperms the seed is enclosed in the fruit, and in the
development of pollen and ovule almost all traces of a cryptogamic
ancestry have been lost; the great development of the
flower is a characteristic feature of the Angiosperms. The
arrangement of the vegetative parts of the plant is based on its
separation into root, stem, and leaf. In the right-hand wall-case
the upper series of specimens illustrates the leaf, its form,
veining, direction, the characters of its stalk and stipules, its
modification for special purposes, and its arrangement on the
stem and in the bud. Below, the stem and root are similarly
treated, and above are some anatomical drawings. The display
of the root is continued in the lower part of the opposite wall-case.
In the central case the chief types of the flower with its
parts, the fruit, and the seed are exhibited.
At the back of the bay is a large transverse section of the
Karri tree (Eucalyptus diversicolor) of Western Australia, a
species which grows to a height of 400 feet. The tree from
which the section was cut was about 200 years old when
felled.
The Introductory Collection of Minerals will be found in the
gallery devoted to the Mineral Department (see p. 90).
Domesticated Animals,
6 Hybrids, and Economic Zoology.
The North Hall, or that portion of the building situated
to the northward of the principal staircase, is used for the
exhibition of the more important breeds of Domesticated
Animals, as well as of examples of Hybrids and other Abnormalities.
A series of specimens illustrative of Economic
Zoology is likewise temporarily placed here.
The examples of Domesticated Mammals include Horses,
Cattle, Sheep, Goats, Llamas, Dogs, Cats, and Rabbits. One
of the main objects of this series is to show the leading
characteristics of the well-established breeds, both British and
foreign. In addition to Domesticated Animals properly so
called, there are also exhibited examples of what may be termed
Semi-domesticated Animals, such as white or parti-coloured
Rats and Mice.
The skulls and skeletons of celebrated Horses7 of all breeds,
including those of the Thoroughbreds “Persimmon” (presented
by His Majesty King Edward VII.), “Stockwell,” “Bend Or,”
and “Ormonde,” and of the Shire “Blaisdon Conqueror,” form
a notable feature of the series. In another case is exhibited the
dentition of the Horse at different periods of existence; while
on the opposite side of the same is illustrated the evolution of
the Horse from three-toed and four-toed ancestors, and also
certain peculiarities distinguishing the skulls of Thoroughbreds
and Arabs from those of most other breeds.
Among the more notable exhibits are a mounted specimen
of a Spanish Fighting Bull, which belongs to an altogether
peculiar breed, and heads of Spanish Draught Cattle, presented
by H.M. King Edward VII. Among the Sheep, attention
may be directed to the four-horned, fat-tailed, and fat-rumped
breeds, and also to the small breed from the island of Soa, as
well as the curious spiral horned Wallachian Sheep. The
so-called wild cattle of Chillingham Park are included in this
series, since they are not truly wild animals, but are descended
from a domesticated breed. The celebrated Greyhound “Fullerton”
is shown among the series of Dogs, which also comprises
examples of the Afghan Greyhound, and of the Slughi or Arab
Greyhound. Small-sized models of Cattle, Horses, Sheep, and
Pigs also form a feature of the series.
A hybrid between the Zebra and the Ass is shown in one of
the cases; while photographs illustrate the results of experiments
undertaken by Professor Ewart in cross-breeding between
Burchell’s Zebra and the Horse. An example of the Lion-Tiger
hybrids born many years ago in Atkins’ menagerie is likewise
shown.
A fine series of hybrid Ducks and hybrid Pheasants is
exhibited in the north hall.
Skeletons of Man and Horse.
Facing the visitor as he approaches the middle of the north
hall are the skeletons of a Man and of a Horse, arranged
for comparison with each other, and also to show the position
of the bones of both in relation to the external surface. In the
case of the Horse, the skin of the same animal from which the
skeleton was prepared was carefully mounted, and, when dry,
divided in the middle line; one half, lined with velvet, has been
placed behind the skeleton. In the case of the Man, the external
surface is shown by a papier-maché model, similarly lined and
placed in a corresponding position. As all the principal bones
of both skeletons have their names attached, a study of this
group will not only afford a lesson in comparative anatomy,
but be of practical utility to the artist.
Section of “Big Tree.”
Against the wall dividing the north hall from the central
hall is placed a section of a very large Wellingtonia or “Big
Tree” (Sequoia gigantea), which was cut down in 1892 near
Fresno, in California. It is about fifteen feet in diameter, and
perfectly sound to the centre, showing distinctly 1,335 rings of
annual growth, which afford exact evidence of the age of the
tree. An instantaneous photograph, taken while the tree was
being felled, is placed near by, and shows its general appearance
when living. The height of the tree was 276 feet.
The exhibits of Economic Zoology at present occupy the
northern division of this hall. In the western wall-case are
specimens showing the injuries caused to trees by various insects.
The table-cases contain examples of the damage done in Britain
to fruit, roots, corn, and garden and vegetable produce, with
specimens of the insects, and hints as to methods of destruction.
There are also examples of injury done by insects abroad to
cotton, tea, coffee, etc. In the cases under the windows are
various parasites affecting man and domesticated animals.
Statue of Darwin.
On the first landing of the great staircase, facing the centre of
the hall, is placed the seated marble statue of Charles Darwin
(b. 1809, d. 1882), to whose labours the study of natural history
owes so vast an impulse. The statue was executed by Sir J. E.
Boehm, R.A., as part of the “Darwin Memorial” raised by public
subscription. It was unveiled and placed under the care of the
Trustees of the Museum on the 9th of June, 1885, when an
address was delivered on behalf of the Memorial Committee by
the late Professor Huxley, P.R.S., to which His late Majesty
King Edward VII. (then Prince of Wales), as representing the
Trustees, replied.
Statue of Banks.
Above the first landing the staircase divides into two
flights, each leading to one of the corridors which flank
the west and east sides of the hall and give access to the
galleries of the first floor of the building. Near the southern ends
of these corridors two staircases join to form a central flight
leading to the second floor. On the landing at the top is a
marble statue by Chantrey of Sir Joseph Banks (b. 1743,
d. 1820), who for 41 years presided over the Royal Society and
was Trustee of the Museum. His botanical collections are preserved
in the adjoining gallery, but his library of works on natural
history, also bequeathed to the Museum, remains at Bloomsbury,
where the statue, erected by public subscription in 1826, stood
until it was removed to its present situation in 1886. On the wall
above is displayed a series of unusually fine heads of Indian Big
Game Animals, bequeathed by Mr. A. O. Hume, C.B., in 1912.
Fig. 14.—A Female Okapi (Okapia johnstoni).
African Antelopes.
The west, south, and east corridors contain a portion of the
collection of mounted Mammals for which there is not room in
the gallery immediately adjoining. The specimens placed here
include a large number of species of the finest African Antelopes,
animals remarkable for their beauty, for their former countless
numbers, and for their threatened extermination in consequence
of the inroads of civilized man into their domain.
Giraffes and Okapi.
In a case at the head of the staircase leading to the east
corridor are several mounted specimens of Giraffes, and near by
a skeleton of the same. Alongside the former is placed a case
containing the heads and necks, together with skulls, of the
various local races of Giraffes; while in a third are displayed
three specimens of their near ally the Okapi (fig. 14) of the
Congo Forest, as well as a skeleton of the same.
Collections of Humming-Birds.
The collection of Humming-Birds (Trochilidæ) arranged and
mounted by the late Mr. John Gould, and purchased for the
Museum in 1881, is principally shown in the vestibule leading
from the hall to the Fish-gallery, but a few cases are placed on
the pillars of the staircase. Another large collection of these
birds, presented in 1913 by Mr. E. J. Balston, of Maidstone, is
exhibited in the corridor leading to the Whale-room.
The whole of the west wing of the building is devoted to the
collections of recent Zoology.
The ground floor is entered from the west side (left hand) of
the central hall, near the main entrance of the building. The
long gallery, extending the entire length of the front of the wing
as far as the west pavilion, is assigned to the exhibited collection
of Birds, the study-series of the same group being kept in
cabinets in a room behind.
Systematic Series in Wall-cases.
The wall-cases contain mounted specimens of all the principal
genera, placed in systematic order, beginning with the Crows
and Birds of Paradise on the left hand on entering, and ending
with the Ostriches, Emus, etc., on the right.
British Museum (Natural History)
Ground Floor.
Fig. 15.—The Great Auk or Gare-Fowl (Plautus, or Alca, impennis),
and its egg.
Among the multitude of species exhibited in this gallery,
which form, however, but a small proportion of the different
kinds of Birds known to inhabit the globe, only a few of the more
striking can be mentioned. The various types of the Birds-of-Prey
are very fully represented: from the Condor of the
Andes, the large Sea-Eagle of Bering Strait, and the Great
Eagle-Owl of Europe (all of which are placed in separate cases),
to the Dwarf Falcon in case 53, which is not much larger
than a sparrow, and preys upon insects. Among the large group of
Perching-Birds, attention may be directed to the cases of Birds
of Paradise and Bower-Birds in the first bay on the left. In
separate cases in the sixth bay on the opposite side of the gallery
are placed skeletons of the Dodo and Solitaire, large Pigeon-like
birds with wings too small for flight, once inhabiting the
islands of Mauritius and Rodriguez, respectively, but now extinct.
Other cases on the right-hand side of the gallery are occupied
by the Game-Birds, and the Wading and Swimming Birds.
Here may be noticed a nearly complete series of the genera of
Pheasants and Pigeons, showing the various forms. Special
attention may be directed to the Great Auk (fig. 15), from the
Northern Atlantic, which became extinct only in the last century.
Casts of the eggs (fig. 16) of this curious bird are also exhibited.
A case in the 7th bay contains a series of Penguins, flightless
birds which may be regarded as representing the northern
Auks and Guillemots in the southern oceans. Particularly
interesting is the great Emperor Penguin, which lays its eggs
and rears its young in winter amidst the ice of the Antarctic.
Most of the specimens exhibited were obtained during the
British Antarctic Expedition of 1839–43, under the command
of Captain Sir James Clark Ross.
Other noteworthy types are the Great Bustard, once an
inhabitant of England, and the Flamingos; a pair of the latter
being exhibited with their nest.
In the first two bays on the right side of the gallery are placed
specimens of the Ostrich group, characterised by the flat or raft-like
form of the breast-bone. Owing to the rudimentary
character of their wings, these Birds lack the power of flight.
They include the largest existing Birds, the Ostriches, Emus,
and Cassowaries, as well as the small Kiwis (Apteryx) of New
Zealand, together with the extinct Moas (Dinornis, etc.), of the
same country, and the Roc (Æpyornis) of Madagascar. A
fossil egg of the latter is placed alongside eggs of the existing
species of the group.
Fig. 16.—Egg of the Great Auk or Gare-Fowl: Size of nature.
Groups of British Birds and Nests.
Down the middle line of the gallery, as well as in many
of the bays, are placed groups showing the nesting-habits
of various species of British birds. The great value of these
groups consists in their absolute truthfulness to nature. The
surroundings are not selected by chance or from imagination,
but in every case are carefully executed reproductions of those
that were present round the individual nest. When it has been
possible, the actual rocks, trees, or grass, have been preserved,
but in cases where these could not be used, they have been
accurately modelled from nature. Great care has also been taken
in preserving the natural form and characteristic attitudes of the
Birds themselves. Among the more attractive cases are, near
the centre of the gallery, a pair of Puffins feeding their
single young one, and Black-throated Divers with their eggs
in a hollow in the grass on the edge of a mountain-loch in
Sutherland. Hen-harriers—the male grey and the female brown—are
shown with their nest among the heather from the moorland
of the same county. On the left of these is a Peregrine Falcon’s
eyrie, on the ledge of a rocky cliff, containing three white downy
nestlings. Near by are various species of Ducks, notably the
Red-headed Pochard on the sedgy border of a Norfolk mere. In
the last bay but one on the right side is a nest of the Heron, in
a fir-tree, with the two old birds and three nearly fledged
young. Various species of Gulls and a particularly beautiful
group of Arctic Terns from the Shetland Islands are exhibited
in the middle line towards the west end of the gallery and in
the eighth and ninth bays. In the eighth bay on the right side
and in the adjoining passage are Plovers, Sandpipers, Snipes,
etc., some of which (especially the Ringed and Kentish
Plovers) show the wonderful adaptation of the colouring of the
eggs and young birds to their natural surroundings for the
purpose of concealment. In the second passage leading to
the Coral-gallery are Ptarmigan and Capercaillie from Scotland,
and in the adjacent part of the middle line Wood-Pigeons and
Turtle-Doves building their simple, flat nests of sticks in ivy-clad
trees. In the fourth, sixth and seventh bays on the left
are Sand-Martins and Kingfishers, showing, by means of sections
of the banks of sand or earth, the form and depth of the hole in
which the eggs are placed; and also nests of the Swift, Swallow,
and House-Martin, all in portions of human habitations.
Pavilion, with British Land and Fresh-water Vertebrates.
9The “pavilion” at the west end of the Bird-gallery is devoted
to the exhibition of the land and fresh-water Vertebrated Animals
of the British Islands. The larger Mammals and Fishes occupy
the wall-case on the north side, which is surmounted with
horns. In the two pairs of centre cases is exhibited the series
of British Birds, supplemented by the groups, to which reference
has been made already. The wall-case on the north side of the
archway contains a group of Gannets and other sea-birds from
the Bass Rock in the Firth of Forth. On the opposite side are
two striking groups with the surroundings true to nature, the
one of the Golden Eagle and the other of the Buzzard, both
taken in Scotland. Other groups in the pavilion display the
Kestrel, the Peregrine Falcon, and the Merlin amid natural
surroundings. Among the Mammals, especial attention may be
directed to a case of British Hares and Rabbits. In another
case may be seen a female Badger and her young; in a third
is a group of Otters; in a fourth a vixen Fox with her cubs;
in a fifth a Mole-hill with its inhabitants; in a sixth a pair
of Martens; in a seventh Polecats and their young; while
other cases are devoted to Stoats, Weasels, Hedgehogs, Squirrels,
Rats, Mice, etc.
Here it may be mentioned that the animal inhabitants of any
country or district are collectively termed its “fauna.” The
British Islands in this respect belong to the great zoological
region called Palæarctic, or Eastern Holarctic, embracing all
Europe, the north of Africa, and the western and northern
portions of Asia. As in the case of other islands, the species
belonging to groups in which the power of locomotion is limited
to land or fresh-water are not numerous compared with those
inhabiting large continental tracts. Their numbers can only
increase under exceptional circumstances, and have a tendency
to diminish as the growth of human population and increase
of the area of cultivated land gradually reduce their
native haunts. In this way the Brown Bear, the Wolf, the
Beaver, and the Wild Boar have disappeared from Britain
within the historic period, while other species, such as the Badger,
Marten, and Wild Cat, with difficulty maintain a more or less
precarious existence. All these were originally derived from the
mainland of Europe, probably before the formation of the channel
which now separates it from Great Britain. The wider and older
channel which separates Ireland from Great Britain has been a
greater barrier to the emigration of animal life than that
between the latter and the Continent, many species (as the
Polecat, Wild Cat, Mole, Squirrel, Dormouse, Harvest-Mouse,
Water-Rat, Short-tailed Field-Mouse, Brown Hare, Roedeer,
as well as Snakes and Toads) never having crossed what is
now the Irish Sea, unless by human agency.
On the other hand, those species that have the power of
travelling through the air or traversing the ocean are far less
fixed in their habitat; and it results from this that the list of
so-called “British Birds” receives accessions from time to time
from stragglers which find their way from the European continent
or Asia, or even across the Atlantic.
Slight but permanent variations from the continental type
may be recognised in many native British species, some of
the most marked among vertebrated animals being the Irish
Stoat, the Squirrel, the Red Grouse, the St. Kilda Wren, the
Coal-Tit, the Goldcrest, and several species of fresh-water
fishes, mostly belonging to the genera Salmo and Coregonus.
Some of the latter, such as the Vendace, the Gwyniad, and
their allies, of which specimens are exhibited in the wall-case
in the pavilion, have an extremely local distribution, being found
only in certain small groups of mountain lakes.
Of the Seals, only two species are really natives of Britain,
the Common Seal (Phoca vitulina) and the great Grey Seal
(Halichœrus grypus); specimens of both these are shown in the
pavilion.
Those desirous of studying more minutely the characteristics
of British Mammals should examine the series of skins and
skulls exhibited in a special case on the right side of the central
west window.
Parallel with the Bird-gallery, on the north side (right on entering),
and approached by several passages, is a long narrow gallery
containing the collection of Corals and Sponges and allied types.
Commencing at the eastern end, some of the lowest forms of
animal life are exhibited in the wall-case and table-cases; they
belong to a group called Protozoa, and, for the greater part, are
so minute, that they can be studied only with the microscope;
their structure is therefore illustrated chiefly by means of models
and figures. The next divisions of the gallery are occupied by the
Sponges, most conspicuous among these being a series showing
the variations of the common Bath-Sponge (cases 1 and 2), the
beautiful flinty Venus’ Flower-basket or Euplectella (fig. 17),
the Japanese Glass-rope Sponge or Hyalonema (case 3), and the
gigantic Neptune’s Cup or Poterion, of which several specimens
are placed on separate stands. Special interest attaches
to the case showing the different kinds of Sponges used in
commerce.
Fig. 17.—Venus’ Flower-Basket (Euplectella imperialis and E. aspergillum).
(One-sixth natural size.)
Fig. 18.—Brain-Coral. (Meandrina cerebriformis).
Nearly the whole of the remainder of the gallery is given up
to Corals. In life these organisms display an immense variety
of form and colour, sometimes presenting a marvellous resemblance
to vegetable growths; but the part exhibited in the
gallery is merely the dried, hard, horny, or stony basis or supporting
skeleton, either of isolated individuals, or of colonies.
Corals are allied to the well-known Sea-anemones of the
British and other coasts; the combined skeletons of myriads of
these animals form the coral-reefs which constitute the bases
of thousands of islands in the Indo-Pacific Ocean. Among
the larger reef-making species are the Brain-Corals (Meandrina),
one of which is shown in figure 18. Near the west
end of the gallery is placed a magnificent specimen of the
Black Coral of the Mediterranean (Gerardia savalia), obtained
off the coast of the island of Eubœa in the Ægean Sea.
The drawing in the case shows a magnified view of the
“animals” or polyps of this species as they appear in life.
In case 13 are specimens and drawings of the Red Coral
(Corallium rubrum), so largely used for ornamental purposes,
and also of the crimson Organ-pipe Coral (Tubipora
musica). Arranged on shelves on the south wall of the
western end of this gallery is a series of Pennatulidæ (Sea-pens,
Sea-rushes, or Sea-ropes) preserved in spirit. These Zoophytes
live at the bottom of the sea, with their lower ends fixed in the
sand and mud; the skeleton being never more than a straight
internal rod in addition to innumerable microscopic spicules.
Fig. 19.—Rough Sunfish (Orthagoriscus mola).
Approached through the Coral-gallery, and running backwards
at right angles with it, are several galleries containing other
portions of the zoological collections.
I. The Fish-gallery is nearest to the central hall, and contains
the exhibited portion of the collection of Fishes. The
greater number of specimens, preserved in spirit, are, however,
placed for safety in a detached building outside the Museum,
where they are available for study under special regulations. The
gallery contains mounted examples, models, and skeletons of
many of the more remarkable members of the class.
Figs. 20 & 21.—Two Deep-Sea Fishes (a. Gastrostomus bairdi and
b. Saccopharynx flagellum).
Fig. 22.—Sucker-Fish (Echeneis remora).
The wall-cases on the east side of the gallery (right on
entering) contain the fishes with completely bony skeletons
(Teleostei); to which division belong by far the greater part of
the species now inhabiting the waters of the globe. Large and
remarkable examples are placed in separate cases opposite to
the wall-cases. As the colours of fishes are very fugitive, and
disappear more or less completely after death, most of the
mounted examples have been painted. The fishes allied to the
Perch, Gurnard, Mackerel, Sword-Fish, Wrasse, Cod, Plaice,
Catfish, Salmon, Pike, and Eel are represented by numerous
examples. Specially noticeable, so far
as size and external form are concerned,
are the Sunfishes, Orthagoriscus (fig. 19).
Even more strange are several of
the species of deep-sea Fishes exhibited
in a table-case in the Fish-gallery,
which live at depths where the sun’s
rays cannot penetrate, and many of
which are self-luminous. Two deep-sea
Fishes are shown in the accompanying
illustrations (figs. 20 and 21). From
another point of view, special attention
may be given to the Sucker-Fish or
Remora (Echeneis remora), fig. 22, which
attaches itself by the sucker on
the top of its head to the bodies of
Fishes or Turtles, or to the bottom of
ships. As it attaches itself back-downwards,
the under-parts are coloured
dark while the back is light; a condition
just the reverse of that obtaining
in ordinary Fishes.
Fig. 23.—Lower View of
the Head of a Saw-Fish.
(Pristis antiquorum.)
The western or left side of the gallery
is devoted to the exhibition of certain
very different types of Fishes, which
were much more numerously represented
in ancient times than at present. The
majority have a cartilaginous skeleton. Among these may be
specially mentioned the Bichir of the tropical African rivers, the
Gar-Pike of North America, the Sturgeons, the Lung-Fishes
(Dipnoi) of South America, Africa, and Australia, the Chimæras,
and finally the Sharks and Rays. Among the two latter are
included the singular Hammer-headed Shark (Zygœna), and the
Saw-Fishes (Pristis), which have long projecting flattened
snouts, with a row of teeth arranged something like those of a
saw on each side (fig. 23). A remarkably large specimen from
the coast of British Guiana of a species of this group (Pristis
perrotteti) is exhibited. Another very small division of Fishes
comprises the Lampreys and Hags, of which a few specimens
are shown.
Fig. 24.—The Basking Shark (Selache maxima).
The largest exhibited specimen of the class is the head of a
full-grown example of the great Basking Shark (Selache, or
Cetorhinus, maxima), fig. 24, captured on the 2nd of March, 1875,
near Shanklin, in the Isle of Wight. The length of the
entire specimen was twenty-eight feet, but, as the minute size
of the teeth indicates, it is a comparatively harmless fish. A
smaller female specimen is suspended from the roof; and
below this is placed a model of the skeleton of the same species.
Near by is a young specimen of another basking species,
the Elephant-Shark (Rhinodon typicus), which when adult is
said to attain a length of at least fifty feet. It inhabits the
Indian and Pacific Oceans.
Models of some of the more remarkable types of extinct
Fishes are exhibited in cases on the same side of the gallery.
II. A small gallery is devoted to the group of Arthropoda or
Invertebrate animals with jointed limbs, such as Lobsters,
Crabs, Spiders, Centipedes, and Insects.
At the south end of this gallery are exhibited specimens of
Crabs and Lobsters. Among the former, special attention may
be directed to the specimens of the Giant Crab (Macrocheira) of
Japan, and also to the Coconut Crab (Birgus latro), fig. 25, which
climbs trees to feed on young cocoanuts, and is related to the
Hermit-Crabs. In the central table-cases, besides Crustacea
(Crabs, Lobsters, etc.), are displayed representative Scorpions and
Spiders, including several examples of the large Bird-eating
Spiders of South America.
Fig. 25.—The Coconut Crab (Birgus latro).
The northern half of this gallery is devoted to the exhibited
series of Insects. Next to the door on the east side are the
nests of White Ants or Termites, while on the opposite side
are some remarkable cocoons of social Caterpillars of various
Moths, and also a series of preparations showing the
metamorphoses or changes undergone by Insects as they grow
to maturity. At the sides of the gallery are models of various
galls, with drawings of the insects which cause them; and
others showing the life-histories of certain Beetles, Bees,
and Moths. Beneath a shelf, on the west side, are four
cabinets containing a collection of British Butterflies and
Moths with their caterpillars, prepared and presented by Lord
Walsingham; and near by stands a cabinet containing a
collection of the Butterflies and Moths of the British islands
formed by the late Mr. William Buckler, most of the specimens
in which were bred by him during the preparation of his
“Larvæ of British Butterflies and Moths.” Above these are
maps illustrating the geographical distribution of certain Beetles
(Calosoma, Carabus, Julodis and Stigmodera); actual specimens
of the insects being placed in position on the maps. The
wall-cases at the end of the gallery are devoted exclusively
to the nests of Ants, Wasps, and Bees. On the east wall is
a large case containing specimens and drawings explaining
the structure of Insects. On the west side, next the Walsingham
collection, are cabinets containing a selection of British Insects.
Lower down are other cabinets in the series of foreign Butterflies;
while foreign Moths and other Insects are arranged in
adjacent cabinets. In another part of the gallery are exhibited
coloured drawings of a few of the smallest Insects known,
namely the Mymaridæ, a group of minute parasitic Hymenoptera;
and above is a drawing of a House-Fly, enlarged in
the same proportion—thirty diameters—to show the contrast. A
few specimens of the insects themselves are placed in the
microscope below.
In the table-cases in the middle of the gallery are specimens
and illustrations of some of the principal families of Insects,
with explanations of the characters by which these may be
recognised. The first case (next to the west door) contains
an introductory series, and then follow the various orders in
sequence commencing with the most primitive forms or Aptera,
among which Campodea, a small British insect, may be
specially noticed.
The classification of Butterflies, Bees and Ants, and Beetles
is shown in the last three cases; and attention may be
specially directed to a series of drawings illustrating the transformations
of Fleas, Gnats, Midges, etc.
The main collection of insects is kept in cabinets in the
“Insect Room” in the basement, but is open to students under
the regulations mentioned at the end of this guide.
III. The long Reptile-gallery contains mounted specimens
and skeletons of Reptiles, including Crocodiles, Lizards, Snakes,
and Tortoises, as well as restorations or casts of the remains
of many groups now entirely extinct. The most noticeable
specimen in this gallery is the model of the skeleton of the
gigantic extinct North American land Reptile known as Diplodocus
carnegii, which measures over eighty feet in length, and
was presented by Mr. Andrew Carnegie in 1905. Restored
models of the skeletons of the Iguanodon, a British Dinosaur,
and of the North American Horned Dinosaur (Triceratops) are
also noteworthy.
Fig. 26.—Saddle-backed Tortoise (Testudo abingdoni),
of Abingdon Island, Galapagos Group.
The Crocodiles and their extinct relatives occupy the cases
on the left of the entrance from the Bird-gallery and also
a stand in the middle of the gallery; and among these
may be specially noticed the Indian Gharial, of which both
the skeleton and skin are exhibited. The two small cases
on each side of the west doorway are occupied by extinct forms
and the peculiar Tuatera Lizard of New Zealand. At the south
end of the east side are arranged the Turtles and Tortoises,
including examples of the Giant Tortoises of the Galapagos (fig.
26) and Mascarene Islands, as well as a large species (Testudo
calcarata) from North Africa. Opposite the Turtles and Tortoises
are the Snakes, among which two large Pythons, coloured
to nature, form attractive exhibits. Extinct groups occupy
a small case on each side of the east door. Beyond these
come the Lizards, which occupy the cases opposite the Crocodiles.
The series of Old World Monitor Lizards and American
Iguanas is specially noteworthy; and attention may be likewise
directed to the curious worm-like Amphisbænas, of which
the majority inhabit Tropical America. Casts of remains of
the extinct marine Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurs are shown in
the small cases on the sides of the doorway in the east wall.
Fig. 27.—The Horned Frog (Ceratophrys cornutus) of Brazil.
Amphibians (Salamanders and Frogs).
In the Reptile-gallery is placed a large table-case
containing a selection of the more important forms of
Amphibians, which are divided into such as possess a tail:—Salamanders
and Newts; and those without tails:—Frogs and
Toads. During some period of their existence most of these
animals live in the water, when they breathe by gills, and are in
this respect akin to Fishes. The comparatively enormous size
attained by certain tropical species of Frogs and Toads, such as
the South American Horned Frog (fig. 27), should be noticed.
The largest representative of the group is the Giant Salamander
of Japan and China.
Fig. 28.—A Sea-Lily, the Larval stage of the Rosy Feather-star.
(Antedon rosacea), much magnified. a, arms; b, basals; r, radials; s, stalk.
IV. A small gallery is devoted to Starfishes and their
allies collectively constituting the class Echinoderma.
Specimens of these are arranged systematically in table-cases
1–24; and in case 36 are specimens illustrating the
anatomy of the skeleton, and models and figures showing the
remarkable changes undergone by these animals in the course of
their development. In a separate case on the east side of the
gallery is a case containing specimens of a large Starfish to
illustrate the variability in the number of rays from 4 to 7.
In a case on the opposite side is shown Luidia savignei from
Mauritius, one of the largest of Starfishes. The Feather-stars
(Antedon) are also members of this group; but the most beautiful
and remarkable specimens in the gallery are the Sea-Lilies,
or Crinoids, collected by the “Challenger” Expedition. One
specimen was found attached to an old telegraph-wire taken up
in the Caribbean Sea. These deep-sea Crinoids, of which representatives,
now extinct, were abundant in earlier periods of the
world’s history, are exhibited on tables in the corners of the
gallery, by cases 37 and 38. Some of the larval stages of
the Feather-stars (fig. 28) resemble stalked Crinoids.
The wall-cases contain representatives of the groups collectively
known as Worms. Case 1 contains the Tape-Worms or
Cestoda, and the Flukes or Trematoda, the life-history of a
species of each being illustrated by specimens, figures, and
models. In case 2 the Round-Worms are illustrated by models
of Trichina, and the anatomical structure of various other kinds
is shown by the aid of diagrams. Case 3 contains specimens
of free-living terrestrial and marine Worms, Leeches, and
Gephyreans. Case 4 is devoted to specimens of Echinoderms
preserved in spirit, especially Holothurians, such as Trepangs
or Sea-Cucumbers, the Bêche-de-Mer of the French.
V. A large gallery is devoted to the great group of Shell-fish
or Mollusca, the exhibition of which is, however, mainly
restricted to their shells. In some cases the form of the soft
parts is, however, shown either by specimens in spirit or by
means of models.
In wall-cases on the west side of the gallery is a series of
shells arranged on tablets to show the leading structural types,
such as univalve, bivalve, multivalve, etc.; then the nature
of the outer coat, or “skin”; and, thirdly, some of the more
striking styles of ornamentation and colouring. Following
these, a division is devoted to the display of the general form
of the shells of bivalves, special attention being directed to the
nature of the hinge by which the two valves are joined. Fresh-water
Mussels (Unionidæ) are selected as examples of great
variability in the form of the shell in closely allied species.
Near by is a small series of the shells of boring bivalves, many
in the various substances they perforate. Alongside are shown
in a similar manner modifications in form and structure presented
by Univalve or Gastropod shells; many of the shells having
been cut to show their internal structure. Specimens of the
horny or shelly plate (operculum) closing the mouth of many
Gastropod shells are also exhibited. In one compartment are
displayed spirit-preparations of Cephalopod Molluscs, such as
Octopus, Cuttle-fish, Squids, Nautilus, Argonaut or Paper-Nautilus,
etc. Specimens of the horny beaks possessed by all
members of this class are also exhibited; and a Pearly Nautilus
(fig. 31), with the shell cut in two in order to show the air-chambers
and the comparatively small space occupied by the
“animal,” will be found of special interest. From the roof are
suspended life-sized models of a Giant Squid (Architenthis) and
a Giant Octopus. The Cephalopods were extraordinarily
numerous in past ages, and many of the fossil forms are
exhibited in the Geological Department.
Fig. 29.—The Whelk (Buocinum undatum), a Gastropod Mollusc.
a, siphon; b, foot; c, tentacles; d, eyes; e, operculum.
The main shell-collection is contained in four parallel rows
of table-cases, the arrangement commencing on the right as the
gallery is entered. The first two rows contain the marine forms
of Gastropods—a division which includes Snails, Slugs, Whelks
(fig. 29), and all those Molluscs which crawl upon the under
surface of their bodies; the Cowries, Cones, Volutes, Mitras, and
Murexes forming some of the most attractive groups. The two
rows of cases on the left contain Land-Shells, Bivalves, and
Cephalopods. The Cockles, Oysters, Clams, Piddocks, Teredos,
Scallops, and Ark-Shells represent some of the principal types
of Bivalves, so called on account of their shells being formed of
two pieces or valves. A Giant Clam (fig. 30), at the S. end
of the gallery, weighs 310 lbs., and measures 36 inches in length.
Fig. 30.—Left Valve of the Giant Clam (Tridacna gigantea),
a Bivalve Mollusc.
Fig. 31.—The Pearly Nautilus (Nautilus pompilius).
a, body; b, funnel; c, eye; d, hood; e, tentacles; f, muscle of attachment
to the shell; g, siphuncle.
Sea-Mats, Lamp-shells, and Sea-squirts.
In the same gallery are exhibited examples of three other
groups of marine organisms, respectively known as Polyzoa,
Brachiopoda, and Tunicata. The Polyzoa live in colonies, and
include the so-called Sea-Mat. They are often mistaken for
sea-weeds, although in reality they are animals of comparatively
high organisation. The Brachiopods have two shells like
Bivalve Molluscs, but the valves are dorsal and ventral—that
is to say, back and front—instead of right and left. One
valve is frequently perforated, hence the name of “Lamp-shells,”
from a resemblance to an ancient Roman lamp. Sea-squirts,
Tunicates, or Ascidians, are worthy of the attention
of the visitor on account of their affinity with the Vertebrate
stock, of which they may be regarded as a degenerate type. It
is in the larvæ or “Ascidian Tadpoles” that the evidence of
Vertebrate relationship is most conspicuous, as shown by certain
important characters in the nervous system, skeleton, and
respiratory organs.
A series of large shells occupies some of the space in the
wall-cases, among which attention may be directed to the
thick and often handsomely coloured Helmet-shells (Cassis),
which, together with the pink Queen-conch (Strombus), were
formerly largely used in the now nearly obsolete art of cameo-cutting.
In addition to these, a selection of British shells, and
series of the eggs of Molluscs, as well as specimens illustrating
the formation of pearls, and other points of special interest connected
with Molluscs, are displayed. These specimens include
not only the Pearl-oyster, but some of the other shells used in
the mother-of-pearl trade.
Whale-Room.
Approached by a staircase, leading down from the last (or
western-most) of the passages which connect the Bird-gallery
with the Coral-gallery, is a separate room in which are placed
the specimens of Whales and their relatives. For these, on
account of their large size, no other place could be found in
the Museum; but the room has, unfortunately, the disadvantage
of being too small to display such large animals to full advantage.
It is also intersected by columns, which interfere
with the complete view of the larger specimens.
As it is almost impracticable to preserve the skins of the
larger species of Whales, owing to the oil with which they
are saturated, the exhibition of the characters of these animals is
carried out by means of their skeletons and artificial models of
one side of the body. Complete models, which are much better
than actual skins, of many of the smaller kinds, are shown.
A general account of the structure and classification of the
Cetacea, as Whales are technically termed, with reference to
those exhibited in this gallery, will be found in a Special Guide.16
Fresh-water Dolphins.
Narwhal.
On the left side of the entrance is a case containing a stuffed
specimen, a skeleton, and several skulls of the Susu, or Fresh-water
Dolphin (Platanista gangetica) of the rivers of India,
and also of the Dolphins of the Rio de la Plata (Pontoporia
blainvillei) and of the River Amazon (Inia geoffroyensis). Among
the specimens fronting the visitor as he enters the room, one of
the most interesting, on account of its remarkable dentition,
is the Narwhal, or Sea-Unicorn. It has only two teeth, which
lie horizontally in the upper jaw. In the female both remain
permanently concealed within the bone of the jaw, so that this
sex is practically toothless; but in the male, while the right
tooth remains similarly concealed and rudimentary (as shown
in the specimen, by removal of part of the bone which covered
it), the left is immensely developed, attaining a length equal to
that of half the entire animal, and projecting horizontally from
the head in the form of a long, straight, tapering and pointed
tusk, spirally grooved on the surface. In rare cases, as in the
skull exhibited near the skeleton, both teeth are fully developed,
and it is noticeable that in such specimens the direction of the
spiral is the same in both tusks.
Sperm-Whale.
To the right of the entrance is placed a specimen of the
bony framework of one of the most colossal of animals,
the Cachalot, or Sperm-Whale (Physeter macrocephalus), fig. 32,
prepared from an old male cast ashore near Thurso, on the
north coast of Scotland, in July, 1863, on the estate of Captain
D. Macdonald, R.E., by whom it was presented to the Museum.
Upon one side of this skeleton has been built the model
of the external form of the animal. The Sperm-Whale is
the principal source of supply of sperm-oil and spermaceti:
the former being obtained by boiling the fat or blubber lying
beneath the skin over the whole body. The latter, in a liquid
state at the ordinary temperature of the living animal, is
contained in cells which fill the immense cavity on the top of
the skull. This Whale, which feeds chiefly on Cephalopods
(Squids and Cuttle-fishes), but also on Fishes, is distributed
throughout the warm and temperate
regions of the Atlantic
and Pacific Oceans, and sometimes
enters British waters.
In order to render this
skeleton more instructive, the
names have been attached to
the principal bones, thus enabling
the visitor to trace at a
glance the extraordinary modification
from the normal mammalian
form the huge skull of
this species has undergone.
Fig. 32.—An Old Male Sperm-Whale or Cachalot.
Skeleton and outline of animal: b, nostril or blowhole; p, rudimentary pelvic bone.
Length of specimen 54 feet.
Whalebone Whales.
Most of the largest Cetacea
belong to the group called
“Whalebone Whales,” in which
a series of horny plates termed
“whalebone” grow from the
palate in place of teeth, and
serve to strain the water taken
into the mouth from the small
marine animals on which these
Whales subsist. A representative
of this group is the
skeleton of the Common Rorqual
or Fin-Whale (Balænoptera
musculus) in the south-west
portion of the room. This
Whale, which is sixty-eight feet
long, was captured in 1882 in
the Moray Firth, Scotland.
The flukes of the tail and the
back-fin were preserved with
the skeleton and are placed
above the wall-case behind; the
small pelvic bones, and a rudimentary
nodule representing
the femur or thigh-bone, the
only trace of the hind leg of
this gigantic animal, are also shown. The external form is
modelled in plaster. In front is a skeleton and half-model of
the Black or North Atlantic Right-Whale (Balæna glacialis or
biscayensis). Below this skeleton is placed a lower jaw of the
Greenland Right-Whale (Balæna mysticetus), the species which
formerly yielded most of the “whalebone” of commerce, and
also a miniature wooden model of the entire animal, on the
scale of one inch to the foot.
Remains of extinct Cetaceans—notably the solid bony beaks
of the skulls of Beaked Whales (Ziphiidæ) from the Red Crag
of the east coast of England—are placed in this gallery.
A special table-case, near the Sperm-Whale, shows the curious
ear-bones of various Cetaceans, both recent and fossil. These
bones are perfectly sufficient for the identification of the kind
of Whale from which they were taken. In a case on the opposite
side of the gallery is displayed the horny wart, termed
by sailors the “bonnet,” found on the nose of the Black Right-Whale.
The upper floors of the wings of the Museum consist merely
of single galleries extending along the whole front of the
building; for the galleries which run backwards on the ground
floor form only a single storey.
British Museum (Natural History).
First Floor.
Second Floor.
Lower Mammal Gallery.
The Lower Mammal-Gallery is entered from the western
corridor of the central hall. Together with the adjacent
corridor, it contains the greater part of the exhibited series of
recent Mammals, with the exception of the Cetacea, Sirenia, and
Proboscidea, which are downstairs, and the orders Primates,
Chiroptera, Insectivora, and Rodentia, which are in the upper
gallery. As three special guides17 are devoted to these galleries,
a very brief notice will serve on this occasion. Both stuffed
specimens and skulls and skeletons are exhibited, although the
former constitute by far the greater portion of the series. A few
remains of extinct types, or plaster reproductions of the same,
are introduced here and there; and photographs of living
animals are hung on the walls, where will also be found some
instructive series showing the modifications assumed by the
teeth of certain groups. Wherever possible, the horns and
antlers of the Ruminants, as well as the horns of the
Rhinoceroses, are placed in juxtaposition to the animals to
which they respectively belong.
Fig. 33.—The Platypus or Duck-bill (Ornithorhynchus anatinus).
Fig. 34.—The Yellow-bellied Pangolin (Manis tricuspis) in a characteristic
attitude.
Ruminants, etc.
The series commences on the right side of the gallery with
the lowest forms. Down the middle is a row of large Mammals,
comprising various Deer, Seals, and Rhinoceroses. On the right
of the entrance a small case contains the Australian Platypus
or Duck-bill (fig. 33) and the Echidnas of Australia and New
Guinea, which lay eggs, and are the lowest of all living
Mammals. In the adjacent bay are the Marsupials, such as
Kangaroos, Phalangers, or so-called Opossums, Wombats, and
Bandicoots of Australasia, and the true Opossums of America.
The eighth and ninth bays on the left side contain the so-called
Edentate Mammals, such as the South American Sloths, Ant-eaters,
and Armadillos, the Scaly Ant-eaters or Pangolins (fig. 34)
of tropical Asia and Africa, and the African Aard-Vark or Ant-Bear.
The Sea-Cows, as represented by the Dugong, the Manatee,
and the recently extinct Rhytina of Bering Island, are shown in
the Geological Department. In the second bay are the Pigs and
Hippopotamuses; in the third the Camels, and near by the
Chevrotains, or Mouse-Deer. Following these are the Deer
(Cervidæ), many of which, as already stated, are placed in the
middle line of the gallery. Properly speaking, the Giraffes and
their recent and extinct allies, the former represented by the
Okapi of Central Africa (fig. 14, p. 41), should come here; but,
as already mentioned, it has been found convenient to remove
the Giraffe group into the east corridor of the central hall.
In one of the cases in the bays stands the Prongbuck or
Pronghorn Antelope (fig. 35), the sole living representative of a
family characterised by the circumstance that the horns have
hollow branched sheaths which are shed annually. Next in
order come the Antelopes, a large number of which are placed in
the corridors outside the gallery. This series, it may be remarked,
is particularly fine, and, in fact, unique. At the last
two bays on the right side of the gallery the visitor reaches the
Goats; and in the “pavilion,” at the west end of the gallery,
he comes to the Sheep, Musk-Oxen, and Oxen, of which there
is a magnificent display, both as regards mounted specimens
and horns. Many of the cases in the middle of the gallery and
the bays have been fitted
with artificial groundwork,
one of the most
striking being the European
Reindeer case, for
which the materials were
brought from Norway.
Fig. 35.—Prongbuck or Pronghorn Antelope (Antilocapra americana).
Continuing our survey
down the left side of the
gallery, the bay next the
pavilion and an adjacent
case in the middle line
contain the Zebras, Wild
Asses and the Wild Horse,
among which is a specimen
of the extinct
Quagga. Following this
are the Rhinoceroses and
Tapirs, some of the former
being exhibited in the
middle of the gallery.
Adult specimens of all
the living species except
the one-horned Rhinoceros
sondaicus of Java are
exhibited. The cut (fig.
36) shows the form of
the head and the number
of the horns in
three members of the
group.
Fig. 36.—Heads of the White Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros simus, a), Black Rhinoceros (R. bicornis, b), and
Great Indian Rhinoceros (R. unicornis, c).
Hyraxes.
In a small case by
themselves are exhibited
the Hyraxes, which represent
a subordinal group
of Ungulates. In this
place should come the
Elephants (Proboscidea),
but it has been found
advisable to exhibit the existing species of this group alongside
their extinct relatives in the Geological Department, and in
the central hall.
Fig. 37.—Male and Female of the Northern Fur-Seal,
or Sea-Bear (Otaria ursina).
Fig. 38.—Male Elephant-Seal, or Sea-Elephant (Mirounga leonina).
Next in order follow the Seals, Walruses, and Sea-Bears
(fig. 37); and after these again, the land Carnivora. Among
the former, particular attention may be directed to the specimens
of Sea-Elephants or Elephant-Seals (fig. 38) of the Southern
Seas and the Pacific coast of California. The visitor should
also notice the various smaller southern Seals, obtained during
the “Discovery” Expedition, in the case in the bay. Among
the land Carnivora, special interest attaches to the huge
Brown Bear from Alaska, the black and white Bear-like Great
Panda (fig. 39) of North-eastern China, and the case of Tigers,
in which both the long-haired Manchurian and the short-coated
Indian race are shown.
Fig. 39.—Great Panda (Æluropus melanoleucus).
Upper Mammal Gallery.
The portion open to the public of the gallery on this floor
in the western wing of the building contains such of the Mammalian
orders (apart from Proboscidea, Cetacea, and Sirenia) as
are not shown in the lower gallery. In the first two wall-cases
on the right on entering the gallery is displayed a series
of Bats, some stuffed, and others in spirit. In the third
wall-case are the Insect-eating Mammals (Insectivora), such as
Shrew-mice, Moles, Hedgehogs, etc. Next come the Rodents,
and then the Lemurs, Monkeys, and Apes, the greater number
of the last being exhibited in the large case in the middle of
the gallery. Among the more striking specimens may be
mentioned the series of Gorillas (fig. 40) and Chimpanzees,
and the Proboscis and Snub-nosed Monkeys.
Nearly all the left side of this gallery is devoted to
Anthropology, that is to say, to the representation of the
zoological characters of the different races of Mankind18; the
series including busts, skeletons, skulls, hair, and portraits.
Fig. 40.—The Gorilla (Anthropopithecus gorilla).
At the west end of the portion of this gallery open to
the public stands a case exhibiting many of the structural
differences distinguishing the man-like Apes from Man himself;
and also showing different types of human skulls and the
method of measuring the same. On the adjacent screens and
partitions are diagrams, photographs, and sketches illustrating
hand and finger prints, and identification by means of the latter.
Fossil Collection.
The ground floor of this wing consists, as on the other side of
the building, of a gallery running west and east the whole length
of the wing in front, of a smaller parallel gallery behind this,
and leading from the latter a series of galleries running north
and south. With the exception of a certain number of recent
skeletons introduced for comparison, and some of the specimens
of Elephants and Sirenians or Sea-Cows, the whole
of this floor is occupied by the collection of the remains of
animals and plants which flourished in geological periods
previous to the one in which we are now living. Some of these
belong to species still existing upon the earth, but the great
majority are extinct. They are arranged mainly upon zoological
principles, that is, the groups which are believed to have natural
affinities are placed together; but within some of the great
divisions thus mapped out, especially of the Invertebrata and
Plants, it has been found convenient to adopt a stratigraphical
or even geographical grouping, the fossils of different geological
formations being kept apart, and those of the British Isles
separated from those of foreign localities.
This portion of the Museum is more fully described in the
special Guides19 than is possible in the present work.
Elephants, Sea-Cows, and Extinct Mammals.
The front gallery, entered from the central hall, is devoted
to Elephants and Sea-Cows, both living and extinct, and to
extinct and fossil Mammals of other groups. Down the
middle are placed a number of large and striking objects, of
too great size to be contained in the wall-cases. The first is a
nearly complete skeleton of the American Mastodon (fig. 41), an
animal closely allied to modern Elephants, from which it is
chiefly distinguished by the characters of its cheek-teeth. This
is followed by a skeleton of the existing Indian Elephant
(Elephas maximus), and the mounted skin of a tuskless male
of the same species, brought home from India by His Majesty
King Edward VII., when Prince of Wales. Further down the
gallery is the skull of the extinct E. ganesa—remarkable for
the immense length of its tusks—from the Siwalik Hills of
India; and another of the Mammoth (E. primigenius), with
huge curved tusks, in a perfect state of preservation, found in
the Brick-earth at Ilford, Essex.20 Then follow skeletons of the
great extinct Irish Deer (Cervus giganteus), male and female,
the former distinguished by its magnificent spreading antlers,
resembling those of a Fallow Deer on a large scale.
Fig. 41.—Skeleton of the American Mastodon (Mastodon americanus).
Greatly reduced.
The next central case is occupied by the skulls and portions
of jaws of a remarkable horned hoofed quadruped, Arsinoïtherium
(fig. 42), from the Upper Eocene of the Fayum, Egypt.
It belongs to an ancient group not closely related to any
living animal.
Fig. 42.—Skull of Arsinoïtherium zitteli, from the Upper Eocene Strata of the
Fayum, Egypt. About 1/12th natural size.
Equally peculiar is the Toxodon (fig. 43) from the Pampas
of S. America, of which a model of an entire skeleton is
exhibited.
Fig. 43.—Skeleton of the Toxodon (Toxodon platensis).
From the Pampas Formation of Argentina. About 1/18th natural size.
Near by is placed a model of a skeleton of the Dinoceras
(fig. 44), one of the most remarkable of the many wonderful
forms of animal life discovered in the Tertiary beds of the
western portion of the United States of America. This animal
combines in some respects the characters of a Rhinoceros with
those of an Elephant, and has others altogether special to itself.
The group to which it belonged became extinct in the Oligocene,
or Middle Tertiary, period, without leaving any successors.
Fig. 44.—Skeleton of Dinoceras. From the Eocene of Wyoming, U.S.A.
One-thirtieth natural size.
Sea-Cows.
Near the pavilion is a skeleton (fig. 45) of an interesting
animal, the Northern Sea-Cow (Rhytina gigas or stelleri), the
last resort of which was Bering Island in the North Pacific,
where it was completely exterminated towards the close of the
eighteenth century. In the same case is placed the skeleton of
a smaller allied animal, the Halitherium, from the Oligocene of
South Germany. These, with their existing representatives,
the Manatee and Dugong, constitute the order Sirenia, aquatic
Mammals of fish-like form, presenting
considerable external resemblance
to Cetacea (Whales and
Dolphins), but differing in many
points of structure and habit. All
the exhibited specimens of the
group, both living and extinct, are
shown in this gallery.
Fossil remains of Man.
The wall-cases on the south side
(right on entering) contain typical
series of chipped and polished flint
implements of human workmanship,
and also remains of Man
found, under circumstances which
may justify the appellation of
“fossil,” in caves or Pleistocene
deposits, associated with the bones
of Mammals either completely or
locally extinct. Then follow in
systematic order the bones and
teeth of the other Primates, the
Carnivora, Ungulata, and Sirenia.
Fig. 45.—Skeleton of the Northern Sea-Cow (Rhytina gigas or stelleri). From Bering Island.
Length of specimen, 19 feet 6 inches.
Elephants and Ruminants.
The greater part of the north
side of the gallery is devoted to the
exhibition of the remains of Proboscidea
(Dinotheres, Mastodons,
and Elephants), as well as teeth
and skulls of the two existing
species of Elephants. The forerunners
of the Proboscidea from
the Eocene strata of Egypt, as
represented by Palæomastodon and
Mœritherium, are of special interest.
Attention may likewise be directed
to the skull of the gigantic Ruminant
Sivatherium (fig. 46), from
the Siwalik deposits of Northern
India, an ally of the living African Okapi (p. 41), with which it
is connected by Helladotherium of the Grecian Tertiary deposits;
another still more nearly allied type being Samotherium, from
the Isle of Samos, of which a skull (fig. 47) is exhibited.
Fig. 46.—Skull of Sivatherium giganteum, an Extinct Ruminant from the
Pliocene Deposits of the Siwalik Hills, India. About 1/13th natural size.
Edentates.
In the “pavilion,” or large room at the end of the gallery,
are skeletons and bones of the members of the order Edentata,
mostly from South America, including fine specimens of the
great Ground-Sloths, the largest of which, the Megatherium, is
shown in the act of rearing itself on its hind-legs and powerful
tail to seize and tear down the branches of a tree in order to
feed upon the leaves. That this was the habit of this huge
animal is clearly indicated by the structure of its bones and
teeth. The mounted specimen is not an actual skeleton, but is
composed of plaster-casts of the real bones, most of which are
shown in the wall-case at the north side of the room. Of the
Mylodon, a smaller but nearly allied animal, an almost perfect
skeleton is exhibited in a glass case near the Megatherium.
Near by is a portion of the skin of a closely similar animal
(Grypotherium listai), from a cave in Patagonia, showing the
hair, and also the nodules of bone embedded in the hide.
Marsupials.
Not far off is shown one of the glyptodons, huge extinct
Armadillo-like animals, of which the body is enclosed in a
solid barrel-like bony case. As these animals far surpassed in
size their diminutive existing representatives, so the gigantic
Marsupials of the corresponding period in Australia (Pleistocene,
or latest Tertiary), such as Diprotodon and Nototherium, greatly
exceeded any of the species now existing on that continent;
of Diprotodon a complete skeleton is exhibited. On the other
hand, all the Mammals of the earlier geological periods of
which remains are known are of diminutive size, as seen in
the series of jaws, teeth, etc., mostly from the Purbeck (Upper
Oolite) beds of Dorset and the Stonesfield Slate (Great Oolite)
of Oxfordshire, exhibited in the centre window-case on the
east side of the room.
Fig. 47.—Skull of Samotherium boissieri, an Extinct Okapi-like
Ruminant from the Pliocene Strata of Samos. About ⅙th natural size.
Extinct Birds.
The south side of this room (right on entering) is chiefly
reserved for the remains of extinct Birds, including the famous
Lizard-tailed Bird (Archæopteryx) of the Solenhofen beds of
Bavaria (fig. 48), the oldest known member of the class.
Although presenting many Reptile-like characters, it had well-developed
feathers on the wings and tail, the impressions of
which are beautifully preserved in the specimen. A series of
skeletons of the “Moas,” or Dinornithidæ, of New Zealand,
birds in which no trace of a wing has been discovered, shows
the diversity in size of different members of the group, some
far exceeding any existing Ostrich, while others are scarcely
larger than a good-sized Turkey. Some of these remains are
so recent as still to be covered with dried skin, and even feathers.
Several eggs are also shown; but, large as these are, they are
greatly exceeded in size by those of the Roc (Æpyornis) from
Madagascar. The skull and certain other remains of a gigantic
extinct bird, Phororhachos, from Patagonia are also shown in
this room. These birds appear to have been allied to the
existing South American Seriema.
Fig. 48.—Skeleton and Impressions of the Features of the Lizard-tailed
Bird (Archæopteryx macrura), from the Upper Jurassic (Lithographic
Stone) of Solenhofen, Bavaria. About ¼th natural size.
Fig. 49.—Skeleton of the Iguanodon (Iguanodon bernissartensis),
a Biped Dinosaur from the Wealden of Belgium. About 1/80th natural size.
Extinct Reptiles.
The long corridor north of the fossil Mammal-gallery contains
a fine assemblage of Reptilian remains. The south side
is devoted to the Great Sea-Lizards (Sauropterygia and Ichthyopterygia),
mostly from the Lias formation. The skeleton of an
Ichthyosaur from the Lias is shown in fig. 50. Skeletons of
Plesiosaurians and Pliosaurians from the Oxford Clay are
mounted in central cases. Ranged in the cases on the north
side are remains of the gigantic Dinosaurs, which vastly
exceeded in size any other land-animals. A mounted plaster
cast of a complete skeleton of the Iguanodon (fig. 49), found
(with many others) in the Wealden strata at Bernissart in
Belgium, is exhibited in the gallery of recent Reptiles; but
a large series of bones of the same reptile is shown here.
Fig. 50.—Skeleton of an Ichthyosaur (Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris).
From the Lias of Somersetshire. About 1/10th natural size.
In the centre of this gallery is placed a large portion of the
skeleton of a gigantic Dinosaur
(Cetiosaurus leedsi) from the
Upper Jurassic Oxford Clay
near Peterborough. It is nearly
allied to the North American
Diplodocus, of which, as mentioned
on page 57, the model
of a complete skeleton is exhibited
in the recent Reptile
Gallery. Both Cetiosaurus and
Diplodocus resemble Brontosaurus
(fig. 51) in the extremely
small size of the skull.
Another central case contains
an actual skull and other remains
of the American Cretaceous
horned Dinosaur Triceratops
(see page 57), and in
wall-case 8 is placed a plaster
cast of the skull of the
contemporary Tyrannosaurus,
the largest known carnivorous
Dinosaur.
At the eastern end of the
gallery are the Pterosauria
or Ornithosauria, commonly
called Pterodactyles or Flying
Reptiles. Their most gigantic
representatives were the species
of Pteranodon from the Upper
Cretaceous of Kansas (fig. 53).
At the west end is the nearly
complete skeleton of Pariasaurus
(fig. 52) from the Karoo formation (Trias) of South Africa.
It occurs also in Russia, and belongs to a primitive section of
the Theromorphs, or Anomodonts, which include the ancestors
of Mammals.
Fig. 51.—Skeleton of Brontosaurus ingens, a four-footed Dinosaur from the Jurassic
formation of N. America. 1/150 natural size.
Fig. 52.—Skeleton of Pariasaurus. About 1/14th natural size.
Extinct Fishes.
Of the galleries running northwards from the Fossil Reptile
gallery, the one nearest to the central hall is used for
the display of the Fossil Fishes, many belonging to groups
now extinct. Perhaps the most remarkable of all, and
certainly most unlike existing forms, are the armoured
Devonian Fishes known as Cephalaspis, Pterichthys (fig. 54),
etc. The well-preserved fishes from the Chalk are especially
noteworthy, and a specimen of Portheus in a central case,
14 feet in length, is one of the largest bony fishes known.
Fig. 53.—A Giant Pterodactyle (Pteranodon occidentalis) from the
Cretaceous of Kansas. (Original span about 18 feet.) Compare the
wing, which is supported by the outermost finger, with that of the
Bat in Fig. 8.
Extinct Invertebrates and Plants.
The next gallery contains the Cephalopods, a group of Molluscs
abounding in extinct species, of which the Belemnites, Turrilites
(fig. 55), and Ammonites (fig. 56) are some of the best-known.
The form and structure of their nearest living representatives,
the various species of Cuttle-fishes, Squids, Argonauts, and
Nautilus (fig. 31, page 62) are illustrated by models, drawings,
and specimens placed near the entrance of the gallery and along
the top-line of the wall-cases. The third gallery contains the
remaining Mollusca, with the Brachiopoda, Polyzoa, Echinoderma,
Worms, and Crustacea; the fourth, the Corals, Sponges,
Protozoa, and Fossil Plants. In these last two galleries most
of the British specimens are placed in the table-cases, and those
of foreign origin in the cases round the walls.
Among numerous other groups which cannot be mentioned,
great interest attaches to the Trilobites (fig. 57) of the Palæozoic
epoch, which are related to the modern King-Crabs and also
have affinity with the Scorpions.
Very extensive is the collection of Fossil Plants from the
Coal-Measures, among which Lepidodendron and Sigillaria,
as well as numerous kinds of fern-like leaves, are among the
most common.
Fig. 54.—Upper (A) and Lower (B) Surfaces of Pterichthys,
an armoured Devonian fish.
Historical Collections.
The table-cases of the end gallery contain certain special
collections of historical interest, either from the circumstances
under which they were formed, or the manner in which they
came into possession of the Museum, or from their containing
a large number of type specimens described and figured in
various publications. Hence it has been considered undesirable
to break up and disperse these among the general collection.
They include the original collection formed by William Smith,
the pioneer of geology in this country, the Searles Wood
collection of Crag Mollusca, the Edwards collection of Eocene
Mollusca, the Davidson collection of Brachiopoda, the types of
Sowerby’s “Mineral Conchology,” and lastly, but not least in
interest, specimens from the collection of Sir Hans Sloane,
which formed part of the nucleus of the British Museum.
Fig. 55.—A Turrilite,
from the Chalk.
Fig. 56.—An Ammonite,
from the Oölite.
Fig. 57.—A Trilobite, from the Lower Cambrian of Shropshire.
British Stratigraphical Collection.
In the wall-cases on the west side of this gallery is exhibited
a stratigraphical collection, showing a series of rock-specimens,
often with their included fossil remains, representing the
various geological formations of the British Isles; they are
arranged in the order of their sequence in time, commencing near
the entrance door with the most recent, and gradually passing
down to the most ancient fossil-bearing strata. Along the top
of the case is displayed a running section of all the water-formed
rocks of England in the order of their succession, each bed
being distinctively coloured, and named to correspond with the
actual specimens placed beneath. The stratigraphical collection
is followed by some illustrations of rock-formation, and
certain curious rock-structures simulating fossils. On the east
side are exhibited additional specimens of marine Reptiles from
the Lias and a series of footprints of Reptiles from the Trias
of N. America, the New Red Sandstone of England, etc.
Gallery of Minerals.
The gallery on this floor, entered from the south end of
the east corridor of the hall, contains the extensive Mineral
collections, a fuller description of which will be found in
special guides.21
Introductory Collections.
Entering the gallery the visitor will find, in the first window-case
on the left-hand side, a series of specimens selected and
labelled to serve as an introduction to the study of Minerals.
Beginning with a definition of what is meant by a Mineral, it
shows how essential characters were gradually recognised,
and how Minerals are distributed into kinds and classified.
In the next three window-cases specimens are arranged to
illustrate the characters of Minerals and the various terms
used in their description.
Rocks.
In the remaining six window-cases on the same side of the
gallery, a corresponding series of specimens illustrative of the
characters and classification of Rocks is exhibited; and the
eleven window-cases on the opposite side contain a collection
illustrating the various kinds of Rocks.22
General Collection of Minerals.
In the table-cases of the gallery are exhibited specimens of
every important Mineral species and variety preserved in the
Museum. The cases containing this general collection are
numbered from 1 to 41, and the eight panes of each case are
severally distinguished by the letters a to h. For the use of
the student there is published an Index to the names of all
the numerous Mineral species and varieties represented in the
collection, with references to the table-cases in which the
specimens are placed.23
The system of classification, which includes not only ores,
but all known Minerals, is not easy for the visitor to follow, and
it is therefore convenient to indicate the positions in the gallery
of those minerals—as, for instance, precious and ornamental
stones, and metallic ores—which have an interest for all; for
details, reference must be made to the Mineral Guide. Most
of these Minerals occur as crystals, the forms of which can
be referred to six systems of crystallisation.
Fig. 58.—The Colenso Diamond, from South Africa.
Natural size.
Native Elements.
I. In cases 1 and 2 are the native metals, as Copper, Silver,
Gold, and Platinum; and non-metals, as Sulphur, Diamond,
and Graphite. The large symmetrical South African “Colenso”
Diamond (fig. 58), weighing 130 carats, presented by the late
Professor John Ruskin, is worthy of special attention (case 1f).
Models of some famous diamonds, including “The Cullinan
Diamond,” the largest ever found (weight before being cut,
3025¾ carats, or about 1⅓ lb. av.) are exhibited.
Sulphides.
II. The next six cases contain Minerals which have mostly a
metallic lustre and consist of metals in chemical combination
with elements of the Sulphur or Arsenic groups.
Argentite (3d) is an important Silver-ore, containing 87 per
cent. of Silver and 13 of Sulphur.
Blende (4b) is a valuable Zinc-ore, and contains 67 per cent.
of Zinc and 33 per cent. of Sulphur.
Galena (4e) is by far the most important ore of Lead (Lead
87, Sulphur 13, per cent.).
Copper-glance (3e) is a common ore of Copper (Copper 80,
Sulphur 20, per cent.).
Cinnabar (3h) is the ore from which Mercury or Quicksilver
is obtained (Mercury 86, Sulphur 14, per cent.).
Pyrites (5d), one of the most common of Minerals, is a
compound of Iron and Sulphur (Iron 47, Sulphur 53,
per cent.).
Erubescite (5e), Copper pyrites (5f), and Tetrahedrite, or Grey
Copper-ore (7a), are valuable sources of Copper.
Chlorides, etc.
III. Common Salt, the chloride of the metal Sodium, is exhibited
in case 8f, and Fluor-spar, a fluoride of Calcium
belonging to the same division, begins at case 7e.
Oxides.
IV. The next division consists of compounds of Oxygen and
includes most of the stony Minerals.
Cuprite (10a), an important ore of Copper (Copper 89,
Oxygen 11, per cent.), is at first ruby-red in colour, but becomes
blackened by exposure to light.
Spinel (10e), in its transparent varieties, is one of the precious
stones; the deep red being the Spinel Ruby (less dense and
less hard than the true Ruby), the rose-tinted the Balas Ruby,
and the yellow or orange-red the Rubicelle of the jewellers:
sometimes, it has a dark blue colour. On account of their
hardness, the less valuable specimens are used for the jewelling
of watches.
Magnetite, or Magnetic Iron-ore (10f), the richest ore of Iron,
of which it contains 72 per cent., is the natural magnet.
Uraninite, or Pitchblende (10h), consists mainly of Uranium
and Oxygen, but contains traces of Helium and Radium, of
which latter it is the commercial source.
Chrysoberyl (9e) is another precious stone, almost equal in
lustre and hardness to the Sapphire; one variety is a beautiful
greenish-yellow; another, with a peculiar play of light, is the
Cat’s-eye; and a third, green by sunlight, but red by candle- or
lamp-light, is known as Alexandrite.
Corundum (9f), when clear and of the proper colour, is, after
the Diamond, the most precious of stones. When pure, it is colourless,
but with minute traces of colouring ingredient it assumes
the richest and most varied hues; when red it is Ruby,
and when blue Sapphire; the yellow, green, and purple
varieties were at one time known respectively as the Oriental
Topaz, Emerald, and Amethyst. The prefix “Oriental” was
at first used to suggest that the stones are not ordinary
Topaz, Emerald, and Amethyst, but other similarly coloured
minerals coming from the East (India, Ceylon, Siam, Pegu,
etc.); it was afterwards understood to suggest only the excellence
of their characters. The Star-stone, another variety
of Corundum, when placed in a strong light shows a six-rayed
star.
Hæmatite (11a) is a valuable ore of iron (Iron 70,
Oxygen 30, per cent.).
Cassiterite, or Tin-stone (11f), is the ore of Tin, of which
metal it contains 79 per cent.
Zircon (13b), when clear and without flaws, is one of the
precious stones: one variety with peculiar red tints is the
Hyacinth or Jacynth, while the colourless, yellowish, and dull
green phases are termed Jargoon: the colourless variety, owing
to its high refractive and dispersive power, approaches the
Diamond in brilliancy.
Quartz, which is Silica, the oxide of Silicon, is the most
common of Minerals. In its clear and transparent variety
it is the Crystal of the ancients and the Rock-Crystal of
modern times; it is the Brazilian Pebble of spectacle-makers
(14c). After the clear come the smoky varieties, including
the Scotch Cairngorm and Occidental Topaz (14g). Next
follows the Amethyst (14g), one of the less valuable, though
one of the most beautiful, of gem stones. The Quartz Cat’s-eye
(13f) is a variety presenting a similar play of light to that
of the Chrysoberyl Cat’s-eye already referred to: the effect
is due to enclosed fibres of an Asbestos-like mineral in the
specimens from Ceylon, and to fibres of Crocidolite in the blue,
and of altered Crocidolite in the brownish-yellow specimens
from South Africa.
Jasper (13g) is a coloured mixture of Silica and Clay, distinguished
from ordinary Quartz by its opacity and dull earthy
fracture. It is of various colours, chiefly red, brown, yellow,
and green; the colours being arranged sometimes in a nodular
form, as in Egyptian Jasper, at other times in stripes, as in
Riband Jasper.
The Lydian or Touch-stone (15a), by reason of its hardness
and black colour, has been used from remote ages to test the
purity of precious metals.
Hornstone (15a) is a variety of Silica without evident
crystallisation, and generally presenting a more or less splintery
fracture; in one kind, Flint (15b), the surface of fracture is
generally shell-shaped (conchoidal), sometimes conical, as is
well shown by specimens in the case.
Chalcedony (15b), which has a lustre nearly that of wax,
is translucent. The specimens of Enhydros from Uruguay
(15d) are of especial interest as containing imprisoned water.
Heliotrope, or Bloodstone (16a), is a green stone with red,
blood-like spots.
Next follow the Plasma and Chrysoprase, which are green
stones: and the Sard, generally brownish-red; as also the
Sardonyx, its banded variety. All were much prized by the
ancients because, though hard and tough enough to resist
ordinary wear and tear, they are more suited to the display of
the engraver’s skill than the still harder and more precious
stones.
Then come the Agates (16b), chiefly formed of thin layers of
porous Chalcedony of different colours, though the material of
many of the white layers is a compact Semi-opal. Most are
now brought from Uruguay, in South America, and cut and
polished at Oberstein, in Germany, where in former times
Agates were collected in quantity from the mountains of the
district. Sometimes the layers are parallel, and the stone is
then an Onyx, useful as a material for cameos: or the bands of
a section are arranged in parallel sets of zigzag lines, and the
stone is then called a Fortification-agate; but in the ordinary
agate the layers are variously curved. Moss-agates, or Mocha-stones
(16e), are varieties of Chalcedony enclosing moss-like
forms of oxides of Manganese and Iron, and green earthy
Chlorite. Carnelian (16e) is a beautiful red stone much valued
by the engraver: its fracture has a peculiar waxy lustre,
and is distinct from that of the Sard, which is dull and
horn-like.
Opal, including the Precious or Noble Opal (16f), among the
specimens of which is a fine suite from Queensland presented
by the late Professor Story-Maskelyne, is hydrated Silica.
Carbonates.
Witherite, the carbonate of Barium (18a), is used in the
manufacture of plate-glass. Strontianite (18b), the carbonate
of Strontium, is one of two minerals from which Strontium
nitrate is made for use in the manufacture of fireworks, owing
to the fine crimson colour which the salt gives to the flame:
the Strontium minerals are also employed in connection with
sugar-refining. Cerussite (18b) is the corresponding carbonate
of Lead, and when abundant is a valuable ore of that
metal.
Calcite (18e), a carbonate of the metal Calcium, is represented
by a fine suite of specimens, illustrating an almost endless
variety of crystalline form. The clear variety from Iceland is
largely used in optical instruments for polarising light.
Chalybite, or Spathic Iron-ore (20h), is the carbonate of
Iron, and a valuable ore of that metal. The most important
English Iron-ore, Clay Ironstone, is a mixture of Chalybite and
Clay. Calamine (19h), a carbonate of Zinc, is an important Zinc-ore.
Chessylite (21d) and Malachite (22b) are respectively the
blue and green carbonates of Copper, and are used as ores of
that metal. Malachite is found in large masses; by reason of
the high polish which it takes and its beautiful markings, it is
much used for ornamental work of various kinds.
Silicates.
Passing to the Silicates, we come to Olivine (22f), one of the
less hard of the precious stones; when of a yellow colour it
is known as Chrysolite, while the green variety is the Peridot
of jewellers. Hiddenite (23a) is a rare emerald-green variety
of Spodumene, and Kunzite is a lilac-coloured variety which
is used as a gem stone.
Asbestos (24c), a kind of Hornblende (a mineral common in
rocks of igneous origin), is found in long fibres; in some of its
varieties it is so flexible that it can be woven into gloves and
other articles. The term Asbestos, meaning unquenched or
unquenchable, was applied by the ancient Greeks, because, owing
to being unaltered by heat, wicks made of this mineral were
used in maintaining the perpetual sacred fires of their temples.
Napkins of Asbestos were cleaned by being thrown into the
fire; Asbestos-cloth was also used in the process of cremation
to keep the ashes of the body distinct from those of the fuel. It
is now employed for lining iron-safes, packing for steam-pipes
and boilers, and in gas-stoves, for which purposes its low conductivity
for heat renders it serviceable.
Jade or Nephrite (24d), a valued mineral, belongs to the
same group as Hornblende. The various shades of colour and
the beautiful polish which this tough mineral will take are
illustrated by specimens in the case. Several worked specimens
from New Zealand and China are exhibited. An
immense water-worn mass, weighing 1156 lb., found some
years ago in Asiatic Russia, is mounted on a separate stand
near by.
Meerschaum (23g), the light soft porous mineral used for
tobacco-pipes, is a hydrated silicate of Magnesium. Serpentine
(25a) is another hydrated Magnesium-silicate: the
ease with which it is worked and polished, its green colour, and
varied markings render it much sought after as a material
for mantel-pieces, tables, and other indoor work: exposed to
the weather it soon loses its polish.
Topaz (25c) in its clear varieties is one of the precious
stones. The crystals from the Urulga river, Siberia, are
remarkably fine, and of a delicate brown colour; they are
kept covered, as the action of light slowly bleaches them.
The yellow crystals from Brazil assume a peculiar pink colour
when heated, and are then known to jewellers as Burnt
or Pink Topaz. A fine orange-red crystal from Brazil is
exhibited.
Garnet also belongs to the group of precious stones; when
the red is tinged with violet, the stone is the Almandine or
Syrian Garnet (named after Syriam in Pegu), and when cut en
cabochon, the Carbuncle of jewellery (26f); the Cinnamon-stone
or Hessonite varies in tint from hyacinth-red to honey-yellow
(26e); the Pyrope, including the “Cape Ruby” and the
Bohemian garnet, is blood-red (26e), Demantoid is an emerald-green
(26g).
Jadeite (27a) is one of the green stones which, under the
name of Jade, are wrought into ornaments in China: from
jade it is distinguished by its chemical composition, structure,
and higher specific gravity. Among the specimens of Epidote
(27c) a remarkable series from the Untersulzbachthal, Austria,
is exhibited.
Mica (28a) is the name given to a group of minerals differing
much from each other in chemical composition and optical properties,
but having as a common character an easy splitting, or
cleavage, in a single direction, and thus affording plates remarkably
thin, transparent, tough, and elastic. One of these
minerals, Muscovite (28d), has been used in Russia in place
of glass for windows, and is now in common use for lanterns
and stoves, not being so easily cracked as glass by changes of
temperature; it is often known in commerce as talc, a term
restricted by mineralogists to a different mineral.
The group of Felspars, the most important of the rock-forming
minerals, begins at case 28f. After the Felspars comes Beryl,
of which the bright green variety, Emerald (29c), is one of the
most valued of precious stones. It was in ancient times
worked in Egypt, as is proved by specimens found in the
old workings by Sir Gardner Wilkinson, and presented by
him to the Museum. Emeralds occur in the Urals; but the
locality for the finest stones has long been Muzo, about
seventy miles from Santa Fé de Bogotá, in South America.
Faceted specimens of the colourless Beryl, of the bluish-green
Beryl, known in jewellery as Aquamarine, and of pink Beryl
from California and Madagascar, are exhibited (30a).
In cases 30f to 32d will be found examples of the Zeolite
group of minerals.
Tourmaline (33a), when free from flaws, is, in some of its
varieties, to be classed with the precious stones; among these
being a pink variety called Rubellite. Fine specimens of
Rubellite from Burma, the Urals, and Madagascar, are shown in
the case; one specimen from Burma, poor in colour but remarkable
for its size and shape, was brought home by Colonel
Symes, to whom it had been presented by the King of Ava in
the year 1795. The pink-and-green tourmalines from Maine,
U.S.A., and the magnificent crystals from San Diego Co.,
California, are among the more beautiful of the mineral products
of the United States. Examples of the blue Tourmaline,
or Indicolite, are shown in case 33b.
A rich blue mineral, the Lapis-lazuli of jewellery (34b),
brought from Persia, Siberia, Bokhara, and Chili, is a mixture
of various species. When powdered, Lapis-lazuli furnished the
once costly pigment ultramarine; but by the discovery of a
method of producing an artificial and cheap form of the latter,
the use of the mineral as a pigment has ceased.
Sulphates, Phosphates, etc.
The sulphates of Strontium, Celestite (35c), of Barium, Barytes
or Heavy Spar (36a), and of Lead, Anglesite (36e), are all represented
by series of specimens.
Gypsum, or Selenite (36f), is a hydrated sulphate of the metal
Calcium: when heated, it gives up its water of crystallisation and
falls to a white powder, known as “Plaster of Paris,” which,
when moistened, again combines with water and yields a coherent
solid. Gypseous Alabaster, a massive variety of Gypsum (36h),
owing to its whiteness, fine texture, and softness is used as a
material for statuettes and other indoor ornaments. Oriental
Alabaster is a harder substance, Stalagmitic Calcite, carbonate
of Calcium.
Borax (37c), a borate of Sodium, is much used as a flux, also
in soldering, and in the preparation of easily fusible enamels.
It was formerly carried over the Himalayas on sheep and goats
from lakes in Tibet, but is now obtained largely from the Borax-lakes
of the United States, and is also extensively prepared
from the boracic acid lagoons in Tuscany.
Nitratine or Soda-nitre (37d), found in Chili in beds of large
extent, is largely used for the preparation of Nitric Acid and
Saltpetre, and is also used as a fertiliser.
Calaite or Turquoise (38g), a phosphate of the metals Aluminium
and Copper, is generally massive; only very rarely
does it occur in the crystalline state. Being as hard as
Felspar and taking a good polish, it has been much prized
in jewellery; that which comes into the market is chiefly
brought from the Turquoise-mines not far from Nishapur,
in Persia.
Amber.
As a supplement to the collection of simple Minerals, is
arranged, in case 41, a group of natural substances which
either belong or are closely related to the Mineral Kingdom,
although, in the formation of most, organised matter has played
a very important part. The most important of these are Coal
and Amber. Coal (41a), in most of its varieties, gives structural
evidence of its vegetable origin: its chemical composition
depends on the amount of change which has taken place,
and thus is less definite than in the preceding minerals.
In the variety called Anthracite all traces of the original
organised structure have disappeared. Amber (41c), in ancient
times regarded as one of the precious stones, is likewise
of vegetable origin. It is fossil resin, chiefly derived from trees
allied to the pines; its originally sticky condition is proved by
the insects sometimes found enclosed.
Larger Mineral Specimens.
In the pavilion at the east end of the gallery the visitor will
find many mineral specimens which, owing to their size, cannot
be satisfactorily exhibited in the table-cases.
Among these, attention may be directed to the magnificent
series of Minerals in the wall-cases, and to the large specimen
of Gypsum, or Selenite, presented by H.R.H. the late Prince
Consort, which, with some fine masses of Iceland Spar, is exhibited
in a special case.
Of the four table-cases in the windows of the pavilion, the
first three contain a series illustrating the various kinds of
Pseudomorphs, or minerals in which the original constituent
has been altered and replaced by a new substance which
preserves the crystalline form of the first. The fourth displays
a set of specimens selected by the late Professor Ruskin to
illustrate varieties of Silica.24
Meteorites.
The most important feature of the pavilion is the collection
of Meteorites,25 of which the smaller specimens are shown in the
four central cases. The fall of masses of stone and iron from
the sky, though observed again and again since the most remote
ages, was very rarely credited by anyone beside the spectators
themselves; and till the beginning of the nineteenth century no
attempt was made to collect such specimens for examination
and comparison. In the special guide it is shown how
evidence of the actual fall of such bodies at length became
irresistible, and a description is given of the circumstances
attending their fall, of their general characters, and their
chemical composition: illustrative specimens, collected together
for easy reference, will be found in one of the cases. It is also
shown that meteorites are closely related, not only to shooting
stars, but also to comets, and probably to nebulæ and fixed
stars.
Botanical Gallery.
The upper floor of the East wing is devoted to the Department
of Botany.
The Collections of this Department consist of two portions,
the one open to the public and consisting of specimens suitable
for exhibition, and mainly intended to illustrate the various
groups of the Vegetable Kingdom and the broad facts on
which the natural system of the classification of plants is
based; the other set apart for the use of persons engaged in the
detailed scientific study of plants.
On the landing outside the gallery is a series of tree-sections
representing some common British-grown trees, with sections
and bark of the Cork-Oak (Quercus suber), and large sections of
the White Fir and Douglas Pine from British Columbia. The
Douglas Pine was cut down in 1885 when 533 years old;
its age is indicated by the annual rings seen in transverse
section of the wood, and a record of events has been painted
on the surface. A collection of plant-abnormalities is also
shown.
System of Classification.
The system of classification followed in the exhibition-cases
in the public gallery is a modification of one widely used on
the Continent and in America. In the first bay on the left-hand
side an attempt has been made to illustrate, by means of
books dealing with the subject, the history and development of
modern systems of classification. There is a Guide26 to this
exhibition. The series of specimens (starting on the north, or
left-hand, side of the gallery) begins with the simpler orders of
Dicotyledonous Seed-plants, those in which petals are wanting
in the flower or if present are free from each other, and passes
on to the less simple orders with united petals. The orders are
represented by dried or otherwise prepared specimens of the
plants themselves, drawings, fruits, and prepared sections of the
woods. Diagrams are employed to indicate the characters in
the flowers on which the grouping is based. The use of the
same colour for corresponding structures throughout the
diagrams readily conveys to the eye the points of agreement
or difference on which the classification rests. The geological
history of each natural order is indicated on a table of strata,
and its present distribution on the surface of the earth given on
a small map of the world. Descriptive labels afford particular
information respecting each specimen.
The Dicotyledonous Plants extend to the fifth case on the
left side of the gallery, and are followed by the Monocotyledonous
orders, which fill a portion of the last case on the same
side, the two half-cases at the end of the gallery, and the first
case returning towards the door. The Gymnosperms are placed
in the next case. Then follow the Cryptogams, a case being
devoted to the higher, vascular orders, and another to the
cellular plants. The series closes with an interesting collection
of models of the larger British Fungi, coloured and mounted
in accordance with their natural habitats. A Catalogue of
these models has been prepared.27 In the table-case in the
last bay is placed an illustrated collection of the British Mycetozoa,
to which there is also a Guide.28 A large chalk-like mass
of Diatom-earth containing twelve billion Diatoms is placed in
a case by itself near the entrance to the gallery. The table-
and window-cases in the bays contain exhibitions of interest
under the following heads: Insectivorous plants (at present in
the Central Hall), Parasitic plants, Water-plants, Xerophytic
plants, Epiphytic plants, Adaptations for Defence, Climbing
plants, Fertilisation of flowers (also in the Hall), and Dispersal
of seeds, a selection of British plants dried in sand and preserving
their form and colour, and a series of Lichens from
Chili. Attention may likewise be directed to a series of
coloured drawings of British Plants. At the entrance of the
gallery on the right is placed a camera to exhibit stereoscopic
views of plants in their natural colours; and on the left is a
model of a large fungus (Hydnum).
At the end of the gallery the larger specimens of Palms are
set up against the screen dividing the gallery from the Herbarium;
other Palms, Cycads, Tree-ferns, etc., are placed in the
bays next the appropriate wall-cases. Suspended from the roof
is a fine specimen of the “Wabo” Bamboo (Dendrocalamus)
from Burma, 81 feet long; and on the floor of the gallery are
specimens of the Vegetable Sheep (Raoulia) of New Zealand, a
large aërial root of a Banyan, a Brazilian Tree-lily (Vellozia), a
large Bamboo from Demerara, an Australian Grass-tree (Kingia),
a Brazilian Palm (Acrocomia), a Sugar-cane, and a Japanese Cycad.
British Plants.
A collection of British Plants is exhibited in glazed frames
fastened by hinges to uprights. The classification of the
Flowering Plants and Ferns is that used in Bentham’s “Handbook
of the British Flora,” and descriptions are attached as
labels to each plant.29 Three series of frames contain specimens
of the British Flowering Plants and Ferns. The fourth frame
is occupied with the Mosses and Stoneworts (Characeæ), and
forms the beginning of the exhibition of Cellular Plants. The
series is continued in the frames on the other side of the gallery
containing the lower Fungi and coloured drawings of the larger
Fungi; a small series of the larger kind of Fungi found near
London is also shown. In the first bay to the right on entering
are series of coloured drawings (natural size) of edible and
poisonous fungi, and of field and cultivated mushrooms and
poisonous or worthless species often mistaken for mushrooms.
A Guide30 to the latter series has been prepared. The British
Lichens are arranged in a cabinet of shallow glass-topped drawers.
Herbarium.
Above the entrance to the great Herbarium is a life-size
photograph of an Orchid (Phalænopsis) from the Philippine
Islands.
The portion reserved for the use of the scientific student consists
mainly of the great Herbarium of Flowering Plants. This is
a collection of dried plants, respectively fastened on single sheets
of stiff folio paper, and representing, so far as it has been possible
to obtain them, every species of living plant and the distribution
of each of these on the surface of the earth. The various
species are collected under their respective genera, which are
arranged in their natural orders; the whole being classified
according to the system of Bentham and Hooker’s “Genera
Plantarum.” The plants of the British Isles form a small
separate collection. The important herbarium of Sir Hans
Sloane is kept distinct in its original form, the plants being
pasted on the pages of 333 large folios. There are other
ancient herbaria of great historic and scientific interest, as well
as an excellent working library and a collection of drawings of
plants. The Herbarium of Vascular Cryptogams (Ferns) and
Cellular Plants (Mosses, Liverworts, Algæ, Lichens, and Fungi)
is in a separate room entered from the head of the great
staircase.
