America (Volume 6 of 6)

VOLUME VI

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PAGE
Pack Train on the Skaguay Trail, Alaska	Frontispiece
Tyler-Davidson Fountain, Cincinnati, Ohio	332
Bridge Crossing the Mississippi at St. Louis	396
Cloister of Mission, San Juan Capistrano	442
Gateway, Garden of the Gods, Colorado	466
Sitka, Alaska, from the Sea	500

The Ohio River—Economy—The Harmonists—Columbiana—Wheeling—Moundsville—Marietta—Parkersburg—Blennerhassett's Island—Point Pleasant—Maysville—Blue Grass—Lexington—Cincinnati—Covington—Newport—Dayton—North Bend—Carrolton—Frankfort—Kentucky River—Daniel Boone—Louisville—Jeffersonville—Bowling Green—Mammoth Cave—Nashville—Battle of Nashville—Evansville—Cairo—Cumberland River—Tennessee River—Forts Henry and Donelson—Battle of Shiloh—Cumberland Mountains—Cumberland Gap—Mount Mitchell—Chattanooga—Missionary Ridge—Lookout Mountain—Chickamauga Park—The Chickamauga Battles—Rosecrans against Bragg—Battle Above the Clouds—Grant Defeats Bragg—Knoxville—Parson Brownlow—Greenville—Andrew Johnson—Roan Mountain—Land of the Sky—Swannanoa River—Buncombe—Asheville—Biltmore—Hickory-Nut Gap—French Broad River—Hot Springs—Spartansburg—Cowpens—King's Mountain—Charlotte—Mecklenburg—Salisbury Prison—Guilford Court House—Chapel Hill—Durham—Raleigh—Columbia—Aiken—Augusta—Chattahoochee River—Atlanta—Its Siege and Capture—Sherman's March to the Sea—Rome—Anniston—Talladega—Birmingham—Tuscaloosa—Macon—Andersonville Prison—Columbus—West Point—Tuskegee—Alabama River—Montgomery—Cotton Plantations—Selma—Meridian—Jackson—Tombigbee River—Mobile and Its Bay—Admiral Farragut—Capture of Mobile Forts—The Pine and the Orange.

THE OHIO RIVER.

The Ohio—the Indian "stream white with froth," the French La Belle Riviere—is the greatest river draining the western slopes of the Alleghenies. Its basin embraces over two hundred thousand square miles, and it flows for a thousand miles from Pittsburg to the Mississippi at Cairo. In the upper reaches the Ohio is about twelve hundred feet wide, broadening below to twenty-four hundred feet, its depth varying fifty to sixty feet in the stages between low and high water, and it goes along with smooth and placid current at one to three miles an hour, having no fall excepting a rocky rapid of twenty-six feet descent in two miles at Louisville. From Pittsburg it flows northwest about twenty-six miles at the bottom of a deep canyon it has carved down in the table land, so that steep and lofty hills enclose it. Then the river turns west and finally south around the long and narrow "Panhandle" protruding northward from the State of West Virginia. It passes through a thriving agricultural region, with many prosperous cities on its banks, almost everyone having a great railway bridge carrying over the many lines seeking the west and south. In its whole course it descends some four hundred feet; its scenery is largely pastoral and gentle, without the grandeur given by bold cliffs, although much of the shores are beautiful, and its banks in various places disclose elevated terraces, indicating that it formerly flowed at much higher levels, whilst its winding route gives a constant succession of curves that add to the attractiveness.

Eighteen miles from Pittsburg is the town of Economy, where are the fine farms and oil-wells of the quaint community of "Harmonists." Georg Rapp, of Wurtumberg, believing he was divinely called to restore the Christian religion to its original purity, established a colony there on the model of the primitive church, with goods held in common, which in 1803 he transplanted to Pennsylvania, settling in Butler County. A few years later they removed to Indiana, but soon came back, and founded their settlement of Economy in Beaver County in 1824. Originally they numbered six hundred, and grew very rich, but being celibates, their community dwindled until there were only eighteen, who owned a tract of twenty-five hundred acres with valuable buildings and much personal property, so that if divided it was estimated each would have more than $100,000. The baby "Harmonist" then was over sixty years old, and to perpetuate the community, in 1888 they began accepting proselytes, who assumed all the obligations with vows of celibacy, and thus the number was increased to fifty. Economy is a sleepy village, its vine-covered houses built with gables towards the street and without front doors, all being entered from side-yards. They now labor but little themselves, their factories are silent, and their noted brand of Pennsylvania "Economy whiskey" is no longer distilled. Their church-bell rings them up at five o'clock in the morning, they breakfast at six, and at seven the bell again rings for the farmhands to go to work. At nine the bell summons them to lunch, at twelve to dinner, at three to lunch again, at six to supper, and at nine in the evening it finally warns the village to go to bed. They have a noted wine-cellar, and none drink water, but they give all the hands wine and cider, and present cake and wine to every visitor. At the church service, the men sit on one side and the women on the other, and when a "Harmonist" dies he is wrapped in a winding-sheet and buried in the "white graveyard," no tombstone marking the grave. They have recently suffered from litigation, others trying to get a share of their wealth, but they live quietly, awaiting the final summons, firm in their faith, and thoroughly believing its cardinal principle that their last survivor will see the end of the world.

GOING DOWN THE OHIO.

Having crossed the Pennsylvania western boundary, the Ohio River separates West Virginia from the State of Ohio, passing a region which seems mournful from the many abandoned oil-derricks displayed near the banks for a long distance. The Ohio shore is Columbiana County, a name fancifully compounded by an early State Legislature from "Columbus" and "Anna;" and it is recorded that when the subject was pending one member proposed to add "Maria," so that the euphonious whole would be "Columbianamaria." His effort failed, however. At the various towns, the railroads come out from the mountain regions of West Virginia, bringing the bituminous coal for shipment. Ninety-four miles below Pittsburg is Wheeling, the metropolis of West Virginia, a busy manufacturing city of forty thousand people. Farther down, in the midst of the flats adjoining the river, at Moundsville, is the great Indian Mound, a relic of the prehistoric inhabitants of this region standing up eighty feet high and being eight hundred and twenty feet in circumference at the base. In this mound were found two sepulchral chambers containing three skeletons. At Benwood, near by, one branch of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad crosses the river to Bellaire in Ohio. The Muskingum River, coming out of the heart of the State, flows in at Marietta, a stream thus named by the Delaware Indians when they first came to this region, from the abundance of elk and deer who could be approached near enough to see their eyes, Muskingum meaning "elk's eyes." Marietta is the oldest town in Ohio, settled in 1788 by a colony sent out by the "Ohio Company" of New England, which had been granted many square miles of land along the river. This colony of forty-seven Yankee pioneers marched over the Alleghenies, floated down the Ohio on a flatboat which they called the "Mayflower," and landing at the mouth of the Muskingum, their first act was writing a set of laws and nailing them to a tree, and in this code naming their settlement in honor of Marie Antoinette, the Queen of France. A company of troops in a little stockade fort protected them from the Indians. Here they found a curious mass of ancient fortifications, relics of the prehistoric mound-builders—a square enclosed by a wall of earth ten feet high, having twelve entrances, a covered way, bulwarks to defend the gateways, and other elaborate works, including a moat fifteen feet wide defended by a parapet. Thirteen miles below, the Little Kanawha River flows in at Parkersburg, and here the other branch of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad crosses on a massive bridge, a mile and a half long, over the river and lowlands. This is the entrepot of a great petroleum district which gives the town a large trade, and they are said to be still striking in the Ritchie County oilfield thousand-barrel wells. In the river two miles below is the noted Blennerhassett's Island, where that gentleman, an Irishman of distinction, built himself a splendid mansion and made a fine estate in 1798. When Aaron Burr afterwards concocted his notorious conspiracy, he induced Blennerhassett to invest his fortune in the scheme. Whilst not convicted of treason, Burr's dupe was irretrievably ruined and his house and estate fell into decay.

The Great Kanawha flows in, the chief river of West Virginia, at Point Pleasant, the Indian "rapid river," and it is now the outlet of one of the leading coal-fields, the New River district, in its upper waters, the navigation being maintained by an elaborate system of locks and movable dams. At the mouth was fought the severest battle with the Indians in the Ohio Valley, the tribes from beyond the river attacking the troops, but being beaten off after great bloodshed. Huntington is beyond, where the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway comes out to the Ohio, after having passed Charleston, the West Virginia State capital, fifty miles up the Kanawha. The Big Sandy River enters below, the boundary of Kentucky, and beyond is the mouth of the Scioto on the Ohio bank, where the terminus of the Lake Erie and Ohio Canal gave the start to the city of Portsmouth, having twenty thousand people. Maysville, to the westward on the Kentucky shore, is a leading hemp-market, and one of the towns supplying the famous "Blue Grass Region." The river banks here are very attractive and are backed by ranges of hills. Stretching southward from the shores are extensive green parks, with few fences and only occasional green fields, displaying majestic trees, one of the best grazing districts in America, the wealth of the inhabitants being in their flocks. Some distance back from the river the blue grass begins, so named from its blue tinge when in blossom, the district occupying ten thousand square miles in five Kentucky counties, the soil being very rich and the extensive pastures lined by hemp and tobacco fields. Stock farms abound, and Lexington is the metropolis of the district, a thriving town of twenty-five thousand people, about eighty miles south of the Ohio, an important horse and cattle market, and also famous for its distilleries of the native Bourbon whiskies. Here is the noted race-track of the "Kentucky Horse-Breeders' Association," and in this district are raised the greatest racing horses of America. Probably the leading stock farm is at Ashland, a short distance out of town, where Henry Clay long had his home. Lexington received its name from having been founded in 1775 about the time of the battle of Lexington. It has a fine monument to Henry Clay, who died in 1852, and it is also the seat of the University of Kentucky, with eight hundred students.

THE CITY OF CINCINNATI.

Sixty miles below Maysville the Licking River flows out of Kentucky, and on the opposite Ohio shore, built upon the magnificent amphitheatre of hills rising tier upon tier, and surrounded by villa-crowned heights elevated five hundred feet as a background, is Ohio's metropolis, Cincinnati, the Queen City. It spreads fourteen miles along the river, one of the most important manufacturing and commercial centres of the West, and is fronted by Covington and Newport on the Kentucky shore, the Licking River dividing them. John Cleves Symmes, a prominent American in the eighteenth century, bought from the Government after the Revolution a large tract of land in Ohio between the Great and Little Miami Rivers, known as "Symmes' Purchase." His nephew and namesake was the noted author of the "Theory of Concentric Spheres," which was called in derision "Symmes's Hole," and he afterwards died on this tract, being buried there with a monument surmounted, according to his pet theory, by a globe open at the poles. The people interested in the land purchase decided to establish a settlement opposite the mouth of the Licking, and they gave it the pedantic name of Losantiville, a word ingeniously contrived to describe its position by using the "L" signifying Licking River, "os" the mouth, "anti" opposite, and "ville" a city. General St. Clair, however, came along afterwards to establish a military post in his campaign against the Indians, and being prominently identified with the Society of the Cincinnati, he gave the place that name. It was for many years a small collection of log cabins, and had only slow growth until steamboating began on the Ohio, when it rapidly expanded, receiving an additional impetus from the opening of the Miami Canal connecting with Lake Erie in 1830 and from the great development of the western railway systems after 1840. Its earlier inhabitants came largely from the Atlantic States and Kentucky, but subsequently there was a great German influx, so that a considerable district north of the Miami Canal is their special home, and is familiarly known as "Over the Rhine." The Civil War gave the city a serious set-back by destroying its extensive Southern trade, but it has since greatly grown, and now has a population of four hundred thousand. The immediate advantage of location comes from having around it a district of a hundred miles radius which is one of the most fertile in America.

The Fountain Square at Fifth Street may be regarded as the business centre of Cincinnati, this being an expansion of the street, having upon a spacious esplanade the grand bronze Tyler-Davidson Fountain, the gift of a prominent townsman, which was cast at the Royal Bronze Foundry in Munich and is one of the noblest fountains existing. To the northward is the granite United States Government Building which cost $5,000,000, while farther inland is the red Romanesque City Hall, with a lofty tower, erected at an expense of $1,600,000. The high hills enclosing Cincinnati give grand outlooks, and upon them are the finest parts of the city. They are reached by inclined-plane railways from the lower grounds, as well as by winding roadways. Upon these hills to the eastward is Eden Park, a fine pleasure-ground of over two hundred acres containing the water reservoirs and an elaborate Art Museum, of handsome architecture, surmounted by a red-tiled roof. The famous Rookwood Pottery is also on these eastern hills. To the northward is Mount Auburn, and beyond, the Clifton Heights with the Burnet Woods Park, a fine natural forest. These high encircling hills, diversified by ravines, give to suburban Cincinnati a singularly picturesque and beautiful environment, being covered by attractive and costly villas surrounded by lawns and gardens, making throughout a most delicious park. The Spring Grove Cemetery, about five miles to the northwest, covers a square mile, and is an appropriate home of the dead, having elaborate monuments, of which the finest is the Dexter Mausoleum, a Gothic chapel of grand proportions and splendid decoration. Five great bridges span the Ohio in front of Cincinnati, crossing over to the Kentucky shore at Covington and Newport, where there are seventy thousand people, the United States military post of Fort Thomas being upon the hills behind Newport. Up the Great Miami, sixty miles to the northward, and at its confluence with Mad River, is Dayton, a busy manufacturing and railway centre, having seventy thousand people. It is the location of the Central National Soldiers' Home, where there are several thousand old soldiers, the spacious buildings, in an attractive park of seven hundred acres, standing prominently on the hills sloping up from the Miami River to the westward of the city.

CINCINNATI TO LOUISVILLE.

North Bend on the Ohio River, fifteen miles from Cincinnati, was the home of General William Henry Harrison, and upon a commanding hill is his tomb, a modest structure of brick. The family mansion built in 1814, to which he brought his bride, is still preserved, and in it were born his son John Scott Harrison and his grandson, President Benjamin Harrison. To the westward the Great Miami River flows in at the boundary between Ohio and Indiana. Some distance farther down, at Carrolton, is the mouth of the Kentucky River, which named the "Blue Grass State," a beautiful stream, having upon its banks, sixty miles south of the Ohio, the Kentucky capital, Frankfort. The name of this river comes from the Iroquois word Kentake, meaning "among the meadows," in allusion to a large and almost treeless tract in the southern part of the State from which the river flows, called by the pioneers "the Barrens." To this region first came the famous hunter Daniel Boone, who had been born in Berks County, Pennsylvania, in 1735, but went in early life to North Carolina. In 1769, being of a roving disposition, he crossed the mountains with five companions and penetrated the forests of Kentucky, the first white men who trod them. He was captured by the Indians, but escaped, returning to North Carolina after wandering and hunting through Kentucky over a year. He finally moved with some others, all taking their families, into Kentucky in 1773, settling on the upper Kentucky River, and building a defensive fort there at Boonesborough in 1775. The Indians repeatedly attacked the place and were repulsed, but finally, in 1778, they captured Boone, taking him northward to Detroit. Again he escaped, returning later in the year, having another combat with the Indians at his fort and defeating them. For seventeen years afterwards he hunted in Kentucky, and his name and exploits became a household word; but there was a large migration into the region from Virginia and elsewhere, and the increased population was crowding the old hunter too much, so he went west in 1795 to Missouri, settling beyond St. Louis. He had received large land grants in both States, and had various legal conflicts, losing much of his property, but he lived in Missouri the remainder of his life, dying there on his farm in 1820 at the age of eighty-five. Being the founder of Kentucky, that State in 1845, as the result of a popular movement, brought back the remains of the old hunter, and they were interred near Frankfort, alongside the river he loved so well.

The Ohio River flows westward past Madison, a thriving manufacturing town on the Indiana bank, and then sweeps around a grand curve to the south in its approach to the Kentucky metropolis, Louisville. The view of Louisville and Jeffersonville, opposite in Indiana, is very fine, as the visitor comes towards them down the river. The Ohio is a mile wide, and the Kentucky hills which lined it above, here recede from the bank, and do not come out to it again for twenty miles, leaving an almost level plain several miles in width, and elevated some distance above the water, upon which Louisville is built, spreading along the shore for eight miles in a graceful crescent. The rapids at the lower end of the city cover the whole width of the river, and go down twenty-six feet in two miles, making a series of foaming cascades in ordinary stages of water, but being almost entirely obliterated in times of freshet, when the steamboats can pass down them. A long canal cut through the rocks provides safe navigation around them. An expedition of thirteen families of Virginia, under Colonel George Rogers Clarke, floated down the Ohio on flatboats in 1778, and halting at the falls, settled there, at first on an island, but afterwards on the southern shore. This began the town which in 1780 was named by the Virginia Legislature in honor of the French King Louis XVI., who was then actively aiding the American Revolution. The Ohio River steamboating began the city's rapid growth, which was further swelled by the later development of railway traffic, and it now has two hundred and fifty thousand population. There is a large southern trade in provisions and supplies, and it is probably the greatest leaf-tobacco market in the world, being also the distributing depot for the Kentucky whiskies. There are, besides, other prominent branches of manufacture. Its foliage-lined and lawn-bordered streets in the residential section are very attractive and a notable feature. The chief public buildings are the Court House and the City Hall, the former adorned by a statue of the Kentucky statesman Henry Clay. Its great disaster was a frightful tornado, which swept a path of desolation through the heart of the city in March, 1900, killing seventy-six persons and destroying property estimated at $3,000,000. Its most famous citizen was George D. Prentice, poet, editor and politician, whose monument, a Grecian canopy of marble, is in Cave Hill Cemetery, prettily laid out on the hills to the eastward. The city has an environment of pleasant parks, and three fine bridges span the Ohio in front, crossing to the suburban towns of Jeffersonville and New Albany over on the Indiana shore. Five miles east of Louisville lived General Zachary Taylor, old "Rough and Ready," who commanded the army of the United States in the conquest of Mexico, and died while President in 1850. He is buried near his old home.

LOUISVILLE TO NASHVILLE.

Southward from Louisville runs the railroad to Nashville, and proceeding along it, Green River is reached, which, flowing northwest, falls into the Ohio near Evansville. At the Green River crossing were fought the initial skirmishes of the Civil War, in various conflicts between the western armies of Generals Buell and Bragg in 1862. Farther southwestward is Bowling Green, now a quiet agricultural town, but then a location at the crossing of Barren River of great strategic importance, it having been occupied and strongly fortified by the Confederates in 1861, to defend the approach to Nashville. But after the capture of Forts Henry and Donelson in February, 1862, the Confederates being outflanked abandoned the town, retiring southward. Between these places, and adjoining Green River, about ninety miles south of Louisville, is the famous Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. This is the largest known cavern in the world, extending for a distance of nine or ten miles, the various avenues that have been explored having a total length approximating two hundred miles. The carboniferous limestones of Kentucky, in which the cave is located, occupy an area of eight thousand square miles, and the geologists estimate that there are probably a hundred thousand miles of open caverns beneath this surface. There is a hotel near the cave entrance, and it has several thousand visitors annually. Its mouth is reached by passing down a rocky ravine through the forest, and is a sort of funnel-shaped opening about a hundred feet in diameter at the top, with steep walls fifty feet high. A hunter accidentally discovered the cave in 1809, and for years afterwards it was entered chiefly to obtain nitre for the manufacture of gunpowder, especially during the War of 1812, the nitre being found in deposits on the cave floor, mainly near the entrance, and owing its origin to the accumulation of animal remains, mostly of bats, in which the cave abounds. It subsequently became a resort for sight-seers, and yields its owners a good revenue.

Upon entering the cave, the first impression is made by a chaos of limestone formations, moist with water oozing from above, and then is immediately felt what is known as "the breath" of the cave. It has pure air and an even temperature of 52° to 56°, and this is maintained all the year round. In summer the relatively cooler air flows out of the entrance, while in winter the colder air outside is drawn in, and this makes the movement of "the breath," at once apparent from the difference of temperature and currents of wind when passing the entrance. For nearly a half-mile within are seen the remains of the Government nitre-works, the vats being undecayed, while ruts of cart-wheels are traceable on the floor. The Rotunda is then entered, a hall seventy-five feet high and one hundred and sixty feet across, beginning the main cave, and out of which avenues lead in various directions. The vast interior beyond contains a succession of wonderful avenues, chambers, domes, abysses, grottoes, lakes, rivers, cataracts, stalactites, etc., remarkable for size and extraordinary appearance, though they are neither as brilliant nor as beautiful as similar things seen in some other caves. But their gigantic scale is elsewhere unsurpassed. There are eyeless fish and crawfish, and a prolific population of bats. In the subterranean explorations there are two routes usually followed, a short one of eight miles and another of twenty miles. Various appropriate names are given the different parts of the cave, and curious and interesting legends are told about them, one of the tales being of the "Bridal Chamber," which got its name because an ingenious maiden who had promised at the deathbed of her mother she would not marry any man on the face of the earth, came down here and was wedded. Bayard Taylor wrote of this Mammoth Cave, "No description can do justice to its sublimity, or present a fair picture of its manifold wonders; it is the greatest natural curiosity I have ever visited, Niagara not excepted."

Seventy miles south of Bowling Green, at the Cumberland River, and occupying the hills adjoining both banks, is Nashville, the capital and largest city of Tennessee, having eighty thousand population. It is in an admirable situation, and is known as the "Rock City," its most prominent building, the State Capitol, standing upon an abrupt yet symmetrical hill, rising like an Indian mound and overlooking the entire city, its high tower seen from afar. In the grounds are the tomb of President James K. Polk, who died in 1849 and whose home was in Nashville, and a fine bronze equestrian statue of General Andrew Jackson, the most famous Tennesseean, whose residence, the Hermitage, was eleven miles to the eastward. Nashville has considerable manufactures, but is chiefly known as the leading educational city of the South. The most prominent institution is the Vanderbilt University, attended by eight hundred students and endowed by Commodore Cornelius Vanderbilt with $1,000,000, his colossal statue, unveiled in 1897, standing on the campus. The University of Nashville, originally begun by charter of the North Carolina Legislature as an Academy in 1785, has four hundred students in its Normal Department, which trains teachers for Southern schools, and as many more in its Medical Department. There are also the Fisk University, Roger Williams University, and Central Tennessee College, all endowments for colored students and having about thirteen hundred in attendance. The city has various other educational institutions and public buildings, and in the southwestern suburbs is the famous Belle Meade stock-farm, where was bred Iroquois, the only American horse that was a winner of the English Derby. Nashville was in the midst of the Civil War, and four miles to the northward is a National Cemetery with over sixteen thousand soldiers' graves. The great battle of Nashville was fought just south of the city December 15 and 16, 1864. In November of that year General Sherman had captured Atlanta, Georgia, to the southeast, and the Confederate General Hood, who had lost it, marched in Sherman's rear northward and began an invasion of Tennessee, advancing upon Nashville and forcing General George H. Thomas to fall back within its fortifications south of the Cumberland. For two weeks little was done, the weather preventing, but Thomas suddenly attacked, and in the two days' battle worsted Hood and put his army to flight, pursuing them over the boundary into Alabama, where the remnants escaped across the Tennessee River, a demoralized rabble. Hood's army being thus destroyed, Sherman, who had been waiting at Atlanta, began his famous march to the sea.

The Ohio River below Louisville passes Evansville, the chief town of southwestern Indiana, having sixty thousand people and a large trade. A short distance beyond, the Wabash River flows in, the boundary between Indiana and Illinois. Shawneetown in southern Illinois and Paducah in Kentucky are passed, and the Ohio River finally discharges its waters into the Mississippi at Cairo, the southern extremity of Illinois, the town being built upon a long, low peninsula protruding between the two great rivers, around which extensive levees have been constructed to prevent inundation. The place has about twelve thousand people and considerable manufacturing industry. All about is an extensive prairie land, which in times of great spring freshets is generally overflowed.

CUMBERLAND AND TENNESSEE RIVERS.

A large portion of the waters brought down by the Ohio come from its two great affluents flowing in almost alongside each other on the southern bank, just above Paducah, the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers. The Cumberland has its sources in the Cumberland Mountains, the eastern boundary of Kentucky, and flows for six hundred and fifty miles, the whole length of that State, making a wide, sweeping circuit down into Tennessee, where it passes Nashville, at the head of steamboat navigation, two hundred miles from its mouth. For twenty miles above their mouths, in their lower courses, these two great rivers are rarely more than three miles apart. The Tennessee is twelve hundred miles long from its head stream, the Holston River, rising in the mountains east of Kentucky and Tennessee. It comes through East Tennessee, makes a great bend down into Alabama, and then coming up northward flows through Tennessee and Kentucky to the Ohio. It is navigable for nearly three hundred miles to the Mussel Shoals at Florence, Alabama, where canals and locks have improved the navigation for twenty miles past the shoals, and it can also be navigated for eight hundred miles above, excepting at very low stages of water. Its name signifies "the river of the Great Bend," and it was also called in early times the "river of the Cherokees."

It was by the capture of Fort Donelson, near the mouth of the Cumberland River, that General Grant gained his early fame in the Civil War. The Confederates erected strong defensive works on the two rivers in order to prevent an invasion of Western Kentucky and Tennessee. The places selected were about forty miles south of the Ohio—Fort Henry being built on the eastern bank of the Tennessee River and Fort Donelson on the western bank of the Cumberland, twelve miles apart, and connected by a direct road. A combined land and naval attack was made on these forts in February, 1862, under command of General Grant and Commodore Foote. Fort Henry was easily captured by Foote's gunboats on February 6th after an hour's action, most of the garrison retreating across the neck of land to Fort Donelson. Grant then invested Fort Donelson, being reinforced until he had twenty-seven thousand men, and he attacked so vigorously that after a severe battle on the 15th he effected a lodgement in the Confederate lines and severely crippled them. Part of the garrison escaped southward during the night, and in the morning General Buckner, commanding, asked for an armistice and commissioners to arrange a capitulation. To this Grant made his noted reply, "No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted; I propose to move immediately upon your works." Having no alternative, Buckner surrendered. The Union army captured fourteen thousand prisoners, a vast amount of small arms and stores, and sixty-five cannon. Almost immediately afterwards the Confederates practically abandoned Western Kentucky and Tennessee, and Grant moved his army up the Tennessee River, and by the middle of March it was encamped to the westward and along the banks, near the southern Tennessee border, the lines extending several miles from Shiloh Church to Pittsburg Landing. The Confederates under A. S. Johnston and Beauregard were at Corinth, Mississippi, about twenty miles to the southwest. The Union plan was that General Buell, who was coming southwestward from Nashville, should join Grant, and then an advance southward be made. The Confederates, having learned of the plan, early in April decided to attack Grant before Buell could join him, and on the morning of the 6th the onslaught began, the Union army being surprised. This was the great battle of Shiloh, in which the Union forces were pushed back with heavy loss on the first day. Buell arrived, however, crossing the Tennessee that night and joining, so that next day, after a stubborn battle, Grant recovered his position, and the Confederates retreated to Corinth. In this battle the losses were about twenty-five thousand killed, wounded and missing, including three thousand Union prisoners taken.

The Cumberland Mountains, dividing Virginia from Kentucky, and extending farther southwest to separate East from Middle Tennessee, are the main watershed between the upper waters and sources of the two great rivers. This range is an elevated plateau rising about a thousand feet above the neighboring country and two thousand feet above the sea, the flat top being in some parts fifty miles across. On both sides the cliffs are precipitous, being much notched on the western declivities. Pioneer hunters coming out of Virginia discovered these mountains and the river in 1748, giving them the name of the Duke of Cumberland, the hero of Culloden, then the prominent military leader of England. These explorers came through the remarkable notch cut part way down in the range on the Kentucky-Tennessee boundary, just at the western extremity of Virginia,—the Cumberland Gap. This cleft, five hundred feet deep, is in some places only wide enough for a road, and extends for six miles through the ridge. It was for over a century the highway from southwestern Virginia into East Tennessee and southeastern Kentucky, being previously the trail followed by the Cherokees and other Indians in their movements east and west of the mountains. Through it came Daniel Boone and his companions from North Carolina into Kentucky, and the pass naturally became a great battleground of the Civil War. It is now utilized as the route for a branch of the Southern Railway from East Tennessee into Kentucky, traversing the Gap at about sixteen hundred feet elevation. In one place this road passes through a tunnel of over a half-mile, beginning in Tennessee, going under the corner of Virginia, and coming out in Kentucky. Iron is in abundance all about the Gap. During the war it was fortified by the Confederates, but in June, 1862, they were compelled to abandon it, and the Union troops took possession, being in turn forced out the following September. In September, 1863, the Union armies besieged and captured it, holding the Gap till the end of the war. The great curiosity of Cumberland Gap was the Pinnacle Rock, overhanging the narrow pass in a commanding position. This huge rock, weighing hundreds of tons, fell on Christmas night, 1899, awakening the village at the Gap as if by an earthquake, though no one was injured.

CHATTANOOGA AND ITS BATTLES.

The great Allegheny ranges, stretching from northeast to southwest, attain their highest altitude in western North Carolina. They come down southwestward out of Virginia in the Blue Ridge and other ranges, forming a high plateau, having the Blue Ridge on the eastern side, and on the western, forming the boundary between North Carolina and Tennessee, the chain known in various parts as the Stony, Iron, Great Smoky and Unaka Mountains, while beyond, to the northwest, the Cumberland Mountains extend in a parallel range through East Tennessee. There are also various cross-chains, among them the Black Mountains. In these ranges are eighty-two peaks that rise above five thousand feet and forty-three exceeding six thousand feet. The highest mountains of the Blue Ridge in North Carolina are the Grandfather and the Pinnacle, rising nearly six thousand feet. In the Great Smoky Mountains, Clingman's Dome is sixty-six hundred and sixty feet high and Mount Guyot sixty-six hundred and thirty-six feet. The highest peak of all is in the Black Mountains, and it is the highest east of the Rockies, Mount Mitchell rising sixty-six hundred and eighty-eight feet. Between and among these ranges are the sources of Tennessee River, in the Clinch River, the Holston and its North Fork, and the French Broad, their head streams coming westward out of Virginia and North Carolina through the mountain passes. The extensive mountain region they drain in North Carolina and East Tennessee is a most attractive district, noted as a health resort, and famous for the sturdy independence of its people, while along the Tennessee and upon the mountains near it were fought some of the greatest battles of the Civil War.

Upon the Tennessee River, at the head of navigation, and near the junction-point of the three States, Tennessee, Alabama and Georgia, is Chattanooga, the Indian "crow's nest," now a busy manufacturing city and a great railroad centre, served by no less than nine different roads diverging in all directions, the iron, coal and timber of the neighboring country having given it an impetus that has brought a population of fifty thousand. This city has had all its development since the Civil War, and is the seat of Grant University of the Methodist Church, attended by six hundred students. It borders the river winding along the base of the Missionary Ridge and the famous Lookout Mountain. The battlefields upon them have been placed in control of a Government Commission, who have laid out the Chickamauga and Chattanooga Military Park, restoring all the roads used by troops during the battles, and marking the points of interest and the locations of regiments and batteries by tablets and monuments. There are sixty miles of driveways on the field, which embraces over five thousand acres of woodland cleared of underbrush and fifteen hundred acres of open ground. Here have been identified and accurately laid down the brigade lines of battle of seven distinct and successive engagements in the series of terrific contests that were fought, all of them being plainly marked. The fighting positions of batteries for both sides have been indicated by the location of guns of the same pattern as those used in the engagement. There are thus marked thirty-five battery positions on one side and thirty-three on the other, mounting over two hundred guns. The restoration to the conditions existing at the times of the battles is almost complete, both the Northern and Southern States that had troops engaged, actively aiding the historical labor. Lookout Mountain rises to the south of the city, its summit being over twenty-one hundred feet high, and it commands a superb view, extending over seven States. Inclined-plane railways ascend it, and there is a hotel at the top, and also another railway along the crest of the ridge. Upon the summit of this mountain, which is almost a plateau, the boundaries of the three States come together, and it overlooks to the northward the plain of Chattanooga and the windings of Tennessee River, traced far to the southwest along the base of the ridge into Alabama. The favorite post for the magnificent view from the mountain top is Point Rock, a jutting promontory of massive stone reared on high, and overhanging like a balcony the deep valley. Far beneath, the river in its grand and graceful sweeping curves forms the famous Moccasin Bend, which almost enfolds the city of Chattanooga, and then spreads beyond, fringed with forest and field, a waving silvery gleaming thread, until lost to view.

Beyond Missionary Ridge is the battlefield of Chickamauga, the "river of death," a stream flowing up from Georgia into the Tennessee, about twelve miles east of Chattanooga. General Rosecrans commanded the Union forces holding Chattanooga in 1863 and General Bragg the opposing Confederates. The conflict began September 19th by the Confederates attempting to turn Rosecrans' left wing and get possession of the roads leading into Chattanooga, and it continued fiercely for two days, when the Union forces withdrew, and the result was a nominal victory for the Confederates on the field, although Chattanooga and East Tennessee, the prize for which the battle was fought, remained in possession of the Union forces. This was one of the bloodiest battles of the war, thirty-four thousand being killed and wounded on both sides out of one hundred and twelve thousand engaged. Immediately after the battle, Rosecrans withdrew behind the fortifications of Chattanooga, while Bragg moved up and occupied positions upon Missionary Ridge and Lookout Mountain, extending his flanks to the Tennessee River above and below the city. He cut the communications westward, and the Union army was practically blockaded and in danger of starvation. Rosecrans was relieved and Grant took command. He ordered Sherman to join him, coming up from the southwest, and by the close of October had opened communication along the Tennessee River and secured ample supplies. Bragg, who felt he was in strong position, detached Longstreet with a large force to go northeast in November and attack Burnside at Knoxville. Sherman's army joined Grant on the 23d, and next day the battle began on Lookout Mountain, continuing on the 25th on Missionary Ridge, and Bragg was driven out of his position and his army pursued in disorder through the mountains, over six thousand prisoners being taken. As the Union forces ascended Lookout Mountain in the mist, this has been called the "Battle above the Clouds." Burnside was afterwards relieved at Knoxville, and these decisive victories, which broke the Confederate power in Tennessee, resulted in Grant being made a Lieutenant General the next year and placed in command of all the armies of the United States.

At the head of navigation for steamboats on the Tennessee River is Knoxville, the chief city of East Tennessee, in a fine location among the foothills of the Clinch Mountains, which are a sort of offshoot of the Cumberland range. This was the spot where General Knox, then Secretary of War, in the latter part of the eighteenth century made a treaty with the Indians of the upper Tennessee, and the village which grew there was named after him. It is the centre of the Tennessee marble district, shipping hundreds of thousands of tons of this beautiful stone all over the country. It also has coal and iron and other industries, and a population of over forty thousand. Here are the buildings of the University of Tennessee, with five hundred students, and also an Agricultural College. Knoxville was the rallying point of Union sentiment in East Tennessee during the Civil War, and its most noted citizen was Parson William G. Brownlow, a Methodist clergyman and political editor, whose caustic articles earned for him the sobriquet of the "fighting Parson." He was Governor of Tennessee and Senator after the war, and died in Knoxville in 1877. The famous Davy Crockett was also a resident of that city. Twelve miles west of Knoxville, at Low's Ferry, Admiral Farragut was born, July 5, 1801, and a marble shaft marking the place was dedicated by Admiral Dewey in May, 1900. A short distance above Knoxville the Tennessee River is formed by the union of the Holston and French Broad Rivers. Following up the Holston, we come to Morristown, and beyond to Greenville, where, in sight of the railway, are the grave and monument of President Andrew Johnson, who lived there the greater part of his life, and died there in 1875. His residence and the little wooden tailor shop where he worked are still preserved. High mountains are all about, and to the eastward from Johnson City a narrow-gauge railway ascends through the romantic canyon of Doe River, in places fifteen hundred feet deep, up the Roan Mountain to Cranberry. This line is known in the neighborhood, on account of its crookedness, as the "Cranberry Stem-Winder." On the summit of Roan Mountain is the Cloudland Hotel, at an elevation of more than sixty-three hundred feet, the highest human habitation east of the Rockies, and having a magnificent view. It is a curious circumstance that the boundary line between Tennessee and North Carolina on the mountain top runs through the hotel, and is painted a broad white band along the dining-room floor, while out of the windows are views for a hundred miles in almost every direction.

THE LAND OF THE SKY.

We have come to the famous region in Western North Carolina, the resort for health and pleasure, the "Land of the Sky," sought both in winter and summer on account of its pure, bracing atmosphere and equable climate, and where eighty thousand visitors go in a year. Between the Unaka and Great Smoky range of mountains which is the western North Carolina boundary, and the Blue Ridge to the eastward, there is a long and diversified plateau with an average elevation of two thousand feet, stretching two hundred and fifty miles from northeast to southwest, and having a width of about twenty-five miles. Various mountain spurs cross it between the ranges from one towards the other, and numerous rivers rising in the Blue Ridge flow westward over it and break through picturesque gorges in the Great Smoky Mountains to reach the Tennessee River, the most noted of these streams being the French Broad. From any commanding point along the Great Smoky range there may be seen stretching to the east and south a vast sea of ridges, peaks and domes. No single one dominates, but most all of them reach nearly the same altitude, appearing like the waves in a choppy sea, the ranges growing gradually less distinct as they are more distant. The whole region seems to be covered with a mantle of dark forest, excepting an occasional clearing or patch of lighter-colored grass. Very few rocky ledges appear, so that the slopes are smoothed and softened by the generous vegetation. The atmosphere also tends to the same result, the blue haze, so rarely absent, giving the names both to the Blue Ridge and the Great Smoky Mountains. This haze softens everything and imparts the effect of great distance to peaks but a few miles away. Thus the remarkable atmospheric influence produces more impressive views than are got from greater peaks and longer distances in a clearer air elsewhere. The most elevated peak of the district, Mount Mitchell, rises four hundred and twenty-five feet higher than Mount Washington in the White Mountains. It was named for Professor Elisha Mitchell, who was an early explorer, a native of Connecticut, and Professor in the University of North Carolina, who lost his life during a storm on the mountain in 1857, and is buried at the summit. From its sides the beautiful Swannanoa River, the Indian "running water," flows eighteen miles westward to fall into the French Broad at Asheville, the centre and chief city of this charming region, whose fame has become world-wide.

In the early days of Congress, a North Carolina member, who was making a long speech for home consumption, observed that several of his colleagues, becoming tired, had gone out, whereupon he bluntly told those who remained that they might go out too, if so inclined, as he "was only talking for Buncombe." This member, whose remark has become immortal as the title of a certain type of Congressional oratory, represented the county of Buncombe, which embraces a large portion of the "The Land of the Sky," and Asheville is the county-seat. This town has a permanent population of twelve thousand, and is one of the most elevated towns east of Denver, being at a height of nearly twenty-three hundred feet above the sea. It is built in the attractive valley of the French Broad River, surrounded by an amphitheatre of magnificent hills, and commands one of the finest mountain views in this country. The Swannanoa unites with the French Broad just above the town in a charming locality; there are various pleasant parks; and the tree-shaded streets are adorned by many fine buildings. To Asheville come the Northerner for equable mildness in winter and the Southerner for coolness in summer, the climate being dry and bright, and most restorative in lung and other similar troubles, while the whole surrounding region has had its scenic attractions made available by improved roads and paths. About two miles to the southeast is George Vanderbilt's noted chateau of Biltmore, the finest private residence in the United States, built upon the verge of a princely estate covering a hundred thousand acres of these glens and mountains. The house, which commands magnificent views, stands upon a terrace seven hundred feet long and three hundred feet wide, and cost $4,000,000, while nearly as much more is said to have been expended in constructing many miles of drives over the estate and in landscape gardening and improvements, which in time will make this one of the world's greatest show places. The building is an extensive French baronial hall of the days of King Francis I., elaborated from the chateaux of the Loire, exceedingly rich in every detail, and having the general effect heightened by the free employment of decorative sculpture. From the grand esplanade the outlook is upon the "wild tumult of mountains stretching away in every direction." There are various other fine houses in the Asheville suburbs, and the locality is steadily improving through the attractions it has for men of wealth who love a home amid the grandest charms of Nature. Routes have been opened in various directions from Asheville to develop the mountain district. One railroad goes for a hundred miles through the gorges and valleys southwestward along the base of the Great Smoky range. Another route is southeast through the romantic pass of the Hickory-nut Gap, where the Rocky Broad River penetrates the Blue Ridge, a splendid canyon of nine miles, with cliffs rising fifteen hundred feet and having the remarkable Chimney Rock built on high alongside the gorge, where it stands up an isolated sentinel. Bald Mountain, rising opposite, is celebrated in Mrs. Burnett's Esmeralda. Cæsar's Head, to the southward, is an outlier of these mountain ranges, bordering the lowlands; and standing on top of its southern brow, upon a precipice rising almost sheer for fifteen hundred feet, one can overlook the lower regions of South Carolina and Georgia for more than a hundred miles away.

The French Broad River, the chief stream of this charming region, got its name from the early hunters who came up from the settled regions of Carolina nearer the coast, and penetrating the mountains explored it. The Cherokees called it Tselica, or "The Roarer," a not inappropriate name. The hunters who came through the Blue Ridge by the Hickory-nut Gap in colonial times followed down the Rocky Broad that flowed out of it into this river, which was much larger, and as the region beyond the mountains was then controlled by the French, they named it the French Broad. It rises in the Blue Ridge range almost on the South Carolina boundary, and nearly interlocks its headwaters with those of the Congaree flowing out to the Atlantic. Its upper waters wind for forty miles through a beautiful and fertile valley, but in approaching Asheville the scenery changes, the hills press more closely upon the stream, its course becomes more rapid, and after a swift turmoil it plunges down the cataract at Mountain Island. Here a knob-topped rock rises fifty to seventy feet high, the stream forcing its way on either hand by a channel cut through the enclosing ridge, and it descends a cataract of forty-five feet, running away through a deep abyss. The river passes Asheville and flows in a most picturesque gorge through the high mountains, everywhere disclosing new beauties, the water rushing and roaring over ledges and boulders, going around sharp bends, receiving gushing tributaries coming down the mountain side or trickling over the face of some broad high cliff. Massive rocks rise on high, and the road is often on a shelf cut into their face, the river boiling along far down below. Then the valley broadens, and here, in a lovely vale surrounded by the mountains, are the North Carolina Hot Springs, a popular resort, with a climate even milder in winter than at Asheville, as the Great Smoky range protects it from the northern blasts. The curative properties of these springs are efficacious in rheumatic and cutaneous diseases. Beyond, the bold precipices overhang the road and river that are known as the Paint Rocks, where the rushing torrent forces its way through a gorge between the Great Smoky and Bald Mountains and then emerges in Tennessee, to finally fall into the Tennessee River at the junction with the Holston just above Knoxville. These rocks received their name from Indian pictures and signs painted upon them. William Gillmore Simms, the Carolina author, tells in Tselica the legend of this spot, founded on the tradition of the Cherokees that a siren lives on the French Broad who allures the hunter to the stream and strangles him in her embrace. Thus have the American aborigines reproduced in their way on this beautiful river the romantic legends of the Lorelie Rock on the Rhine, where, the ancient German legend tells us so interestingly, there dwelt another beautiful siren whose seductive music lured her lovers to the rock, when she drowned them in the waves washing its base.

CAROLINA AND GEORGIA.

Eastward from the Blue Ridge the extended line of the Piedmont Branch of the Southern Railway parallels the base of the range on its route from Washington southwest to Atlanta. The railroad from Asheville southeast to Columbia and Charleston crosses it at Spartansburg in South Carolina. This is a prosperous little town in a region of iron and gold-mines, with also a development of mineral springs, attractive as a summer resort to the people of Charleston and residents of the South Carolina lowlands. Ten miles northeast of Spartansburg is the Revolutionary battlefield of the Cowpens, getting its name from the adjacent cow-pasture in the olden time. Here on a hill-range called the Thickety Mountain, January 17, 1781, the British under Tarleton were signally defeated. The railway passes through a rolling country, and thirty-three miles farther northeast is King's Mountain, where the previous battle was fought, October 7, 1780, in which the British under Colonel Ferguson were also defeated and a large part of their forces captured. Beyond, the boundary is crossed from South to North Carolina and Charlotte is reached, having cotton factories and gold mines and twelve thousand people, the county-seat of Mecklenburg, where the famous resolutions were passed, May 20, 1775, demanding independence. Farther northeast is Salisbury, where was located one of the chief Confederate prisons during the Civil War, and the National Cemetery now contains the graves of over twelve thousand soldiers who died there in captivity. Beyond this, the Yadkin River is crossed, and the route enters the tobacco district. Here is Greensboro', and near it the Revolutionary battle of Guilford Court House was fought March 15, 1781, when Lord Cornwallis defeated General Greene. To the eastward is Chapel Hill, the seat of the University of North Carolina, with three hundred students. Farther east is the great tobacco town of Durham, with large factories and six thousand people supported by this industry, whose education is cared for by Trinity College, which has been munificently endowed by the tobacco princes Colonels Duke and Carr. Twenty-five miles still farther east is Raleigh, the capital of North Carolina, a city of fifteen thousand inhabitants, built on high ground near the Neuse River. It has a central Union Square from which fine streets diverge, and here is located the impressive State House, modelled after the Parthenon. Raleigh has various public institutions, and large cemeteries where the dead of both armies who fell in the Civil War are buried.

The Congaree River, flowing southeast out of the Blue Ridge, intersects the extensive Pine Barrens of South Carolina, and here on the railway route from Asheville via Spartansburg to Charleston is the South Carolina State capital, Columbia. It is built on the bluffs along the river, a few miles below its falls, and in a charming location, the view of the valley from the grounds of the Executive Mansion and Arsenal Hill being very fine. The South Carolina State House is a magnificent building on which a large sum has been expended, and in the grounds is a monument to the Palmetto Regiment of South Carolinians who served with distinction in the war with Mexico. It was here that the Nullification Ordinance was passed in 1832, and the Secession Ordinance in December, 1860. General Sherman, on his march from Atlanta to the sea in February, 1865, occupied Columbia, when, unfortunately, the city was set fire and a large portion destroyed. The Pine Barrens and sand hills of South Carolina stretch southwestward from the Congaree to the Savannah River, and in this region is the popular winter resort of Aiken, surrounded by vast forests of fragrant pines growing in a soil of white sand, the town being a gem in the way of gardens and shrubbery which, with the balmy atmosphere, make it additionally attractive. While Aiken does not have a large population, yet it has very wide streets to accommodate them, the main avenue being two hundred and five feet and the cross streets one hundred and fifty feet wide. Its attractiveness of climate is condensed into the statement that the Aiken winter is "four months of June." A few miles westward is the Savannah River, and here at the head of navigation is Augusta, Georgia, on the western bank, a great cotton mart and seat of textile factories, which have attracted a population of thirty-five thousand, the city being known as the "Lowell of the South." The Sibley Cotton Mill is regarded as being architecturally the handsomest factory in the world. The whole surrounding district is an almost universal cotton-field, thus furnishing the raw materials for this industry. Near this mill stands the tall chimney of the Confederate Powder Works, left as a grim memorial of the Civil War. The various mills are served by canals bringing the water for power from the Savannah River at a higher level above the city, with an ample fall. Augusta is regarded as one of the most beautiful of the Southern cities, having wide tree-embowered streets and many ornate buildings, and it fortunately escaped injury during the Civil War. It was laid out by General Oglethorpe, the Georgia founder, on the same artistic plan as Savannah, and he named it after the English princess, Augusta. The Savannah River, the largest of Georgia, and forming the boundary with South Carolina, rises in the Blue Ridge in close proximity to the headwaters of the Tennessee and the Chattahoochee. Its initial streams, the Tugaloo and Kiowee, unite in the Piedmont district to form the Savannah, which then flows four hundred and fifty miles past Augusta and Savannah to the sea.

ATLANTA AND ITS NEIGHBORHOOD.

The Chattahoochee was the Indian "river of the pictured rocks." Its head-streams rise in the Blue Ridge in northeastern Georgia, and flowing southwest and afterwards south, it forms the western boundary of the State. Then uniting with the Flint River, the two make the Appalachicola, which, crossing Florida, empties into the Gulf. The Chattahoochee in its course passes, about seven miles from the Georgia capital, Atlanta, the "Gate City," the metropolis of the "Empire State of the South," and the chief Southern railway centre. Being largely a growth of the railway system of the "New South," the city is picturesquely situated on a hilly surface, elevated a thousand feet above the sea, and is laid out in the form of a circle of about four miles radius around the Union Passenger Depot, which is the central point. The first house was built at this place in 1836, on an Indian trail to the crossing of the Chattahoochee, whither a railroad was projected, and for several years it was called, for this reason, Terminus, being afterwards incorporated as the town of Marthasville, and named after the Georgia Governor Lumpkin's daughter. In 1845, the first railroads were constructed connecting it with the seaboard, and soon becoming a tobacco and cotton-mart, it grew rapidly, and in 1847 was incorporated as the city of Atlanta, having about twenty-five hundred people. During the Civil War it was a leading Confederate depot of supplies, but its great growth has come since, and largely through the development of the railway system and manufactures, so that now the city and suburbs, which are extensive, have a population approximating two hundred thousand. Its State Capitol is an impressive building, costing $1,000,000, and it has many imposing business and public structures and fine private residences. Joel Chandler Harris, Uncle Remus, is a resident of Atlanta. Its great historical event was the memorable siege during the Civil War. The geographical position of the city made it of vital importance to the Confederacy. General Sherman, in his advance southward from Chattanooga in the spring and early summer of 1864, steadily fought and outflanked the Confederates, until in July they fell back behind the Chattahoochee and took a line covering Atlanta, General Hood assuming command July 17th. Sherman crossed the Chattahoochee and then Hood retired to the intrenchments around the city. For several weeks there were manœuvres and battles around Atlanta, until near the end of August, when Sherman had got behind the city, cutting the railways supplying it. On the night of September 1st, Hood evacuated Atlanta, and next day Sherman entered. In this great siege and in the previous contests from Chattanooga the losses of the two armies were sixty-six thousand men, each army having been repeatedly reinforced. This capture sealed the doom of the Confederacy, although there were subsequent battles and movements around Atlanta until November. Then Sherman, reinforcing General Thomas at Nashville, and leaving him to take care of Hood, ran back all the surplus property and supplies to Chattanooga, broke up the railway, cut the telegraph behind him, burnt Atlanta November 12th, and on the 15th started on his famous "March to the Sea," to cut the Confederacy in two, capturing Savannah in December. The destruction of Atlanta was almost complete, every building being burnt excepting a few in the centre, and a number of scattered dwellings elsewhere. After peace came, however, the restoration of Atlanta was rapid and thorough, and it is now one of the most progressive and wealthy Southern cities. It was Sherman's "March to the Sea" which furnished the theme for one of the most inspiriting songs of the Civil War, "Marching Through Georgia":

The railway leading north from Atlanta to Chattanooga exhibits, throughout the line, relics of Sherman's protracted struggle with the Confederates as he pressed southward, and they opposing him were repeatedly outflanked and retired to new defenses. Long ranges of hills cross the country from northeast to southwest, and on their crests are the remains of massive breastworks and battlements which time is gradually obliterating. Dalton, Resaca and Allatoona were all formidable defensive works, and each in turn was outflanked. Rome, the chief town on this route, now has seven thousand people and various factories. To the westward of Atlanta the railway leads a hundred miles to Anniston, Alabama, in the foothills of the Blue Ridge among the rich beds of Alabama iron-ores, and then to Talladega, the Indian "village on the border," where General Jackson fought one of his severest battles with the Creeks. It is now a busy manufacturing town. Beyond is the great industrial city of Birmingham with thirty-five thousand people, founded in 1871, a phenomenal development of the "New South," its industry being exhibited in enormous iron and steel mills, foundries, and similar establishments. Near the city is its El Dorado, the Red Mountain containing vast stores of hematite iron-ores, with abundant coal and limestone, minerals which have made Alabama the third iron-producing commonwealth in the United States, three-fourths of it being made in the Birmingham district. Nearby is another iron town of recent foundation, Bessemer, and a short distance to the southwest the old Alabama city of Tuscaloosa, the seat of the University of Alabama. This Indian word means the "Black Warrior," and thus was named the river, Tuscaloosa being at the head of steamboat navigation on the Black Warrior. The tradition is that before the white man knew this region it was held by a proud and powerful Indian tribe. When De Soto came along in 1540, searching for gold, he encountered these Indians, whose sachem was the fearless and haughty black giant Tuscaloosa. By stratagem De Soto captured the giant and carried him off a hostage down to Mobile, whence he afterwards escaped. This old city is shown on a French map of Louisiana published in 1720.

Southeast of Atlanta is Macon, at the head of navigation on Ocmulgee River, a prominent cotton-shipping city, with twenty-five thousand people. Here is the Wesleyan Female College with four hundred students, founded in 1836, and said to be the oldest female college in the world. To the southward, at Andersonville, was the great Stockade Prison of the Civil War, where large numbers of captured Union soldiers were confined, being so badly treated that thirteen thousand of them died. Henry Wirtz, a Swiss adventurer, was in charge, and the Confederate authorities in two official reports attributed the excessive mortality to the bad management of the prison. A military court after the close of the war convicted Wirtz of excessive cruelty, and he was executed in November, 1865. The prison-grounds are now a park, a memorial monument has been erected, and in an extensive National Cemetery the dead soldiers are buried. Southward of Atlanta is Columbus, with thirty-five thousand people and large cotton, woollen and flour-mills, one of the chief manufacturing cities of the Southern States. It stands on the Chattahoochee, which here rushes down rocky rapids, providing an admirable water-power improved by a massive dam. The river is navigable to the Gulf, and its steamboats have a large trade.

ATLANTA TO MOBILE.

Proceeding southwest from Atlanta, the route crosses the Chattahoochee at West Point, another shipping port for the vast cotton plantations of this region, whence steamboats take the cotton-bales down to the Gulf. Beyond is Tuskegee in Alabama, where is located the famous Industrial and Normal Institute for colored youth, conducted by Booker T. Washington, the distinguished colored educationalist, who was born a slave in Virginia. It was founded in a small way by him in 1881 to meet the needs of education, and particularly to provide for the training of teachers for the colored race, and having greatly grown, has sent out nearly four hundred of its graduates throughout the South, where they are teaching others of their people. It has seventy instructors and over a thousand students; its lands cover nearly four square miles and there are forty-two buildings, many of them substantial brick structures erected by the students, the property being valued at $300,000. Great attention is given to manual training, and this institution, entirely supported by donations and requiring $75,000 annually for its expenses, is doing a great work in furthering the advancement of the colored race in the South.

A short distance westward, the Alabama River is formed by the union of the Coosa and Tallapoosa, and coming down a winding course a few miles from the junction, sweeps around a grand bend to then go away towards the setting sun, and ultimately seek the Gulf. The story is that a wearied Creek Indian, seeking quiet in the far-off land, wandered out of the mountains to the fertile plains of this attractive region. Charmed by the scenery and the beauties of the valley, when he reached the bank of the river he gazed about him, and then struck his spear into the earth, saying Alabama—"Here we Rest." At this grand bend of the river, upon a circle of hills surrounded by rich farming lands, is Montgomery, the capital of Alabama. There was an Indian village here in remote times, and traders came to the place, so that gradually a settlement grew, which in 1817 was made a town and named after the unfortunate General Montgomery who fell in storming Quebec. The bluffs rise to Capitol Hill, crowned with the State House, a small but imposing structure, having from its elevated dome an extensive view. Here was organized the Government of the Confederate States in February, 1861, continuing until the capital was removed to Richmond the following May. In the grounds there is a handsome Confederate Monument. There are thirty thousand people in Montgomery, and it has a large trade in cotton, gathered from the adjacent districts, shipped down the river to Mobile and also by railroad to Savannah for export. In the suburbs are many old-fashioned plantation residences, and the adjacent country is largely a cotton-field, the great Southern staple growing luxuriantly on the black soils of this region. The Alabama people devote themselves chiefly to cotton-growing, and this industry leads throughout the vast section of the South below the Tennessee boundary. This great product is the leading foreign export of the United States, and being indirectly the cause of the Civil War, it brought to the Confederacy the sympathy of the nations of Europe, which were the chief consumers. Cotton is said to have originated in India, and in America was first cultivated for its flowers in Maryland. It was not until about the beginning of the nineteenth century, however, that the invention by Eli Whitney of the cotton-gin enabled the seeds to be easily removed from the lint, and thus enlarged the uses of cotton, so that a rapid increase was given its growth and also its manufacture throughout the civilized world. Both the seed and the lint are now used, the former producing valuable oil.

The Alabama River flows a winding course from Montgomery southwest to Mobile Bay, first going westward to Selma. It passes a region of the finest cotton lands, where originally the old southern plantation system reached its richest development, and where the modern plan of smaller farms has been making some headway since the Civil War. Selma is the entrepôt of what is known as the Alabama "Black Belt," built on a high bluff along the river, and has cotton factories and other industries, including large mills for crushing the cotton-seed and producing the oil. To the westward, over the boundary of the State of Mississippi, is Meridian, a manufacturing town of fifteen thousand people, which has grown around a railway junction. This was the place which General Sherman, in one of his rapid marches, captured in February, 1864, and destroyed, the General reporting that his army made "the most complete destruction of railways ever beheld." Farther westward, on Pearl River, is Jackson, the capital of Mississippi, a small city with an elaborate State House. The Alabama River flows southwest from Selma and joins the Tombigbee River coming from the north, the stream thus formed being the Mobile River. A few miles below the junction it divides into two branches, of which the eastern is called the Tensas, both then dividing into several others and making a sort of delta, but meeting again in a common embouchure at the head of Mobile Bay, the Mobile River being about fifty miles long. The Tombigbee River is four hundred and fifty miles in length, and rises in the hills of Northeastern Mississippi. The name is Indian, and means the "coffin-makers," though why this name was given is unknown. The Tombigbee became celebrated in politics in the early nineteenth century, through a correspondence between the Treasury at Washington and a customs officer at Mobile, wherein the latter, being asked "How far does the Tombigbee River run up?" replied that "The Tombigbee River does not run up; it runs down." He was removed from office for his levity, and the controversy following, which became an acrimonious partisan dispute, gave the river its celebrity.

MOBILE AND ITS BAY.

When De Soto journeyed through Florida and to the Mississippi River, he found in this region the powerful tribe of Mauvillians, and their village of Mavilla is mentioned in early histories of Florida. From this is derived the name of Mobile, on the western bank of the river near the head of Mobile Bay, the only seaport of the State of Alabama, about thirty miles from the Gulf of Mexico. This was the original seat of French colonization in the southwest, and for a few years the capital of their colony of Louisiana. It was settled at the beginning of the eighteenth century. In 1710 the Sieur de Bienville transferred the earliest French colony from Biloxi to Mobile Bay, and many of the first settlers were French Canadians. In 1723, however, the seat of the colonial government was removed from Mobile to New Orleans. In 1763 this region was transferred to England; in 1780 England gave it to Spain; and in 1813 Spain made it over to the United States. The city is laid out upon a plain having a background of low hills; its broad and quiet streets are shaded with live oaks and magnolias; and everywhere are gardens, luxuriant with shrubbery and flowers. There is a population approximating thirty-five thousand, but the city does not make much progress, owing to the difficulties of maintaining a deep-water channel, though this has been better accomplished of late. Cotton export is the chief trade. There are attractive parks, a magnificent shell road along the shore of the bay for several miles, and fine estates with beautiful villas on the hills in the suburbs. The harbor entrance from the Gulf is protected on either hand by Fort Morgan and Fort Gaines, while the remains can be seen of several batteries on the shores of the bay, relics of the Civil War. Over on Tensas River is a ruin, Spanish Fort, one of the early colonial defenses, while in the city is the Guard House Tower, a quaint old structure built in Spanish style. Mobile was held by the Confederates throughout the war, not surrendering until after General Lee had done so in April, 1865, although the Union forces had previously captured the harbor entrance. This capture was one of Admiral Farragut's achievements. Having opened the Mississippi River in 1863, Farragut, in January, 1864, made a reconnoissance of the forts at the entrance to Mobile Bay, and expressed the opinion that with a single iron-clad and five thousand men he could take the city. Several months elapsed, however, before the attempt was made, but in August he got together a fleet of four iron-clads and fourteen wooden vessels, and on the 5th ran past the forts at the entrance, after a desperate engagement, in which one of his ships, the Tecumseh, was sunk by striking a torpedo, and he lost three hundred and thirty-five men. During the fight, Farragut watched it and gave his directions from a place high up in the main rigging of his flagship, the Hartford. Shoal water and channel obstructions prevented his ascending to the city, but in a few days the forts surrendered, the harbor was held, and blockade-running, which had been very profitable, ceased.

Mobile Bay is one of the finest harbors on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Its broad waters have low shores, backed by gentle slopes leading up to forest-clad plateaus behind, a large surface being wooded and displaying fine magnolias and yellow pines, while in the lowland swamps and along the water-courses are cypress, and interspersed the live oak, festooned with gray moss. But almost everywhere Southern Alabama, like Florida, displays splendid pine forests, reminding of Longfellow's invocation to My Cathedral:

And in garden and grove, all about, there is a wealth of semi-tropical flowers and shrubbery, with their rich perfumes crowned by the delicious orange tree, whereof Hoyt thus pleasantly sings:

XX.

THE VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI.

The Father of Waters—Its Drainage Area—The Big Muddy—Sources of the Missouri—The Great Falls—Fort Benton—Sioux City—Council Bluffs—Omaha—St. Joseph—Atchison—Leavenworth—Lawrence—Topeka—Osowatomie—John Brown—Kansas Emigrants—The Walls of Corn—Kansas City—Wyandotte—Chillicothe—Florida—Mark Twain—Muscatine—Burlington—Nauvoo—Keokuk—Des Moines—St. Louis—Jefferson Barracks—Egypt—Belmont—Columbus—Island No. 10—Fort Pillow—The Chickasaws—Memphis—Mississippi River Peculiarities—Its Deposits and Cut-Offs—The Alluvial Bottom Lands—St. Francis Basin—Helena—White River—Arkansas River—Fort Smith—Little Rock—Arkansas Hot Springs—Washita River—Napoleon—Yazoo Basin—Vicksburg—Natchez Indians—Natchez—Red River—Texarkana—Shreveport—Red River Rafts—Atchafalaya River—Baton Rouge—Biloxi—Beauvoir—Pass Christian—New Orleans—Battle of New Orleans—Lake Pontchartrain—The Mississippi Levees—Crevasses—The Delta and Passes—The Balize—The Forts—South Pass—Eads Jetties—Gulf of Mexico.

THE BIG MUDDY.

The great "Father of Waters," with its many tributaries, drains a territory of a million and a half square miles, in which live almost one-half the population of the United States. The length of the Mississippi River from Lake Itasca to the Gulf of Mexico is about twenty-six hundred miles, the actual distance in a direct line being but sixteen hundred and sixty miles. Its name comes from the Ojibway words Misi Sepe, meaning the "great river, flowing everywhere," and the early explorers spelled it "Mesasippi." The Iroquois called it the Kahnahweyokah, having much the same meaning. The upper waters of the Mississippi have already been described in a preceding chapter, and taken in connection with its chief tributary, the Missouri, it is one of the longest rivers in the world, the distance from the source to the Gulf being almost forty-two hundred miles. The Dakotas called this stream Minni-shosha, or the "muddy water," and its popular name throughout the Northwest, from the turbid current it carries, has come to be the "Big Muddy." The head streams rise in Idaho, the Eda Hoe of the Nez Perces, meaning the "Light on the Mountains," and in Wyoming. The name of the Indian nation through whose lands its upper waters flow—the Dakotahs—means the "Confederate People," indicating a league of various tribes. The Mississippi drains practically the whole country between the Appalachian Mountains on the east and the "Continental Divide" of the Rockies on the west.

The Missouri River is formed in southwestern Montana, by the union of the Jefferson, Madison and Gallatin Rivers. Its length from the source of the Madison River in the Yellowstone National Park to its confluence with the Mississippi above St. Louis is about three thousand miles. The first exploration of the headwaters of the Missouri was by the famous expedition of Captains Lewis and Clark in 1805, who ascended to its sources, and crossing the Rockies descended the Snake and Columbia Rivers into Oregon. They found the confluence of the three rivers making the Missouri, in July, and called it "the Three Forks," at the same time naming the rivers after President Jefferson and his Secretaries of State and the Treasury. The Missouri, from the junction, first flows northward through the defiles of the Rockies, and breaks out of the mountain wall in Prickly Pear Canyon, at the Gate of the Mountains, where the rocky cliffs rise twelve hundred feet. Forty miles northeast it goes down its Great Falls to a lower plateau, having a total descent of nearly five hundred feet, the stream contracting in the gorge to a width of three hundred yards, and tumbling over repeated cascades, with intervening rapids. The Black Eagle descends fifty feet, Colter's Falls twelve feet, the Crooked Falls twenty feet, the Rainbow forty-eight feet, and the Great Falls ninety-two feet, this series of rapids and cascades covering a distance of sixteen miles. Lewis and Clark were the first white men who saw these magnificent cataracts of the Upper Missouri, and they named the different falls. The Black Eagle was named from the fact that on an island at its foot an eagle had fixed her nest on a cottonwood tree. It is recorded by a United States Engineer officer who was there in 1860, that the eagle's nest then still remained in the cottonwood tree on the island, being occupied by a bald eagle of large size. Again in 1872 the nest and the old eagle were still there, and from the longevity of these birds, it was then believed to be the same eagle seen in 1805. The old eagle nest and cottonwood tree are all gone now, and in their place are a big dam, power-house and huge ore-smelter, worked by the ample water-power of the fall. The flourishing town of Great Falls gets its prosperity from these cataracts and is a prominent locality for copper-smelting, having fifteen thousand people. At the head of river navigation, some distance farther down, is the military post of Fort Benton. The river then flows eastward through Montana, receives the Yellowstone at Fort Buford and turns southeast in North Dakota, passing Bismarck, the capital, and flowing south and southeast it becomes the boundary between Nebraska and Kansas on the west, and South Dakota, Iowa and Missouri on the northeast. Its course is through an alluvial valley of great fertility, from which it gathers the sediment with which its waters are so highly charged. Much of the adjacent territory in Dakota and Montana is covered by the extensive reservations of the Indian tribes of the Northwest, where the remnants now live a semi-nomadic life under military guardianship and government control. The river flows past Yankton, a supply post for these reservations, which being the settlement farthest up-stream, was thus named Yankton, meaning "the village at the end." Some distance below, the Big Sioux River flows in, forming the boundary between Dakota and Iowa, and here is Sioux City, where there are forty thousand people, much trade, and important manufactures.

Below here lived the Omahas, or "up-stream" Indians, and soon the Missouri in its onward course flows between Omaha and Council Bluffs. Here the bluffs bordering the river recede for some distance on the eastern bank, making a broad plain adjoining the shore, whither the Indians of all the region formerly came to hold their councils and make treaties. A settlement naturally grew at the Council Bluffs, which is now a city of twenty-five thousand people on the plain and adjacent hills, with fine residences in the numerous glens intersecting the bluffs in every direction. Three bridges cross the Missouri to Omaha, on the western shore, two for railways, one of them being the great steel bridge carrying over the Union Pacific, the pioneer railroad constructed to the Pacific Coast. Omaha is the chief city of Nebraska, the State receiving its name from the Nebraska river, meaning the "place of broad shallow waters." Omaha has over one hundred and fifty thousand people and is built on a wide plateau elevated about eighty feet above the river, from which it gradually slopes upward. It dates from 1854, but did not receive its impetus until the completion of the Pacific Railway converged to it various lines bringing an enormous trade. From its position at the initial point it is known as the "Gate City." There are large manufactures and its meat-packing industries are of the first importance, while its enterprise is giving it rapid growth. The Union Pacific Railroad pursues its route westward through Nebraska, up the valley of the Platte River for several hundred miles, and at Fort Omaha, just north of the city, is the military headquarters of the Department.

THE STATE OF KANSAS.

Various great railways bound to the West cross the Missouri in its lower course. The river flows between Kansas and Missouri, and here are St. Joseph with sixty thousand people, immense railway and stock-yards, and many factories; and Atchison with twenty thousand population and large flouring-mills, where the Atchison railway system formerly had its initial point, though now it traverses the country from Chicago southwest to Santa Fe and the Pacific Ocean. Leavenworth, a city of twenty-five thousand, has grown at the site of Fort Leavenworth, one of the important early posts on the Missouri. To the southward the Kaw or Kansas River flows in, the Indian "Smoky Water," coming from the west, draining the greater part of the State which it names. Upon this river is Lawrence, the seat of the Kansas State University, having a thousand students, and of Haskell Institute, a Government training-school for Indian boys and girls. Westward along the Kansas River broadly spread the vast and fertile prairies making the agricultural wealth of the State, and sixty-seven miles from the Missouri, built on both sides of the river, is Topeka, the capital, having thirty-five thousand people, large mills and an extensive trade with the surrounding farm district. In this eastern portion of Kansas, prior to the Civil War, was fought, often with bloodshed, the protracted border contest between the free-soil and pro-slavery parties for the possession of the State, that had so much to do with bringing on the greater conflict. When Congress passed the bill in 1854 organizing Nebraska and Kansas into territories, an effort began to establish slavery, and the Missourians coming over the border tried to control. They founded Atchison and other places and sent in settlers. At the same time Aid Societies for anti-slavery emigrants began colonizing from New England, large numbers thus coming to preëmpt lands. During four years the contests went on, Lawrence and other towns being besieged and burnt. The first Free-State Constitution was framed at Topeka in 1855, which Congress would not approve, and the following year the pro-slavery Constitution was enacted at Lecompton, which the people rejected. After the Civil War began, Kansas was admitted to the Union in 1861 with slavery prohibited. Among the free-soilers who went out to engage in these Kansas conflicts was old John Brown. Near the Missouri border, to the southward of Kansas River, is the little town of Osowatomie, in the early settlement of which Brown took part. Here he had his fights with the slavery invaders who came over from Missouri, finally burning the place and killing Brown's son, a tragedy said to have inspired his subsequent crusade against Harper's Ferry, which practically opened the Civil War. A monument is erected to John Brown's memory at Osawatomie. The New England emigration to Kansas in those momentous times inspired Whittier's poem, The Kansas Emigrants:

The Civil War ended all these conflicts, and since then Kansas has been eminently peaceful. It is now the leading State of the corn belt which broadly crosses the middle of the United States. Its vast corn crops make the wealth of the people, and as they may be good or poor, the Kansan is in joy or despair. One year the farmers will be overwhelmed with debt; the next brings an ample crop, and they pay their debts and are in affluence. Thus throbs the pulse as the sunshine and rains may make a corn crop in the State that sometimes exceeds three hundred millions of bushels; and then there are not enough railway cars available to carry away the product. In a good crop the cornstalks grow to enormous heights, sometimes reaching twenty feet to the surmounting tassel, and a tall man on tip-toe can about touch the ears, while a two-pound ear is a customary weight, with thirty-five ears to a bushel. These vast cornfields, watched year by year and crop after crop by the hard-working wife of a Kansas farmer, caused her to write the touching lyric which has become the Kansas national hymn, Mrs. Ellen P. Allerton's "Walls of Corn":

The Kansas River flows into the Missouri at Kansas City, the chief settlement of the Missouri Valley, entirely the growth of the period since the Civil War, through the prodigious development of the railways. There are two cities where the Missouri is crossed by three fine bridges, and having two hundred thousand people, the larger being Kansas City in Missouri, on the southern river bank, and the other adjoining is Kansas City or Wyandotte, the largest city in Kansas, through which the Kansas River flows. The two cities are separated by the State boundary between Kansas and Missouri. Next to Chicago, this place has the largest stock-yards and packing-house plants, and does an enormous trade in cattle, meats and grain, many railroads radiating in all directions. The site was originally the home of the Wyandotte Indians who were removed here from Ohio in 1843. The town of Wyandotte had a small population prior to the Civil War, but the growth did not begin until after the close of that conflict had stimulated railway building and western colonization, and being on the trail from the Missouri River to the southwest, this gave the first impetus. These cities now have a rapid expansion, and are the greatest railway centres west of the Mississippi River, their lines going to the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific through sections of country which are rapidly populating and developing vast agricultural and mineral products.

The Missouri River traverses the entire State of Missouri in winding, turbid current from west to east. It passes Jefferson City, the State Capital, having about seven thousand people, and just below receives the Osage River coming up from the southwest. At Chillicothe to the northwest is buried Nelson Kneiss, who composed the music for Thomas Dunn English's popular ballad of Ben Bolt; and at Florida, to the northeast, was born in November, 1835, the humorist, Samuel L. Clemens, Mark Twain. Captain Sellers, who furnished river news to the New Orleans Picayune, had used this nom-de-plume, and dying in 1863, Clemens adopted it. Twenty miles above St. Louis the Missouri flows into the Mississippi, contributing the greater volume of water to the joint stream, the clear Mississippi waters, pushed over to the eastern bank, refusing for a long distance below to mingle with the turbid flood of the Missouri.

THE CITY OF ST. LOUIS.

The Mississippi River below the Moline Rapids at Rock Island passes various flourishing cities, including Muscatine and Burlington, the former having considerable trade in timber and food products, while Burlington, a much larger place, spreads back from the bluffs and is a busy railroad city, fronted by a beautiful reach of the river. About thirty miles below, on the Illinois shore, is Nauvoo, a small town chiefly raising grapes and wine, but formerly one of the leading settlements on the river. This town was originally built by the Mormons under the lead of their prophet, Joseph Smith, in 1838, after they had been driven from various places in New York, Ohio and Missouri. Nauvoo flourished greatly, reaching fifteen thousand population, but dissensions arose and the enmity of the growing population elsewhere caused riots, in one of which, in 1844, Smith, who had been arrested and taken to jail at Carthage, Illinois, was killed. Brigham Young then assumed leadership, and in 1845 removed the colony over to the Missouri River at Council Bluffs, finally migrating to the Great Salt Lake in Utah, two years later. Below Nauvoo are the Lower Rapids of the Mississippi, extending twelve miles to Keokuk, a beautiful city built partly along the river, but mostly on the summit of the bluffs, here rising one hundred and fifty feet. Keokuk was a noted Indian chief, his name meaning the "watchful fox." Des Moines River, forming the boundary between Iowa and Missouri, flows in at the lower edge of the city, having come down from the northwest and passing the Iowa State Capital, Des Moines, at the head of navigation, where there is a population of sixty thousand and extensive manufactures. This city has a magnificent Capitol, erected at a cost of $3,000,000, and its prosperity is largely due to the extensive coal measures of the neighborhood. It has grown around the site of the former frontier outpost of Fort Des Moines, built in the early days for protection against the Sioux. Below are Quincy, Hannibal and Alton, the latter being just above the confluence with the Missouri, and then the Mississippi River flows majestically past the levee at St. Louis, the chief city on its banks, having two great railway bridges crossing over to the Illinois shore.

When the French held Louisiana, a grant was made in 1762 to Pierre Ligueste Laclede and his partners to establish, as the "Louisiana Fur Company," trading-posts on the Mississippi. Laclede in that year came out from France to New Orleans, and in 1764, in order to open the fur trade with the Indians on the Missouri, he ascended the Mississippi, and on February 15th made the first settlement on the site of St. Louis, building a house and four stores and naming the place in honor of King Louis XV. of France. He had frequent journeys along the river, and died upon one of them near the mouth of the Arkansas in 1778. The post was made the capital of Upper Louisiana, but it grew very slowly, having only a thousand people when Louisiana was ceded to the United States in 1803. The development of steamboating and afterwards of the railway systems, all the great lines seeking St. Louis, gave it rapid growth subsequently, and its population now reaches seven hundred thousand. It spreads with its vast railway terminals for nearly twenty miles along the Mississippi, sweeping in a grand curve past the centre of the city, which rises in repeated terraces as it extends westward back from the river, the highest being two hundred feet above the water-level. It has an enormous trade and extensive manufactures, being the largest tobacco-making city in the world, and having one of the greatest American breweries, the Anheuser-Busch Company. Its Chamber of Commerce, of sandstone in Renaissance, is a noted building, and its grand Court House, erected as a Greek cross, is surmounted by a dome three hundred feet high. It also has a new and magnificent City Hall. St. Louis been singularly free from fires, but its great disaster was upon May 27, 1896, when a terrific tornado swept through the city, killing three hundred people and destroying property valued at $10,000,000.

The chief institution of learning is Washington University, which has fine new buildings in Forest Park on the western verge of the city, and cares for seventeen hundred students. The park system is very extensive, spreading partially around the built-up portions and embracing twenty-one hundred acres. The chief of these are the Forest Park, with fine trees and drives, the Tower Grove Park, Lafayette and Carondelet Parks, and in the northern suburbs O'Fallon Park, having adjacent the spacious Bellefontaine and Calvary Cemeteries. The gem of the system, however, is the Missouri Botanical Garden of seventy-five acres, the best of its kind in the country, which was bequeathed to the city by Henry Shaw, a native of Sheffield, England, who came to St. Louis, grew up with the city, and died there in 1889. The great attraction of St. Louis is its splendid bridge crossing the Mississippi, built by James B. Eads and completed in 1874 at a cost of $10,000,000, carrying a railway across, with a highway on the upper deck, being more than two thousand yards long, and resting on arches rising fifty-five feet above the water. The railway is tunnelled under the city for nearly a mile, and leads to the Union Station, which is one of the largest in the world. The Merchants' Bridge, which cost $3,000,000, brings another railway over, three miles above, and a third bridge is projected. The vast aggregation of railways centering at St. Louis also uses another bridge route north of the city, crossing the Missouri just above its mouth and then the Mississippi to Alton on the Illinois shore. The military post of St. Louis is Jefferson Barracks down the river, an important station of the United States army.

DESCENDING THE MISSISSIPPI.

The scenery of the Mississippi River changes below St. Louis, and it loses much of the picturesqueness displayed by the bluff shores above. The mass of the waters is larger, the shores lower, and the adjacent regions more subject to overflow. There are many bends and islands, and the Ohio River comes in at the end of the long low peninsula of Cairo, further adding to the enormous current. The Southern Illinois lowlands have long been known as Egypt, and upon these bottom lands are grown prolific crops of corn. In one field in the great crop of 1899, covering over six thousand acres south of Ava, was raised six hundred thousand bushels, the banner American cornfield of that year. Twenty miles below Cairo is Columbus, on a high bluff upon the Kentucky shore, having Belmont opposite in Missouri, this having been the scene of General Grant's first battle in the Civil War. The Confederates in 1861 had fortified Columbus and placed twenty thousand men there to hold the Mississippi. Grant, in November, made an attack upon Belmont, and broke up and destroyed their outpost camp in spite of a heavy fire from Columbus, afterwards cutting his way out and returning to Cairo. When in the next spring Forts Henry and Donelson were captured, the Confederates found Columbus untenable and abandoned it without a contest. Fifty miles below is Donaldson Point, and off it the noted Island No. 10, for all these islands below Cairo were numbered. The Union gunboats attacked Island No. 10 in March, 1862, and carried on a bombardment and siege for a month, when it was captured with New Madrid on the Missouri shore several miles farther down, they being mutually dependent. The remains of earthworks are still visible on the island, and also the canal cut to assist in the investment. The Mississippi beyond, skirts the various bluffs of the Chickasaw region on the eastern bank, while on the western shore are broad alluvial lowlands, as the great river passes between Tennessee and Arkansas. On the first Chickasaw bluff is Fort Pillow, another Confederate stronghold, which, however, they were compelled to abandon in June, 1862, as the Union army had got in their rear. Here afterwards occurred the "Fort Pillow Massacre," in April, 1864, when the Confederates under General Forrest attacked and captured it.

All the region hereabout was inhabited by the Chickasaw Indians, who were so called in their language because they were "swamp-dwellers" and "eaters of the bog-potato." This tribe long ago removed to the Indian territory, where they are now in a prosperous condition and successful agriculturists. On the southwestern border of Tennessee is what is known as the fourth Chickasaw bluff, and here is the city of Memphis, the leading town between St. Louis and New Orleans. The bluff shore rises about eighty feet above the river at the ordinary stage of water, and is fronted by a wide levee extending for two miles and a broad esplanade bordered by warehouses. It was here that De Soto in 1541, with his band of adventurous explorers searching for gold, came and first saw the great river, their chronicler writing home "the river was so broad that if a man stood still on the other side, it could not be told whether he was a man or no; the channel was very deep, the current strong, the water muddy and filled with floating trees." Memphis is a handsome city, attractively laid out, the residential section having spacious lawn-bordered avenues, and there being an attractive park in the centre, the Court Square inhabited by numerous squirrels and adorned by Andrew Jackson's bust. Memphis has seventy thousand people, and a large trade both by river and railroad, being a leading cotton-shipping port, whence steamboats take vast amounts down to New Orleans for foreign export. Among its attractions are the cotton compresses and cotton-seed oil mills. In the Civil War, Memphis was captured by the Union gunboats in June, 1862, and held afterwards. On the outskirts, a grim memorial of the great conflict, is the National Cemetery, with fourteen thousand Union soldiers' graves.

PECULIARITIES OF THE GREAT RIVER.

The Mississippi below the mouth of the Ohio is an entirely changed river. Above that stream, it is similar to most other inland waterways, having tolerably stable banks and not much change in width. Below Cairo, however, the deposits forming the banks are composed of alternate layers of sand and mud or clay, the sand having been deposited by running water, and the mud in comparatively still water, so that the sand-layers are readily washed out, thus causing the banks to cave whenever the current sets against them. Below the influx of the Ohio, the river traverses alluvial bottom lands of inexhaustible fertility, and usually stretching to a width of forty miles or more. These alluvial lands have a general southern slope of about eight inches to the mile, and stretch five hundred miles to the southward, the river winding through them in a devious course for eleven hundred miles, occasionally on the eastern side washing bluffs of one to three hundred feet. The slope is sufficient to create high velocities in the current, making a very unstable channel, constantly shifting laterally and causing the river to develop into a serpentine form, one bend following another continuously. The immediate river, wherever it may be at the time, is confined by banks of its own creation, which, like all sediment-bearing rivers, are highest near the stream itself. Thus apparently following a low ridge through the bottom lands, the resistless mass of muddy water sweeps onward with swiftness, eroding its outer banks in the bends and rebuilding them on the opposite points, frequently forming islands by its deposits, and as frequently removing them, as the direction of flow may be modified by the unending changes in progress. Chief among these changes is the formation of "cut-offs." Two vast eroding bends covering several miles of distance gradually approach each other until the water forces a passage across the narrow neck. As the channel distance between these bends may have been many miles around, the sudden "cut-off" makes a cascade of several feet, through which the torrent rushes with a roar heard far away. The sandy banks dissolve like so much sugar, in a single day the course of the river is radically changed, and steamboats pass where a few hours before was cultivated land. The checking of the current at the upper and lower mouths of the abandoned channel soon obstructs them with the deposits, and in a few years forms a crescent-shaped lake, of which there are so many in the bottoms adjacent to the river. The convex bank in a bend is built up as rapidly by the deposits as the opposite concave bank washes off, so that the river does not usually become any wider in the bends on account of the process. The deepest water is always next to the concave or wasting bank, where the most current flows. It is not an unusual sight along this extraordinary river to see an ancient and well-constructed house hanging over the caving bank, destined ultimately to drop into the water. It may originally have been a mile from the river in the centre of an old plantation, but the mighty current sweeping around and into the bend has worn away the land, often dissolving it by acres, and as it dropped in, has piled the sediment on the opposite point, thus steadily moving the river over without materially changing the width, until it is ready to engulf the house.

While the great river above the Ohio is generally bordered by limestone bluffs, making stable conditions, yet below, the Mississippi flows through a region wholly formed by its own deposits. It is said the alluvial basin below Cairo was once an estuary of the Gulf of Mexico, and that it has been raised in level, along with the entire southern portion of the Continent, about a hundred feet, and then filled in with the sediment the river carries down. This alluvial region is sometimes as much as seventy miles wide; and when not confined to the channel by levees, the natural course of a great Mississippi flood is to spread entirely over the basin. These floods will rise fifty feet, and the basin then becomes a great reservoir and storage-ground for the surplus waters, though the levee system has much restricted this. It is estimated that the annual discharge of the Mississippi is twenty-one million millions of cubic feet of water, and that it carries in a year four hundred millions of tons of solid material down to the Gulf to be deposited; thus cutting away from its banks a space equalling ten square miles of territory eighty feet deep. It takes one-fourth the rainfall of its valley down to the Gulf, or water equalling a depth of seven or eight inches over its whole drainage area, and the solid matter annually carried along and deposited there is equal to a body a mile square and three hundred and sixty feet high. The flow of the river is from one to six miles an hour in different stages and sections. The flood periods are in April and June, the river being above the mid-stage usually from January to August; and the lowest stage comes generally in October.

MEMPHIS TO VICKSBURG.

Following down the great river, its winding and varying channel south of Memphis becomes the boundary between the States of Mississippi and Arkansas. To the westward the Arkansas shore is a lowland and the interior largely swamps, with many bayous and lakes, the tributaries of St. Francis River, which, rising in the Iron Mountain district of Missouri, flows four hundred and fifty miles, generally southward, to fall into the Mississippi just above Helena. This river passes through a continuous swamp after entering Arkansas, spreads into numerous lakes, and its extensive basin is one of the great reservoirs of overflow relieving the Mississippi in time of flood. Its port of Helena has a trade in timber brought out of the neighboring swamps and forests. About one hundred miles below, the White River and the Arkansas River flow in upon the western shore. Very curiously, these rivers, having mouths about fifteen miles apart, join some distance above, their waters commingling in the alluvial bottom land. The White River is nine hundred miles long, rises in the Ozark Mountains of Northern Arkansas, makes a long circuit through Missouri and then comes southward, being navigable some four hundred miles to Batesville, the seat of Arkansas College. The Arkansas River, next to the Missouri, is the greatest Mississippi tributary, being nearly twenty-two hundred miles long and having its sources in the Rockies in Colorado, out of which it flows in a magnificent canyon. It comes for five hundred miles eastward through plains that are largely sterile, enters Kansas, turns southeast in the Indian Territory, and crosses the State of Arkansas to its mouth, being navigable for eight hundred miles. At the western border of the State the river is guarded by Fort Smith, where an active town has grown around the former frontier post on the verge of the Indian Territory, having large trade and a population of fifteen thousand.

In the centre of Arkansas, this great river, being about four hundred yards wide, passes the State capital Little Rock, having thirty thousand people, its largest city, with railways radiating in all directions, and conducting an extensive cotton trade. Its State House is attractive, and spreading magnolias pleasantly shade many of the streets. A spur of the Ozark Mountains comes down to the westward of Little Rock, and its foothills are thrust out towards the Arkansas River. In ascending it through the lowlands from the Mississippi, the original explorers met here the only elevations of land they had seen, the first being a rocky cliff rising about fifty feet above the water, which they called the "Little Rock," and on it the city has been built, while two miles above another cliff, rising five hundred feet, is called the "Big Rock." Southwest of Little Rock, in this spur of the Ozark Mountains, is the famous Arkansas town of Hot Springs, having ten thousand inhabitants and many visitors. It is located in a narrow gorge between the Hot Springs Mountain on the east and West Mountain, the wide Main Street being flanked on one side by bath-houses and on the other by hotels and shops. There are over seventy springs, rising on the western slope of the Hot Springs Mountain above the town, and discharging daily five hundred thousand gallons of clear, tasteless and odorless waters, of varying temperatures, the highest 158°. They contain a little silica and carbonate of lime, but their beneficial effects in rheumatism, gout, costiveness and other troubles are ascribed mainly to their heat and purity. There is a large Government Hospital here for the army and navy, the Springs being United States property. The waters flow into the Washita River, which passes through a pleasant valley to the southward and then goes off nearly six hundred miles down into Louisiana to the Red River. At the mouth of Arkansas River on the Mississippi is the town of Napoleon.

The vast current of the Mississippi River, constantly augmented by capacious tributaries, naturally finds outlets in times of flood through the banks, and thus overspreads the extensive adjacent lowlands. To the eastward, south of Memphis, and extending down almost to Vicksburg, is the enormous Yazoo Basin, a lowland of many bayous and lakes, making a region of excessive fertility, and its Choctaw name has thus been naturally acquired, meaning "leafy." The river originates in the bayous and sloughs springing from the eastern Mississippi bank, which form the Tallahatchie River, and that stream, uniting with the Yallabusha and the Sunflower, make the deep, winding and very sluggish Yazoo, flowing nearly three hundred miles down to the Mississippi, twelve miles above Vicksburg. The extensive bottom lands of this Yazoo Delta compose about one-sixth of the State of Mississippi, its entire northwestern portion, and being a rich agricultural region are traversed by railways and have many flourishing towns and villages. There is a perfect network of waterways throughout this fertile delta, over thirty of the streams being navigable for large steamboats, and it also has extensive forests of valuable timber. The entire region is alluvial, the soil having been deposited by the overflows of the Mississippi during past ages, and now that this extensive basin is protected by an elaborate system of levees from further overflows, almost the whole of it is available for cultivation. There are nearly five millions of acres of reclaimed lands here, and though less than one-fifth of this surface is devoted to cotton, it is said to grow more of that great staple than any other single district in the world. The malaria, often prevalent along the Yazoo, led the Choctaws to call it the "river of death."

Both banks of the Mississippi below the Arkansas River are lined with cotton plantations, giving a most interesting scene during the harvesting of the fleecy crop in the autumn. The broad plantations disclose the comfortable and often quaint planters' houses of the olden time embosomed in trees, and as one progresses southward the trees become more and more draped with the dark and sombre Spanish moss, giving a weird appearance to the shores. The Yazoo flows in, and the long and imposing range of the Walnut Hills rises on the eastern bank to five hundred feet elevation. Here a planter named Vick made the first settlement in 1836, and the city of Vicksburg has grown on the summit and slopes of the hills, the lucrative traffic of the Yazoo delta providing a chief source of its prosperity, making it the largest city in the state of Mississippi, there being fifteen thousand people. It presents a picturesque view from the river, but is chiefly known abroad from its famous siege and capture by General Grant in July, 1863. The Confederates, having lost Memphis and New Orleans, made their last desperate stand to hold the Mississippi River at Vicksburg, surrounding it with vast fortifications, crowning the hills with batteries, not only along the river front, but up the Yazoo River to Haines' Bluff. Several attempts were made to capture it in 1862, Farragut's fleet running past, and Grant began operations in the spring of 1863. After several battles, he appeared before the city in May, assaulting and being repulsed, and then began the siege which resulted in the surrender on July 4th. General Pemberton, commanding Vicksburg, surrendered thirty-one thousand men, his previous losses exceeding ten thousand. General Grant had similar losses, his forces engaged in the siege and preliminary battles approximating seventy thousand men. This siege greatly damaged the city, while in 1876 the Mississippi, in one of its peculiar freaks, cut through a neck of land opposite, took an entirely new channel, and left Vicksburg isolated on an inland lake. The Government has since, at heavy expense, diverted the Yazoo outflow past the city and restored the harbor. There are beautiful views and romantic glens in the Walnut Hills, with many traces of the old fortifications, while a favorite drive is to the extensive National Cemetery, where seventeen thousand soldiers' graves recall the terrific conflicts of the Civil War.

NATCHEZ TO NEW ORLEANS.

When the Sieur de la Salle made his voyage of exploration down the great Father of Waters from the Falls of St. Anthony to the Gulf of Mexico, he found in the spring of 1682 an interesting Indian settlement on the eastern bank a hundred miles below Vicksburg. This settlement was under a bluff rising a hundred and fifty feet above the river. Later, in 1699, Commander d'Iberville examined the Mississippi delta, and having founded Fort St. Louis at Biloxi, heard of these Indians, sought their friendship, and in 1700 came up and established a trading-post at their village under the bluff. He described them as numbering twelve hundred warriors, living in nine contiguous villages, ruled by a chief of the "family of the suns," their highest caste, and called the Natchez Indians, the word meaning "the hurrying men, running as in war." The French kept up communication with them, and regarded the tribe as the noblest of the many with whom they had been brought in contact in America. These Indians had a religious creed and ceremonies not unlike the "Fire Worshippers" of Persia. In their "Temple of the Sun," the priests kept the sacred fire constantly burning on the altar, their tradition being that the fire came originally from heaven and had always been maintained. In 1713 the Sieur de Bienville, who had succeeded his brother, d'Iberville, built Fort Rosalie alongside the landing, and around it grew a town which was the beginning of the city of Natchez. Unfortunately, just about this time the Indians' sacred fire accidentally went out, and attributing this to the coming of the white men, they became dissatisfied and conflicts arose. There were repeated fights, and in 1729 they swooped down upon the settlement and massacred the French. The following year troops came up from New Orleans, attacked and scattered them, burning their villages, and the tribe ultimately disappeared, the last small remnant of half-breed descendants remaining in Texas until recently, when they joined the Creeks and Cherokees. Now the city of Natchez has its business portion along the narrow stretch of river-bank in front of the bluff, where some traces yet remain of the earthworks of the old French fort. The greater part of the city, however, is on the bluff, where the brow of the hill is a wide-spreading park giving a splendid outlook. Also on the bluff is a National Cemetery filled with soldiers' graves, the sad memorial of the War. There is a large river-trade at Natchez, and twelve thousand population, and in the cotton-shipping season, business along the levee is very active.

About seventy miles below, the Red River flows in, the last of the great tributaries of the Mississippi. This stream is over fifteen hundred miles long, draining a region of a hundred thousand square miles, and gets its name from the red-colored sediment its waters bring down. It originates in the extensive "Staked Plain" of northern Texas, the "Lone Star State," its sources being at twenty-five hundred feet elevation. Its flow is eastward, forming the Texan northern boundary on the border of Oklahoma and the Indian Territory, and then it turns south near the twin city of Texarkana, which stands on both sides of the line between Texas and Arkansas. Coming into Louisiana it passes Shreveport, a city of fifteen thousand people, with a large trade in cotton and cattle, and then crosses the state to the Mississippi. The special and curious feature of the Red River is the formation of rafts. Its upper shores are heavily timbered, and vast numbers of trees are engulfed by the current washing out the banks in times of freshet, and they accumulate lower down, where the speed of the water slackens. These rafts are formed many miles long, growing by additions to the up-stream side, while the logs decay and are gradually floated off and broken up on the lower extremity. This makes the obstruction steadily move up-stream. In 1854, the great raft fifty miles above Shreveport extended thirteen miles up the river and was accumulating at the rate of nearly two miles annually. In colonial times this raft was said to have been two hundred miles lower down the river. Vegetation had taken root on the older portions, thus making a floating forest, and the retardation of the waters above made a lake over twenty miles long. In 1873, when the Government attacked it and opened a navigable channel, this raft had grown to thirty-two miles length, and the opening of the channel lowered the upper retarded waters fifteen feet. Snag-boats have since patrolled the Red River, pulling out thousands of trees every year, and breaking up the rafts, to maintain navigation. The lower course of Red River is very crooked and sluggish, through swamps and lowlands, and near its mouth part of the current, particularly in times of freshet, is diverted into Atchafalaya River, which flows for about two hundred miles southward directly to the Gulf of Mexico. This stream is said to have originally been the outlet of Red River to the Gulf, and such it seems again coming to be, the Government having a very serious problem in dealing with it. The Mississippi River in its earlier vagaries developed a bend towards the west, which struck Red River, thus making it a tributary, the former channel silting up. It was then named Atchafalaya, meaning the "lost river." To improve navigation, some time ago this old channel was opened, when to the general astonishment, the Atchafalaya began absorbing the Red River waters and developing a large river, which now carries a current more than one-third the volume of the Mississippi, and as they all run together at high-water stages, there is a fear that the whole Mississippi may at some time conclude to go into the Atchafalaya, thus leaving New Orleans on an arm of the sea. Extensive Government works are in progress to prevent this diversion and maintain the old conditions.

Below Red River, the Mississippi is all in Louisiana, its width barely a half-mile, and its depth very great, in many places one to two hundred feet, necessary to carry the vast flow of water. The banks are throughout protected by levees, and on the last bluff rising alongside the river, on the eastern bank, is the Louisiana state capital, Baton Rouge, a quaint old city with ancient French and Spanish houses, spreading over the bluff fifty feet above the water. There is a population of about ten thousand, and overlooking the river are the State House and the buildings of the Louisiana State University. Below Baton Rouge, both banks of the Mississippi are bordered by attractive gardens and extensive plantations, with sections of forest, sombre moss-draped trees and rich vegetation, the whole of the "coast," as the lower river banks are familiarly called, being lavish in the display of semi-tropical luxuriance. The voyage down, skirting the low shores and levees for a hundred and twenty miles, is most picturesque, as the windings of the river make pleasant views. Finally, a grand sweeping bend is rounded, where the city of New Orleans is spread out upon both banks, the streets and buildings stretching far inland upon the lowlands behind the great protective embankments.

THE CRESCENT CITY.

The Spanish in the sixteenth century made various evanescent explorations of the Gulf coast and the entrances to the Mississippi, but never gained a permanent foothold. La Salle descended the great river to its mouth in 1682, took possession of the country for France and named it Louisiana, in honor of his King Louis XIV. The first colony planted in the Province by the French was at Biloxi Bay on the Gulf coast, about eighty miles northeast of New Orleans, in February, 1699, by Commander d'Iberville. Biloxi is now a quiet town of five thousand people, having a good trade and some manufactures. A short distance to the westward is Beauvoir, which was the home of the Confederate President, Jefferson Davis, where he died in 1889; and about ten miles farther westward is the extensive Bay St. Louis, where at Pass Christian is one of the most frequented pleasure-resorts on the Gulf coast. The French built a fort at Biloxi, and for years d'Iberville and his younger brother, the Sieur de Bienville, maintained their colony under serious difficulties, de Bienville finally deciding to change the location, and removing to Mobile bay. After considerable exploration, however, he determined upon a permanent location within the Mississippi River, and entering the passes in 1718 he ascended to where he found the most eligible fast land and founded the colony of New Orleans, naming it in honor of the then Regent of France, the Duke of Orleans. Thus began the city, which in 1721, being then described as "a village of trappers and gold hunters," was made the capital of the French royal Province of Louisiana. In 1732 it had about five thousand population, and after the transfer of sovereignty to the United States it was chartered a city in 1804, then having ten thousand. There are now two hundred and seventy-five thousand people in New Orleans.

This noted city is about one hundred and seven miles from the Gulf of Mexico, and the older portion was built around the outer curve of a grand crescent-shaped river bend, which gave it the popular designation of the "Crescent City." It afterwards grew far up stream, and stretched around another reverse bend, so that now the river passes through in form much like the letter S. The surface descends from the river by gentle slope towards a marshy region in the rear, and is several feet below the level of high water, the levee being a strong embankment about fourteen feet high and fifteen feet wide on the surface, effectually protecting from overflow. Its magnificent position near the mouth of the river, where an enormous interior commerce, coming by railroad and steamboat, has to be transhipped to ocean-going vessels, has made the prosperity of the city. Its event of chief memory is the battle of January 8, 1815, when General Andrew Jackson defeated the British under General Pakenham. The battlefield was at Chalmette in the southern suburbs, on ground stretching from the Mississippi River bank back about a mile to the cypress swamps. The war with England had already been ended by a peace concluded at Ghent December 24, 1814, but neither side then knew of it. The British advanced from the eastward to attack the city, and a hastily constructed line of breastworks formed of cotton bales was thrown up, behind which Jackson's men were stationed to receive the attack. The result was a most disastrous defeat, Pakenham, his second in command and twenty-six hundred men falling, while the American loss was only one hundred. A marble monument on the field commemorates the victory, and a National Cemetery, with many graves of soldiers fallen in the Civil War, now occupies a portion of the ground. In the Civil War, in April, 1862, Admiral Farragut ran his fleet past the forts commanding the river at the head of the Passes, and appearing before the city compelled its surrender, when it was occupied by the accompanying land forces under General Butler.

There is, in the older town, so much of characteristic French and Spanish survival, that New Orleans is a most interesting and picturesque city, though it has not very much to show in the way of elaborate architecture. The streets have generally French or Spanish names, and there is a distinctive French quarter inhabited by Creoles, where the buildings have walls of adobé and stucco, inner courts, tiled roofs, arcades and balconies, the whole region being lavishly supplied with semi-tropical plants. The chief business thoroughfare, Canal Street, is at right-angles to the river bank, and borders the French quarter. The levee for over six miles is devoted to the shipping, and in its gathering of ocean vessels and river steamboats, loading or unloading, is a most animated place, impressing the observer with the idea that tributary to this great mart of trade is the richest agricultural valley in the world. The hero of New Orleans, General Andrew Jackson, has his equestrian statue in Jackson Square, which was the old-time Place d'Armes, and adjoining is the French Cathedral of St. Louis, built in the eighteenth century, but since considerably altered. The chief institution of learning is Tulane University, having fine buildings and a thousand students, the benefaction of a prominent citizen. In Lafayette Square there is a statue of John McDonough, whose legacy for school-houses has built and equipped thirty spacious buildings, accommodating twenty thousand pupils. Around Lafayette Square are various public edifices and churches.

New Orleans has two fine parks, the City Park and Audubon Park, both displaying collections of live oaks and magnolias, which are picturesque. The city cemeteries also have many good trees and are attractive and peculiar. The soil being semi-fluid at a depth of two or three feet, nearly all the tombs are above ground, some being costly and beautiful structures. Most of them, however, are buildings composed of cells placed one above another to the height of seven or eight feet. The cell is only large enough to receive the coffin, and as soon as the funeral is over, it is hermetically bricked up at the narrow entrance. These cells are called "ovens," and bear tablets appropriately inscribed. The Cypress Grove Cemetery, near the City Park, is one of the most interesting. In Greenwood Cemetery, near by, is a monument to the Confederate dead, and General Albert Sidney Johnston is interred in Metairie Cemetery, which also has his equestrian statue. In some cases the graves are in earthen mounds, while occasionally, where the interment is in the ground, the grave-digging is so arranged as to be completed just as the funeral arrives, and the coffin thus gets placed and covered before there is time for much water to ooze into the grave. The most uniquely picturesque sight in the city is furnished by the old French Market, near the levee, in the early morning, when business is in full tide, and the mixed population in peculiar costume and language is seen to advantage. A favorite resort of the people is Lake Pontchartrain, five miles north, the spacious inland sea covering nearly a thousand square miles, to which fine shell roads lead.

THE LEVEES AND THE DELTA.

The whole country around New Orleans, and indeed the entire region adjacent to the Mississippi and its bayous, would be overflowed in times of freshet were it not for the elaborate systems of levees, which are a special feature of the whole lower Mississippi Valley. The work of constructing these extensive embankments began at the foundation of the infant city of New Orleans, when a dyke a mile long was projected to protect the settlement from overflow, and it was built soon afterwards. In 1770 the settlements extended thirty miles above and twenty miles below the city, the plantations being protected by levees. By 1828, the levees, though in many places insufficient, had become continuous nearly to the mouth of Red River. The methods of construction were various, and the authorities conflicting, but the Government took hold of the work in 1850, beginning by giving the States the swamplands to provide a fund for reclamation. When the Civil War began, the levees extended a thousand miles along the river, and as far north as the State of Missouri. During the war the system fell into decay, and afterwards much work of restoration was necessary. The Mississippi River Commission now has charge, under comprehensive methods, and large sums are devoted to the purpose, aggregating over $4,000,000 annually from the General Government and the States, there being continuous lines of levees from Memphis nearly to the delta below New Orleans. Were the river left to itself, in most of this region during the spring floods it would overflow the banks by several feet, this being, however, prevented by these massive earth entrenchments, through which there nevertheless often breaks a destructive crevasse. The sediment brought down by the river has been deposited most abundantly upon the banks, making their front the highest surface, so that there is a gradual descent inland and back from the river of about four feet to the mile. During the floods, an observer standing alongside the levee has the water in the river running high above him, and when the levee breaks the bottom-lands are soon extensively overflowed. The estimate is that these lands, reclaimed and protected by the levees, embrace thirty thousand square miles of the most fertile soil in the world, about one-sixth of it being under cultivation; and that there are altogether twenty-six hundred miles of levees along the great river, and the adjunct tributary bayous, lakes and other water-courses. For nine months the water stage is low, so that very little attention is given it, but when the spring comes, the melted snows of the Rockies and the torrential rains come down usually in conjunction, bringing an enormous flood, that rushes along, filling the river to the tops of the embankments. Processes of decay and weakening are always going on—rats and mice have their burrows, and millions of crawfish, with claws like chisels, riddle the levees with holes. Then in some unexpected place the dreaded alarm is sounded that the bank is giving way and a crevasse impends. The water-soaked bank shows fissures and help is implored—bells are rung, fleet horsemen arouse the neighborhood, the people assemble and try to stop the break. But the crumbling levee soon gives way, and the swollen and muddy current pours through with a roar like Niagara, the waters spreading afar over the lowlands, and thus by reducing the stream-level bringing relief to the river, but converting the adjacent region for many miles into a turbid lake and ruining the crops.

Below New Orleans, as the river is descended, the thick forest vegetation along the banks gradually disappears, giving place to vast expanses of marsh and isolated patches of fast land bearing stunted trees. The river banks grow less defined, and are finally lost in what appears to be an interminable marsh with many waterways. This leads to the delta, gradually built up from the sediment deposited by the river, and demonstrating the eternal conflict and gradual encroachment of the land upon the sea. Through the ages, this delta, steadily constructed by the river, has been protruded into the Gulf of Mexico, far beyond the general coast-line, and it is slowly advancing year after year from the accumulated deposits. The delta divides into the various channels or "passes" by which the waters seek the sea. These are at first bordered by shore-lines of mud, which lower down dissolve into consecutive lines of coarse grass growing from beneath the watery surface, and then they are discernible only to the practiced eye of the pilot by what appears to be a regular current flowing along in the universal waste. This delta covers an area of fourteen thousand square miles, and it divides into four separate passes, which are hardly much more than outlet currents through the expanse of waters and marsh, thus excavating deeper and navigable channels. There are lighthouses at the entrances, and just inside the Northeast Pass is a spacious mud-bank known as the Balize, where there once was a colony of wreckers, but now are pleasant residences. Above the head of the delta, and about seventy miles below New Orleans, located in eligible positions at a bend, are Forts St. Philip and Jackson, the defensive works of the river entrance, and below them the main ship channel goes out to the Gulf through the South Pass, where the bar has been deepened through the effective scouring produced by the famous Eads Jetties on either side—one over two miles long and the other a mile and a half. These jetties cost $5,000,000, and they maintain a channel thirty feet deep. The twin lights marking their extremities can be regarded as indicating as nearly as may be the mouth of the great river, and beyond is the broad expanse of the Gulf of Mexico. Vast as is the enormous outflow brought down by the Father of Waters, the drainage of the whole broad centre of the Continent thus poured into the Gulf, yet it has no appreciable effect upon the ocean into which it flows. The Gulf easily swallows up all the Mississippi waters in a way that reminds of Rossetti's dirge:

XXI.

THE ROCKIES AND PACIFIC COAST.

The Lone Star State—The Sunset Route—Port Arthur—Galveston—Houston—Dallas—Fort Worth—Great Staked Plain—Austin—San Antonio—The Alamo—David Crockett—James Bowie—Sam Houston—Cattle Ranches—Rio Grande River—El Paso—Arizona—Tucson—Phœnix—Prehistoric Cities—Yuma—Canyons of the Colorado—Colorado Desert—Southern California—San Bernardino Valley—San Diego—Coronado Beach—The Early Missions—Climate and Scenery—Los Angeles—Santa Monica Bay—San Gabriel Valley—Santa Barbara—Monterey Bay—Del Monte—Santa Cruz—Santa Clara Valley—San José—Lick Observatory—San Joaquin Valley—Stockton—Gold Mining—The Big Trees—Yosemite Valley—Rocky Mountains—The Atchison Route—Indian Territory—Oklahoma—Raton Pass—Las Vegas—Santa Fé—Albuquerque—Mesa Encantada—Flagstaff—Mojave Desert—The Union Pacific Route—Cheyenne—Colorado—Denver—Boulder Canyon—Clear Creek Canyon—Colorado Springs—Pike's Peak—Manitou—Garden of the Gods—Pueblo—Veta Pass—Cripple Creek—Leadville—Grand Canyon of the Arkansas—Marshall Pass—Black Canyon of the Gunnison—Wyoming Fossils—Utah—Echo and Weber Canyons—Ogden—Great Salt Lake—Salt Lake City—The Mormons—Promontory Point—Nevada—Virginia City—Comstock Lode—Lake Tahoe—Donner Lake—Sacramento—The Northern Pacific Route—Butte—Anaconda Mine—Helena—Idaho—Spokane—Columbia River—Oregon—Snake River Canyon—Shoshoné Falls—The Dalles—Cascade Locks—The Great Northern Route—The Canadian Pacific Route—Regina—Moose Jaw—Medicine Hat—Calgary—Banff—Mount Stephen—Kicking Horse Pass—Rogers Pass—Mount Sir Donald—Glacier House—Eagle Pass—Great Shuswap Lake—Kamloops—Thompson Canyon—Fraser Canyon—Vancouver—Victoria—Gulf of Georgia—Alaska—Fort Wrangell—Sitka—Juneau—Treadwell Mine—Muir Glacier—Lynn Canal—Chilkoot and Chilkat—Skaguay and Dyea—The Yukon River—The Klondyke—St. Michaels—Cape Nome—Puget Sound—Port Townsend—Everett—Seattle—Tacoma—Mount Tacoma—Mount St. Helens—Portland—Crater Lake—Mount Shasta—Benicia—Mare Island—Oakland—University of California—Menlo Park—Leland Stanford, Jr., University—San Francisco—Point Lobos—The Golden Gate.

THE LONE STAR STATE.

Westward from the Mississippi River the "Sunset Route" to the Pacific leads across the sugar plantations of Louisiana. This Southern Pacific railway passes many bayous having luxuriant growth of bordering live oaks, magnolias and cypress, hung with festoons of Spanish moss, crosses the Atchafalaya River at Morgan City, and beyond, skirts along the picturesque and winding Bayou Teche in a region originally peopled by colonies of French Acadian refugees from Nova Scotia. Ultimately the route crosses Calcasieu River at Lake Charles, and thirty-eight miles beyond, goes over the Sabine River into the "Lone Star State" of Texas, the largest in the Union. The name of Texas comes from a tribe of Indians found there when La Salle made the first European settlement on the coast at Fort St. Louis on Lavaca River in 1685, but after the Spanish occupation in the eighteenth century the country was long known as the New Philippines, that being the official designation in their records. At the mouth of Sabine River is Sabine Lake, where Port Arthur has been established as a prosperous railway terminal, having access to the Gulf by a ship canal with terminating jetties, deepening the channel outlet to the sea. Farther along the coast is Galveston, the chief Texan seaport, built on the northeastern extremity of Galveston Island, which spreads for thirty miles in front of the spacious Galveston Bay, covering nearly five hundred miles surface. The entrance from the sea is obstructed by a bar through which the Government excavated at great expense a channel, flanked by stone jetties five miles long. It is a low-lying city with wide, straight streets, embowered in luxuriant tropical vegetation, while the equable winter temperature makes it a charming health-resort. A magnificent sea-beach spreads along the Gulf front of the island for many miles. Galveston, in September, 1900, was swept by a most terrific cyclone and tidal wave, destroying thousands of lives and a vast number of buildings.

Texas was a Province of Mexico, under Spanish and afterwards Mexican rule, and its many attractions in the early nineteenth century brought a large accession of colonists to the eastern portions from the adjacent parts of the United States. The Americans became so numerous that in 1830 the Mexican Congress prohibited further immigration, and the result was a revolt in 1835, the organization of a Provisional Government, a war which ended in the defeat of the Mexicans in the battle of San Jacinto in 1836, and the final independence of Texas. The people then sought annexation to the United States, but the State was not admitted until 1845, the Mexican War following. Two men of that time were prominent in Texas, Stephen F. Austin, who brought the first large colony from the United States settling on the Colorado and Brazos Rivers, and Sam Houston, who, after being Governor of Tennessee, migrated to Texas, led the revolt, commanded their army, and was made the first President of the independent State. The latter has his name preserved in the active city of Houston on Buffalo Bayou, a tributary of Galveston Bay, and about fifty miles northwest of Galveston. Houston is a busy railway centre, handling large amounts of cotton, sugar and timber, and is rapidly expanding, having sixty thousand people.

The Trinity River is the chief affluent of Galveston Bay, flowing down from Northern Texas, and having upon its banks another busy railway centre, Dallas, with fifty thousand people and an extensive trade. About thirty miles above, on Trinity River, is the old Indian frontier post of Fort Worth, now a town of forty thousand population and the headquarters of the cattle-raisers of Northern Texas. For many miles in all directions are the extensive cattle ranges, and to the north and west spreads the "Great Staked Plain," a vast plateau elevated nearly five thousand feet above the sea, covering some fifty thousand square miles, and being surrounded by a bordering escarpment of erosion to the lower levels, much resembling palisades. The stakes driven by the early Spaniards to mark their way are said to have given this plain its name, and it has now become an almost limitless cattle pasturage. When Austin's American colony settled on the Colorado River west of Houston, his name was given the town which was ultimately selected as the State Capital, where there are now twenty thousand people who look out upon the magnificent view of the Colorado Mountains. Here is the Texas State University with seven hundred and fifty students, and one of the finest State Capitols in the country, a splendid red granite structure, which was built by a syndicate in exchange for a grant of three million acres of land, the building occupying seven years in construction and costing $3,500,000. Two miles above the city an enormous dam seventy feet high encloses the waters of Colorado River for the water supply and manufacturing power, and thus makes Lake McDonald, twenty-five miles long. A heavy storm and flood in the spring of 1900 broke this dam and let out the lake, causing great loss of life and damage in the city.

Eighty miles southwest of Austin is the ancient city of San Antonio, known as the "cradle of Texas liberty," a Spanish town upon the San Antonio and San Pedro Rivers, small streams dividing it into irregular parts, the former receiving the latter and flowing into the Gulf at Espiritu Santo Bay. There are sixty thousand people in San Antonio, of many races, chiefly Americans, Mexicans and Germans, and it is a leading wool, cattle, horse, mule and cotton market. The Spaniards penetrated into this region in the latter part of the seventeenth century and established one of their usual joint religious-military posts among the Indians upon the plan of colonization then in vogue. The Presidio or military station was called San Antonio de Bexar, while during the early eighteenth century there were founded various religious Missions, the chief being by Franciscan monks, the Mission of San Antonio de Valero. There are four other Missions in and near the city, dating from that early period, their ancient buildings partly restored, but some of them also considerably in ruins. To the eastward of San Antonio River was built in a grove of the alamo or cottonwood trees in 1744 a low, strong, thick-walled church of adobé for the Franciscans, called from its surroundings the Alamo. When the Texans revolted, they held San Antonio as an outpost with a garrison of one hundred and forty-five men, commanded by Colonel James Bowie, the famous duellist and inventor of the "bowie knife," who was originally from Louisiana. Bowie fell ill of typhoid fever, and Colonel Travis took command. Among the garrison was the eccentric David Crockett of Tennessee, who had been a member of Congress, and joined them as a volunteer. General Santa Anna marched with a large Mexican army against them, arriving February 22, 1836, and the little garrison retired within the church of the Alamo, which they defended against four thousand Mexicans in a twelve days' siege. The final assault was made at daylight, March 6th, a lodgment was effected, and until nine o'clock a battle was fought from room to room within the church, a desperate hand-to-hand conflict at short range, and not ceasing until every Texan was killed; but this was not until two thousand three hundred Mexicans had fallen. Upon the memorial of this terrible contest, at the Texas State Capital, is the inscription: "Thermopylæ had her messenger of defeat, but the Alamo had none." This butchery caused a thrill of horror throughout the United States. "Remember the Alamo" became the watchword of the Texans, much aid was sent them, and the succor, coming from the desire to avenge the massacre, contributed largely to their ability to defeat the Mexicans in the subsequent decisive battle on San Jacinto River, down near Galveston Bay, which was fought in April. The old Church of the Alamo, since restored, is preserved as a national monument on the spacious Alamo plaza. The name of Houston, the Texan leader, is given to Fort Sam Houston, the United States military post on a hill north of San Antonio. The old Alamo is the shrine of Texas; and as visitors stroll around the place they are weirdly told how the spirits of the departed heroes, Crockett, Bowie, Travis and others, when the storms rage at night about the ancient building, wander through the sacristy with the heavy measured tread of armed troopers. It was in the midst of a storm that the Mexicans broke through a barred window and thus gained entrance in the siege. On the southern border of San Antonio are the extensive Fair Grounds, where Roosevelt's Rough Riders, largely recruited from the neighboring Texan ranches, were organized for the Spanish War in 1898. The most extensive Texas cattle ranches are south and west of San Antonio, the largest of them, King's Ranch, near the Gulf to the southward, covering seven hundred thousand acres, and being stocked with three thousand brood mares and a hundred thousand cattle.

ARIZONA.

The railway from San Antonio goes westward across the cattle ranges to the Rio Pecos, flowing for eight hundred miles down from the Rockies in a region largely reclaimed by irrigation, and then falling into the Rio Grande del Norte, the national boundary between Texas and Mexico. This noble stream, the Spanish "Grand River of the North," comes out of Colorado and New Mexico, and is eighteen hundred miles long. The Southern Pacific Railway crosses the Pecos on a fine cantilever bridge three hundred and twenty-eight feet high, and reaches the Rio Grande a short distance beyond, following it up northwest and passing the Apache Mountains, where at Paisano it crosses the summit grade at five thousand and eight feet elevation, the highest pass on this route to the Pacific coast. It finally reaches El Paso on the upper Rio Grande, a town of twelve thousand people, having on the Mexican bank of the river, with a long wooden bridge between, the twin town of Juarez, or El Paso del Norte, the road over the bridge being the chief route of trade into Mexico. The original Spanish explorer, Juan de Onate, named this crossing "the Pass of the North" in 1598, and after long waiting it has finally developed into an active town in cattle raising and silver mining, and also a health-resort, its balmy atmosphere being most attractive. The muddy river by its periodic inundations has made a very fertile intervale, which has a population of sixty-five thousand, and here are seen picturesque Mexican figures, the men in peaked sombreros and scarlet zarapes, and the women with blue rebozas. Beyond, the route crosses the southwest corner of New Mexico and enters Arizona, passing amid the mountain ranges to Tucson, the chief town of the Territory, having six thousand people, a quaint and ancient Spanish settlement, which has considerable Mexican trade. It was originally an appanage to the old Spanish mission of St. Xavier, nine miles southward, and it now thrives on its cattle trade, mining and magnificent climate, being also the location of the Territorial University.

To the northwest, in the well-irrigated valley of Salt River, is Phœnix, the capital of Arizona, with fifteen thousand population, the irrigation systems having produced great fertility in the adjacent region. The Salt River is a tributary of the Gila, the latter flowing out westward to the Colorado. In these Arizona valleys have been disclosed the remains of several prehistoric cities, chiefly located on a broad and sloping plain beginning at the confluence of the Salt with the Gila, and stretching down to the Mexican boundary. At Casa Grande is a famous ruin of a prehistoric temple with enormous adobé walls, the Government having made a reservation for its protection. These people were worshippers of the sun, and there have been discovered the remains of many towns with large population, the Gila Valley for ninety square miles disclosing these ruins, which are relics of the Stone age. Irrigation canals made by these prehistoric people, the oldest in the world, are also found throughout the region. Extensive explorations of these ancient cities have been made, and several have been named, among them Los Acequias, Los Muertos and Los Animos, the last being the largest, and there being strong evidence that it was destroyed by an earthquake which killed many thousands of the inhabitants. The railway follows the Gila Valley westward to its confluence with the Colorado, and here at the California boundary is Yuma, another of the early Spanish missions to the Indians, situated just north of the Mexican border, the Yuma Indians still living on a reservation adjoining the Colorado, their name meaning "the sons of the river." This town has its tragic history, for in 1781 the Indians made a savage raid upon the mission, destroyed the buildings and massacred the missionary priests.

The Colorado and its tributaries drain nearly the whole of Arizona, and it is one of the most remarkable rivers in the world. Its head branches have their sources in Wyoming, Colorado and Utah, uniting in the latter State, flowing four hundred miles across Arizona and seventy miles into Mexico to discharge through a delta into the Gulf of California. The river and most of its tributaries in Arizona pass through canyons that are among the wonders of the world, exposing to view geological strata of all the formations in their regular places to the thickness of twenty-five thousand feet. At first, the Colorado flows out of Utah and south into Arizona for one hundred and eighty miles, passing through the Marble Canyon, so called from the limestone walls, nearly four thousand feet deep. It then turns westward by irregular course, flowing nearly two hundred and fifty miles through the Grand Canyon, the most stupendous in existence, and having at places six thousand feet depth and walls spreading at the surface five or six miles apart. These huge walls are terraced and carved into myriads of pinnacles and towers, often brilliantly colored, and far down in the bottom the river is seen like a silvery thread of foam. Major Powell, who first explored it in 1869, went through in a boat. He calls it "the most profound chasm known on the globe," and believes the river was running there before the mountains were formed, and that the canyon was made by the erosion of the water acting simultaneously with the slow upheaval of the rocks. The river has a rapid flow in the canyon, winding generally through a lower chasm and having a descent of five to twelve feet to the mile, sometimes with placid reaches, but frequently plunging down rapids filled with rocks. The surrounding country is largely volcanic, with lava-beds and extinct craters. When the visitor first approaches the brink of the great chasm, he is almost appalled with the sight. There seem to be scores of deep ravines and enclosed mountains, the main wall opposite being miles away, and the intervening space filled with peaks and ridges of every imaginable shape and color, rising from the abyss below. There is a trail down the side of the canyon, a steep and narrow path winding along the face of the Grand View Gorge, giving startling glimpses into ravines thousands of feet deep, and disclosing the massive magnificence of this enormous abyss. Down goes the trail, one gorge opening below another until the verge of the final gorge is reached, in which the river runs at a depth of a thousand feet farther. Everything is desolate, the vegetation sparse, and a few stunted trees appearing, while the river, which seemed from above to be only a far distant silvery streak down below, is expanded by the nearer view into large proportions. This Grand Canyon of the Colorado is one of the most wonderful constructions of nature in its stupendous size and extraordinary character; with the myriads of pinnacles, towers, castles, walls, chasms and profound depths it contains and the gorgeous coloring given most of the surfaces. It is among the greatest of the attractions that America, the land of wonders, presents to the seeker after the picturesque.

SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA.

Beyond the California boundary the Southern Pacific Railway traverses the broad Colorado desert. This is a barren, sandy wilderness, growing nothing but yuccas and cactus, and is depressed far below the sea-level. It is an inland salt-water lake that has mostly dried up, the belief being that it was formerly an extension of the Gulf of California. The railway route beyond passes between the San Jacinto and San Bernardino Mountains, crossing the latter. These peaks rise over eleven thousand feet, and beyond is the pleasant fruit-growing San Bernardino Valley, originally settled by the Mormons in 1851. To the southward is Riverside, in the fertile district where the seedless navel oranges are successfully cultivated, the groves giving an attractive exhibition of orange-growing. Here is the famous Magnolia Avenue, one hundred and thirty feet wide and ten miles long, with its double rows of pepper trees, and extending all the way through orange groves. In its park is one of the finest cacti collections in existence. Adjacent is Redlands, also a flourishing orange-growing city, its sidewalks bordered by stately palms, rose-bushes, pepper trees and century plants, while everywhere are orange trees in their perpetual livery of brilliant green. Around it encircle the high San Bernardino Mountains, thoroughly protecting the fertile valley. To the southward the route then runs out to the Pacific Ocean bound to Southern California, and following down the coast near San Juan passes Dana's Point, over which, in the early Californian days, the hides were thrown for shipment, as narrated by Dana in Two Years Before the Mast. Ultimately it reaches the grand bay of San Diego, near the Mexican boundary, which, next to San Francisco, is the best harbor on the Pacific coast.

Here, spreading along the shores of the beautiful bay, is the ancient Spanish town of San Diego, long sleepy, but lately enjoying a "boom" when it found itself becoming a popular watering-place. To the northward is the old Mission of San Diego, the first settlement by white men in California, noted for its prolific olive groves. In the town of adobé houses lived "Ramona" of whom Helen Hunt Jackson has written, and there are still preserved here the original church bells sent out from Spain to the colony. The outer arm of San Diego Bay is Coronado Beach, a narrow tongue of sand, stretching twelve miles northward, and ending in spacious expansions known as the North and South Beaches. Upon the South Beach is the famous watering-place of Coronado, with its great hotel alongside the ocean, the tower commanding an extensive view, and its spacious surrounding flower-gardens being magnificently brilliant. There are Botanical Gardens, a Museum and an interesting ostrich farm, with railways for miles along the pleasant shores, and at Point Loma are the lighthouses guarding the entrance from the sea, the uppermost, elevated five hundred feet, being the highest lighthouse in the world. Down near the Mexican boundary is the suburb of National City, surrounded by olive groves, and the visitors sometimes cross over the border to visit the curious Mexican village of Tia Juana, a name which being freely translated means "Aunt Jane." Extensive irrigation works serve the country around San Diego, and the great Sweetwater Dam, ninety feet high, closing a gorge, makes one of the largest water reservoirs in existence.

This wonderful land of California into which we have come has a name the meaning of which is unknown. One Ordonez de Montalva in 1510 published a Spanish romance wherein he referred to the "island of California, on the right hand of the Indies, very near the Terrestrial Paradise." When Cortez conquered Mexico, his annalist, Bernal Diaz del Castillo, gave this name, it is said in derision, about 1535, to the lower peninsula of California, then supposed to be an island, it having been discovered the previous year by the Spanish explorer Ximenes. The Jesuit missionaries came in the seventeenth century to the lower peninsula, and in the eighteenth century to California proper. It is an enormous State, stretching nearly eight hundred miles along the Pacific, and inland for a width of two hundred or more miles. It is mainly a valley, between the Coast Range of mountains on the west and the Sierra Nevada, meaning the "snowy saw-tooth mountains," on the east. The Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers flow in the central valley, which stretches north and south for five hundred miles. To the southward the mountain ranges join, and below them is the special and favored region of Southern California. When first settled, there were established from San Diego up to Sonoma twenty-one Jesuit Missions, whose ruins and old buildings are now found so interesting, and these early establishments converted the Indians, of whom it is said that the charming climate offered them no inducements to develop savagery, so that when the conversion time came they were easily made serfs for the Missions, and worked in a way that few other Indians ever did. There are two California seasons, the rainy and the dry, the former lasting from November to May, while there is almost unchanging dry weather from May till October. The rainy season, however, is not as in the tropics, where there are deluges daily, but it means that then it will rain if ever, and there are in fact days without rain at all. California is a land of climatic attractiveness, where, as it has been well said, "it is always afternoon." Through vast irrigation systems, despite the dry season, much of the surface has been made a garden. Water runs everywhere copiously down from the mountains, and the shrubbery of all parts of the world has been brought hither and successfully grown. The region presents an universal landscape of foliage and flowers, luxuriant beyond imagination. In Southern California the wild flowers, of which the golden poppy is one of the most prominent, are extraordinary in their number, variety and brilliancy. "The greatest surprise of the traveller," writes Charles Dudley Warner, "is that a region which is in perpetual bloom and fruitage, where semi-tropical fruits mature in perfection, and the most delicate flowers dazzle the eye with color the winter through, should have on the whole a low temperature, a climate never enervating, and one requiring a dress of woollen in every month."

LOS ANGELES AND SAN JOAQUIN.

The metropolis of this land of sunshine, fruits and flowers, fifteen miles back from the sea, is La Puebla de la Nuestra Senora la Reina de Los Angeles, or "the City of Our Lady, the Queen of the Angels;" a lengthy title which the matter-of-fact Americans some time ago happily shortened into Los Angeles. From it Los Angeles River flows south to the sea at San Pedro Bay. The Spaniards founded the town in 1781, but it had only a sleepy existence until 1880, when the railways came along, and it became a centre of the pleasure and health-resorts, and the extensive fruit growing of Southern California, expanding so rapidly that it has seventy thousand people. Originally, the houses were of adobé, but now it has many fine buildings and a magnificent development of residences, the whole city being embowered in luxuriant vegetation. In the neighborhood are petroleum wells and asphalt deposits, while the adjacent district has many irrigation canals. Down on the ocean shore is San Pedro, the port of Los Angeles, where the harbor has been improved by a large outlay, and twenty miles away is the beautiful mountainous island of Santa Catalina, a popular resort, which is in reality an ocean mountain top. Santa Monica Bay, to the southwest, is the coast bathing-place of Los Angeles, and near by is the popular Redondo Beach, with its spacious Chautauqua Assembly Building. Pasadena is a charming suburb of the city off to the northeast, a perpetual garden and favorite place of residence. It is in San Gabriel Valley, over which rises the great Sierra Madre Range, eleven thousand feet high, the glossy green orange groves on its sides gradually melting into the white snow-capped summits of this towering mountain wall. A railway ascends Echo Mountain north of Pasadena, on which is the Lowe Observatory. To the southeast is the old San Gabriel Mission in the valley, surrounded by vineyards and orchards.

San Buenaventura was another Mission, and is now a health-resort at the coast outlet of Ventura valley, and beyond is Santa Barbara, the "American Mentone," one of the most charming California resorts. The old Spanish Mission, with its towers and corridors, is famous, and was built in 1786, being well-preserved and having a few of the Franciscan monks yet in charge. A curiosity of the neighborhood is La Parra Grande, the "Great Vine," having a trunk four feet in diameter and covering a trellis sixty feet square, its annual product being eight thousand pounds of grapes. Farther along the coast is the charming Bay of Monterey, with the Spanish town of Monterey on its southern shore. In 1770 the Mission of San Carlo de Monterey was founded here, and it was the Mexican capital of California until the American conquest in 1846, then depending chiefly on a trade in tallow and hides. It has not grown much since, however, and the old adobé buildings have not undergone change in a half-century. It is now a popular resort, having the noted Hotel Del Monte, the "Hotel of the Forest," located in spacious and exquisite grounds, the park embracing seven thousand acres. Upon the northern side of Monterey Bay is Santa Cruz, its chief town, also a summer-resort, having a background made by the Santa Cruz Mountains. This was a Mission founded in 1791, and five miles northward is the Santa Cruz grove of big trees, containing a score of redwoods or sequoias, of a diameter of ten feet or more, the largest being twenty-three feet. Within a hollow in one of these trees General Fremont encamped for several days in 1847. To the northward is the prolific fruit region, the Santa Clara Valley, where Mission Santa Clara was founded in 1777. The city of this valley is San José, with twenty thousand people, distantly surrounded by mountains, and, like all these places, a popular resort. The Calaveras Mountains are to the eastward, and here, on Mount Hamilton, twenty-six miles southeast, is the Lick Observatory, at forty-two hundred feet elevation. It was founded by a legacy of $700,000 left by James Lick, of San Francisco, and is attached to the University of California, being among the leading observatories of the world. It has one of the largest and most powerful refracting telescopes in existence, the object-glass being thirty-six inches in diameter. Mr. Lick is buried in the foundation pier of this great telescope which he erected. There is a magnificent view from the Observatory, which is exceptionally well located, its white buildings, shining in the sunlight, seen from afar.

Across the Coast Range of mountains, eastward from San José, is the extensive San Joaquin Valley, noted as the "granary of California," two hundred miles long and thirty to seventy miles wide between the mountain ranges. It produces almost limitless crops of grain, fruits and wines. Through this great valley the San Joaquin River flows northward, and the Sacramento River southward in another valley as spacious, and uniting, they go out westward to San Francisco Bay. We are told that in the days when the earth was forming, the sea waves beat against the slopes of the Sierra Nevada, but ultimately the waters receded, leaving the floor of this vast valley of central California stretching nearly five hundred miles between the mountain ranges. The first comers among the white men dug gold out of its soils, but now they also get an enormous revenue from the prolific crops. Railways traverse it in all directions. The chief city is Stockton, at the head of navigation on the San Joaquin, a town of twenty thousand people, having numerous factories. Here in the slopes and gulches of the Sierras, stretching far away, were the first gold-mines of California, when the discoveries of the "Forty-niners" set the world agog. Here, at Jackson, was tapped the famous "Mother Lode," the most continuous and richest of the three gold belts extending along the slope of the Sierras, and so-called by the early miners because they regarded it as the parent source of all the gold found in the placers. This lode is in some parts a mile wide, and extends a hundred miles, being here a series of parallel fissures filled with gold-bearing quartz-veins, while farther south they unite in a single enormous fissure. The mineral belts paralleling it on both sides are rich in copper and gold. The country all about is a mining region with prolific "diggings" everywhere, and smokes arising from the stamp-mills at work reducing the ores. Here are Tuttletown and Jackass Hill, the home of "Truthful James," and the localities made familiar by Bret Harte and Mark Twain. Here is Carson Hill, there having been picked up on its summit the largest gold-nugget ever found in California, worth $47,000. What this gold-mining has meant is shown by the results, aggregating since California first produced the metal a total of nearly $1,350,000,000 gold given the world. As the San Joaquin Valley is ascended, it develops its wealth of grain-fields, orchards and vineyards, and displays the grand systems of irrigation which have contributed to produce so much fertility.

Eastward from San Joaquin Valley are the famous groves of Big Trees, the gigantic sequoias, which Emerson has appropriately called the "Plantations of God." There are two forests of giants in Calaveras and Mariposa Counties displaying these enormous trees, of which it is significantly said that some were growing when Christ was upon the earth. The Calaveras Grove, the northernmost, is at an elevation of forty-seven hundred feet above the sea, upon a tract about two-thirds of a mile long and two hundred feet wide, there being a hundred large trees and many smaller. The tallest tree standing is the "Keystone State," three hundred and twenty-five feet high and forty-five feet in circumference. The "Mother of the Forest," denuded of its bark, is three hundred and fifteen feet high and sixty-one feet girth, while the "Father of the Forest," the biggest of all, is prostrate, and measures one hundred and twelve feet in circumference. There are two trees three hundred feet high, and many exceeding two hundred and fifty feet, the bark sometimes being a foot and a half thick. This grove, however, being less convenient, is not so much visited as the Mariposa Grove to the southward. It is in Mariposa (the butterfly) County, at sixty-five hundred feet elevation, and near the Yosemite Valley. The tract of four square miles is a State Park, there being two distinct forests a half-mile apart. The lower grove has a hundred fine trees, the largest being the "Grizzly Giant," of ninety-four feet circumference and thirty-one feet diameter, the main limb, at two hundred feet elevation, being over six feet in diameter. The upper grove contains three hundred and sixty trees, and the road between the groves is tunnelled directly through one of them, which is twenty-seven feet in diameter. Through this living tree, named "Wawona," the stage-coach drives in a passage nearly ten feet wide. These trees are not so high as in Calaveras Grove, but they are usually of larger girth. The tallest is two hundred and seventy-two feet, ten exceed two hundred and fifty feet, and three are over ninety feet in circumference, while twenty are over sixty feet. Many of the finest have been marred by fires. There are eight groves of these Big Trees in California, these being the chief.

YOSEMITE VALLEY.

Into the San Joaquin flows Merced River, coming from the eastward down out of the Sierras through the famous Yosemite Valley. Most of its waters are diverted by irrigation canals leading for many miles over the floor of the broad San Joaquin Valley. The road to the Yosemite leads eastward up the slope, crosses the crest, and at Inspiration Point, fifty-six hundred feet elevation, gives the first view, then steeply descending to the river bank, it enters the western portal. Yosemite is a corruption of the Indian word "A-hom-e-tae," which means the "full-grown grizzly bear," and is supposed to have originally been the name of an Indian chief. This magnificent canyon, on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, is a deep gorge eight miles long, traversed by Merced River, its nearly level floor being about thirty-eight hundred feet above the sea-level. The enclosing rocky and almost vertical walls rise from three thousand to five thousand feet above the river, the space between varying from a half-mile to two miles. Over the valley floor winds the beautiful green current of the diminutive Merced, bordered by trees and vegetation, the surface being generally grass-grown. The high vertical walls, the small amount of débris at their foot, and the character of the Yosemite chasm itself, have led the geologists to ascribe its formation not to erosion or glacial action, but to a mighty convulsion in the granite rocks, whereby part of them subsided along lines of fault-crossing nearly at right-angles. The observer, standing on the floor, can see no outlet anywhere, the almost perpendicular walls towering on high in every direction.

The Valley is a Government Park, which also includes the watershed of the streams flowing into it. Originally it was the home of the Digger Indians, a tribe of Shoshonés, and a rather low type, of whom a few still survive. It was first seen by white men in 1851, when a detachment of troops pursuing these Indians came unexpectedly upon it. The attractions soon became widely known, and visitors were numerous, especially after the opening of the Pacific Railways. Entering the Valley, the most striking object is its northwestern buttress, the ponderous cliff El Capitan, rising thirty-three hundred feet, at a very narrow part, its majestic form dominating the view. There are two vertical mountain walls almost at right angles, these enormous bare precipices facing west and south. On the opposite side, forming the other portal, rise the imposing Cathedral Rocks, adjoined by the two slender Cathedral Spires of splintered granite, nearly three thousand feet high. Over these rocks on their western side pours the Bridal Veil Fall, about seventy feet wide, and descending vertically six hundred and thirty feet. As the winds often make the foaming column flutter like a white veil, its title has been appropriately given. Adjoining El Capitan descends the Ribbon Fall, or the Virgin's Tears, falling two thousand feet, but losing much of its waters as the summer advances. Eastward of El Capitan are the peaks called the Three Brothers, the highest also named the Eagle Peak, rising three thousand feet. To the eastward of this peak and in a recess near the centre of the Valley are the Yosemite Falls, one of the highest waterfalls in the world. Yosemite Creek, which comes over the brink with a breadth of thirty-five feet, descends twenty-five hundred feet in three leaps. It pours down a vertical wall, the Upper Fall descending nearly fifteen hundred feet without a break, the column of water swaying as the winds blow with marvellous grace of motion, the eddying mists fading into light summer clouds above. The Middle Fall is a series of cascades descending over six hundred feet, and the Lower Fall is four hundred feet high. This is one of the grandest features of the Valley, but its vigor, too, dwindles as the season advances. There is a high and splendid ice cone formed at the foot of the Upper Fall in the winter. Alongside, upon a projection called Yosemite Point, at over thirty-two hundred feet elevation, is given one of the best views of the famous Valley.

At the head of the Yosemite, it divides into three narrow tributary canyons, each discharging a stream, which uniting form the Merced. The northernmost is the Tenaya, and overshadowing it rises the huge North Dome, more than thirty-seven hundred feet high, having as an outlying spur the Washington Column. Opposite, and forming the eastern boundary of the valley, is the South or Half Dome, of singular shape, towering almost five thousand feet, and like El Capitan, at the other extremity, being a most remarkable granitic cliff. Its top is inaccessible, although once it was scaled by an adventurous explorer by means of a rope attached to pegs driven into the rock. It is one of the most extraordinarily formed mountains in existence, standing up tall, gaunt and almost square against the sky, the dominating pinnacle of the upper valley. Upon the southern side rises Glacier Point, nearly thirty-four hundred feet, giving a splendid view over the valley, having to the westward the Sentinel Dome, nearly forty-three hundred feet high, ending in the conspicuous face of the Sentinel Rock. Thus environed by vast cliffs, this grand valley displays magnificent scenery. Within the upper canyons are also attractions, that of the Merced River, the central gorge displaying the Vernal and Nevada waterfalls. The Vernal Fall is seventy feet wide and descends three hundred and fifty feet, having behind it the Cap of Liberty, a picturesque cliff. Farther up the river is the Nevada Fall, a superb cataract, having a slightly sloping descent of six hundred feet. Just within Tenaya Canyon is the Mirror Lake, remarkable for its wonderful reflections of the North and South Domes and adjacent mountains. Some distance to the eastward is the Cloud's Rest, a peak rising more than six thousand feet above the valley and nearly ten thousand feet above sea-level, that is ascended for its splendid view of the surrounding mountains and the enclosing walls of the valley, which can be plainly seen throughout its length, stretching far away towards the setting sun. This view of the Yosemite surpasses all others in its comprehensiveness and grandeur.

THE ROCKIES

The great "backbone" of the American Continent is the Rocky Mountains, and the summits of its main range make the parting of the waters, the "Continental Divide." Its name of the Rockies is appropriate, for on these mountains and their intervening plateaus, naked rocks are developed to an extent rarely equalled elsewhere in the world. The leading causes of this are the great elevation and extreme aridity, the scanty moisture preventing growth of vegetation, and the high altitudes promoting denudation of the rock-material disintegrated at the surface. Enormous crags and bold peaks of bare rocks, mostly compose the mountains, while the streams flow at the bases of towering precipices in deep chasms and canyons filled with broken rocks. Being unprotected by vegetation, the winds sweep the hills clean of soil and sand, the steep slopes of the valleys are strewn with fragments of the enclosing cliffs, and the rivers are usually without flood-plains or intervales, where soils may gather. In the extensive and highly-elevated plateaus, the streams usually run in the bottoms of deep canyons, their channels choked with débris. Added to this the whole Rocky Mountain region has in the past been a scene of great volcanic activity, many extinct volcanoes appear, broad plains are covered with lava, and scoria and ashes are liberally deposited all about. The aridity is not a feature of the Pacific coast ranges, however, for the moisture from that ocean abundantly supplies water; there are good soils, and in the northern parts usually dense forests. The Rocky Mountain system extends from Mexico up to Alaska and the Arctic Ocean, its greatest development being between 38° and 42° north latitude, where the various ranges cover a breadth of a thousand miles. The highest peak of the Rockies is Mount Logan, in British America, on the edge of Alaska, rising nineteen thousand five hundred and thirty-nine feet. In the United States these mountains rise from a general plateau extending across the country, and reaching its maximum elevation of about ten thousand feet in Colorado, whilst towards the north the surface descends, entering Canada at an elevation of four thousand feet. The plateau descends westward into the basin of the Colorado River, then the surface rises in Nevada to six thousand feet, and thence farther westward it gradually descends to the base of the Sierra Nevada in California. To the eastward the plateau throughout steadily descends in the long, undulating and generally treeless slope of the Great Plains to the Mississippi, the many tributaries of the Father of Waters carving their valleys down through its surface. There are numerous mountain ranges, plateaus and parks, under different names in this extensive mountain region, and the higher peaks in the United States generally rise to thirteen to fifteen thousand feet elevation. These mountains and the plains to the eastward compose the vast arid region constituting fully two-fifths of the United States, where irrigation is necessary to agriculture, and, in consequence, less than ten per cent. of this large surface bears forests of any value. We are told that so scant is the moisture, if the whole current of every water-course in this district were utilized for irrigation it would not be possible to redeem four per cent. of the land. Some of this surface, however, bears grasses and plants that, to an extent, make pasturage. The precious metals and other useful minerals are found in abundance, and various parts of the region have been developed by the many valuable mines, making their owners enormous fortunes.

Through this vast mountain district, over deserts and along devious defiles, a half-dozen great railways lead from the Mississippi Valley to the Pacific slope. The Southern Pacific Railway we have already followed from New Orleans across to Southern California. Northward from its route at El Paso a railway leads through New Mexico to the next great transcontinental line, the Atchison system, coming from Chicago by way of Kansas City and Santa Fé southwestward The main line traverses Kansas, and branches go south into the Indian Territory and Oklahoma. In the former are the reservations of the civilized tribes of Indians originally removed from east of the Mississippi—the Choctaws, Cherokees, Creeks, Chickasaws and Seminoles, with some others—who number nearly two hundred thousand souls, most of them engaged in agriculture. To the westward, south of Kansas and Colorado, is the "Boomers' Paradise" of Oklahoma, or the "Beautiful Land," a fertile and well-watered region, originally part of the Indian reserved lands, but bought from them by the Government. People from Kansas long had a desire to occupy this prolific land, and only with great difficulty were they kept out. The portion first got ready was opened to settlement by proclamation at noon on April 22, 1889, a large force of troops being in attendance to preserve order. Over fifty thousand people crossed the boundaries and entered the Territory the first day, taking up farms and starting towns. The "Cherokee Strip" along the northern line was subsequently obtained and opened to settlement in September, 1893, when ninety thousand people rushed in. These great invasions of the "Oklahoma boomers" became historic, cities of tents springing up in a night; but while there then was much suffering and privation from want of food and shelter, yet the new Territory has since become a most successful agricultural community.

The Atchison route, after crossing Kansas, enters Colorado, passing La Junta and Trinidad, and then turning southward rises to the highest point on the line, crossing the summit of the Raton Pass, at an elevation of seventy-six hundred and twenty feet, by going through a tunnel, and emerging on the southern side of the mountain in New Mexico. The railway is then laid along the slope of the Santa Fé Mountains, and on their side are Las Vegas Hot Springs, about forty of them being in the group, their waters used both for bathing and drinking, and having various curative properties. The Glorieta Pass is subsequently crossed at seventy-five hundred feet elevation, and beyond is Santa Fé, the capital of New Mexico. This is a curious and antique town, the oldest in the United States next to St. Augustine in Florida. It was an Indian pueblo or town in the very early times, and in 1605 the Spaniards came along, captured it, reduced the Indians to slavery, and worked the valuable gold and silver mines. In 1680 the Indians revolted, expelled the Spaniards and destroyed their churches and buildings, but they recovered control a few years later. There are now about seven thousand people of all races, having a good trade, and being chiefly employed in mining. It is a quaint old place, with crooked and narrow streets and adobé houses surrounding the central Plaza, on one side of which is the ancient Governor's Palace, a long, low adobé structure of one story, wherein the Governors of Spanish, Mexican and American rule have lived for nearly three centuries. It contains various historical paintings and relics, and here General Lew Wallace wrote Ben Hur while Governor of New Mexico in 1880.

Beyond Santa Fé is the Rio Grande River, which the railway follows down through a grazing country past Albuquerque, its mart for wool and hides. Turning westward an arid region is traversed, with an occasional pueblo, and near Laguna is the famous Mesa Encantada, or the "Enchanted Table Land." This eminence rises precipitously four hundred and thirty feet above the surface, and is only accessible by ladders and ropes. The summit gives evidence of former aboriginal occupancy, and the tradition of the neighboring Acomas Indians is that their ancestors lived upon it, but were forced to abandon the village when a storm had destroyed the only trail and caused those remaining on the summit to perish. To the westward the "Continental Divide" is crossed at seventy-three hundred feet elevation, but with nothing indicating the change, as it is on a plateau. The Navajo Indian Reservation is crossed, Arizona entered and traversed, and at the Flagstaff Station is the Lowell Observatory, and here the nearest route is taken to the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. There rises to the northward the huge San Francisco Mountain, a fine extinct volcano, while off to the southwest are the great United Verde Copper Mines, among the largest in the world, and the town of Prescott, in a rich mineral region. The Colorado River is crossed into California, and then the railway traverses the wide Mojave Desert towards the Pacific coast.

DENVER AND ITS SURROUNDINGS

The Union Pacific Railway route across the Continent was the first constructed, the Government giving large subsidies in money and land grants. It was opened in 1869, and greatly encouraged travel to the Pacific coast. The Union Pacific main line starts at Council Bluffs and Omaha on the Missouri River and crosses Nebraska into Wyoming. Here is Cheyenne, a leading cattle-dealers' town on the edge of the Rockies, five hundred miles west of the Missouri, where there are fifteen thousand people. Fort Russell, an Indian outpost at the verge of the Black Hills, is to the northward. At Cheyenne, the main Union Pacific line is joined by the Denver Pacific branch, which starts on the Missouri River at Kansas City, traverses Kansas, passing Fort Riley and the Ogden Monument there, marking the geographical centre of the United States, and enters Colorado, and at Denver turns northward to Cheyenne.

Denver is the great city of the Rockies, whose snow-capped summits are seen to the westward in a magnificent and unbroken line, extending in view for one hundred and seventy miles from Pike's Peak north to Long's Peak, with many intervening summits, most of them rising over fourteen thousand feet. Denver stands on a high plateau, through which the South Platte River flows, and it is at nearly fifty-three hundred feet elevation. This "Queen City of the Plains" was settled by adventurous pioneers as a mining camp in 1858, and through the wonderful development of mining the precious metals has had rapid growth, so that now there is one hundred and seventy thousand population. It has many manufactures and some of the most extensive ore-smelting works in the world, the annual output of gold and silver being enormous. The high elevation and healthy climate make it a favorite resort for pulmonary patients. There are many fine buildings, and a noble State Capitol with a lofty dome, erected at a cost of $2,500,000, and standing on a high hill, so that it gives a superb outlook. The city was named in honor of General James W. Denver, who was an early Governor of Kansas and served in the Civil War. He first suggested the name of Colorado for the Territory (now a State), and thus his name was given its capital. Denver has built for its water-works, forty-eight miles south of the city, the highest dam in the world, two hundred and ten feet, enclosing a gorge on the South Platte to make an enormous reservoir holding an ample supply.

Being so admirably located, Denver is a centre for excursions into one of the most attractive mountain regions in America. The great Colorado Front Range, or eastern ridge of the Rockies, stretches grandly across the country and has behind it one range after another, extending far westward to the Utah Basin. Towering behind the Front Range is the Saguache Range, the chief ridge of the Rockies, which makes the Continental Divide. Among these complicated Rocky Mountain ranges are various extensive Parks or broad valleys, nestling amid the peaks and ridges, which were originally the beds of inland lakes. Out of this mountain region flow scores of rivers in all directions, the affluents of the Mississippi to the east, the Rio Grande to the south, and the Colorado and the Columbia westward. All of them have carved down deep and magnificent gorges, two to five thousand feet deep, and in places the wonderful results of ages of erosion are displayed in the peculiar constructions of vast regions, and in special sections, where the carvings by water, frost and wind-forces have made weird and fantastic formations in the rocks on a colossal scale, as in the "Garden of the Gods." These mountains and gorges are also filled with untold wealth, and the mines, producing many millions of gold and silver, have attracted the population chiefly since the Civil War, so that the whole district around and beyond Denver is a region of mining towns, which are reached by a network of railways disclosing the grandest scenery, and in many parts the most startling and daring methods of railroad construction. Whenever land can be reclaimed for agriculture or grazing on the flanks of the mountains and in the protected valleys and parks, it is done, so that the district has extensive irrigation canals, in some parts diverting practically all the available flow of water in the streams. This is particularly the case with the Upper Arkansas River, such diversion of the headwaters in Colorado having robbed the river of its water to such a degree that the people of Kansas, whither it flows on its route to the Mississippi, are greatly annoyed and have protracted litigation about it.

COLORADO ATTRACTIONS.

Northwest from Denver is the picturesque Boulder Canyon, and here at the mining town of Boulder is the University of Colorado, with six hundred students. Beyond are Estes Park, one of the smaller enclosed parks among the mountains, having Long's Peak on its verge, rising fourteen thousand two hundred and seventy feet. Westward from Denver is the Clear Creek Canyon, and the route in that direction leads through great scenic attractions, past Golden, Idaho Springs and Georgetown, where silver-mining and health-resorts divide attention, the mountains also displaying several beautiful lakes. Beyond, the railway threads the Devil's Gate, climbing up by remarkable loops, and reaches Graymont at ten thousand feet elevation, having Gray's Peak above it rising fourteen thousand four hundred and forty feet. In this district is the mining town of Central City, while to the northwest is the extensive Middle Park, of three thousand square miles area, a popular resort for sportsmen. Southward from Denver the railway route passes the splendid Casa Blanca, a huge white rock, a thousand feet long and two hundred feet high, and crosses the watershed between the Platte and the Arkansas, at an elevation of over seventy-two hundred feet. Here, amid the mountains, seventy-five miles from Denver, upon a plateau at six thousand feet elevation, is the famous city of Colorado Springs, having twenty-five thousand people and being a noted health-resort. It is pleasantly laid out, with wide, tree-shaded streets, like a typical New England village spread broadly at the eastern base of Pike's Peak. Here live large numbers of people who are unable to stand the rigors of the climate on the Atlantic coast, and it has been carefully preserved as a residential and educational city, saloons being prohibited, with other restrictions calculated to preserve its high character. The settlement began in 1871, but there are no springs nearer than Manitou, several miles away in the spurs of Pike's Peak. The climate of Colorado Springs is charming, and it has, on the one hand, a magnificent mountain view, and on the other a limitless landscape eastward and southward, across the prairie land. Here are the Colorado College and other public institutions, and the National Printers' Home, supported by the printers throughout the country. In the pretty Evergreen Cemetery is buried the authoress, Helen Hunt Jackson, who died in 1885.

Probably the best known summit of the Rockies is Pike's Peak, rearing its snowy top over Manitou, and about six miles westward from Colorado Springs, to an elevation of nearly fourteen thousand two hundred feet. As it rises almost sheer, in the Colorado Front Range, this noble mountain can be seen from afar across the eastern plains. A cog-wheel railway nine miles long ascends to the summit from Manitou, rising seventy-five hundred feet. There is a small hotel at the top, and a superb view over the mountains and glens and mining camps all around. In 1806 General Zebulon Pike, then a captain in the army, led an exploring expedition to this remote region and discovered this noble mountain, which was given his name. Forests cover the lower slopes, but the top is composed of bare rocks, usually snow-covered. Below it a huge tunnel is being bored through the range to connect Colorado Springs with the Cripple Creek mining district to the westward. Manitou has a group of springs of weak compound carbonated soda, resembling those of Ems, and beneficial to consumptive, dyspeptic and other patients. They are at the entrance of the romantic Ute Pass, a gorge with many attractions, which was formerly the trail of the Ute Indians in crossing the mountains. Nearby, upon the Mesa, or "table-land," is the "Garden of the Gods," a tract of about one square mile, thickly studded with huge grotesque cliffs and rocks of white and red sandstones, their unique carving being the result of the erosive processes that have been going on for ages. They are all given appropriate names, and its Gateway is a passage just wide enough for the road, between two enormous bright red rocks over three hundred feet high. Farther south on the Arkansas River is Pueblo, an industrial city of thirty thousand people in a rich mining district, where there is a Mineral Palace, having a wonderful ceiling formed of twenty-eight domes, into which are worked specimens of all the Colorado minerals. The route then crosses the Veta Pass at ninety-four hundred feet elevation, whereon is the abrupt bend known as the "Mule Shoe Curve," and beyond this it descends into the most extensive of the Colorado Parks, the San Luis, covering six thousand square miles. Sentineling its western side is the triple-peaked Sierra Blanca, the loftiest Colorado Mountain, rising almost fourteen thousand five hundred feet. The Rio Grande flows to the southward, and there is Alamosa, and up in the mountains Creede, an extraordinary development of recent silver mining, which began its career when the ore was discovered in 1891, has seven thousand people, and has produced $4,000,000 silver in a year.

Following up the Arkansas River from Pueblo, a route goes northward behind and west of Pike's Peak into the Cripple Creek district, situated at an elevation of nearly ten thousand feet among the mountains, where in 1890 was a remote cattle ranch. The next year gold was found there, a new population rushed in, and it has since become a leading gold producer, its output of fourteen to twenty millions of gold annually almost turning Colorado from a silver to a gold State. There is now a population of twenty thousand, and the town has many substantial buildings. Westward the route crosses the Continental Divide and descends into the extensive South Park, covering two thousand square miles, reaching Leadville beyond, renowned as a mining camp that has developed into one of the highest cities of the world. In the early Colorado days this was the great gold placer mining camp of California Gulch. Afterwards it produced enormous quantities of silver from the extensive carbonate beds discovered in 1876, and the population expanded to thirty thousand, its name being changed to Leadville. Of late, its gold mining has again become profitable, and its population now is about fifteen thousand, the yield of silver, which once reached $13,000,000 annually, being much reduced owing to the decline in value. To the westward, the Colorado Midland Railway crosses the Continental Divide by the Hagerman Pass, at eleven thousand five hundred and thirty feet elevation, the highest elevation of any railway route across the Rockies. It descends rapidly to Aspen, where $8,000,000 of silver and gold are mined in a year. North of Leadville is the noted Mountain of the Holy Cross, fourteen thousand two hundred feet high, named from the impressive cruciform appearance of two ravines crossing at right angles and always filled with snow.

The Grand Canyon of the Arkansas is one of the most magnificent gorges in the Rocky Mountains. This river above Pueblo forces its passage through a deep pass known in the narrowest part as the Royal Gorge, where the railway is laid alongside the boiling and rushing stream, with rocky cliffs towering twenty-six hundred feet above the line. It ascends westward, beyond the sources of the Arkansas, crossing the Continental Divide by the Marshall Pass, at ten thousand eight hundred and fifty-eight feet elevation, the route up there showing, in its abrupt and bold curves, great engineering skill. The Pass is always covered with snow, and the descent beyond it is to the mining town of Gunnison. The Gunnison River is followed down through its magnificent gorge, the Black Canyon giving a splendid display for sixteen miles of some of the finest scenery of the Rockies. The river is an alternation of foaming rapids and pleasant reaches, and within the canyon is the lofty rock pinnacle of the Currecanti Needle. The adjacent gorge of the Cimarron, a tributary stream, gives also a splendid display of Rocky Mountain wildness, and below it the river passes through the Lower Gunnison Canyon, bounded by smooth-faced sandstone cliffs, and finally it falls into Grand River, one of the head-streams of the Colorado. The combined magnificence of these canyons and mountains makes the environment of the Colorado mining region one of the most attractive scenic districts in America. The railways have arranged a route of a thousand miles through the mountains, starting from Denver, under the title of "Around the Circle," which crosses and recrosses the Continental Divide, threads the wonderful canyons, surmounts all the famous passes over the tops of the Rocky ranges, and includes the most attractive scenery of the district.

WYOMING FOSSILS.

The Union Pacific Railway, westward from Cheyenne in Wyoming, gradually ascends the slope and crosses the Continental Divide at Sherman, the pass being elevated eighty-two hundred and forty-five feet. Here, alongside the track, is the monument erected in memory of Oakes and Oliver Ames of Massachusetts, to whose efforts the construction of this pioneer railway across the Continent was largely due. Upon the western slope of the mountains the descent is to the Laramie Plains, an elevated plateau in Wyoming which is one of the best grazing districts of the country. In the midst of the region on the Big Laramie River is Laramie City, with ten thousand people, a prominent wool and cattle mart. To the north and west high mountains rise, out of which the river flows, and in this district is the great fossil region of Wyoming. This state is the most prolific producer of the skeletons of the enormous beasts that roamed the earth in prehistoric times. About ninety miles northwest of Laramie City are the greatest fossil quarries in existence, and the scientific hunters from all the great museums have been finding rich treasures there. We are told that in an early geological period Wyoming had numerous lakes and swamps and a semi-tropical climate. These huge animals then inhabited the lakes and swamps in large numbers. In dying, they sank into the mud, and their bones were covered by other deposits and became petrified. The extensive deposits of these bones are found where are supposed to have been the mouths of great water-courses, the huge animals, after death, having floated to where they are deposited in such large numbers. The belief is that through the geological eras these animals became covered with possibly twenty thousand feet of rock. Afterwards, the process by which the Rocky Mountains were formed tilted these rock beds, and the subsequent erosion of the strata brought to light these bone-deposits, made millions of years ago. For many years the scientists have been exhuming these skeletons, and have recovered the bones of over three hundred different species. They are of all sizes and characters, and here has been found the most colossal animal ever discovered on the earth, a dinosaur, nearly one hundred and thirty feet long, and thirty-five feet high at the hips and twenty-five feet at the shoulders. The skeleton of this immense creature, who is called a diplodocus, weighs twenty tons, and it is believed that when living he weighed sixty tons, having a neck thirty feet long and a tail twice that length. Yet his head was very small, and the weight of the brain was not over five pounds. In comparison with the mammoth, heretofore regarded as so large, this huge beast, whose foot covered a square yard of earth, was in size as a horse is compared to a dog. Such are the contributions Wyoming is making to our great museums of science.

To the southward of the Laramie Plains is the Colorado North Park, among the mountains of that State, having an area of over two thousand square miles. Beyond, the railway route goes westward among hills and over the plateaus. This route is not as picturesque as some of the other Pacific railways, but in crossing the Continent it discloses very curious scenery. At places there are great Buttes, water-worn and rounded, rising in isolated grandeur; the plains and terraces are carved into elongated and wide depressions, as if abandoned rivers had run through them; there are long and regular embankments, strange hills of fantastic form, huge mounds, broken-down pyramids, vast stone-piles, and the most strange and extraordinary fashionings of nature, showing both water and fire to have been at work. Then the route passes the snow-clad Uintah Mountains to the southward, and crossing the Wahsatch range, enters Utah, traversing its remarkable enclosed basin, where the waters have no outlet to the sea, but flow into salt lakes which lose their surplus supplies by evaporation in the summer. Beyond, is the wild and picturesque Echo Canyon, with the green valley of Weber River and the Weber Canyon. Here is the gigantic Castle Rock, a rugged stone-pile fantastically carved by nature, having a giant doorway and all the semblance of a mountain fortress. Here is also the "One Thousand Mile Tree," on the northern side of the road, being that distance west of Omaha. In the Echo Gorge is the Hanging Rock, where Brigham Young, as the Mormon Pilgrims journeyed to their Utah home, is said to have preached the first sermon to them in the "Promised Land." The old-time emigrant trail passes through these canyons alongside the railway and the river. A remarkable sight within the Weber Canyon is the Devil's Slide, where on the face of an almost perpendicular red mountain, eight hundred feet high, there is inlaid a brilliantly white strip of limestone about fifteen feet wide, all the way from top to bottom, having enclosing white walls, the whole work being as regularly constructed as if built by a stonemason. Beyond, we come to Ogden, a busy industrial town of twenty thousand people, the western terminus of the Union Pacific Railway, and having another railroad leading thirty-seven miles southward to Salt Lake City.

GREAT SALT LAKE.

In the centre of the Rockies, occupying a large portion of Utah and adjacent States, is the "Great Basin," which, as remarked, has no drainage outlet for its waters. The geologists tell us that in ancient times this region was covered by two extensive lakes, one of them in the Pleistocene era occupying the now desert interior basin of Utah. This extinct lake, whose ancient shores can be distinctly traced, has been named Lake Bonneville. When at its greatest expansion, it covered twenty thousand square miles, and the waters were nearly a thousand feet deep, overflowing to the northward into a branch of Shoshoné River through a deep pass, and going thence to the Pacific. The waters of this lake, by climatic changes, gradually dwindled, the loss by evaporation overcame the rainfall supply, the overflow ceased, and then the lake dried up, revealing the desert bottom. Of its waters there now remain the Great Salt Lake of Utah, about eighty miles long and from thirty to fifty miles wide, very shallow, averaging only twenty feet depth, and not over fifty feet in the deepest place, having monotonously flat shores on the desert plateau, elevated forty-two hundred feet above the sea. Its dimensions vary according to the rainfall, the surface rising and falling in various periods of years. Several streams flow in, among them the Jordan River, forty miles long, draining Utah Lake to the southward. The waters are densely salt, varying from fourteen to twenty-two per cent. as the lake is high or low (compared with three to four per cent. in the ocean), and it is estimated to contain four hundred million tons of salt. Not a fish can live there excepting a small brine shrimp. A bath in the lake is novel, as the density makes the body very buoyant, easily floating head and shoulders above the water.

To this desert region, after being driven from Nauvoo on the Mississippi, Brigham Young brought his first Mormon colony by a long journey across the plains and mountains, a band of one hundred and forty-three persons, arriving in July, 1847, Utah then being Mexican territory. They organized the State of Deseret, and it afterwards became a Territory of the United States. By prodigious labors, constructing irrigation canals to bring in the mountain streams, they made the soil productive, and now it is one of the most fertile valleys in the country. Almost the whole flow of the Jordan River is thus used for irrigation. Colonies and proselytes were brought in from various parts of the world, until two hundred thousand Mormons came to Utah, and after protracted conflicts with the Government, polygamy was declared illegal, and its discontinuance was ordered by proclamation of the Mormon President. Twelve miles from the Great Salt Lake is the Utah capital and Mormon Zion, Salt Lake City, where the Latter-Day Saints and Gentiles together exceed fifty thousand. Its prosperity is largely due to the extensive mining interests of the surrounding country. The lofty Wahsatch Mountains are close to the city on the northern and eastern sides, while to the south, seen over a hundred miles of almost level plain, is a magnificent range of snow-covered mountains, this being the perpetual and awe-inspiring view from all parts of the city. The streets are wide and lined with shade trees, the residences surrounded by gardens, and irrigation canals border all the thoroughfares, so that the whole place is embosomed in foliage, and the delicious green adds to its scenic attractiveness. The Temple Block of ten acres, the sacred square of the Mormons, is the centre from which the streets are laid towards the four cardinal points of the compass. A high adobé wall surrounds it, and here is the great Mormon Temple of granite, which was forty years building, and cost over $4,000,000, having three pointed towers at each end, the loftiest being surmounted by a gilded figure of the Mormon angel Moroni. Here is also the Mormon Tabernacle, a huge oval-shaped structure, surmounted by a roof rounded like a turtle-back, the interior accommodating twelve thousand people. This is their great meeting-place, and they also have a smaller Assembly Hall for religious services. These are the chief buildings of Salt Lake City. To the eastward in the suburbs is the military post of Fort Douglas, where the troops are barracked that guard the Mormon capital. In the earlier period, when there were fears of trouble, a large garrison was kept at this extensive fortification to maintain government control.

OGDEN TO SACRAMENTO.

Westward from Ogden in Utah the Union Pacific route to California is continued upon the Southern Pacific system, that company having absorbed the original Central Pacific road. It passes Corinne, the largest Gentile city in Utah, and then through the Promontory Mountains, on the northern verge of Great Salt Lake. It was at Promontory Point on May 10, 1869, that the railway builders of this original transcontinental line, coming both ways, met, and joined the tracks. The last tie was made of California rosewood, trimmed with silver, and the last four spikes were of silver and gold. The final golden spike was driven with a silver hammer in the presence of a large and silent assemblage. The locomotives coming from the East and the West met, as Bret Harte has written:

Beyond, the Great American Desert, an alkaline waste, is crossed, the State of Nevada is entered, the Humboldt River is followed for awhile, and then Truckee River is ascended through the Pleasant Valley, leading into the Sierra Nevada, the lower mountain slopes covered with magnificent forests and the railroad protected from avalanches by snow-sheds. The Humboldt River has no outlet. It spreads out in an extensive sheet of water known as the "Carson Sink" and evaporates. At Reno is the Nevada State University, and as this is a silver region there are extensive smelting mills. Thirty-one miles southward is Carson, the capital of Nevada, and twenty-one miles farther the famous silver-mining town of Virginia City, with ten thousand people, built half-way up a steep mountain slope and completely surrounded by mountains. Virginia City stands directly over the noted Comstock Lode, and here are the Bonanza Mines, which were such prolific producers in the great silver days. This lode has produced over $450,000,000, chiefly silver, and it is drained by the Sutro Tunnel, nearly four miles long, which cost $4,500,000 to construct. Nearby, on the California boundary, and at six thousand feet elevation, is the beautiful Lake Tahoe, one of the loveliest sheets of water in the world, twenty-two miles long, very deep, surrounded by snow-clad mountains, and yet it never freezes, its outlet being the Truckee River. In a region of many lakes, it is known as "the gem of the high Sierras." To the westward of Reno is another lovely sheet of water, Donner Lake, embosomed in the lap of towering hills, its name coming from an early explorer, Captain Donner, who, with many of his party, perished on its shores during a heavy snowstorm in 1846. The top of the Sierra Nevada is crossed through a tunnel at Summit Station, elevated seven thousand feet, and beyond there is a complete change both in climate and vegetation, the descent being rapid and the transition from arctic snows to sub-tropical flowers very quick. The line is in many places carved out of the faces of startling precipices, and here it rounds the famous beetling promontory known as Cape Horn. Then, coming down among the orchards and vineyards, it enters the wide and fertile Sacramento Valley, and almost at sea-level comes to the capital of California, the city of Sacramento, built on the eastern bank of Sacramento River just below the mouth of the American River. It is a busy city with thirty thousand people, and has a large and handsome State Capitol.

TRANSCONTINENTAL ROUTES.

The Northern Pacific Railway, the next route northward, after following up the Yellowstone River to Livingston, at the entrance to Yellowstone Park in Montana, ascends the Belt Mountains, crossing them through Bozeman Tunnel at an elevation of nearly fifty-six hundred feet. This range is an outlying eastern spur of the Rockies. The road passes the mining town of Butte, there being forty thousand people in the neighboring settlements. Here are many gold, silver and copper mines, including the great Anaconda Mine, which was sold in 1898 to the company at present working it for $45,000,000, the product of the mine being silver and copper. The Butte copper output is two hundred and fifty million pounds annually, and the smelting-works at Anaconda are the largest in the world. At Three Forks, not far away, is the confluence of the Madison, Jefferson and Gallatin Rivers, forming the Missouri. Beyond is Helena, the capital of Montana, built in the Prickly Pear Valley near the eastern base of the main Rocky Mountain range and having fifteen thousand population. This is in another rich mining district, and the "Last Chance Gulch," running through the city, has yielded over $30,000,000 gold, while all around are gold, silver, copper and lead-deposits. Twenty-four miles from Helena, the main range of the Rockies is crossed by the Mullen's Pass tunnel at fifty-five hundred and fifty feet elevation. At Gold Creek in the valley beyond, the last golden spike of the Northern Pacific Railway was driven in September, 1883, uniting the tracks which had advanced from the east and west and met there. President Henry Villard made this the occasion of great festivity, bringing many train-loads of distinguished men to the ceremony, and shortly afterwards the company, which was heavily in debt, went into a Receivership. The railroad follows the Missoula and Pend d'Oreille (the "earring") Rivers, which unite in Clark's Fork, a tributary of the Columbia River, and enters Idaho, "the gem of the mountains," or, as called by the Nez Perces, Edah-hoe; finally coming to Spokane in Washington State. This busy manufacturing town of over twenty thousand people was burnt in 1889, but has entirely recovered from the calamity. The Spokane River descends one hundred and fifty feet in two falls within the town, furnishing an admirable water-power. To the southwest is the confluence of the Snake and Columbia Rivers, and beyond, the railway penetrates the defiles of the Cascade Mountains, the northern prolongation of the California Coast range, the Northern Pacific line finally terminating at Tacoma on Puget Sound.

The great Columbia is the chief river draining the western slopes of the Rockies. It has a broad estuary, and in May, 1792, Captain Robert Gray of Boston, coasting along the shore in his bark "Columbia Rediviva," discovered it, was baffled more than a week before he could cross the shallow bar at its mouth, and gave it the name of his vessel. The Spaniards marked his discovery on one of their maps without any head to the river, recording alongside in Spanish y-aun se ignora—meaning "and it is not yet known" where the source of the river is situated. The famous Danish geographer, Malte-Brun, reading this, made the mistake of recognizing the word ignora as Oregon, and published it in the early nineteenth century as the name of the country, to which it has stuck. Thus is Oregon, like California, a name given without meaning. The Columbia is an enormous river, over twelve hundred miles long, rising in Otter Lake, just north of the Dominion boundary, making a long loop up into British America, then coming down into the United States between the Rockies and the Cascades with another broad western loop, and swinging around to the southeast, finally turning westward to form the boundary between Oregon and Washington State to the Pacific. The chief tributary is Snake River, known also as Lewis Fork, which comes out of the western verge of the Yellowstone Park, makes an extensive southern bend through Idaho and is nine hundred miles long, being a most remarkable river. West of the Rockies is an enormous area, estimated at two hundred and fifty thousand square miles, that has been subjected to volcanic action, being overflowed by what is known as the "Columbia lava," in deposits from one-half mile to a mile in thickness. Through this region the Snake River has carved out its extraordinary canyon in places four thousand feet deep, and in some respects rivalling the canyons of the Colorado. Down in the bottom of this gigantic fissure can be seen the ancient rocky formation of the mountains, elsewhere covered by the sheet of lava. The curious sight is also given of various tributaries sinking under the strata of lava and ultimately coming out through the sides of the canyon, pouring their waters down into the main river far below.

Within this canyon the Snake River goes over the noted Shoshoné Falls, a series of cataracts. The first one is the Twin Falls descending one hundred and eighty feet, then the river goes down the Bridal Veil of eighty feet descent, and finally it pours in grandeur over the great Shoshoné Falls, nearly a thousand feet wide, and descending two hundred and ten feet, a most magnificent cataract. After the confluence with the Columbia, the latter river leaves the region of sands and lava for the rocks and mountains, and here are the Dalles. These are mainly flagstones that make troughs and fissures, and compress the channel. At first the river, a mile wide, goes over a wall twenty feet high and stretching completely across, and the enormous current is compressed not far below into a narrow pass only a hundred and thirty feet wide and nearly three miles long, encompassed by high perpendicular cliffs of such regular formation that they seem as if constructed of masonry. The Dalles make crooked, trough-like channels through which the waters wildly rush. The amazing way in which the agile fish are able to ascend these rapids and cataract through all the turmoil, seeking the quiet river reaches above, caused the Indians to call the place the Salmon Falls. Here is the town of the Dalles, the supplying market for the Idaho mining district, an active manufacturing place with five thousand people. There are various islands in these rapids, most of them having been used for Indian burial-places and some having numerous graves. Below, the Columbia presents very fine scenery in passing the defiles of the Cascade Mountains, and to the southward is the noble form of Mount Hood, rising over eleven thousand feet, displaying glaciers and having snow-covered peaks all about. At the Cascade Locks the Columbia descends another rapid, where huge rocks buffet the turbulent waters, the whirling foaming torrent wildly rushing among them. Here the descent is twenty-five feet, and the Government has improved the navigation by a spacious ship canal a mile long, built at a cost of $4,000,000. Enormous cliffs, some of grand and imposing form, environ the river in passing through these Cascade Mountains, some rising twenty-five hundred feet. We are told these mountains were first named from the numerous cascades which pour in from tributary streams coming over the cliffs and through the crevices of this tremendous chasm. Often a dozen of these fairy waterfalls can be seen in a single river reach, some dissolving into spray before half-way down, others stealing through crooked crannies, and many being tiny threads of glistening foam apparently frozen to the mountain side. Here is Undine's Veil pouring over a broader ledge, and the Oneonta, Horse Tail, La Tourelle and Bridal Veil cataracts, with the far-famed Multnomah Fall, the most beautiful of all, eight hundred feet high, descending with graceful gentleness over the massive cliffs a long and filmy yet matchless thread of silver spray. Emerging, the Columbia receives the Willamette River, coming up from the south on the western verge of the Cascades, and then proceeds grandly by its broad estuary to the Pacific.

Near the Canadian border the Great Northern Railway crosses the continent, surmounting the Rockies at the lowest elevation of any of the transcontinental lines. Starting from St. Paul, it traverses the Devil's Lake country in Montana, passes Fort Buford on the Upper Missouri, and crosses the Rockies at fifty-two hundred feet elevation. Beyond is the Kootenay gold district, and the road comes to Spokane, crosses the Columbia River and surmounts the Cascades at thirty-three hundred and seventy-five feet elevation, the mountain top being pierced by a three-mile tunnel. Then traversing sixty miles of fine forests, the railway terminates at Everett on Puget Sound.

THE CANADIAN PACIFIC ROUTE.

The Canadian Pacific Railway, crossing the Continent in the Dominion of Canada, west of Winnipeg traverses the prairies of Manitoba and Assiniboia until they gradually blend into the rounded and grass-covered foothills of Alberta, finally rising nearly a thousand miles west of the Red River into the snow-capped peaks of the Rockies. This is the garden region of the Canadian Northwest for wheat-growing and cattle-grazing, and it stretches in almost limitless expanse a fertile empire far northward to Edmonton and Prince Albert, with branch railways leading up there, the rich black soils testifying the wealth in the land. At Regina is the capital of the Northwest Territory, three hundred and fifty-seven miles west of Winnipeg, the headquarters of the Canadian "North West Mounted Police," a superb body of one thousand picked men who control the Indians and maintain order in the Northwest Territory. The Lieutenant-Governor residing here is a potentate governing a wide domain spreading out to the Rockies and up to the North Pole. The town which is his capital is scattered rather loosely over the prairie. In early times a hardy pioneer came to this frontier, and at the crossing of a little stream west of Regina his cart broke down. The Cree Indians watched him mend it, and afterwards spoke of the stream in their language as "The creek where the white man mended the cart with a moose jawbone." This elaborate name has since been contracted into Moose Jaw, a town where a branch line comes into the Canadian Pacific up through Dakota from St. Paul and Minneapolis. The route farther westward is in the land of the Crees, and crosses the South Saskatchewan River at Medicine Hat, a settlement which the matter-of-fact people call "The Hat" for short. The Indians say that the Great Spirit had a breathing-place in the river nearby, where it never was frozen even in the coldest winters. He always appeared in the form of a serpent, and once, when a chief was walking on the shore, the serpent came and told him if he would throw his squaw into the opening as a sacrifice, he would become a great warrior and medicine man. He was ambitious, but did not wish to lose her, so he threw his dog in, but the indignant serpent demanded the squaw. The Indian told her of the conditions, she consented to the sacrifice, her dead body was thrown in, and after a night of vigil the chief received from the serpent a warrior's medicine hat, handsomely trimmed with ermine, and was always after victorious. Thus the locality became the Medicine Hat, and the Indians watch the river in severe winters, glad to find the spot is not frozen and that the Great Spirit still has his breathing-place and remains with them.

To the westward the snow-capped Rockies become visible, and here are the reservations of the Blackfeet Indians, who were the most warlike tribe of the region, and hunted the buffalo as far south as the Missouri. The memory of Crowfoot, their leading chief, is preserved in the name of the railway station. The Bow River, an affluent of the Saskatchewan, is followed up to Calgary, the centre of the ranching district of Alberta, a town at thirty-four hundred feet elevation, having high mountains overhanging its western verge. Here are branch railways north and south, leading along the eastern foothills of the Rockies, which are filled with herds of cattle and horses, the roads going up to Edmonton and down into the United States. The warm "Chinook" winds from the Pacific coast, coming through the mountain passes, temper the cold, making the balmy atmosphere favoring grass and animals alike. The Pacific route follows the Bow River Valley into the heart of the mountains, with magnificent snow-covered peaks all about, their saw-like edges, gaunt crags and almost denuded surfaces justifying their name of the Rockies.

BANFF.

The display of mountain scenery along the Canadian Pacific line in passing through the Rockies is the finest in North America, coming largely from two causes, each contributing to the grandeur and impressiveness of the view. The width of the Rocky Mountain ranges in Alberta and British Columbia is not much over three hundred miles, while in the United States they are scattered and spread over a thousand miles of space with intervening tameness. The railway passes also are lower in British Columbia, so that the adjacent peaks rise higher above the valleys, making them really grander mountains for the spectator, who is thus brought to the very bases of such stalwart peaks as Mount Stephen and Mount Sir Donald, rearing their snow-covered summits on high for a mile and a half above his head. Both in concentration and elevation, as well as by the terrific wildness of the Kicking Horse and Rogers Passes, by which the ranges are crossed, the magnificence of this part of the Rockies is displayed. Just within the eastern verge of the mountains are the Banff Hot Springs, which, with their environment, make the "Canadian Rocky Mountains Park." This reservation covers the Bow River Valley and adjacent mountains. The winding river comes from its glacier sources in the west through a broad deep fissure. This is crossed almost at right angles by another valley, having the Spray River coming up from the south through it to join the Bow, while to the north the floor-level of this valley is higher, but without any distinctive stream. These valleys and their enclosing peaks are all formed on a scale of stupendous magnificence, yet so clear is the atmosphere that distance is dwarfed, making the views perfect. Going down to the river bank, where the deep, trough-like gorges come together, it is found that the action of the waters has thoroughly displayed the geological formation of these mountains, the enormous rock strata standing up inclined from the perpendicular generally at an angle of about 30°, being all tilted towards the eastward. Where these strata-edges and ends are eroded, they are cut off almost vertically, and thus they rise on high into sharp jagged peaks like saw-teeth. Stunted firs cover much of the lower slopes, but the tops are all bare, being rough, or denuded and smoothed rocks, snow-clad, excepting where the slope is too steep to hold it.

Along the winding canyon from the northwest rushes the Bow River, sliding in noisy turmoil, with ample spray and silvery foam, down a series of cascades, making a most beautiful cataract, then turning sharply at a right angle to the northeast to go around the end of a mountain. The bright green waters in full volume swiftly glide around the bend and away through the narrow gap formed between two towering cliffs into a deep gorge several miles long. The smaller, but even more swiftly-darting Spray River, dashes along rapids and joins the Bow just at the bend. Such is the scene giving the central point of beauty within this grand amphitheatre of high mountains, overlooked from an elevated plateau above the waterfall, where the landscape is finest. The Rocky Mountains Park includes about two hundred and sixty square miles of streams, lakes and enclosing mountains, improved by many miles of good roads and bridle-paths to develop its beauties. The original attraction was the Banff warm sulphur springs, appearing along the side and base of Sulphur Mountain, rising on the southern bank of Bow River above the waterfall. The temperature of the waters changes little from 90°, and they are extensively used for bathing, being recommended for rheumatic troubles. One spring of copious flow is a pool within a capacious dome-shaped cavern, hollowed out of a mound of calcareous tufa. This is the crater of an extinct geyser, the orifice at the top, which had been its vent, being availed of for light and ventilation. High up among the mountains to the eastward is the Devil's Lake, a beautiful crescent-shaped sheet of water much like a river, eleven miles long, and enclosed by towering peaks.

BANFF TO VANCOUVER.

Westward from Banff the main range of the Rockies is crossed at an elevation of fifty-three hundred feet, the Continental Divide. The Bow River Valley is followed up to Mount Stephen, which is encircled to the northward. This splendid duomo-like mountain rises thirteen thousand two hundred feet, being named after George Stephen, Lord Mountstephen, the first president of the railway. In approaching, there are passed scores of towering snow-clad peaks. At Laggan, among them, at more than six thousand feet elevation, are three gems of the mountains, the Lakes of the Clouds—Louise, Mirror and Agnes. At the summit of the pass a rustic signboard bears the words "The Great Divide," marking the backbone of the Continent, whence tiny rills flow alongside the railway in both directions, a little brook leading eastward down to the Bow, whose waters go out to Hudson Bay and the Atlantic, while to the westward another diminutive stream is the head of Wapta River, flowing into the Columbia and thence to the Pacific. Three pretty green lakes start the Wapta or Kicking Horse River, its northern branch coming from a huge glacier nine miles long, and its volume expanding from a hundred cascades and brooks tumbling down from the snowbanks and ice-fields all about. Then it crosses the flat floor of a deep valley, which soon develops into a series of terrific gorges, as with rapids and cataracts the stream suddenly drops into an abyss and foams and roars deep down in an impressive canyon. The railway repeatedly crosses this stupendous chasm in getting down the Kicking Horse Pass, giving grand views of high mountains all around, and after a scene of true alpine magnificence it comes out at the broad valley of the Columbia. This river goes northward between the Rockies and the Selkirks, the next western range, and turning westward penetrates them and flows southward on their western flanks into the United States.

Our railway route next goes up the Beaver River gorge to cross the Selkirks through the Rogers Pass at forty-three hundred feet elevation, where Mount Sir Donald guards the Pass. It traverses a region displaying grand scenery, mounting high above the streams, the gorge filled with giant trees between Mounts Sir Donald and Hermit, with frequent airy bridges thrown across the subsidiary ravines, down which come sparkling cataracts. This narrow gorge has frequent avalanches, so that much of the road is covered by ponderous snow-sheds. This is the Rogers Pass, displaying savage grandeur, and was first entered by white men from British Columbia under Major Rogers in 1883, when the railway route was surveyed. It is also reserved for a Canadian National Park. The Hermit Mountain overlooks the pass from the north, while on the south side a range extends westward to the ponderous and lofty pyramidal top of Mount Sir Donald, rising ten thousand seven hundred feet, named for Sir Donald Smith, Lord Strathcona, President of the Bank of Montreal. Alongside is the great glacier of the Selkirks, whose waters flow into the deep valley of the Illecillewaet River, the "Dancing Water," by which the railway goes westward out of the mountains. Having crossed the summit of the pass, the railway makes a short curve into this valley, and gives a grand view of the great glacier covering all of its head. Here is the Glacier House, on a flat surface of delicious greensward alongside the line, having a silvery cascade pouring for a thousand feet down the opposite mountain. Beyond, the Illecillewaet descends rapids and the railway has a difficult task in getting down the steep and contorted gorge by startling loops until, finally emerging from the mountain fastness on the western slope of the Selkirks, it comes a second time to the open Columbia Valley, the river now flowing with greater volume southward towards the United States. Across the Columbia is the Gold range, the third mountain ridge to be crossed. This is done by the Eagle Pass, less difficult than the other passes through the Rockies, the crossing being made at two thousand feet elevation, and the route descending westward along Eagle River and several pleasant lakes that make its source and cover the floor of the higher valley. This stream leads into the Great Shuswap Lake, the largest body of water in British Columbia, spreading its sinuous arms like an octopus among the mountain ridges. This lake has over two hundred miles of coast-line, and is drained westward by Thompson River. To the southward it has a tributary flowing out of the long and slender Okanagan Lake, a sheet of water among the mountains extending seventy miles and having fertile shores.

The Coast range of the Rockies is still beyond us, the fourth and last ridge of these wonderful mountains, through which the Canadian Pacific makes its way by going down the remarkable canyons of Thompson and Fraser Rivers for nearly three hundred miles. At the junction of the two forks of the Thompson is the town of Kamloops, its Indian name meaning "the confluence." It is in a good ranching district, and like all the settlements in British Columbia has quite an elaborate "China-town." Beyond Kamloops the Thompson canyon is entered, a desolate gorge almost without vegetation, through which a rapid torrent rushes, the high steep shores being composed of a rotten rock which water and frost have moulded into strange and fantastic shapes, while the stream constantly burrows more deeply into it. The mud-colored banks are thus carved into massive turrets, cones and pyramids, with groups of impressive columns standing on high, having colossal ranks of ghostly statues looking down from above. In one place a grand semicircular group of cowled and hooded monks with their backs to the river are kneeling apparently around a gigantic altar. Almost every conceivable form has been wrought by the running waters on these precipitous bluffs. Not a tree is seen, and all seems bleak desolation. At the Black Canyon the scene is mournfully terrific, the walls composed of an almost black sand, wherein the whirling river rapids have scooped out immense amphitheatres mounting almost perpendicularly for a thousand feet. Then a change comes, the steep and barren walls developing varieties of color, being streaked with creamy white, red, purple, yellow, maroon, dark brown and black in richest form, as the waters have run the different hued soils over them from top to bottom, the rushing river below being a bright emerald. It is a picture of parti-colored desolation, the gaudy hues and strange forms of these precipitous cliffs being the gorgeous exhibition of a most beautiful desert. This remarkable canyon is followed nearly a hundred miles until the Thompson flows into the Fraser River.

The Fraser Canyon is deep, and carries a larger river among higher mountains. Its shores are steep, but are composed of firmer rocks, along which the railway is constructed largely on galleries, with frequent tunnels. Deep in the fissure are Indians spearing for salmon, and an occasional Chinaman may be seen on a sand-bar washing out the silt to find gold, as both these rivers bring down gold-bearing sands. The rocky development of the Fraser and the magnitude of its canyon increase as it plunges deeper among the higher Coast range mountains. For thirty miles below North Bend, a place where enough flat land is left on a terrace for a little railway station, is the most impressive portion, and the final scene of grandeur on this route through the Rockies. Almost perpendicular enclosing mountains tower above, and the river is compressed by high walls of black rocks, so steep that the road is placed upon a shelf hewn out along them. Through this deep, contracted canyon the river winds, at times confined into such narrow crooked straits that the water rushes in swiftly-moving massive billows like the Niagara rapids. Tunnels pierce the jutting cliffs, bridges and walls carry the railway along, and at intervals wild cascades leap through fissures down the mountain sides. The ever-present and industrious Indians are seen in most perilous positions down by the river catching the bright-colored salmon, which they hang upon rude drying-poles among the crags. There is a brief little village, now and then, along this dreary canyon, where there may be a sparse bit of flat terrace, enabling a few white people to live in company with Indians and Chinamen, the "Joss House" of the Celestial and his queer-looking cemetery, with its tall poles and streamers to keep away the dreaded birds and evil spirits, being conspicuous. Thus the river forces its passage through the Coast range, until at Yale the mountains recede, the canyon gradually broadens into a flat intervale between distant ridges, and there are farms and pastures. As the railway emerges from the mountains, the gleaming white dome of the isolated snow-capped Mount Baker is seen glistening under the sunlight sixty miles away just beyond the United States border. The Fraser River finally flows into the Gulf of Georgia, after a course of six hundred miles through the mountains from the northward, the chief river of British Columbia. It was named for Simon Fraser of the Northwest Fur Company, who explored it to its source amid incredible hardships and difficulties in 1808. The finest timber grows throughout this region. The railway terminates at the city of Vancouver, on Burrard Inlet, a fine harbor of the Gulf of Georgia, founded in 1885, and having eighteen thousand people, with considerable manufactures and an extensive trade. The lower Fraser River is a great salmon-canning region, the shores having many canning-factories, while at New Westminster, the chief town, are large sawmills, the two products of this district being fish and lumber, and the Chinese, who are numerous, doing most of the labor.

BOUND TO ALASKA.

Westward from the Gulf of Georgia is Vancouver Island, stretching parallel to the coast and nearly three hundred miles long, the larger part of it being composed of mountains, some reaching an elevation of over seven thousand feet. It has fine forests and valuable coal mines at Nanaimo and Wellington, which furnish fuel supplies along the Pacific coast. The redoubtable Spanish adventurer, Juan de Fuca, discovered it in 1592, and his name was given the strait at its southern extremity, separating the island from the United States. The Spaniards held it until near the close of the eighteenth century, when Captain George Vancouver came with a squadron and it was surrendered to the English by the Spanish Governor Quadra, its name afterwards being called for many years Quadra and Vancouver, after the two officers. Upon a little harbor at the southeastern extremity in 1842, the Hudson Bay Company established Fort Victoria, which has since become the capital of the Province of British Columbia. This is a pleasant city of twenty-five thousand population, having an extensive Chinese quarter. To the westward is the important British naval station and dockyard of Esquimalt, upon an admirable land-locked harbor of large capacity.

For over a thousand miles, a series of internal waters behind large islands, with bays, straits and archipelagoes, lead northward from the Gulf of Georgia to Alaska, making one of the most admirable scenic routes in America. Their shores are high mountains covered with superb forests, and the voyage over these waters is most attractive. From the Gulf of Georgia the route passes through Discovery Passage, the Seymour Narrows (where the tide rushes sometimes at twelve knots an hour), Johnstone Strait, Broughton Strait, and Queen Charlotte Sound. North of Vancouver Island there is a short passage on the open sea and then Fitzhugh Sound is entered, opening into the Lama Passage and Seaforth Channel to Millbank Sound, where there is another brief open sea journey. Then various interior waters lead to Greenville Channel and Chatham Sound. High mountains are everywhere, and deep, narrow fiords run far up into the land, the journey displaying so much magnificent scenery that the mind soon becomes satiated with the excessive supply of unadulterated grandeur. In this region is the Nasse River, where in the spring the Indians catch the Oulichan or "candle-fish," which gives them light, this fish being so full of oil that when dry and provided with a wick it burns like a candle. Just beyond is the boundary of Alaska at fifty-four degrees forty minutes north latitude, the famous "fifty-four forty or fight" boundary of 1843, when the United States claimed that Oregon extended up to the Russian territory at that latitude, but afterwards abandoned the claim. Alaska is a very large country, exceeding one-sixth the area of the United States, and was bought from Russia by Secretary Seward in 1867 for $7,200,000, a price then deemed extravagant, but the purchase has been enormously profitable. The name is derived from the Indian Al-ay-ek-sha, meaning the "Great land." Besides its large extent of main land, it includes some fifteen thousand islands, and its enormous river, the Yukon, flowing into the Behring Sea, has a delta sixty miles wide at its mouth, is three thousand miles long, and is navigable for almost two thousand miles. Although Alaska's productiveness seems just beginning to be realized, yet it has yielded in gold and furs, fish and other products, since the purchase, over $150,000,000.

Within Alaska, the route of exploration continues through Clarence Strait to the Alexander Archipelago, comprising several thousand islands, many of which are mountainous, and about eleven hundred of the larger ones have been charted. Here is Fort Wrangell, seven hundred miles from Victoria, on one of the islands, a little settlement named after Baron Wrangell, the Russian Governor of Alaska in 1834. Upon landing, the visitors see the Indians and their chief curiosity, the "totem poles," erected in front of their houses, and carved with rude figures emblematic of the owner and his ancestors. These poles are twenty to sixty feet in height, and two to five feet in diameter. The natives are divided into clans, of which the Whale, the Eagle, the Wolf and the Raven are the chief representatives and are said to have been the progenitors. These are also carved on the poles and show the intermarriages of ancestors, the leading families having the most elaborate poles. Beyond Fort Wrangell are Soukhoi Channel and Frederick Sound, leading into Chatham Strait, having on its western side Baranoff Island, on the outer edge of which is Sitka Sound. Here is Sitka, the capital of Alaska, in a well-protected bay dotted with pleasant islands in front and having snow-covered mountains for a high background. Alexander Baranoff founded the town in 1804, the first Russian Governor of Alaska, and there are now about twelve hundred inhabitants, mostly Indians. The old wooden Baranoff Castle, which was the residence of the Russian Governors, is on a hill near the landing-place. The main street leads past the Greek Church, surmounted with its bulbous spire, having six sweet-toned bells brought from Moscow, and adjoining it are various old-time log houses built by the early Russians. The church is still maintained by the Russian Government. The visitors buy curiosities and invest their small change in the Indians who get up monotonous dances or exciting canoe races for their amusement. It is a curious fact that, owing to the Kuro Siwo, or Japanese warm current coming across the Pacific, Sitka has a mild and most equable climate, the summer temperature averaging 54° and the winter 32°, the thermometer seldom falling to zero.

The Stephens Passage leads north from Frederick Sound, and into it opens Taku Inlet, a large fiord displaying fine glaciers. Here at Holkham Bay in 1876 began the first placer gold-mining in Alaska. Just beyond is Gastineaux Channel, between the mainland and Douglas Island. Upon its eastern bank, nine hundred miles from Victoria, is Juneau, the largest town in Alaska, having fifteen hundred population, about half of them whites; an American settlement, begun in 1880 under Yankee auspices, and named after the nephew of the founder of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The people are mostly gold-miners. The little white houses are on a narrow strip of comparatively level land along the shore, having a high and precipitous mountain behind. Juneau deals in furs and Chilkat blankets, the latter, when genuine, being made of the hair of mountain-goats and colored with native dyes. It is also a starting-point for the Klondyke and Yukon regions. Across the narrow strait, upon Douglas Island, is the famous Treadwell gold-mine, having three enormous ore-crushing mills, the largest in the world, aggregating nearly eight hundred stamps. This is a huge mountain of gold-ore which John Treadwell bought in 1882 from its owner for $430. It has paid since then $9,000,000 in dividends, and now with increased output crushes three thousand tons of ore daily, netting $4 gold per ton, and pours into the laps of the Rothschilds, its present owners, probably $2,000,000 annually from the enlarged product. The ore actually in sight in the mountain is estimated to be worth five times as much as was originally paid for the whole of Alaska. There is a native Indian cemetery adjoining Juneau, having curious little huts containing the cremated remains of the dead, with each one's personal effects.

THE GREAT MUIR GLACIER.

Passing west of Douglas Island and through Icy Strait to Glacier Bay, a magnificent view is presented. Snow-covered mountains rise six and seven thousand feet all around, and to the northwest is the imposing Mount Fairweather range, elevated over fifteen thousand feet. Glacier Bay extends forty-five miles up into the land, its width gradually contracting from twelve to three miles. Small icebergs and floes cover much of the surface, as they are constantly detached from the glaciers descending into it. At the head of the bay is the greatest curiosity of Alaska and the most stupendous glacier existing,—the Muir Glacier,—named in honor of Professor John Muir, the geologist of the Pacific coast, who first saw it in 1879 and thoroughly explored it in 1890. When Vancouver was here at the close of the eighteenth century he wrote that a wall of ice extended across the mouth of the bay. The belief is that the glacier once filled the entire bay and has gradually receded. Near the middle of the bay is Willoughby Island, a rock two miles long and fifteen hundred feet high, showing striated and polished surfaces and glacial grooves from bottom to top. This glacier far exceeds all the Swiss ice-fields put together, and it enters the sea with a front one mile and a half wide and two to three hundred feet high. Unlike the dirty terminal moraines of the Swiss glaciers, this is a splendid wall of clear blue and white ice, built up in columns, spires and huge crystal masses, displaying beautiful caves and grottoes. It goes many hundreds of feet below the surface of the water, and from its front, masses of ice constantly detach and fall into the bay with noises like thunder or the discharge of artillery. Huge bergs topple over, clouds of spray arise, and gigantic waves are sent across the water. Every few minutes this goes on as the glacier, moving forward with resistless motion, breaks to pieces at the end. The field of ice making this wonderful glacier is formed by nine main streams and seventeen smaller arms. It occupies a vast amphitheatre back among the mountains, thirty to forty miles across, and where it breaks out between the higher mountains to descend to the sea is about three miles wide. The superficial area of this mass of ice is three hundred and fifty square miles. It moves forward from seven to ten feet daily at the edges and more in the centre, and in August, when it loses the most ice, the estimate is that about two hundred millions of cubic feet fall into the bay every day. It loses more ice in the summer than it gains in the winter, and thus steadily retrogrades. The visitors go up to its face, although it cannot be ascended there, and then landing alongside approach it through a lateral moraine, and can there ascend to the top and walk upon the surface. The character and appearance of this famous glacier were much changed by an earthquake in 1899. Among the attractions are the mirages that are frequent here, which have been the origin of the "Phantom City," which early explorers fancifully described as upon Glacier Bay. Other huge glaciers also enter these waters, among them the Grand Pacific, Hugh Miller and Gelkie Glaciers.

THE KLONDYKE AND CAPE NOME.

Northward from the Gastineaux Channel stretches the grand fiord of the Lynn Canal for sixty miles. Snow-crowned mountains surround it, from whose sides many glaciers descend. At the upper end this Canal divides into two forks—the Chilkoot and Chilkat Inlets, at 59° north latitude. This begins the overland route to the Klondyke gold region, and upon the eastern inlet, Chilkoot, are on either bank the two bustling little towns that have grown out of the Klondyke immigration—Skaguay on the eastern and Dyea on the western shore. Each of them has three to four thousand people, with hotels, lodging-places and miners' outfitting shops. Dyea is the United States military post, with a garrison, and here begin the trails across the mountain passes to the upper waters of the Yukon. A railway is constructed over White's Pass to Bennett Lake, and is now the chief route of travel. Pyramid Harbor and Chilkat with salmon-canning establishments are on Chilkat Inlet. Beyond White's Pass, which crosses the international boundary, the land descends in British America to the headwaters of the Yukon River, which are navigated northwest to Dawson and Circle City and other mining camps of the Klondyke region, where the prolific gold-fields have had such rich yields, there having been $40,000,000 gold taken out in two years. The Yukon flows a winding course westward to Norton Sound on the Bering Sea, discharging through a wide-spreading delta. The port of St. Michaels is to the northward. There are two routes to the Klondyke from San Francisco—via Skaguay and overland a distance of about twenty-three hundred miles, and via St. Michaels and up the Yukon forty-seven hundred miles.

The Alaskan coast beyond the Muir Glacier is bordered by the great St. Elias mountain range, rising in Mount Logan to nineteen thousand five hundred and thirty-nine feet, the highest of the Rockies, and in Mount St. Elias nearer the coast to eighteen thousand and twenty-four feet. From the broad flanks of St. Elias the vast Malaspina Glacier flows down to Icy Bay on the Pacific Ocean. There are mountains all about this region, which the official geographers are naming after public men, among them being Mount Dewey. To the westward the vast Alaska peninsula projects far out, dividing the Pacific Ocean from the Bering Sea, terminating in the Fox Islands, of which Ounalaska is the port, and having the Aleutian Islands spreading beyond still farther westward. It is a remarkable fact, indicating the vast extent of the United States, that the extremity of the Aleutian group is as far in latitude westward from San Francisco as the Penobscot River and coast of Maine are eastward. To the north is the Bering Strait, having the Russian East Cape of Siberia projecting opposite to the Alaskan Cape Prince of Wales to guard the passage into the Arctic Ocean. Here, upon the southern shore of the protruding end of Alaska, and fronting Norton Sound up almost under the Arctic Circle, is the noted Cape Nome, the latest discovered gold-field, about a hundred miles northwest of St. Michaels. Fabulous golden sands are spread out in gulches and on the beaches, and Nome City has become quite a settlement. This is the latest El Dorado to which such an enormous rush of prospectors and gold-hunters was made in the early spring of 1900, many thousands filling up every available steamer that could be got to sail northward. The prolific output of these gold-bearing sands is said to exceed the Klondyke in its yield, and this will be the golden Mecca until somebody crosses over into Siberia or goes up nearer the North Pole, and finds there a new deposit of treasure. Already it is said that Nome City spreads practically for twenty miles along the sea-beach, and that the industrious miners are getting much gold by dredging far out under the sea, and expect to secure fifty millions annually from this remote but extraordinary region.

Nome City, like everywhere else that the hardy American pioneer raises the flag for discovery and settlement, has its newspaper, the Gold Digger, and this enterprising publication thus poetically describes the new El Dorado of the Arctic seas, the "Golden Northland":

Wonderful is our latest American Continental possession—the rich territory of Alaska. Limitless are its resources, unmatchable its possibilities. One of its admirers thus sounds its praises: "In scenery, Alaska dwarfs the world. Think of six hundred and seventeen thousand square miles of landscape. Put Pike's Peak on Mount Washington or Mount Mitchell and it would hardly even up with Mount Logan. All the glaciers of Switzerland and the Tyrol dwindle to pitiful summer ice-wagon chunks beside the vast ice empires of Glacier Bay or mighty Malaspina. Think of a mass of blue-green ice forty miles long by twenty-five miles wide, nearly the size of the whole State of Rhode Island, and five thousand feet thick, glittering resplendently in the weird, dazzling light of a midnight sun. Imagine cataracts by scores from one thousand to three thousand feet high; ocean channels thousands of feet deep, walled in by snow-capped mountains; sixty-one volcanoes, ten of them still belching fire and smoke; boiling springs eighteen miles in circumference, used by hundreds of Indians for all their cooking; schools of whales spouting like huge marine fire-engines and tumbling somersaults over each other like big lubberly boys, weighing one hundred to two hundred thousands of pounds each; rivers so jammed with fish that tens of thousands of them are crowded out of the water high up on the shore; and woods alive with elk, moose, deer, bear, and all sorts and conditions of costly fur-clad aristocrats of the fox, wolf, lynx and beaver breeds. Growing country, this of ours."

PUGET SOUND TO SAN FRANCISCO.

Captain George Vancouver, already referred to, who named Vancouver Island, had among his officers a Lieutenant Puget. From him came the name of Puget Sound, stretching eighty miles southward from Vancouver Island and the Strait of Juan de Fuca into Washington State, ramifying into many bays and inlets, and having numerous islands. The Sound covers two thousand square miles and has eighteen hundred miles of coast line, being a splendid inland sea with admirable harbors. Its peculiar configuration makes very high tides, sometimes reaching twelve to eighteen feet. At the entrance near the head of the Strait of Juan de Fuca is the United States port of entry, Port Townsend, in a picturesque situation with the large graystone Custom House on the bluff, a conspicuous structure. Three formidable forts, Wilson, Casey and Flagler, guard the entrance from the sea. Opposite, on the eastern shore of the Sound, is Everett with a fine harbor, the terminal of the Great Northern Railway. To the northwest, a sentinel outpost of the Cascade Range, rises Mount Baker, nearly eleven thousand feet high. To the southward, on the circling shores of Elliott Bay, is Seattle, named after an Indian chief and founded in 1852, built on a series of terraces rising above the water, the chief commercial city of Puget Sound, and having sixty thousand population. On the southeastern arm of the Sound, called Commencement Bay, is Tacoma, the terminal of the Northern Pacific Railway, with fifty thousand people. Its Indian name comes from its great lion, Mount Tacoma (sometimes called Rainier), a giant of the Cascades, rising fourteen thousand five hundred and twenty feet, and in full view to the southeast of the city. Fourteen glaciers flow down its sides, the chief one, Nisqually Glacier, seven miles long, on the southern slope, being considered the finest on the coast south of Alaska. This mountain, like other peaks of the Cascades, is an extinct volcano, its crater still emitting sulphurous fumes and heat. Mount St. Helens, not far away, which was in eruption in 1898, is regarded as the most active volcano in the range, its massive rounded dome rising over nine thousand feet. Across on the southwestern shore of Puget Sound is the capital of Washington State, Olympia, with five thousand people.

Portland, the chief town of Oregon, is but a short distance south of Puget Sound, on the Willamette River, twelve miles from its confluence with the Columbia, and at the head of deep-sea navigation, one hundred and ten miles from the ocean. This is the leading business centre of the Pacific northwest, having seventy thousand people and extensive trade. It is finely situated, and from the heights on its western border is given a most superb view of the Cascades, the range grandly stretching over a hundred miles. The Mazama Club of earnest mountain explorers at Portland have done much to make known to the world the scenery and grandeur of these attractive mountains. Fifteen miles up the Willamette, at Oregon City, are the Falls, where that river descends forty feet in a splendid horseshoe cataract, displaying great beauty and furnishing valuable power. To the southward is Salem, on the Willamette, the capital of Oregon, having five thousand population. The "Oregon trail," as the route from San Francisco into this region was called, ascends the Rogue River, so named from the Indians of the region, crosses the Siskiyou Mountain, and descends on the southern side to the headwaters of the Sacramento. To the eastward, near the California boundary, high up in the Cascades, is the strangely constructed Crater Lake. It is at over sixty-two hundred feet elevation, and occupies an abyss produced by the subsidence of an enormous volcano, being six miles long and four wide. A perpendicular rocky wall one to two thousand feet high entirely surrounds it, and the water, without outlet or apparent inflow, is fully two thousand feet deep and densely blue in color. In the centre is Wizard Island, rising eight hundred and fifty feet, an extinct volcanic cone, thus presenting one crater within another. The district containing this wonderful lake has been made a reservation called the Oregon National Park. Some distance to the southward, the whole country being mountainous and the lower slopes covered with forests of splendid pines, is the grand snow-covered dome of Mount Shasta, one of the noblest of the Cascades (in California called the Coast Range), rising fourteen thousand four hundred and forty feet, a huge extinct volcano, having a crater in its western peak twenty-five hundred feet deep and three-quarters of a mile wide. Beyond, the Sacramento Valley stretches far away southward, passing Chico and Marysville, to Sacramento. It was to the eastward, near Coloma, that the first discovery of California gold was made in February, 1848, on the farm of Colonel Sutter, the county having been appropriately named El Dorado.

SAN FRANCISCO BAY AND CITY.

The San Joaquin and Sacramento Rivers, having united, flow westward into Suisun Bay, thence by a strait to the circular and expansive San Pablo Bay, which in turn empties into San Francisco Bay. On the strait connecting Suisun and San Pablo Bays is Benicia, where lived the famous pugilist John C. Heenan, the "Benicia Boy," and the immense forge-hammer he wielded is on exhibition there. At the head of San Pablo Bay is Napa, or Mare Island, the location of the Navy Yard. Upon the mainland opposite is Vallejo, whence a railway runs up the fertile Napa Valley, through orchards and vineyards and among mineral springs, to Calistoga. Near here is the strange Petrified Forest, where there are scattered upon a tract of four square miles the remains of a hundred petrified trees. The Bay of San Francisco is a magnificent inland sea, fifty miles long and ten miles wide, connected with the Pacific Ocean by the strait of the Golden Gate, five miles long and a mile wide. The bay is separated from the ocean by a long peninsula, having the city of San Francisco on the inside of its northern extremity. Over opposite, on the eastern shore of the bay, is Oakland, the terminal of the Southern Pacific Railway routes from the East, a city of fifty thousand people, named from the numerous live-oaks growing in its gardens and along the streets. It has extensive manufactures and a magnificent view over the expansive bay and city of San Francisco and the distant Golden Gate, where the enclosing rocky shores can be seen rising boldly, the northern side to two thousand feet height. In the Oakland suburbs is Berkeley, where are some of the College buildings of the University of California, founded in 1868 and having twenty-three hundred students, many of them women. The attractive grounds cover two hundred and fifty acres, and the endowments exceed $8,000,000. South of Oakland is the pleasant suburban town of Alameda. On the western shore of the bay, south of San Francisco, is Menlo Park, a favorite place of rural residence for the wealthy San Francisco people, having many handsome villas and estates with noble trees. Here is Palo Alto or the "tall tree," taking its name from a fine redwood tree near the railway, an estate of over eight thousand acres, which is the location of the noted Leland Stanford, Jr., University. This is the greatest educational endowment in America, having a fund of over $30,000,000, the gift of Senator and Mrs. Leland Stanford in memory of their only son. The University has twelve hundred students, many being women. The buildings, which in a manner reproduce the architecture of the ancient Spanish Missions, are of buff sandstone, surmounted by red-tiled roofs, picturesquely contrasting with the oaks and eucalyptus trees which are so numerous and the many tropical plants that have been brought there. The Palo Alto estate is one of the great California stock-farms.

Two Franciscan monks in 1776 founded on this famous bay the Indian Mission of San Francisco de Assis, often called the Mission Dolores, and in course of time there started upon the shore, which had much wild mint growing about, the village of Yerba Buena, named from it the "good herb." Just about the time this lonely little village had got a small Spanish population and built a few houses, Richard Henry Dana came into the bay in 1835 on the voyage which he so pleasantly recounts in Two Years Before the Mast. He then prophetically wrote: "If ever California becomes a prosperous country, this bay will be the centre of its prosperity. The abundance of wood and water; the extreme fertility of its shores; the excellence of its climate, which is as near to being perfect as any in the world; and its facilities for navigation affording the best anchoring-grounds in the whole Western coast of America, all fit it for a place of great importance." In the summer of 1846, during the Mexican War, the American navy made various important occupations on the California coasts, and a man-of-war came into San Francisco Bay and took possession for the United States. The next year the name of the village was changed to San Francisco. There were about six hundred inhabitants here when gold was discovered in 1848, and most of them at once left for the gold-fields; but the favorable location for trade soon attracted a large population and an extensive commerce. The young city had the usual mishaps from fires, suffering from a half-dozen serious conflagrations in its early career; while the peculiar character of the population made it then so lawless that twice the better element had to take summary control of the municipal government by "Vigilance Committees," who did not hesitate to promptly execute notorious criminals. There are now three hundred and fifty thousand people, the heterogeneous population including almost every nationality in the world.

San Francisco is in a fine situation on the shore of the bay and the steep hills to the westward, and is gradually spreading across the peninsula towards the ocean. It is, in fact, built on a succession of hills, of which a group extends westward from the bay, varying in height from less than two hundred to over nine hundred feet. Conspicuous among them are the Telegraph Hill, Nob Hill, Park Peak, the Mission Peaks and others. For the purpose of readily climbing these hills, the cable street railway and its peculiar "grip" were invented and first put into successful operation, and a British visitor writes of San Francisco that "one of its most characteristic sights is the cable cars crawling up the steep inclines like flies on a window-pane." The country around is treeless, with little fertile land, owing to the copious rivers of sand which steadily flow over it, being blown from the seashore by the strong westerly trade-winds. Thus have naturally come the historical San Francisco "sand lots," the scene of public meetings and not infrequent disturbances in former times. An immense amount of grading, cutting down hills, filling gullies, and reclamations of overflowed lands was necessary in building the city; and over $50,000,000 has been expended in improving the site which, as nature fashioned it, was so illy fitted for a city. The great charm is the spacious bay environed by mountains, furnishing such an admirable harbor, and across it the ferry steamers ply in all directions. Upon it, guarding the Golden Gate entrance, are Alcatraz Island, Goat Island and Angel Island, strongly fortified, while Fort Mason is on the heights north of the city, overlooking the famous strait. The charming waters of the noble bay are thus rhythmically described by Ada Abbott Dunton:

The great "Ferry Depot," an ornamental structure with a high tower, is the centre of the San Francisco harbor front, whence the steamboats ply across the spacious bay. From this, the chief business highway, Market Street, stretches far southwest to the Mission Peaks, rising over nine hundred feet and nearly four miles away. Northward, Kearney Street with the leading stores extends past Telegraph Hill, rising almost three hundred feet and giving a magnificent outlook from the summit. Upon Market Street, in Yerba Buena Park, is the magnificent City Hall, completed in 1896 at a cost of over $4,000,000 and containing a library of one hundred thousand volumes. There is a Branch Mint of the United States which coins much of the gold mined on the Pacific Slope. The ancient church of the Mission Dolores, built of adobé is still preserved with the little churchyard. Upon Nob Hill are many of the finest residences, while to the northwestward is the Presidio, originally the Mexican and now the United States Military Reservation, adjoining the Golden Gate for some four miles, and a park of almost three square miles where troops are garrisoned. Here the military band plays in the afternoon and the walks and drives afford beautiful views. The Chinese Quarter of San Francisco, where there is a population of about fifteen thousand, is a characteristic feature, the inhabitants swarming in tall tenements divided by narrow alleys. Its attractions, however, are of a kind usually prepared with a view to induce contributions from visitors.

THE GOLDEN GATE.

The Golden Gate Park, a half-mile wide, stretches from the city three miles to the ocean shore, the western extremity being mainly the sand-dunes of the coast, while the eastern portions have been reclaimed, improved and planted with trees. Here are tasteful monuments. The author of the Star-Spangled Banner, Francis Scott Key, is commemorated by Story, and the Spanish discoverer of the Pacific Ocean, Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, by Linden, unveiled in 1898. Here also rises Strawberry Hill, an eminence giving an unrivalled outlook. Adjoining the park are the great cemeteries of the city, Laurel Hill and the Lone Mountain, with others, the Presidio being to the northward. To the westward, on the ocean front, is the historic landmark of the coast—Point Lobos, or the "wolves"—having on its elevated surface the Sutro Heights, where the sandhills have been converted into a fine estate and garden, and out in the sea, a cable's length from shore, are the celebrated Seal Rocks, which are nearly always covered with seals basking in the sun. Some are very large, and their movements are quite interesting, their curious barking being distinctly heard above the roar of the surf. To the northward of Point Lobos is the ocean entrance to the Golden Gate. The portals are a mile apart, and seen from the sea its guardian heights rise two thousand feet on the left hand, stretching up to the peak of Tamalpais to the northward. On the right hand the heights are lower, but still lofty. The slopes are bare and sandy, and between them within the strait can be distinctly seen the island fortress of Alcatraz, guarded on the one hand by Goat Island and on the other by the high green slopes of Angel Island. Up on the Presidio proudly floats high above the shore the American flag standing out in the breeze. Behind it is the great city. This Golden Gate seen from within, looking westward, is a narrow pass, giving a vista view of the broad Pacific, its waves rolling towards us thousands of miles from the distant shores of China and Japan.

Here ends this pleasant recital. The desire has been to give an idea of the vast and wonderful land we live in, and to impress the noble and patriotic thought of Thoreau's so essential to all of us: "Nothing can be hoped of you, if this bit of mould under your feet is not sweeter to you than any other in the world." We have travelled over this broad land of ours from the tropics to the Arctic Sea, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and as our journey closes, with Whittier can sing:

THE END.