A Voyage to the East Indies

The original of this work appeared at Rome in the year 1796[1]. A German edition was published, in 1798, at Berlin, by the well-known Dr. John Reinhold Forster, with copious Notes; and from the latter the English Edition now offered to the Public has been translated. The Notes, a very few excepted, the Translator has retained, and it is hoped they will be found useful to illustrate various parts of the Text.

The author, Fra Paolino da San Bartolomeo, a barefooted Carmelite, resided thirteen years in India, and therefore may be supposed to have been well acquainted with the subject on which he treats. He was born at Hof, in the Austrian dominions, in 1748; and, before he embraced the monastic life, was known by the name of John Philip Wesdin. He was seven years Professor of the Oriental Languages in the Propaganda at Rome, and since his return from India has published several works relating to that country.

In regard to the present work, Dr. Forster, in his Preface to the German Edition, says:

“It is the more valuable, as the author understood the Tamulic or common Malabar language; and, what is of more importance, was so well acquainted with the Samscred, (a language exceedingly difficult,) as to be able to write a Grammar of it, which was published at Rome in 1790[2]. It appears from some of his quotations, that he understood also the English and French.

“His knowledge of the Indian languages has enabled him to rectify our orthography, in regard to the names of countries, cities, mountains, and rivers. The first European travellers who visited India were, for the most part, merchants, soldiers, or sailors; very few of whom were men of learning, or had enjoyed the advantage of a liberal education. These people wrote down the names of places merely as they struck their ear, and for that reason different names have been given to the same place in books of travels, maps, and military journals. To this may be added, that the authors were sometimes Dutch, sometimes French, and sometimes English; consequently each followed a different orthography, which has rendered the confusion still greater. The author of the present work thought it of importance to correct these errors; a task for which he seems to have been well qualified by his knowledge of the Indian dialects. Thus, for example, he changes the common, but improper, appellation Coromandel into Ciòlamandala, Pondichery into Puduceri, &c.; but the Reader ought to remember, that, as the author wrote in Italian, his c before e and i must be pronounced tch, &c.

“As the changed orthography of the names of countries, cities, and rivers, rendered a Geographical Index in some measure necessary, one has been added at the end of the work.—Readers acquainted with the tedious labour required to form such a nomenclature, and who may have occasion to use it, will, no doubt, thank the Translator for his trouble.”

Arrival at Puduceri (Pondichery)—Coast of Coromandel—Going on shore—Capuchins—Jesuits—Description of the City—Its trade—Fortifications—White ants—Bitter drops—Error of the heathens in regard to Christianity.

THE ship l’Aimable Nannette, commanded by Captain Berteaud, in which I sailed from l’Orient, arrived in the road of Puduceri[3] on the 25th of July 1776, after a tedious passage of six months and as many days. Our patience was, therefore, almost exhausted; and we longed not a little to set our feet once more upon dry ground. We directed our anxious looks towards the shore over the blue waves, and flattered ourselves with the hopes of reaching it that evening[4]: but, as the duration of the twilight is exceedingly short in India, night suddenly overtook us, disappointed the accomplishment of our wishes, and spread her dusky veil over both sea and land. At sun-rise next morning we saluted the citadel of Puduceri with eleven guns; a compliment which the garrison returned with nine, and at the same time hoisted the French flag.

The coast of Ciòmandala[5], which the Europeans very improperly call Coromandel, has at a distance the appearance of a green theatre. The sea-shore is covered with white sand; and a multitude of beautiful shells are here and there to be seen. The country is intersected by a great many rivers and streams, which flowing down from the high ridge of mountains on the west, called the Gauts, pursue their course towards the east, and discharge themselves into the sea; some with impetuosity and noise, others with gentleness and silence. In the months of October and November, when the rainy season commences, these streams are swelled up in an extraordinary degree, and sweep from the mountains a multitude of serpents, which, to the no small terror of the unexperienced traveller, they carry a great way out with them into the sea. This, in all probability, has given rise to the fabulous tales of sea monsters, which some pretend to have seen in the Indian ocean. The land here is covered, to a considerable distance, with trees of all kinds, and particularly that called by the Europeans the real Indian palm or the coco-nut tree. The Indians give it the name of tenga, and make much use of it for planting neat gardens, with which not only the coast of Malabar, but a great part of that of Ciòlamandala also is, in a manner, overspread. Various hamlets and villages are interspersed between these gardens, and the whole surrounding country delights the eye with never-fading verdure.

During my travels through India I found the climate every where mild and healthful; and in no place did I hear complaints of bad weather. The Indians generally sleep with their doors and windows open, except when there is any appearance of the Caracatta, which is a certain kind of wind that blows from the quarter of the Gauts. This chain of mountains begins at Cape Comari[6], in the eighth, degree of north latitude, and extends thence towards the north; so that it almost intersects India in the middle. The eastern part is called Ciòlamandala, that is, the land of millet[7]; the western Malayala, or the land of mountains. The latter is called by the Arabians and Europeans Malabar, or the Malabar coast. The Gauts, the highest ridge of mountains in this country, occasion that difference in the weather, and that remarkable change of seasons which take place on both these coasts. This is one of the most singular phenomena of nature ever yet observed. On the coast of Ciòlamandala the summer begins in June; but on the coast of Malabar it does not commence till October. During the latter month it is winter on the coast of Ciòlamandala, whereas on the coast of Malabar it begins so early as the 15th of June. The one season therefore always commences on the east coast at the time when it ends on the western. When winter prevails on the coast of Malabar; when the mountains and valleys are shaken by tremendous claps of thunder, and awful lightning traverses the heavens in every direction, the sky is pure and serene on the coast of Ciòlamandala: ships pursue their peaceful course; the inhabitants get in their rice harvest, and carry on trade with the various foreigners who in abundance frequent their shores. But when the wet season commences; when these districts are exposed, for three whole months, to storms and continual rains, hurricanes and inundations, the coast of Malabar opens its ports to the navigator; secures to its inhabitants the advantages of trade, labour and enjoyment; and from the end of October to the end of June presents a favourable sky, the serene aspect of which is never deformed by a single cloud. This regulation of nature appeared to Strabo, the geographer, altogether incredible; and he, therefore, abused those travellers who, on their return from India, asserted that in the course of the year, in that country, there were two summers and two winters. In this manner must the writers of travels often suffer by the ignorance of their readers[8]. “When I called in the aid of commentators to illustrate such passages,” says Chardin, “I every where observed the most palpable errors; for these people grope in the dark, and endeavour to explain every thing by conjecture.”

On the 26th of June I left the ship about noon, and, in company with M. Berteaud the captain, went on board a small Indian vessel of that kind called by the inhabitants shilinga. As it is exceedingly dangerous and difficult to land at Puduceri and Madraspatnam, these shilingas are built with a high deck, to prevent the waves of the sea from entering them. This mode of construction is, however, attended with one inconvenience, which is, that the waves beat with more impetuosity against the sides; raise the shilinga sometimes towards the heavens; again precipitate it into a yawning gulph, and, at length, drive it on shore with the utmost violence[9]. In such cases the vessel would be entirely dashed to pieces, if the Mucoas, or fishermen, who direct it, did not throw themselves into the sea, force it back by exerting their whole strength, and in this manner lessen the impetuosity of the surf. I was greatly alarmed before I reached the shore; and was so completely drenched by the waves, that the water ran down my back.

When I approached the city, I was exactly in the same state as if I had entered a furnace; for the sun had rendered the sand, with which the shore is covered, almost red hot. The reflection of his rays caused an insufferable smarting in my eyes, and my feet seemed as if on fire. I was met on the road by some Indian Christians, who conducted me to the convent of the Capuchins, in the southern extremity of the city. These good fathers were then employed in building: for the English, in the year 1764, had bombarded Puduceri from their ships lying in the road; and the poor Capuchins, as well as others, felt the effects of their vengeance, their church and convent being converted into a heap of ruins. The English, perhaps, were not acquainted with the maxims of the Pagan Indians, who consider it as an unpardonable crime to destroy the temple and house of God; for they say, Covil kettium tannir pandel kettium nashikarudàae; which may be thus translated: “It is never lawful to destroy a temple, and the halls in which travellers have lodged.” For want of room the Capuchins were not able to admit me into their convent, and therefore I repaired to the French missionaries, belonging to the so called Missions étrangères, who resided in the pagan quarter of the city. Here I found the procurators of this establishment, Messrs. Jallabert and Mouthon, by whom I was received with every mark of kindness and attention. After dinner I took a walk to the Jesuits’ college, where I saw Father Julius Cæsar Polenza, a learned Neapolitan, who was celebrated on account of his political talents, but still more on account of his knowledge of the Tamulic language; also Father le Fabre, Father Anzaldi; and fifteen other missionaries who had not long before assembled there, for the first time, from Tanjaur and Madura.

The governor of Puduceri, at that time, was M. Law de Lauriston, a man of very moderate principles, who perfectly understood the art of living in a state of peace and friendship, both with the English at Madraspatnam, and the Pagan Indians his neighbours. Few of those who preceded him in the government of Puduceri possessed the same virtue. On the contrary, most of them made it their chief study to endeavour to extend their dominion. This man’s prudence and moderation were not, therefore, approved by some of his hot-headed countrymen; and Sonnerat[10] inveighs bitterly against the friendly reception which Lord Pigot the governor of Madraspatnam experienced when he passed through Puduceri. Cum vitia prosunt, peccat qui recte agit—When vice thrives, those who act right become criminal.—The moderation of M. Law de Lauriston could not then fail to give offence to illiberal minds, subject to the impulse of their passions.

Puduceri, in my time, was a large and very beautiful city. The governor resided in an elegant palace. It was not uncommon to see a hundred covers on this gentleman’s table; and I once had the honour, together with M. Jallabert, of being invited to one of his entertainments. The city, towards the north and south, is defended by excellent fortifications, constructed in the year 1769, under the direction of M. Bourcet, who also formed the plan of them. In the southern part, some of the houses, inhabited by the Europeans, are exceedingly large and beautiful, and are ornamented with projecting galleries, balustrades, columns and porticoes. The European quarter is entirely separated from that of the Mahomedans and Pagan Indians. The latter live altogether in the western part. When a certain quarter is in this manner assigned to the Indians for their residence, one of their countrymen is always placed over them as a superintendant, who is obliged to preserve peace and good order among them, and to take care that they do not transgress the laws. At Cottate, Padmanaburam, Tiruvandapuram, Cayancollam, and other towns on the Malabar coast, the same establishment is made, that no strife or contention may arise among the various tribes, castes, and religious sects, on account of the difference of their manners and customs. Every one here is allowed to live in his own manner, and to enjoy his own belief; as it is not possible that so many classes and so many thousands of people should ever unite in one common system of religion[11].

The gate of the city towards the west was guarded by the so called sipoys (seapoys) or Indian soldiers, who consist of people of every caste, and of all religions. They were exercised according to the French manner. Hayder Aly Khan, that celebrated and formidable warrior, who reduced under his dominion Maissur, Carnate, Concao, Canara and Calicut, was originally a seapoy who did duty at this gate of Puduceri[12]. In that city he became first acquainted with the French tactics, which he afterwards employed not only against the Indian kings and princes, but against the Europeans; and it is not improbable that another Indian hero may arise in the course of time, and, in like manner, make use of the military discipline of the English, which that nation still teach to the native Indians. As the English and French in India are in a continual state of enmity, some enterprising Indian generally steps in between them, and attacks either the one or the other of the contending parties. Such was the conduct of Hayder Aly Khan’s son, Tippoo Sultan Bahader, who overran a considerable district in the southern part of India, and defeated the British troops in several engagements.

Puduceri was given up to the French, on the 15th of July 1630, by Rama Rajah a son of Sevagi king of the Marattas. This prince was sovereign of the province of Gingi, and possessed a fortress of the same name, which was situated among the mountains on the south of Puduceri. Rama Rajah had wrested this province, to which Puduceri belonged, from its original and lawful owner; and he resigned the city to the French on condition of their paying two per cent. on all the goods which should be there exported or imported. When Captain Ricaut established the French East India Company in 1642, he entered into partnership with twenty-four other merchants; and the only object of this society, as they then pretended, was to carry on trade in India. These merchants, however, shewed only too soon that their views were directed to things totally different. By little and little they began to extend their boundaries; endeavoured to get into their hands new possessions; from being merchants became warriors, and at last ventured to refuse the two per cent. which they had solemnly contracted to pay. This was done, in particular, after the year 1695, in which the Moguls took the fortress of Gingi[13]. There is just reason then to be surprised at the singular conduct of the Abbè Raynal, who throws out the bitterest reproaches against the Portuguese, as the first conquerors of India; and yet passes over, in perfect silence, what might be said of the violent proceedings of the other European nations, who certainly trod in the footsteps of the Portuguese. M. Dupleix, who was then governor of Puduceri, caused the Mogul to create him a nabob, that is an Indian chief or prince; and after that period the before-mentioned engagement and duty were, in the course of a few years, buried in oblivion. The haughtiness of the French still increased; the utmost degree of jealousy prevailed between them and the English; and a war was the consequence, in which the French soon lost their trade and their Indian possessions, which they afterwards recovered, and lost and recovered in turns. The Dutch East India Company, more attentive to its interest, and less inclined to war, possessed also several considerable settlements in India; but it excited much less jealousy, because it observed a peaceable conduct, and by these means acquired greater riches. In the year 1693, the Dutch took Puduceri, but restored it at the peace of Ryswick. In the year 1748 it was besieged by the English; and in 1761 it was taken by them, but given up at the peace of 1763. They made themselves masters of it a second time in 1778, when De Bellecombe was governor, but abandoned it afterwards in 1783. On the commencement of the French revolution it came under the dominion of the nabob Mohamed Aly prince of Arcate, a faithful adherent of the English; and ever since it has remained in his hands, or rather in the hands of the English. To such a state have the affairs of the French in India been reduced by their pride, their ambition and their rage for war! What benefits or advantages could France expect, as an indemnification for the monstrous sums which it was obliged to expend on this Indian colony, during its varied and ever changing fate? When in its most flourishing condition, it was said to contain, including the district belonging to it, about 20,000 inhabitants. Of these from four to five thousand, at least, were employed in collecting cotton; and in carding, spinning, weaving and printing it. By means of this industry the trade might have been so far improved that it would not only have sufficiently indemnified the Company for their expence, but have procured them the greatest advantages. On my arrival at Puduceri, five French ships were lying in the road, and the Aimable Nannette made the sixth. Some days after four others came to anchor. Three of these vessels were more than sufficient to supply the colony with every necessary; for three or four French merchants only resided in it. These ships were laden with wine, iron, cannon, fire-arms and French cloth. Now the Indians drink no wine, and their clothing consists of white cotton stuffs manufactured in their own country. How then did the French dispose of their commodities? They sold their wine, cloth, cannon, fire-arms, and, in a word, their whole cargoes to the English at Madraspatnam and Bengal, who employed these very cannon and arms against the French troops. On the other hand, the greater part of the money which the French received for these goods remained in India, as they purchased with it muslin, cotton stuffs, ginghams, sugar, pepper, cinnamon, cardamums, handkerchiefs, pearls, precious stones, and male and female slaves. Whether such a trade could be beneficial to France, I shall leave the reader to determine[14].

The garrison of Puduceri consisted of 4000 men. The city is situated on a sandy plain, not far from the shore, which produces nothing but palm trees, millet, and a few herbs; though the surrounding district produces cotton, with a little rice and capers. Neither Puduceri nor Madras atnam can be compared with the cities on the Malabar coast, in regard to abundance in provisions. On the coast of Ciòlamandala, which forms the eastern part of this peninsula, the heat is more intense, and the soil much sandier than any where else; and fewer rivers are found here, because it is too far distant from that ridge of mountains called the Gauts. To these circumstances it is to be ascribed that it produces very little cotton, and much less rice; that a greater trade is carried on here, while agriculture is neglected; and, in short, that its inhabitants are much more active and ingenious, handsomer, blacker, and more superstitious than on the coast of Malabar. The kingdom of Tanjaur forms, however, an exception; for this district is watered by several rivers that flow through it, and supplies with rice the whole coast of Ciòlamandala. The English, therefore, never ceased quarrelling with the Indian princes till they had reduced this kingdom under their subjection, as I shall soon relate in a more particular manner.

I remained at Puduceri till the 8th of September. During that time, which I employed in making myself acquainted with the geography of the country, the manufactures and manners of the Indians, I met with two incidents, which to me were new, and on that account excited more my astonishment. I had put all my effects into a chest which stood in my apartment, and being one day desirous of taking out a book in order to amuse myself with reading, as soon as I opened the chest I discovered in it an innumerable multitude of those white insects which the Tamulians, that is the inhabitants of the coast of Ciòlamandala, call Carea, and those of Malabar Cedel. They are the white ants which have been already described by naturalists, but which I never before had an opportunity of seeing[15]. When I examined the different articles in the chest, I unfortunately observed that these little animals had perforated my shirts in a thousand places; gnawed to pieces my books, and among others had already half destroyed a copy of Father Gazzaniga’s Theology; my girdle, my amice, and my shoes fell to pieces as soon as I touched them. The ants were moving in columns each behind the other, and each carried away in its mouth a fragment of my effects, As I expressed my astonishment by a loud shout, M. Jallabert ran into the room, and, seeing the swarms of these insects, repeatedly exclaimed, Carea! Carea! He then ordered my chest to be placed in the sun, and as soon as these careas found themselves exposed to his rays, they all speedily left it. My effects, however, were more than half destroyed; but it was very fortunate for me, on this occasion, that cotton goods are sold exceedingly cheap at Puduceri. One of the finest shirts, ready made, costs no more than five Roman paoli, or a rupee[16], according to the course of exchange in that settlement. I therefore clothed myself anew from head to foot, and with articles made of cotton.

One evening, a few days after, I had entered into a conversation with M. Jallabert on the religious ceremonies of the Heathens, and the properest means of converting them to the Christian faith; while his two servants had thrown themselves down on mats, spread out in the fore hall, in order to sleep. All of a sudden one of them began to scream out dreadfully; to beat his forehead; to stamp on the floor, and to roar and writhe his body like a madman. On asking him what was the matter, he pointed to one of his ears. We found on examination that a centipede had got into it; and the animal not being able to find its way out, kept pushing itself forwards, and gnawed the interior part of the ear. M. Jallabert immediately made the poor fellow lie down, and poured into his ear a spoonful of bitter drops (droga amara). The insect was dead in a moment; the patient’s pain and terror ceased, and, as soon as a little water was poured into his other ear, the centipede dropped out. These bitter drops are prepared in the following manner. You take mastic, resin or colophonium, myrrh, aloes, male incense, and calamba root, and pound them very fine when the weather is dry, that is to say when the north wind blows, which, in other parts of the world, supplies the place of what is here called the Caracatta. If you wish, therefore, to make a quantity of this medicine equal to 24 pints, you must take 24 ounces of resin or colophonium, 12 ounces of incense, 4 ounces of mastic, 4 ounces of aloes, 4 ounces of myrrh, and a like quantity of calamba root. Put all these ingredients into a jar filled with strong brandy, and keep it for a month in the sun during dry weather. If the brandy is sufficiently impregnated, it assumes a red colour, and the mass is deposited at the bottom. You then draw off the brandy very slowly, and bottle it up for use. One or two spoonfuls is the usual dose administered to sick persons. This medicine is of excellent service in cases of indigestion, colic, cramp in the stomach, and of difficult parturition; also for wounds and ulcers; against worms, and in scorbutic and other diseases which arise from corrupted juices. It is the best and most effectual remedy used by the missionaries during their travels. It is prepared in the apothecary’s shop of the ex-jesuits at Puduceri; at Verapoli by the barefooted Carmelites; and at Surat by the Capuchins. I myself cured with these drops a young man who was almost totally deaf. After pouring two spoonfuls of them into his ear, a cylindric piece of a hard yellow substance came from it, and the patient immediately recovered the perfect use of his hearing.

As I resided in the Pagan quarter of the city, I was visited by several young Indians; some of whom were heathens, and others professors of Christianity. Some of them spoke exceedingly good French; but others, who had received instruction from the Jesuits, spoke Latin. From this I concluded that the Indians are by nature well qualified for study; and that the Indian dialect facilitates, in an eminent degree, their acquiring the European languages. Those who were still heathens, boasted much of their theology; and extolled above all measure their learned language, which they call the Samscred. This confirmed me so much the more in the resolution I had formed of learning it, let it cost me whatever labour it might. I observed, however, at the same time, that these young people, either from ignorance or perversity, frequently confounded the doctrine and principles of Christianity with the doctrine and principles of Paganism. Thus, for example, they said that their female divinity Lakshmi was our Virgin Mary, and that Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, represented our Trinity; that we paid to images as much adoration as they did; and that our solemn processions were in nothing different from theirs[17]. I shall hereafter convince the reader of the falsity of this assertion, and shew how highly important it is that the missionaries should make themselves well acquainted with the religious doctrines of the Indians, in order to open the eyes of these people, so worthy of pity, and to convert them to the Christian faith[18]. They deceive not only themselves, but others; for, as they endeavour to lay to the charge of the Christian religion their own absurd tenets, they do not think it necessary to embrace it; and as they assert that there is no difference between their belief and ours, they mislead other Christians, who then imagine that the religion of the Pagan Indians is nothing else than Manicheism, or corrupted Christianity; and this error arises, like the former, from perverted principles and fables.

As the Pagans, Mahometans, and Christians in India all wear white cotton dresses, and made almost in the same manner, you must look very closely at their forehead, or breast, if you wish to distinguish an Idolater from a Christian. The former have on the forehead certain marks which they consider as sacred, and by which you may know to what sect they belong, and what deity they worship. In the second book I shall explain all these marks[19].

Virapatnam—Seminary there—Error of Ptolemy the geographer—Apis—Error of some modern geographers—Etymological catalogue of places in Carnada, Tanjaur and Madura.

M. Jallabert had given-me a particular account of a seminary at Virapatnam, in which young Indians who embraced the Christian religion were educated. As education is an object which deserves the particular attention of the traveller, we made a little excursion thither from Puduceri. Vira, in the Samscred language, signifies strong or courageous; and Patna, or Patana, a city. Virapatnam, therefore, signifies the strong city. This place, at present, is a small town situated at the distance of six miles from Puduceri, towards the south west, on the banks of a river, which takes its rise in the mountains on the east, and, flowing part Virapatnam, discharges itself into the sea on the south side of Puduceri. Pudu in the Tamulic and Malabar languages, signifies new; Puduna, newness; Ceri, a town: Puduceri therefore signifies the new town. From this etymology it is clear that Puduceri cannot be a place of any antiquity; and it was indeed built by some emigrants from Virapatnam. When the Arabians first came to India, several cities lying on the sea coast arose in the like manner. It is therefore ridiculous when certain geographers, who endeavour to explain Ptolemy’s geography, consider cities first built in modern times to be the same as some of those mentioned in that author, though they must undoubtedly have been unknown to him, as they were not then in existence. It deserves also to be remarked, that Ptolemy, in giving the distances of places, generally errs from two to three degrees of latitude. The reason is, that the ancient travellers were accustomed to reckon the latitude according to the length or shortness of the day; and, consequently, to determine the distance of one place from another in the same manner. But as the day and night near the equator are almost always of equal length, it may readily be conceived, that the degree of latitude in which a place was situated could not be accurately ascertained in that manner; and that Ptolemy, and all those who depended upon him, must have fallen into errors[20]. The case has been nearly the same with M. D’Anville, as will be shewn hereafter.

The seminary of Virapatnam was situated in a palm-garden; or, to speak more correctly, in a garden planted with coco-nut trees. It was founded by M. Mathon, a celebrated member of the so called Missions étrangères, who, at the time we were there, presided over it as rector. The building resembled a convent, but was much better divided; and so contrived, that these oriental seminarists did not find the least impediment, either in their study, their bodily exercise, or their other labours. Between three side apartments, where the three tutors lodged, was a large hall on the ground floor, in which were constructed two rows of small chambers all adjoining. They were separated from each other by thin wooden partitions, of only three or four palms in height; so that each of the students had an apartment to himself, and all of them could be observed by their teacher. The teacher sat at a desk, where he read his lessons; and, while employed in teaching, he could with one view see every thing that was doing in the different apartments. The pupils not only studied in these apartments, but also slept in them. A table, on which lay a mattress, supplied the place of a bed; and both above and beneath it another small table was suspended, which could be lowered or raised up at pleasure. If any of these young people wished to write, he had no occasion to leave his chamber, as he had nothing to do but to sit down at the foot of his bed; and when he wished to go out, he had only to remove his table and fold it up. On the other table above the bed were books, paper, pens and ink; his long seminary dress, and several small articles necessary for preserving cleanliness. The doors of the hall, which were exactly opposite to each other, stood always open to afford a free passage to fresh air; but no one could go out unperceived by the tutor, who in his apartment was continually observing every thing that passed. The refectory was situated in another part of the building; and it was customary to read in it during meals. The shops of the taylor, shoemaker, and carpenter, together with the printing-office and ovens for baking bread, were without, and all occupied by seminarists; for each of them was obliged to learn a trade. They all went bare-footed; and one of their employments was to water and look after the young palm-trees which were planted in the garden. Their time was so divided, that they studied daily four hours; devoted one hour to manual labour; and spent the remaining part in prayer, singing and meditation. On two days in the week they conversed in their mother tongue; but on other days they were obliged always to speak Latin. M. Mathon shewed me a bull of his present holiness Pope Pius VI. issued in favour of this seminary, and in which he bestowed great praises upon it. This institution was destined merely for young persons from China, Cochinchina, Tunquin, and Siam. It is much to be lamented that no establishment of the like kind is to be found here, for the natives of Malabar, and other parts of the peninsula of India, who are all formed to the ecclesiastical state in other countries, and return, for the most part, men of corrupted morals.

On the day of my return to Puduceri, I had an opportunity of seeing a very singular scene; as on that day the god Apis was led in procession through the city. This deity was a beautiful fat red-coloured ox, of a middle size. The Brahmans generally guard him the whole year through in the neighbourhood of his temple; but this was exactly the period at which he is exhibited to the people with a great many solemnities. He was preceded by a band of Indian musicians; that is to say, two drummers, a fifer, and several persons who with pieces of iron beat upon copper basons. Then came a few Brahmans, and behind these was an immense multitude of people. The Pagans had all opened the doors of their houses and shops, and before each stood a small basket with rice, thin cakes, herbs, and other articles in which the proprietors of these houses and shops used to deal. Every one beheld Apis with reverence; and those were considered fortunate of whose provisions he was pleased to taste a mouthful as he passed. Philarchus conjectured, as we are told by Plutarch in his treatise on Isis and Osiris, that Apis was originally brought from India to Egypt by the inhabitants of the latter. Plutarch himself asserts that the Egyptians considered Apis as an emblem of the soul of Osiris; and, perhaps, he here meant to say, that under this expression they understood that plastic power by which Osiris had produced and given life to every part of the creation. I shall, in another place, endeavour to prove, that Osiris was nothing else than the Sun, and consequently what among the Indians is represented by the idol Shiva, or Mahadèva. Hence it happens, that this Shiva, the emblem of the Sun, rides on an ox; and that in the solemn invocations of the Brahmans he is called Pashupadi, that is, the man of the cow. The cow again is nothing else than a symbol of the goddess Ishami, or the woman, as the Indians are accustomed to call the Isis to whom the cow is dedicated when they speak of her by her sacred name. On the Egyptian monuments Osiris, as the symbol of the Sun, is represented with rays around his head; and his wife Isis bears horns, the symbol of the cow, and also of the new moon, between which and the sun there is the same relation as between wife and husband. On the Indian monuments the idol Shiva has an ox under him; and the goddess Ishami, as she is represented in one of the oldest Indian temples, is leaning with one of her arms on a cow[21]. Pliny in his Natural History, speaking of Apis, makes use of the following remarkable words: “When he eats out of the hand of those who come to consult him, it is considered as an answer. He refused to have any thing from the hand of Germanicus Cæsar, and the latter soon after died[22].” From this it appears that the Egyptians entertained the same opinions respecting Apis as the Indians. In Egypt, as well as India, people were accustomed to consider him as an oracle; to place food before him, and, according as he accepted or refused it, to form conclusions in regard to their good or bad fortune. Does not this evidently shew an analogy in the religious veneration which both these nations shewed to Apis? As the ox, or Apis, represents the plastic power of the sun, the cow, in the like manner, is a symbol of the plastic power of the moon and the earth. The ox, or Apis, is called in the Samscred Uksha, Bhadra, Urszabha, Gau, and Mahisha; but, in the Malabar and Tamulic languages, Kàla, Muri, and Cruda. The cow in the Samscred is called Mahey, Saurabhei, Gò, Usra, Mahà, Shranguini; when she is red, Argiuni; when she is white, Rohinni: in the Malabar and Tamulic languages she is called Pashu, Gova. All these appellations express some of the properties of oxen and cows. Thus, for example, Bhadra means good; Mahisha, great, magnanimous; Mahà, a large cow, a noble animal; Shranguini, handsome, ornamented, beautiful. The idolaters of Malabar call her Ama or Tala, mother; and the ox Appen, father. May not the name Apis employed by the Egyptians and the Greeks be the corrupted Appen, or Appa of the Indians, which signifies father or creator? The Egyptians were accustomed to give to their Isis the horns of a cow, instead of a head dress. The Indians also worship the cow as a divinity. Most of the houses belonging to the Pagan Indians, not only at Puduceri, but upon the whole of both the coasts of Malabar and Ciòlamandala, are covered on the outside and inside with cow-dung. The Pagans are accustomed to drink cow’s urine, in order to purify them from their sins. When near the point of death, they take in their hand a cow’s tail; and, according to their belief, if they die in this manner, they are immediately transported to paradise. I have already said, that the cow is a symbol of the moon and the earth. For this reason she is also in India the goddess Parvadi or Isháni, Ishi or Isha; that is, the woman, the hallowed; under which appellation they understood the moon. She is also the goddess Ma or Lakshmi, that is the great, dedicated to the beautiful goddess; and all these sacred names properly signify the earth. The cow has evidently a mystic sense also, which denotes the plastic power of the moon, and the fertility of the earth. For this reason she is held so sacred, and honoured so much, that in Malabar, and every other place where the Pagans have the superiority, any person who kills a cow is hung on a gibbet. The ox which represents Apis, must every three years give place to another. If he dies in the course of these three years of his deification, he is committed to the earth with all that pomp and ceremony observed at the interment of persons of the first rank. Various pagodas, or pagan temples, have on their front the figure of a cow, or perhaps two, of a colossal size[23].

The habitations of the Pagans at Puduceri, as well as on the coasts of Malabar and Ciòlamandala, are in general very low and dark. In the last-mentioned district they are built of bricks dried in the sun, and are covered with palm leaves. The Pondiyalas, or warehouses, in which the Indians keep their merchandise, are also very dark, especially at Puduceri and Madraspatnam. As a great deal of muslin is sold at both these places, it is not improbable that the merchants employ such a mode of construction, that the faults of their wares may be better concealed.

The Capuchins of the province of Tours in France have the right of sending a missionary priest to Puduceri when the place becomes vacant. The Ex-Jesuits, in virtue of a decree issued by Louis XVI, have united with the society of the Missiòns étrangères, so that they now form only one body. The Europeans are under the care of the Capuchins, and the Indian Christians under that of the Ex-Jesuits. The latter have to attend four thousand Christians: but this number is sometimes greater, sometimes smaller, according as it is peace or war; for, in the time of war, many Indian Christians remove from the place, and either wander about or take refuge in the mountains. Not long before my time, the seminary of Virapatnam had been, transferred to Ariancopan, which is the residence of a bishop, who at Puduceri, in the kingdoms of Tanjaur, Madura, and Carnada, as also in the province of Gingi, is invested with the dignity of apostolical vicar. This man is involved in continual quarrels with the bishop of Mailapuri, or St. Thomas, a Portuguese, who endeavours to dispute with him the right of spiritual judicature.

According to M. de la Tour’s map, which is the correctest, Puduceri lies in 12° N. lat. and 78° E. lon. On the 1st of January the sun rises here at 23 minutes past six, and sets at 37 minutes past five. On the 28th of August he appears above the horizon at 51 minutes after five, and sinks below it at 9 minutes after six. On the first of December he makes his appearance at 21 minutes past six in the morning, and sets at 38 minutes past five in the evening. From these data the reader may easily calculate the length of the days and the nights.

The river which runs past Virapatnam, and discharges itself into the sea on the west of Puduceri, is called properly Ciovanàru, and not Chonenbar, as it is named by the European geographers. Aru, in the Malabar and Tamulic languages, signifies a river, and Ciovano red: the compound word is Ciovanàru, the red river: and its water, on account of the earth which it washes down in its course, is sometimes indeed of a blood-red colour. But as the Indians shorten the first half of the word, and say Ciona, or Tchona, instead of Ciovana, the Europeans have mutilated it completely, and made of it Chonenbar. A similar mutilation of Indian words and appellations is in general not uncommon, especially when they are introduced into foreign languages. On the map of Coromandel, published by M. De la Tour at Paris, in the year 1770, the above river is distinguished by the improper name of Chonenbar. That the case is the same with the word Coromandel, used instead of Ciòlamandala, has been observed before. M. D’Anville, with equal impropriety, not only in his Geographical Antiquities of India, printed at the king’s printing-house at Paris, in the year 1775, but also in all his maps of India, gives the name of Carnata to a large kingdom lying to the west of Puduceri. Its proper name is Carnàda; that is, the black land; from Car, black, and Nada, land. It is so called in the Tamulic and Malabar languages, in order to distinguish it from Ciòlamandala, the land of millet; for the millet thrives best on the districts not far from the sea coast. But the former land lies at a distance from the sea; abounds with excellent pastures; and produces large quantities of rice, pepper, cotton, and other things of the like kind, which can neither grow nor be cultivated in a sandy soil impregnated with marine salt. Of a hundred Indian names which belong to towns and villages in those districts, there are scarcely ten which have not been mutilated and corrupted by foreigners. Those who study the history and geography of India in the works of the Europeans, will every moment meet with passages which require to be amended. In order that this may be done in part, I shall here present the reader with an etymological list of the principal places and towns on the coast of Ciòlamandala, or, as the Europeans say, of Coromandel; and shall adhere as much as possible to the orthography of the Indians.

Names of Cities, Towns, &c. in Carnada and Ciòlamandala.

Valiacàda, the great mountain; or Valiacadà, the great passage, or ford, called by the Europeans Pallicate; is a city on the sea coast, at the mouth of a small river. The Dutch have a settlement here.

Ottocutta, or Ottukottei, a solitary city, a solitary castle.

Pondamala, or Pondalamey, a high mountain; from Pondu, high; and Mala or Maley, which, in the Tamulic and Malabar languages, signifies a mountain. It is a fortified mountain, called by the Europeans, Grand Mont.

Madraspatnam; Patnam, the city; Madraspatnam, the city of Madras.

Maïlapuri, or Maïlapuram, the city of peacocks: the Meliapur, or St. Thomas of the Europeans.

Tirupati, a sacred place, a sacred temple; called by the Europeans Tirupeti. It is situated in Carnada, under 14° N. lat. and 77° 15′ E. lon. It is dedicated to Vishnu, and is much resorted to by people from all parts of India. The pilgrims, who repair thither to perform their devotions, cut off their hair, and bring it as an offering to Vishnu.

Tirunamalà, or Tirunamaley, the sacred mountain; corrupted into Tirnimalet.

Govalam, the circuit of the cow; corrupted Govelan.

Uttamalùr, the good town; corrupted Outremalour.

Arrucati, a city or castle, from which one can see the river Paler; corrupted into Arcate.

Cangipuri, or Congipuram, the golden city; from Puri, or Puram, the city; and Cangi, which in the Samscred signifies gold; corrupted into Cangivaron.

Vencàtighiri, the woody mountain; corrupted into Vincatighiri. It is compounded of Quiri, or Shiri, a mountain; Ven, white; and Cati or Catil, in the forest: a city situated on the mountain where the white forest is.

Ciacrapuri, or Ciacrapuram, the circle city, the round city; corrupted into Sacrapour.

Perumaculam, the large pond, the large bath; corrupted into Permacoul.

Mangalur, the fortunate city, the fortunate town.

Calianatur, the town of joy.

Velur, the town of the lance. At present it is a city.

Villanùr, the town of the arrow. On the maps it is called Villenour.

Puduceri, the next town; on the maps called Pondichery.

Attùr, the town of goats, or the town where the coco-nuts are ground.

Krishavaram, the blessing of the god Krishna: a town distinguished on the maps by the name of Quichenavaron.

Divycotta, the divine castle; from Divya, divine; and Cotta, a castle or fortress. On the maps it is called Divicoté.

Names of Cities and Towns in the Kingdom of Tanjaur.

Tanjaur, a low situation; or Tanjiaur, a miserable, mean, detestable town. It is the capital of a province of the same name. The former orthography seems to be the properest; for Tanjaur really stands on low ground, which is often exposed to inundations.

Turangaburam, or Turangaburi, the water city, or horse city: by the Europeans called Tranquebar.

Carincala, the black stone, or rock. It is the Carical of the Europeans.

Nàvur, the dogs’ town, or the new town: the Naour of the Europeans.

Tirumaladùvsam, the temple of the God of the Holy Mountain, that is of Shiva. By the Europeans it is called Tiremalevasen.

Nàgapatnam, or Nàgapatana, the city of the snake, or the city of the elephant; for Naga signifies a snake, and likewise an elephant; and Patna, a city. It is the same city as that usually called by the Greeks Nigamos, or Nigama Metropolis.

Tiramannùr the town of the Holy Land: the Tremanour of the Europeans.

Cirangam, or Cirangapatnam, the city of the beautiful limbs: from Cir, beautiful; Anga, a limb; and Patnam, the city. It is the Cheringam of the Europeans[24].

Celiaolam, the slimy pond; the Chelicolon of the Europeans.

Tricolùr, the town of the three pools, or places of lustration. On the maps it is called Tricoloùr.

Palancotta, the castle of the bridges, for several bridges must be passed before one can arrive at it: from Pàlam, or Pàlan, a bridge; and Cotta, a castle. On the maps it is called Palancottè.

Names of Cities and Towns in the Kingdom of Madura.

Madura, Matura, and Madhura, the lovely, the mild city, or the city of the hero Madhu. It is the capital of the kingdom of Madura, which takes its name from it, but by the Europeans is called Madure. This kingdom is named also Pandi, or Pandimandala, the land of Pandi, Pando, or Pandava, an ancient Indian king, by whom, according to the opinion of the Brahmans, it was founded. Pliny calls this city Modusa regia Pandionis; but Ptolemy gives it the name of Methora.

Tricinnapalli: from Tri, three; Cinna, small; and Palli, a temple or a school. At present it is the capital of Madura, and on the maps is called Trichenapali.

Manelùr, the town on the sand: a town.

Tindacalla, the dirty stone or rock; on the maps Tinducallu. It is the Tindis of Ptolemy and Arrian.

Tirnaveli, or Tirunnaveli, the place where the tide ends: is at present a considerable city.

Mantòpo, or Mantòpu, the garden on good soil: a city.

Ciangracoil, the temple of Ciangra, or Shiva: on the maps called Sangaravacoil.

Uttamapàleam; from Uttama, the best; and Pàleam, or Pàliyam, the house of government. On the maps it is called Uttamapaleon.

Names of Cities and Towns on the Coast of Pescaria, or, as the ancients called it, Paralia.

Ràmanàthapuram, the city of Rama, of the lord. On the maps it is called Ramanadaburon.

Vayparra, the three large rocks; a town which is situated near these rocks.

Tùtucuri, or Tùducudi, a town or place where linen cloth is washed.

Mannapara, earth and rocks; from Manna, earth; and Pàrra, a rock.

Vadakencolam, a pond or bath towards the north; at present a city.

Gòvalam, the circuit of the cow; at present a town: the Colis or Colias of the antients, lying not far from Tovala. It is a strong fortress belonging to the king of Travancor, and guards the passage from the kingdom of Madura to Cape Comari. On the maps it is called Covalan.

Names of Cities and Towns in the Kingdom of Maissur.

Maissùr; from Maï, colour; and Ur, a land; Maissùr, the land of colour. It is not improbable that it obtained this name either from the reddish earth found there in abundance, or the dye plants it produces, and with which the cotton cloth is dyed. This kingdom lies between Carnada, Madura, and the coast of Malabar.

Bengalùr, the white land, the white earth. This name is given to the capital where the nabob Hayder Aly Khan formerly resided. It is a considerable city, strongly fortified.

Ciringapatnam, the capital and fortress where the nabob Tippoo Sultan Bahader resides. It lies at the distance of twenty leagues from Bengalur, towards the west. On the maps it is called Chiringapatnam.

Dhermapuri, the city of good works, or the city of virtue; from Dherma, virtue; and Puri, a city. On the maps it is called Darmapuri.

Dharàburam, or Dharàpuram, the city where the rain water runs off; for it lies at the bottom of that ridge of mountains called the Gauts, from which the water pours down in torrents. On the maps it is called Daraburu.

Budhapadi, the town of Budha, an Indian idol. On the maps, Budapari.

Gòculatùr: from Go, a cow; Cula, a herd; and Ur, the land or town; consequently the land of the herds of cows. On the map, Guclaturu.

Cinnabellapuram, the small city of strength. On the maps called Sinnaba’lambaram.

Ciandrapati, or Tschandrapadi, the spot in the moon. On the maps Sandarupati.

Of such changed and corrupted names a great many more might be produced, but most of them so mutilated, that their real meaning can no longer be guessed, and people would only lose themselves in uncertain conjectures if they endeavoured to discover their etymological origin. It, however, appears by those above mentioned, that some of the Indian cities and towns received their names from Indian deities, others from local circumstances or the nature of their situation; and that such appellations cannot have originated from the Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, or Romans. In the eastern part of India no traces of Sesostris or the Greeks are to be found, as some learned men in Europe have erroneously asserted. That India was already civilised in the time of Sesostris, shall be proved hereafter. In regard to the Grecian language and mythology, these were not known in India before the invasion of Alexander the Great, and even then only in some of the maritime cities of the northern part of the country[25].

After this digression I shall now give a short account of the kingdoms of Madura, Tanjaur, and Carnada, according to the information I received from the missionaries resident in those countries; for, as I was not able to remain longer on the coast of Ciòlamandala than from the 26th of July till the 20th of October, it was impossible for me in the course of these few months to learn, by my own experience, every thing that regards this remarkable land. The reader, therefore, will not take it amiss, if I here insert what was communicated to me by intelligent missionaries, who had spent the greater part of their lives in those provinces.

Geographical, statistical, and historical Observations on the Kingdoms of Tanjaur, Marava, Madura, and Carnada.

THE principal cities in the northern part of India are the following:

Caschemir, which, according to the map published at Paris in the year 1781, is situated under the 35th degree of north latitude. This city is certainly the Caspira or Caspirus of Herodotus, as D’Anville has already very properly observed[26].

Cabul, a city which, on the side of Persia, is as it were the key of India. It was obliged formerly to pay tria millia nummum talenta to Alexander the Great, as he was returning from the war against Porus. It lies in the latitude of 34°[27].

Tatta, or Tattanagar, occurs in Pliny under the name of Pattala, or Pattalena, and is situated at the mouth of the Indus, or Sindhu. In this city Apollonius of Tyana once resided a month. It contained formerly 30,000 looms employed in weaving cotton cloth.

Hastinapuri, in the Samscred Hastinanagari, called by others very improperly Assanapur, or Hassnapur, and by D’Anville Astanagar. At present it is known by the name of Hassanabad, and is the first and oldest city in all India. It lies in the latitude of 32° and a few minutes. In the book Bharada the following passage occurs respecting it:

That is: “King Hasti built a city, and therefore it was called Hastinapuri, from king Hasti.” Its inhabitants, and in all probability some of its kings, were once subdued by the Assyrians: afterwards they fell under the dominion of Cyrus, to whom they were obliged to pay tribute. The celebrated Indian kings known by the names of Pandu, Pando, or Pandavi, resided thirteen months in the city of Hastinapuri. They lived 1550, and not 3102, years before the birth of Christ, as Mr. Wilkins erroneously asserts. It appears from my copy of the work called Bharada, written on palm leaves, that Hastinapuri existed a long time before these Pandos or Pandavi, and was built at least 2000 years before Christ, consequently must be of the same antiquity as the Assyrian monarchy. The consort of king Hasti was named Ashodara, and was a daughter of king Trigarta. They had a son called Vikugnen, who married Sumanda a daughter of king Dashahanda[28].

The city Dionysiopolis, mentioned by Ptolemy and Arrian[29], is Nisa, the city of Devanishi, that is of Dionysius, or the Indian Bacchus. In the Samscred language it is called Shrinagari, which signifies the city of the celebrated, the fortunate, or the blessed Bacchus[30]. It is called also Nishadabury or Naishadabur, that is, the city Nisa. It lies in the latitude of 31°, on the river Allakandara, which discharges itself into the Ganges. According to the assertion of St. Jerome, it was built by Bacchus 550 years after the birth of Abraham. Pallibothra was likewise built by Bacchus. That city, however, is neither the present Patna on the Ganges, as Major Rennel pretends, nor Eleabad, or Allahabad, which lies also on the Ganges, in the latitude of 25 degrees and some minutes; but Pallipatur, now a small town on the river Yamunà, at its influx into the Ganges, in the latitude of 26°. Robertson and D’Anville, who assert that Pallibothra is the present Eleabad, or Allahabad, deserve no credit; because these appellations are of Persian and not of Indian extraction[31].

Benares, Venares, or Kasi, a celebrated temple, together with an academy and an observatory, is situated on the Ganges, in the latitude of 25°, and is the Cassidia of the ancients[32].

Ayodhya, an ancient Indian city, where the first Indian monarchs on the Ganges resided, was situated on the river Deva, in the latitude of 25°, exactly in the spot where Faizabad now stands. It was the birth-place of Shiràna, or Rama, an Indian hero, or the younger Bacchus, whose heroic achievements were celebrated in songs before the times of the Pagan Indians.

Modhura, or Moturapuri, called by Pliny Modura Deorum, is also a very ancient city, lying between Agra and Delhi, in the latitude of 27°. It is the birth-place of the god Krishna, or the Indian Apollo, who here tended his herds. For this reason it is called likewise Gocula and Ambàdi, that is, the circuit of the cows. It is situated on the river Yamuna, for which the Pagans have the utmost veneration.

Eloura or Illoura, properly Ellur, the city of sesamum, is at present a town called Douletabad. It lies four Indian miles to the north-west of Aurungabad. There is here a very ancient and celebrated temple, a description of which has been given by Thevenot.

Canudi, and not Canouge, as Renaudot writes, is an ancient city, the residence of the first Indian kings. The five brothers Pandu, or Pando, who make so great a figure in the ancient history of India, kept here their court. It lies in the latitude of 27°, on the river Càlini, at the place where it discharges itself into the Ganges.

Patna, a celebrated city on the Ganges, is placed in Father Tiefenthaler’s map under the latitude of 25°. It contains a million and a half of inhabitants, according to the assertion of Father Marcus a Tumba, who has written a description of it. The English have here a council and government, who are, however, subordinate to the supreme council at Calcutta.

A more minute account of Indian cities and places may be found in Tiefenthaler’s description of Hindostan, Anquetil du Perron’s Historical and Geographical Researches, Rennel’s Memoir, and a very important manuscript of Father Marcus a Tumba, preserved in the Borgian museum at Velitri, and entitled Su i luoghi santi dell’ India. My object was merely to mention some places in the southern part of India, which have been passed over in silence by the above writers.

According to the assertion of the before mentioned Capuchin, Father Marcus a Tumba, who resided a long time as missionary at Patna and Tschandranagar, the Chandernagor of the French, the flux and reflux of the sea extend, by means of the Ganges, more than sixty leagues into the country, so that ships of war can proceed that far up the river. On the Dèva or Sarayuva vessels can go even to Delhi, and on the river Son to Rotasgar. The English possess, on the Ganges, the cities of Calcutta, Monguiri, Patna, Benares, and Allahabad or Eleabad, and have at all these places factories, fortresses, governors, and collectors of the public revenues. The province of Bengal alone brings them an annual income of above three millions sterling. It appears from a letter of Mr. Hastings, formerly governor-general of Bengal, that the English ships which sailed from that settlement between the 1st of December 1782, and the 1st of January 1784, had on board goods to the value of two cores (or codi) and sixty-five lack of rupees[33]. A rupee is equal in value to five Roman paoli; a hundred thousand rupees make one lack; and a hundred lac, a core or codi. This immense sum was exported too at a time when the English were involved in a war with the Indian princes; but to how much will their exports at last amount in times of war?—Their great revenues will and must infallibly decrease hereafter; for, in the first place, the natives are too much oppressed: 2dly, In a state of continual warfare and plundering, agriculture is neglected: 3dly, Trade and manufactures decline: 4thly, The country is ruined by monopolies: 5thly, An immense quantity of specie has been drawn from it of late years; and at present much fewer rupees and pagodas are seen in circulation than formerly[34].

Those who wish to form a clear idea of the degraded condition of the greater part of the Indian kings and princes in the southern and northern part of India, must recur to the hostile invasions by which foreign conquerors reduced those countries under their dominion. In the year 1202 the Tartar Gingsa Khan, or Gengis Khan, made an incursion into the kingdom of Tangut, and in 1209 into India. He was followed in 1409, two centuries later, by Timur Bec, or Tamerlan, when he had crushed the dynasty of the Moguls, which afterwards was divided into two branches, the eastern and the western. Timur established himself in the neighbourhood of Agra; expelled, as far as his power extended, the legal Indian kings and princes; and committed the care of the provinces he had subdued to nabobs and governors of his own appointment. This was the first time that the Mogul Tartars took possession of India. Some writers assert, that Gengis Khan did not enter India till the year 1218, and that the conquest of that country by Timur falls about the year 1398. However this may be, Mir Shah, called by some Mirzan Pir Mohamed, kept possession of the northern part of India for several years, and composed for his subjects a new code of laws according to the political system of the Moguls. The next conqueror of India was Abu Said Shemor Ami Shah, who reigned in 1493. During the persecution which Timur permitted against the Indians, the Gypsies, who belonged originally to the caste of the Pareas, a people residing on the Sindhu, or Indus, fled from their native country, wandered through Scythia, and, proceeding thence to Hungary, dispersed themselves over various parts of Europe[35]. In the year 1519, or, according to some, 1526, the celebrated conqueror Bahur, a descendant of Timur, extended the Mogul empire in India; or was rather, as some assert, the real founder of it. He had four sons, Homaon or Omayoun, Sehir Shah, Selim Shah, and Firuz Shah, who reigned after him. In the year 1550, or 1556, Akbar the wise, a son of Homaon, rebuilt the city of Agra, introduced new laws, and appointed new nabobs or viceroys in the provinces. He caused various Indian books to be translated also into the Persian language; and among these were the work called Mahabhàrada, and another named Ayin Akberi. The latter was a book of Indian laws, which had been collected by his minister Albufazel. Akbar died in 1605, and was succeeded by Gehanguir. The latter had five sons, one of whom swayed the sceptre of the kingdom of Dàkshima or Decan, which he had subdued by force. In 1627 Gehanguir was followed by Shah Gehan, who also left behind him five sons. According to some, however, a prince named Bolasci reigned a considerable time before him. Akbar restored to the Brahmans their observatory at Benares, in order that they might continue their astronomical observations, which had been long interrupted by the war. Gehanguir, on the other hand, had no taste for the sciences, and could not prevail upon himself to tread in the footsteps of his father: both he and Shah Gehan were rather formed for war. These Moguls made an incursion, for the first time, into the kingdom of Carnate, or more properly Carnada, in 1632 or 1633; and they thence over-ran the southern part of India, into which no foreign conqueror had ever before penetrated. Shah Gehan transferred the seat of government from Agra to Delhi. The dominion of the Moguls was still farther extended under the reign of Aurengzeb, one of the sons of Shah Gehan. This prince conquered, in 1686, the kingdoms of Velur, Visapur, and Goloonda; in 1695, subdued Carnada a second time; and, in 1698, made himself master of the provinces of Gingi, Satara, and Panin. Major Rennel says, that the revenue of this monarch amounted annually to thirty-five millions sterling. He died in 1707, and left four sons, one of whom, Shah Alem, assumed the reins of government the same year. The latter had two sons, who reigned till the year 1739. Their successor Shah Mohamed was dethroned by Thamas Kuli Khan, who plundered the treasury, levied exorbitant contributions from the people, and carried off an immense booty. Thamas Kuli Khan, or Nadir Shah, was followed in 1748 by Achmet Shah, a son of Mohamed Shah. After this the throne of Delhi was possessed from 1756 to 1760 by Azizeddoulah or Alemguirsani, king of the Patans. Under the government of this prince almost all the nabobs refused obedience to his lawful commands. The districts over which they presided as viceroys being of considerable extent, and at a great distance from Delhi, it was therefore much easier for them to render themselves totally independent. His son was deprived of the throne by his own prime minister; and bloody feuds ensued, which continued, without interruption, till the year 1773. As it was far more advantageous, in every case, to have to contend with several weak and petty princes, than so formidable and powerful a monarch, the English, during this state of warfare, considered it as of great importance to support the rebellious nabobs against their supreme lord, in order that they might establish themselves more firmly in the possession of their colonies, and at the same time have allies in case of need. After this period the power of the Great Mogul sunk into nothing. The policy by which the English, as well as the Subadars, or Mogul governors, effected this change, may be found circumstantially described in Pallebot de St. Lubin’s Historical Memoirs, under the head Revolutions of Bengal. The Seiks, whom I consider as a people originally Christians, but who again adopted the Pagan religion, taking up arms, now entered in a hostile manner into Lahor, Multan, Delhi, and other possessions of the Great Mogul; while the English, in another quarter, combining their own private interest with that of the rebellious nabobs or viceroys, made themselves masters of several provinces also: and thus this mighty empire, notwithstanding its greatness, its monstrous extent, and its riches, sunk back into its former insignificance. After this period nothing but war and contention prevailed in Carnate, Tanjaur, Gingi, Madura, and Maissur, and in all the provinces, of which I shall soon give a more particular account.

The first province on the coast of Ciòlamandala, which begins in the south-west, and extends towards the north-east, is Marava, the capital of which, having the same name, is situated, according to M. De la Tour, in the latitude of 9° 35′ north; as appears by the map which he published at Paris, in 1770, under the title of Theatre de la Guerre dans l’Inde. This map, which was constructed with great accuracy on the coast of Ciòlamandala, exhibits with much clearness and precision the different districts, cities, and rivers in the theatre of the war carried on by the English, French and Indians against each other, as well as the boundaries of these districts, and the principal roads through them. It was constructed by order of the French government for the trial of Count Lally, who had been governor of Puduceri. I consider it as much more correct than the map of the Brahmans, which Anquetil du Perron has inserted under the title of Portion d’une Carte du Sud de la presqu’Isle de l’Inde, faite par des Brahmes, in the first part of his Récherches Historiques et Geographiques sur l’Inde, published at Berlin in 1786. The Brahmans were unprovided with good astronomical instruments, and consequently not in a condition to construct an accurate map.

The province of Marava is bounded on the east and south by the sea, on the north by Tanjaur, and on the west by Madura. It is intersected by the Veyarru, that is, the great river, which flows down from the Gauts, divides the kingdom of Madura or Pandi into two parts, and, running past the ancient city of Madura, spreads itself through the province of Marava into several branches. By means of this river vessels can be navigated to the sea through both the before-mentioned provinces, in a direction from west to east; but it is exceedingly difficult and laborious to return. While the flood, called by the Indians Velli, continues, there is no impediment, as it each time drives the vessel three or four miles up the country; but when it is over, the troublesome part of the navigation commences, because the sailors must then row against the stream with all their strength. The case is the same, in general, on the coasts of Ciòlamandala and Malabar, with all the rivers which flow down from the Gauts, and which for the most part have their sources in that ridge of mountains. But with whatever difficulties this return may be attended, the advantages procured by these rivers to the inhabitants of the surrounding districts are of the utmost importance. They facilitate inland as well as foreign trade, render the soil fruitful, purify and cool the air; in a word, it is to be ascribed to them alone that the country is habitable by human beings; which certainly would have been impossible, had not Providence placed in this part of the torrid zone that immense ridge, and supplied it so abundantly with water.

The principal cities in the province of Marava are: Elluvancotta, Ciangucotta, Tiruvananganur, Ciòlaburam, Kavaricotta, and Ràmanàthapuram, of which I have already spoken. The country is covered with forests, underwood, and shrubs. The inhabitants are rude and uncultivated. The men, though of low stature, are strongly built and excellent warriors. I saw several of them, who had behaved with great gallantry in the war which Rama Varmer, the king of Travancor, carried on against the nabob Tippoo Sultan Babader. Each wore around his head a turban of blue cotton cloth; had a white jacket which descended to his thighs, a sabre by his side; in his right hand a lance, and in his left a shield. These people march, however, in bodies without any certain order, and perform their evolutions by the sound of a horn. They let their beards grow; have coarse hands and faces; go bare-footed; and wear a blue girdle around the body. They are much braver than the Tamulians, who can never be accustomed to the fatigues of a military life.

Marava was formerly a province of the kingdom of Madura. The ruler of it was called Nyaquen, that is, the lord; but the Europeans have corrupted this word, and made of it Naik or Naiken. The northern part of Marava is at present under the dominion of the nabob Mohamed Aly and his friends the English; but the western is subject to the king of Travancor, who possesses also a part of Madura and Marava on the east, from Cape Comari, in consequence of a treaty which he entered into with the English and Mohamed Aly. This king of Travancor, however, is obliged to pay the Coppa, that is, a yearly tribute, to Mohamed Aly, who may be called a creature of the English, and whom they generally employ as a state engine when they wish to exercise their oppression against the Indian princes. The Jesuits formerly had a great many Christian congregations in Marava, and this missionary establishment was connected with those in Tanjaur and Madura; but, in my time, these congregations had for the most part dropped off; and the few still remaining were under the direction of priests from Goa, who did not bestow too much attention upon them. The interior parts of Madura and Marava, in matters of spiritual judicature, are subject to the archbishop of Cudnegalur or Craugalor; and places on the sea-coast, which do not extend farther than ten miles into the country, belong to the diocese of the bishop of Cochin.

Tanjaur lies between the tenth and eleventh degree of latitude, and 25 seconds farther towards the north east. This kingdom is bounded on the south by the sea and the province of Marava, not far from the fortress of Tiruvananganur, which belongs to Marava. On the east it is washed also by the sea, and towards the north by the rivers Cavèri and Colàrru, the latter of which is very improperly written Colram. In the Samscred language it signifies the river of the wild hogs; from Cola a wild hog, and Arru a river; for these animals were formerly found there in great abundance. Both these rivers, the Cavèri and Colàrru, are exceedingly large, and are held in as great veneration by the eastern Indians as the Ganges is by the northern. Those who belong to the sect of the Vishnuvites, address their prayers to Vishnu as the ruler of the waters; and they believe that he created the universe from water: for this reason they perform their lustrations at rivers, and on their return carry with them some bits of yellow earth, which they pick up on the banks. When an individual of this sect dies, his body is burnt, and the ashes are thrown into one of these rivers. From this it appears that the Indians show divine honours to the elements after the manner of the ancient Persians.

Tanjaur, the capital of the province, is situated in 10° 35′ north latitude, between the two arms of the river Cavèri. The most considerable cities next to this are: Vallam, Màdèvipatnam, or the city of the great goddess Lakshmi, Patucòtta, Tiruvalur, and Tirumannur. Beyond the boundaries of Tanjaur, towards the west, on the left bank of the Cavèri, and in the latitude of 10° 45′, lies the celebrated city of Tricinapalli, where at present the English have their seat of government, and the principal part of their forces. They made choice of it for the capital of the province, and their chief magazine of arms, because they can thence keep in subjection, with the greatest ease, the two kingdoms of Tanjaur and Madura; overawe the deposed kings and princes; collect the public revenue, the rice crops, and the taxes, without much trouble; and can be always ready to march with their troops, at a minute’s warning, to any quarter wherever symptoms of insurrection may appear. On the sea-coast, towards the east, in the kingdom of Tanjaur, lies the temple Collamedu; and the city of Negapatnam, which belongs to the English, and is strongly fortified; also the city of Torangapuri, or Tranquebar; Naur, particularly celebrated on account of its cotton manufactures; the city and fortress of Karinkalla, which once belonged to the French; Cialenbron, an ancient Pagan temple; and Divyacotta, which was formerly an excellent castle. The river Cavèri divides itself into several arms or channels: one of these, which branches off not far from Cirangam, is distinguished by the name of Colàrru. It is much larger and broader than even the Cavèri itself. The latter flows towards the east, but the former pursues its course towards the north; and both discharge themselves into the sea through several mouths. It is to be ascribed chiefly to these two rivers that the kingdom of Tanjaur produces such an abundance of rice. It grows there in so great quantities, that this land may with propriety be called the granary of all Ciòlamandala. Most foreigners endeavour to establish themselves in this province, or at least to carry on trade with it. In the year 1619 the king of Tanjaur, Raghu-nathe-nayaguen, gave up the city of Torangapuri, or Tranquebar, to the Danes, who immediately formed there a celebrated missionary establishment for propagating the Lutheran religion. In 1638 the French obtained from Sovadsadiragia, another king of Tanjaur, the city and harbour of Carinkalla, which they name Carikal. In 1658 the Dutch and the Portuguese made themselves masters of the city of Nagapatnam, and in 1783 it was taken from the Dutch by the English, and never again restored. It is of the utmost importance to the latter, since they have had possession of the kingdom of Tanjaur. Before they added this country to their Indian possessions, they employed every method possible, by their creature and ally the nabob of Arcate, Mohamed Aly, to get it into their hands; but when they at length obtained it, the injustice of the measure appeared so glaring, that the Court of London protested against the violent proceedings of the government of Madraspatnam, and sent out Lord Pigot to India, with orders to restore the kingdom to the Maratta prince, its lawful owner. Lord Pigot, in my time, was kept in a state of arrest at Mont Grand, not far from Maïlapuri. The merchants of Madraspatnam, who derived immense advantages from the kingdom of Tanjaur, opposed the disposition made by the British Court for restoring it; and General Stuart, whom the adherents of Mr. Stratton and the merchants had brought over to their party, enticed Lord Pigot to take an airing in his carriage; had him arrested on the road, and conveyed to the before-mentioned fortress Mont Grand, which lies at the distance of a few miles towards the west from Madraspatnam. Here he remained for a considerable time in confinement, till he at length died in 1777. Tullasuragia, king of Tanjaur, who, by the command and exertions of Lord Pigot, was restored to the throne, experienced a similar fate. He was put in confinement also by the assistance of Mohamed Aly, and died in prison in 1776. Such is the manner in which kingdoms and provinces are acquired in India! The Europeans first get a footing there as merchants; imperceptibly endeavour to extend their power; are no longer satisfied with the advantages of trade, and begin gradually to oppose their own private interest to the interest of those princes who have admitted them into their dominions. In a little time they find means to involve them in a war; sometimes they give them assistance, in order that they may afterwards make them pay for it; and sometimes they incite one prince against another, or endeavour to create confusion in their political relations: in a word, they never rest until they get possession of the land which is the object of their ambition. Timur-Bec, Thamas Kuli Khan, the Moguls and Marattas, the English and French, all pretended to have just reasons for seizing the possessions of others; and no man was able to refute these reasons, which, while they had arms in their hands, were rendered sufficiently valid. “The right of conquest,” says Montesquieu, in his Spirit of Laws, “is a necessary, lawful, but unhappy power, which leaves the conqueror under a heavy obligation of repairing the injuries done to humanity[36].”

It has been already said, that in former times the kingdom of Tanjaur was dependent on that of Madura. The princes who were subordinate, and obliged to pay tribute to that of the latter, were called Nayaga, that is, lords; and not Rajah, or kings. In the ancient classical writers they are seldom mentioned, and at later periods all intercourse between Europe and India was interrupted by the incursion of the barbarians, so that scarcely any traces of them are to be found. The relation of the two Arabian travellers of the ninth century, a translation of which has been given by Renaudot, is exceedingly dry and barren; for these travellers speak only of such princes in India as received them with friendship, and of places where they were kindly entertained by their countrymen the Arabs. The most authentic information now extant, respecting the kingdom of Tanjaur and its sovereigns, has been collected by Anquetil du Perron in the first part of his Recherques historiques, &c. often already mentioned, under the following head: Suite chronologique des rois Marates du Tanjour commençant à Ekogi (Egavàgi), l’an 1471 de l’ere Chretienne jusqu’a Toullason Rajah en 1783; accompagnée de détails sur les principaux rois de la presqu’ile de l’Inde depuis la fin du 15 siecle. In the year 1360 Tanjaur was under the government of king Prabudhadeven, which signifies the attentive, careful god; from Prabudha, attentive, careful; and Deven, a god. People who were ignorant of the Indian languages corrupted this word, and made of it Parabudeideven. After him, an officer of the king of Bisnagari, or Narasinha, called the Emperor of the Coast of Coromandel, was raised to that dignity. This kingdom fell afterwards into the power of some Maratta princes, who retained it till the year 1773, when the nabob of Arcate, Mohamed Aly, an Arabian prince, was forcibly put in possession of it by the English, in whose hands it remains at this day[37].

Some of the missionaries, such as, Father de Magistris, Frederick Schwarz a Dane[38], and Father Johannes de Brito, whose manuscript works, never yet published, I have now in my hands, complain bitterly of the oppression which the subjects of the Pagan kings had to endure. M. Anquetil du Perron endeavours to defend the latter, and to prove that private persons enjoyed real and individual property, among which he reckons gardens and meadows. I can, however, establish, by historical documents, that this assertion is altogether false, and that Anquetil was totally unacquainted with the ancient Indian laws. The kings either let their rice fields to the farmers called Vayshya, or gave up the use of them to their soldiers for military service. It is very certain that a great many abuses were connected with the regal authority; and, in my opinion, this was the principal cause why the kings of Madura, Maïssur, Tanjaur and Marava came at last to destruction. Their subjects were, indeed, divided into nobles, patricians and plebeians; but these three ranks were always at variance, and the people groaned under the severest oppression. It was very customary for one, under the pretence of avenging some injury he had sustained, to fall upon the property of another and to carry it off. The monarchs were at great pains to keep up these feuds, and they seldom suffered the offended party to receive justice. Continual jealousy prevailed between these petty tyrants; military discipline was totally neglected, and nothing was encouraged at court but luxury and flattery. Under these circumstances, it needs excite no wonder that the people received foreigners bent upon conquest with open arms; and that these kings, after a dominion of two thousand years, brought themselves at last to ruin, as must be the case with all those who suffer such abuses in their government. The revolution which happened in these kingdoms, when the English interfered in the affairs of India, might perhaps have been of some use, had not that nation, as avaricious as it is industrious, carried away all the productions and other riches of the country. It is thus that the nations of the earth are punished, when they abandon themselves so completely to vice that they shut their eyes against the light of reason, and in their blindness stray from the paths of justice and virtue.

At Navur great quantities of cotton articles, Tapissendis[39], and cloth of all colours are manufactured. The blue cotton stuffs of Nagapatnam and Torangapuri are sent throughout all Tanjaur, Madura and Malabar. Nagapatnam is the place where the spiritual jurisdiction of the bishop of Cochin ends, and that of the bishop of Maïlapuri commences. The latter extends not only over the whole coast of Ciòlomandala, but over that also of Orixa, and throughout all Bengal, where the above-mentioned bishop has a vicar-general. The Jesuits formerly were in possession of a great many Christian churches in Tanjaur, and the missionary establishment there depended on that of Madura, which was founded by Father Robert Nobili, a native of the Papal territories. At present an ex-jesuit resides at Tricinnapalli.

The kingdom of Madura begins, in the south, under about 8° 10′ N. lat. near the sea, and extends thence, towards the north, between the Gauts, which lie on the west, and between Madura and Tanjaur, the latter of which lies on the east and ends in the north at the rivers Cavèri and Veyàrru, in 11° 15′ N. lat. These rivers intersect the whole country. The Veyàrru, or great river, is, on Anquetil’s map, named by the Brahmans Madura. It directs its course from west to east, and flows past the ancient city of Madura, which is the capital of the kingdom, and from which the whole province derives its name. The Cavèri descends also from the Gauts, and, running past Tricinapalli, Ceringham, and various other cities, discharges itself through several mouths into the sea. This tract of land lies much higher than the rest, and therefore it produces much less rice; but for that reason it abounds more with cotton, cummin, garlic, ginger, gum-lac and capers. There are found here also a great many bezoar goats, civet cats, wild hogs, deer, antelopes, tygers, apes, and elephants. In some of the valleys there grow likewise considerable quantities of very white rice, the grains of which are small, and which has an excellent aromatic taste. The inhabitants of this province, like all mountaineers, are large, robust people, and capable of bearing the heaviest burthens on their head and shoulders. They carry on a considerable trade with the maritime cities on the coast of Ciòlamandala, and since the earliest periods have been accustomed to cross the Gauts, mountains of tremendous height; so that they even transport their cotton stuffs to the coast of Malabar, and either sell them in some of the towns and villages lying at the bottom of these mountains, or exchange them for salt, dried fish, areca nuts, pepper, copper, iron, and other articles in which the kingdom of Madura is deficient. Necessity is the oldest and first instructor which mankind had in regard to commerce; avarice, luxury, and the thirst of gain afterwards associated themselves with her, and still follow in her train. Among the trading cities, at the foot of the Gauts, on the Malabar coast, is Arampalli, the Arguropolis of the ancient Greeks, which lies nine miles up the country from Cape Comari, and as much from Covalam. Formerly there were in this city above two thousand looms employed in weaving cotton stuffs. Even at present it is a place of some importance in regard to its cotton trade; but formerly it was, as it were, the mart or general magazine to which the inhabitants of the Malabar coast and the province of Madura carried all their merchandize. Since navigation increased, many of the manufacturers have removed from this as well as from other cities, and formed new settlements and places of trade at a distance from those harbours which are frequented by foreign ships. The other Malabar cities, which still keep up their former connection and trade with Madura, are: Cottàte, Càgnarapalli, Iratugè, Pugnàda, Mohatugè, and Codamangalam. The cities in the interior part of the kingdom of Madura, which formerly sent and still send merchandize to the Malabar coast, are: Cambam, Uttamapàliam, Periaculam, Sindacalla, Badagare, Tuvàrencurici, Veluvàracotta, Andipatti, Tevàram, Ciundrapandi, Cettur, Shivagari, Tirunaveli, Cencotta, Condùr, Tèdanàda, Perumanel, Ceruvatti, Caricàttur, and Manimàla. Notwithstanding the great number of missionaries and European geographers who have written on this country, not one of them has so much as mentioned the names of these cities, or given any account of the connection which subsists between the two coasts of the peninsula of India. All of them confine themselves rather to a general view, and speak only of the possessions of the Europeans. I can, however, with truth assert, that I have seen whole companies of these merchants from Madura, partly at Codamangalam at the bottom of the Gauts, and partly at Mohatuge and Padmanaburam. They are accustomed to transport their merchandize upon oxen, which are loaded with cotton goods of every kind. These merchants are almost all well armed, because they are obliged to pursue their way through narrow passes in the mountains, which, on account of the numerous tygers found in them, are exceedingly dangerous. From the before-mentioned cities, in the interior part of Malabar, merchandize is transported to those on the coast both by land and by water. They are sent to Covalam at Cape Comari, Coleci, Tiruvancòda, Collam, Porrocàda, Muttam, Cocci, Cudungalùr, Colicòtta, Cannanùr, Valiapatnam and Calianapuri, and thence conveyed on board foreign ships. Some of these cities were celebrated in ancient times. Thus, for example, Arampalli was by the Greeks called Arguropolis; and Covalam, Colis or Colias; Coleci, in Strabo, is named Cojaci; and Cottàte occurs, in Ptolemy, under the name of Cottiara Metropolis, and in Pliny under that of Cottona. Neither the Egyptians, whose vessels consisted merely of papyrus, nor the Greeks and the Romans, who were not very expert in the art of navigation, and whose ships were built in an exceeding slight manner, ever ventured to double Cape Comari, where such violent storms sometimes prevail, that the Portuguese called it The Little Cape of Good Hope. The mariners of these nations ran their vessels, therefore, either into the small harbours of Covalam or Coleci, where the sea forms a bay or haven, in which ships of a moderate size can lie at anchor in perfect security. It was necessary that every article of merchandize from Bengal and Pegu, the island of Ceylon, the coast of Coromandel, Tanjaur, and Madura, should be sent to both these places, which was done more frequently by Land than by water. A part of them were then transported up the Red Sea to Alexandria; the rest were conveyed through the Persian gulph to the Tigris and the Euphrates, and thence they made their way to Greece and Rome; as has been very justly remarked by Strabo, Pliny, Arrian, Marco Polo, Schmidt, Montesquieu, and lately by the celebrated Robertson.

The kingdom of Madura or Pandi, said to have been founded by one of the five brothers Pandu or Pandava, A. M. 1550, was always governed by its own lawful sovereigns, natives of the country. Porus, or Puru, sat upon the throne in the time of Octavius Augustus. King Cerambotti, who is mentioned by Pliny, Arrian, and Ptolemy, under the names of Cuprobottes, Celebothras, or Cerobothron, was descended from this family; and his government extended both over Malabar and the kingdom of Canara. The kings of Travancor, who about sixty years ago were very obscure princes, had their origin also in Madura. The kings of Madura kept their court in the city of the same name, and their vassals shewed them a veneration almost without bounds. After the death of Virabhanàyaguen, no fewer than three hundred of his wives ascended the funeral pile, and voluntarily suffered their bodies to be burnt with that of the king. In the year 1740 the Marattas made an incursion into Madura, and since that period the dominion of the national kings has been at an end. After the Marattas Nisam al Malek penetrated into the country, and at last came Mohamed Aly Khan, in the year 1742. The latter caused the viceroy of Madura, named Khan Saheb, to be put to death; took possession of the throne; entered into an alliance with the English at Madraspatnam, and divided the kingdom of Madura between himself and his allies. The English then converted the city of Tricinapalli into a place of arms; beset the high ways with guards, and got into their hands the whole trade. By these means the ancient Madura fell totally into ruin. The English have also another army at Tirunaveli[40], a city lying to the south of Madura. This place is separated from Paliamcotta only by a river, which serves as a boundary between the English and the king of Travancor. Paliamcotta, a strong fortress, is situated on the southern bank of that river, and belongs to the king of Travancor, who is also in alliance with the English. When the English are desirous of procuring money from this prince, they instigate their ally Mohamed Aly Khan to send an army against Tovala, in the neighbourhood of Cape Comari; and if the king of Travancor wishes to prevent this disagreeable visit, he must pay to the English whatever they choose to demand. When I was at the court of this prince, in 1784, the army of Mohamed Aly Khan required him either to send them a certain sum, or to give them permission to march through Tovala, in order that they might obtain money from Travancor. Cumàren Cembaga Ràmapulla, however, a man of talents, who was then prime minister, settled the whole business by paying to the English 200,000 rupees[41].

The kingdom of Carnada, from the year 1754 to 1762, was the continual theatre of the war carried on against each other by the English and French, Hayder Aly Khan, the father of Tippoo Sultan, and the nabob of Arrucate. It is bounded on the west by that ridge of mountains called the Gauts; and lies between the 12th and 14th degree of north latitude, and the 77th and 78th of east longitude. Towards the south it is bounded by Tanjaur, or the river Vellaru, which flows down from the mountains in Maïssur on the west, intersects Carnada, and throws itself into the eastern sea at the extremity of the kingdom near Puorto Novo. Golconda forms its boundary on the north, in the latitude of 15°. Carnada is the kingdom so much extolled by ancient travellers under the name of Narasinha. It is watered by three rivers, the first of which, called the Paler, runs past the cities of Velur, Arrucate, Cangipuri and Sadras. It is extremely broad at the last-mentioned place, and discharges itself into the eastern sea. The second, named the Ciovanàrru, falls into the sea on the south of Puduceri, after having united, not far from that city, with the Gingi, which flows down from the mountains of the same name. The third is called the Ponarru, or the golden river. It has its source in the Gauts, not far from Dhermapuri in Maïssur, runs past Tricolur, and on the north of Gudelùr throws itself into the sea. The interior part of this country produces abundance of rice, though not in such quantity as Tanjaur. Numerous herds of cattle are also seen in it; and, according to the assertion of the Indians, it contains mines of gold and silver. The cotton articles manufactured here are exceedingly fine. The maritime cities of Carnada are, Gudelùr, Puduceri, Cangimaram, Sadras, Maïlapuri, Madraspatnam, and Valiacada or Paliacate. Various kinds of cotton stuffs, both coloured and white, are manufactured to a considerable extent in all these cities. Gingi, the capital of a small province, and Arrucate, are two pretty strong fortresses in the interior part of the country, and at the same time cities of great antiquity. According to Ptolemy, Brahmanes Magi resided formerly at Cangipuri in the kingdom of Carnada, and therefore it is beyond all doubt that in the first century of the Christian æra there were magi in India as well as in Persia. In the remotest periods there was a temple at Cangipuri, which is still frequented by a great number of pilgrims. It is dedicated to Vishnu, who, according to the doctrine of the Indians, first created water, and from water the whole universe. The image of this deity, who is here represented with four hands, is carried round in triumph, on certain days, in a very high carriage drawn by sixty persons. In his first hand he holds the sacred wheel; in the second, a huntsman’s horn; in the third, a diamond; and in the fourth a club, in order to combat the giants. A festival is still held here in honour of Fire, which has been already described by Sonnerat in the second part of his Voyage to India. Tirunamala, Tirupadi, Tiruvalur, Cirangam, and Cialembron, are also very beautiful pagodas or Pagan temples, which are not unworthy of a particular description. Some of these occupy a large square, surrounded by four lofty walls. In the middle of each wall stands a very high sharp-pointed tower, ornamented with the figures of various animals, which represent the different symbols of the deity. Under the tower is a gate, through which you enter the forecourt of the pagoda; and as there are commonly four towers on each wall, the most of these pagodas have also four gates. These towers, with their gates, are called Gòburam, which signifies both the tower and the gate of the fore-court of the temple. The before-mentioned symbols are in part offensive to decency. They allude to the creation and destruction of all created things, which are effected by the sun, moon, and the earth; and these are represented under the symbols of the three deities Shiva, Parvadi, and Lakshmi. The towers are square, and consist of several stories; some of which are large, but others very narrow. Each story is furnished with windows, and in the upper story a lamp is kept burning during the night. The temple itself stands in the middle of the court, and for the most part is of a conical form. These pagodas or Pagan temples, which in the Samscred language are called Ksetra, Devassa, or Devalea, consist of three divisions. The first forms the main body, or nave; the second, the sanctuary; and the third, the Shrikoil, that is, the chapel, in which the Bimbam (statue) or the Deven deity, or the Punya Murti, sacred body, is preserved. This chapel is constructed in the middle of the sanctuary, and has only one small window, so that in the inside it is exceedingly dark: a circumstance which not only increases the reverence and respect entertained for the divinity, but contributes also to conceal the functions of the Eburandiri, or high priest, who alone has the right of approaching the image. A great many lamps, filled with oil and butter, are kept burning around the chapel; and the offerings, which consist of rice, coco nuts, flowers, sesamum, pisangs, and other fruits, are deposited on a stool before the god, and left at the disposal of the priest. From the roof of the temple arises a long pole, to which is fastened, on days of solemnity, a large flag 70 feet in length. On this flag is represented an ox (the Vahana or riding animal of the god Shiva) when the temple is dedicated to that deity; and in that case the ox or Apis is represented also in bas-relief above the small door of the chapel already described. There must always be a stream in the neighbourhood, in order that the Indians may wash themselves, and perform those ablutions which the service of the god requires. The sanctuary, for the most part, is surrounded by five or six rows of stone pillars, from eighteen to twenty feet in height, and ornamented with bas-reliefs of ingenious workmanship. In many temples the number of these columns amounts sometimes to sixty. It is astonishing how carefully the rules of architecture have been observed in constructing them: and as some of these temples are of very great antiquity, it consequently follows that this art must have flourished in India in the remotest periods.

The most considerable cities and fortresses in Carnada, the latter of which are almost always built in the form of a square, are: Palancotta, Balancada, Atur, Calianatur, Shelon, Tatagari, Calicurici, Tirucolur, Tiruvanelur, Trividi, Tiruvamatur, Valdur, Villamur, Perumaculam, Vìcravandi, Tindivanam, Gingi, Tirumala, Penatur, Palur, Cettupeli, Vandavagi, Uttamatur, Tiruvatur, Harani, Timeri, Arcati, Caveripac, Tacaculam, Tirupassur, and Tirupadi. One will scarcely find a country so pre-eminently distinguished by its architecture, and which can exhibit so great a number of elegant temples and other public buildings. It is therefore highly probable that the sovereigns of Carnada were formerly in the most flourishing circumstances, and that population and industry were carried to their utmost extent; for, without the united effect of these causes, such magnificent monuments could never have been erected[42]. In the early periods this district was subject to the kings of Bisnagari or Narasinha. It afterwards came under the dominion of the great Mogul, who caused it to be governed by a nabob or viceroy; but as one unjust possessor generally endeavours to expel another, the Marattas found means to make themselves masters of it in 1740. They were, however, again driven out by the nabob of Arrucate, a prince of Indian extraction, who had embraced the Mahometan religion. The French, at that time, espoused the cause of the great Mogul; but the English, who lived in a state of hostility with the Marattas, interested themselves for the nabob of Arrucate, who had rebelled against the great Mogul, and with whom they were besides in alliance. A bloody war ensued, during which the English and French, together with their different allies, fought more than fifteen battles in the kingdom of Carnada; and the contest was continued, with various success, till Carnada at length came under the dominion of the nabob of Arrucate and the English, the latter of whom are now in possession of Puduceri, the capital of the French colonies in India. They made a conquest of it since the commencement of the French revolution; and as the English at present have great power in India, this city is not likely to fall again into the hands of the French, unless it be restored on the conclusion of a peace.

The missionary establishment in Carnada, which was entrusted to French Jesuits, can boast of a great many celebrated men. It commences in the west at the mountains of Maïssur, which separate this province from Carnada; extends thence towards the east along the rivers Vellaru and Paler, and comprehends the whole kingdom. The principal places where the Jesuits resided, were: Puduceri, Gingi, Vencàttiguiri, and Arrucate. The most considerable congregations, which they formed in the kingdom of Madura, were at Madura, Tindacalla, Aur, Ilpiur, Puradacudi, Ayambel, and Conacupam. In Tanjaur they had congregations of the like kind at Varugapattì, Sirgani, Tanjaur, Suran, Camanaichenpatti, and Tirnaveli. Monseigneur Dolicha, the apostolic vicar, resides sometimes at Puduceri, sometimes at Ariancopan, and belongs to the Corps des Missions étrangeres at Paris. The Portuguese bishop at Maïlapuri pretends to act as superintendant of all these congregations, which were formed neither by him, nor any other Portuguese; and though he is expressly forbidden by the Pope to exercise his spiritual jurisdiction in places which are not under the dominion of Portugal[43]. Since the destruction of the order of the Jesuits, many of these congregations have fallen into decline, because they were destitute of proper pastors. Some of them, however, still exist; and the bishop of Maïlapuri furnishes them with priests, natives of India, sent from Goa to discharge the sacerdotal functions: but these men can never be so useful as Europeans, because they are not much respected by the heathens, and have too little learning to support the reputation of a Christian congregation, while surrounded by Pagans and Mahometans. In my time there were reckoned to be in Madura eighteen thousand Christians; in Carnada, twenty thousand; and in Tanjaur, ten thousand: whereas the Danish missionaries at Torangapuri, or Tranquebar, with all their exertion could scarcely muster a thousand Lutheran Christians, as I was assured by several Catholics who resided at Puduceri[44]; and many even of this insignificant number abjured the Lutheran religion, as soon as they removed to any place beyond the boundaries of Torangapuri. The native Christians are fond of the images of the saints, processions, and in general the ceremonies and solemn festivals of the Catholic church; and, as the Protestants want all these things, it may be readily conceived that their simple religion can have very few attractions for the Indians[45].

This general account of the above countries, in which I resided three months, I must here conclude. It was necessary to be given, that the reader might be better enabled to understand the remaining part of my Travels.

Journey from Puduceri to Covalan, Maïlapuri, and Madraspatnam.

IN the year 1776, a Portuguese ship, the Nossa Senhora de Luz, was lying at anchor in the road of Puduceri, the owner of which, John Gonzalvez, had made a voyage to Madraspatnam on his own account. As this vessel was now destined for the coast of Malabar, and as I was obliged to proceed thither in consequence of my mission, I thought it advisable not to neglect so favourable an opportunity, and to request M. Gonzalvez to give me a free passage: a request which I found myself the more obliged to make, as I had not money to defray the expences of a voyage in any other manner. Having some business, however, to settle at Madraspatnam, I set out from Puduceri on the 9th of September, in a Dooly or palanquin, the bottom of which is woven of Indian cane, after the manner of our chairs, and which is covered with cloth supported by pieces of wood, in order that the traveller may not be incommoded by the beams of the sun. This palanquin is suspended from a pole, and born by six men, whom the Indians call Coolies, or porters; and the English, Boys. These people go almost naked, having nothing on their bodies but a small piece of cotton cloth, which covers what nature bids them conceal, and which is fastened round the loins with a girdle. This cloth is called by the Indians Lingacutti, that is, the covering of the Lingam or privities, which the Europeans have converted into Langotti. In the Malabar language it is called Cila, a clout. These Coolies, almost perfectly naked, convey the traveller from one place to another with as much speed as a posthorse; but they must from time to time be relieved by other six of the same kind. The dexterity and expedition with which they carry the Dooly, or palanquin, is really astonishing. Puduceri is 100 miles from Madraspatnam; and yet some of the servants of the English East India Company commonly perform that journey in fifteen hours. These, however, are forced journeys, for which a great number of such palanquin-bearers are necessary. The road from Puduceri to Madraspatnam is exceedingly good, and in many places bordered by bushy trees, under the shade of which the traveller is protected from the scorching beams of the sun. Every two or three miles there are elegant Balam, Ambalam, or taverns, by the Europeans called Chauderies, and in which conveniences of all kinds are to be found. They are beautiful edifices, raised by the charitable contributions of the Indians, and not unfrequently by the benevolence of some wealthy individual, for the use of travellers; as hospitality, so rare among us Europeans, forms, among the Orientals, a point of religion, and is one of the chief virtues by which they are distinguished from all other nations. In general, the case is very different in India from what it is in Europe, where people, when travelling, must not only expend large sums of money, but are cheated, robbed and plundered by landlords, coachmen and postilions, and meet with every possible kind of bad usage[46]. In India a man can openly carry money with him on the public highway, without having occasion to be in any dread of robbers; for it is sufficient that the Coolies be persons of good character. This security prevails at least in the kingdom of Travancor, where I have travelled more than twenty times by day as well as by night from Cochin to Cape Comari[47].

The excellent establishments and police regulations formed in India, in regard to highways, are extolled by Strabo in the fifteenth book of his geography. The modern Indians consider it as one of the greatest crimes to destroy edifices or inns destined for the use of strangers. These inns consist of a building somewhat raised from the ground, and which contains three divisions or apartments. As the roof, which projects, is supported by pillars, the outer space forms a kind of hall or gallery, where the Doolies, or palanquins, are deposited, that they may not be injured by the rain or the heat of the sun. In the middle apartment stands a stone image, which is generally a representation of Gannesha; and in the two side apartments mats are spread out, which are wove either of palm leaves, or the leaves of the Caida[48], (a wild plant of the species of the Ananas,) and on which the travellers sleep. Some Brahman priest generally resides in the neighbourhood to wait upon them, and who for a few Panam will provide a meal according to the Brahman manner. It consists for the most part of rice boiled and afterwards dried, together with some dishes of small preserved oranges, and soup made of herbs, pepper, ginger, and mustard, and sometimes of boiled, toasted, or raw cheese. Instead of this soup, sour milk, or fresh cream-cheese, is frequently served up. Cagni, or boiled rice water, which the Europeans name Cangi, is given free of all expence, in order that the traveller may quench his thirst with a cooling and wholesome beverage. Statues, which supply the place of mile-stones, and serve to guide strangers, are found every where erected along the high roads. As the Greeks and Romans employed for this purpose the god Terminus, the Indians use their deity Gannesha, who by the common people, not well acquainted with the Samscred language, is called Poleyar. This god has the head and trunk of an elephant, four hands, the body and legs of a man; and is represented sitting cross-legged, according to the manner of the Chinese and Indians. On some monuments he is represented with a semicircle or half-moon around his head, holding in one hand an iron style, which the Indians use for writing on palm leaves, and in the other a palm leaf, or perhaps a bundle of such leaves, covered with writing. On other monuments he has in one hand a pomegranate, or a key in the form of a hook, like those used in the early ages, when doors had no iron-work, and were shut only by a wooden bar on the inside. Instead of the Vahana, or riding-animal, he has always under him a mouse, which is held in the utmost abhorrence by the elephant. This mouse, according to the Indians, represents the wicked demon, the enemy of wisdom, or, in other words, the devil. Indian women, who are married, wear an image of this deity, which they call Taly, suspended from their neck by a string. It supplies the place of a love-pledge, and serves as a token of their chastity and conjugal fidelity. The literati honour this deity as their protector; and salute him always at the beginning of their writings with the words Namà Guru, Adoration to the Lord; or Sal Gurve Namà, Adoration to the true Lord; or Gannabadàye Namà, Adoration to Gannabadi the Lord. They are accustomed also to paint the elephant’s trunk of Gannesha before the first line of their letters, as a symbol of wisdom and prudence.

From Puduceri I continued my journey by Calapada, Congimaram, and Carpuncolam, where I passed the night in one of the before-mentioned Balams. Towards evening I was visited by some female Indians, each of whom carried a basket filled with garlands of white flowers, which they hung around the neck of Gannesha. Next morning, at sun-rise, some Brahmans brought a copper vessel with coco-nut oil; poured it over the statue of Gannesha, and at the same time muttered a certain form of prayer in the Samscred language. As one of them spoke a little Portuguese, I entered into conversation with him. Near such a Balam, or inn, there is generally a pond, called in the Tamulic language Colam, and in corrupted Portuguese Tanque. To this Colam all the Indians who live in the neighbourhood hasten as soon as they get up in the morning, and men and women, boys and girls, placing themselves close to each other, wash the parts of nature with the utmost dexterity, and repeat certain prayers. This ablution, which is renewed every morning, has been introduced into India in the earliest periods, and is a general practice among the inhabitants of the country, as they are of opinion that purity of soul cannot exist without personal cleanliness[49]. The excessive heat of the sun, and the continual perspiration thereby occasioned, may have first given rise to this custom, as also to the worshipping of the Lingam, which, among the Indians, in the same manner as Priapus among the Romans, supplies the place of a god. That the parts of generation might remain in a sound state, the Indian philosophers commanded cleanliness by means of water; and that this practice might never fall into disuse, they ordered that divine honour even should be paid to these parts, which represent the creative power of the sun, moon, and elements. An Indian book, entitled Lingapurànam, a copy of which was preserved in the king’s library at Paris, is a treatise on the worship of this deity. The Indian philosophers, by whom it was first introduced, gave as the inventor of it one of their gods named Mahadeva, or Shiva, the symbol of the all-creating sun.

Next morning I continued my journey, and passing through Vepur, Tengacetti, and other places of little importance, arrived in the evening at Sadras. This beautiful town, at which there is a castle, belongs to the Dutch, who manufacture here cotton goods of a superior quality, which they send to Europe. Their so called Gingams are highly esteemed. This populous place is chiefly inhabited by people employed in carding, preparing and dyeing cotton. One part of it is occupied by Brahmans, whose sole business is commerce. Among the latter seldom can there be found a man who possesses knowledge, and who at the same time will be so candid as to communicate it to strangers. It is of no use, therefore, to enter into conversation with these people, or to request information from them respecting the religion of the Indians. The English, however, do so; for they always boast of having obtained their knowledge immediately from Brahmans appointed to the service of some temple, as if it were not well known that these priests seldom converse with Europeans. At Sadras there is a Christian congregation, which consists of two thousand souls. Most of the members are natural children of the Dutch and other Europeans. I baptised there some new-born infants; and as I was inserting their names in the church register, I everywhere found in the book Filho de fulano, Filho de fulano. As I could not conceive it possible that a father should have so many children, I asked the sexton the meaning of the word fulano: he replied that it signified a person whose name was unknown; and that when the father of a child could not be with certainty discovered, they generally put in the register Filho de fulano. I now knew who the supposed Mr. Fulano was. As the officiating clergyman, a priest from Goa, was at that time absent, I read mass in the church, and pursued my journey. On the third day after, having visited Canatur, Tirupatur, and Tirupalur, I arrived about noon at Covalam, which is inhabited by a few Christians, and for that reason by a much greater number of Mahometans. The Imperial East India Company at Ostend had here formerly a strong fortress, close to the sea-shore; but which, lying too near the English, was on that account dismantled. Charles VI. who established that company at Ostend, found himself obliged to abolish it, in order to avoid a war with the English and French, who were then contending for the possession of Carnada. Covalam produces nothing but millet and salt, the latter of which may be collected by the Christians as well as the Pagans. A great number of the most beautiful shells are cast on shore here by the sea. The ruins of the fortress, which formerly belonged to the Imperial East India Company, afford a retreat to a multitude of snakes. Here I saw, for the first time, the operations of an Indian snake-conjuror, who by music and various processes attracted one of these animals, a circumstance which I had before considered as a fiction, and impossible. I shall speak more at large of this art hereafter.

At the end of a few days I departed from this place, and proceeded to Maïlapuri and Madraspatnam. The former, by the Christians, is called the city of St. Thomas, and is situated close to the sea, which forms there a kind of bay or small haven. It stands on a beautiful plain, abounding with coco-nut trees, which retain their verdure throughout the whole year. The episcopal church, the church of St. Rita, and the Madre de Deos, the bishop’s palace, and that of the Portuguese governor, who at that time was Dom Caravalho, attracted my attention by the regularity of their architecture. This city, however, has lost a great deal of its former magnificence. The authority of the Portuguese seems to be transferred to the English and the nabob of Arrucate, who has his stables here. The inhabitants consist of Pagans, Mahometans, and Christians. The latter are a bastard race, descended from the Indians and the Portuguese. They are of a black complexion, but a little of the European whiteness still appears through it. They are distinguished by the name of Mestize, by which is understood people born of an European father and an Indian mother. They are called also Topazi, that is Duibhashi, or interpreters, because they speak two different languages, Indian and corrupted Portuguese. They form the smaller part of the inhabitants of Maïlapuri, where the Mahometans have the superiority. The last bishop of Maïlapuri was Dom Bernardo da San Gaetano, of the Augustin order, who in 1787 was succeeded by Dom Emanuel di Gesu, an Augustin also, born at Goa. The former, being an European by birth, conducted himself as a prudent, liberal-minded man; but the latter has all the violent, restless, and litigious character of a hot blooded Indian. He even proceeds so far as to expel from his diocese all missionaries who are not Portuguese, or who do not acknowledge his jurisdiction. At St. Rita I lodged in the house of the vicar-general, Father Luiz, an Augustin, who treated me with much hospitality, and from whom I received a great deal of information, both respecting the history of the country, and the state of Christianity in it. The bishop, Dom Bernardo, had at that time undertaken a journey to Bengal, to visit the churches of his diocese. In the evening I always wrote in my journal such observations as occurred in the course of the day; and when the inhabitants told me there was nothing farther to be seen, I proceeded to Madraspatnam.

This city is distant only three miles from Maïlapuri. The road which conducts to it is one of the most beautiful in all India. It is level and broad, well beat, and on both sides of it are seen a great number of houses, gardens, tents, taverns, horses, carriages, palanquins, and doolies of all kinds; also elephants and draught oxen, the last of which are yoked to carriages. About mid way lies a garden, in which the nabob of Arrucate, Mohamed Aly Khan, has his residence in a palace built after the European manner. The external avenues to it are guarded by Indian militia; but in the interior part that duty is performed by English soldiers, under the command of a captain, who must keep an accurate journal of every thing which takes place at the court of this prince. This is called a mark of honour, but in reality it is nothing else than magnificent imprisonment. The nabob enjoys personal security; but for this security he must do what the English bid him.

At Madraspatnam I paid a visit to the congregation of St. Andrew the apostle; and found, at the convent of Capuchins, Father Bonaventura from Fuligno, Father Medardus from Alsace, and Father Marcellus from Aleppo. I took a turn through the city which is of considerable extent, but the houses lie insulated and scattered. Near the noblest palaces are seen the most wretched hovels; broad streets and narrow crooked lanes occur in turns; and, instead of cleanliness, filth and dirt are every where seen. Fort St. George, in which none but English must reside, is called the white town; but the outer district, inhabited by Europeans, Armenians, Bengalians, Chinese, Peguans, Arabians, and black and white Indians of all classes, castes, and religious sects, is called the black town. Fort St. George, one of the strongest in India, lies close to the sea, which is there exceedingly boisterous. The gate towards the sea, as well as that of the black town, has a strong guard. The fort is furnished with bastions, a double ditch with two bridges; and the garrison consists of the finest European troops to be found in all India. This fortress was taken from the French in 1746, and besieged by Count Lally in 1758 for the second time. He was, however, forced to raise the siege; and the treasure which had been conveyed from the place was again brought back to it. This city lies under the latitude of 13° 15′, exactly at the place where formerly stood the small town of Cinnapatnam, which belonged to the king of Bisnagari or Narsinha, by whom it was given up to the English in 1645.

Indian Weights, Measures, Coins and Merchandise.

I. THE Aratel, an Indian word, signifies a pound, merchants’ weight, of sixteen ounces. Twenty-four such Aratel or pounds make a Manna, which commercial people call Mao. Four Manna and eight Aratel make, in some provinces, a hundred weight. Of this kind is the hundred weight at Cochin. At Calcutta or Calicut the hundred weight is heavier than at Cochin. At the latter place and Travancor it contains, at present, only one hundred and twenty-eight Aratel.

The Tulam or Tulao is a weight equal to a hundred Palam.

The Palam consists, in some places, of an hundred and fifty Cochinese Panam or Fanam; but in others, of two hundred and ten; and in some, of three hundred.

The Rupee at Madras and Puduceri weighs thirty-two Cochinese Panam, as the silver Panam current at Cochin makes the thirtieth part of a silver rupee. Eighteen Cochinese Panam weigh one ounce.

Calangia is a weight equal to eleven Cochinese Panam and one quarter.

Mangiadi is a weight equal to half a Cochinese Panam.

Kaicia is a weight equal to four Calangias.

The great Panam of Madras is the sixth part of a rupee.

The small Panam is the twelfth part of a silver rupee.

The large Panam of Madras makes almost five Cochinese Panam and a quarter; but the rupee, which weighs thirty-two Cochinese Panam, is never worth more than twenty, or at most twenty-four, according to the course of exchange and the value of money, the determination of which depends merely on the government and bankers. It is said in some books of Travels, that these weights and their names have been conveyed from India to Ormus, Bassorah, and Mascate in Arabia, as well as to Malacca and the island of Ceylon. It is, however, worthy of remark, that the amount of these weights has been changed, and their names corrupted. Thus some write Rotoli, Ratoli, and Rutoli, instead of Aratel; Tulao, instead of Tulam; and Palao, instead of Palam.

The heaviest weight in India is the Candil, which is equal to five hundred Aratel, or pounds. There is also a kind of Candil which weighs sixteen, and another which weighs twenty Manna. It is highly necessary, therefore, that people should acquire an accurate knowledge of the Indian weights, since they are as different as the European pound, which consists sometimes of sixteen, sometimes of ten, and sometimes of twelve ounces.

Articles of merchandise are weighed in India with two different kinds of instruments. The oldest is the Tulàsa, or Roman steel-yard, called by the French Crochet, or Péson. In the Malabar language it is known by the name of Vellicòl or Niracòl; and, when very large, by that of Taranacòl. The other balance, which has two shells, is called Tulam. The former is the most common, and the figure of it may be seen on ancient monuments.

II. The measures for liquids are:

• 1. Dangàgi, which contains four Nàgi or Nali.
• 2. Nàgi, or Nali, which is equal to one pint.
• 3. Ciòdana, which contains thirty-two Nàgi.
• 4. Araciòdana, equal to sixteen Nàgi or pints.
• 5. Codam, which contains five Ciòdanas.
• 6. Uszakada, the quarter of a pint.
• 7. Aszaca, the eighth part of a pint.
• 8. Uri, half a pint.
• 9. Muszaca, three quarters of a pint.

III. The Indian measures of length, &c. are:

• 1. Cora, the eighth part of an inch.
• 2. Virel, an inch.
• 3. Col, a foot in length, containing twenty-four
• Virel.
• 4. Mulam, an ell, the length of one’s arm; called
• by the Portuguese, Covodo; and by the
• French, Coudée.
• 5. Ciana, a palm.
• 6. Tumà, a square foot.
• 7. Candi, a cubic foot.

All these weights and measures have been introduced at Madraspatnam, Puduceri, Paliacate, Nagapatnam, and on the coast of Malabar; at Cochin and Calicut, as also at Collam and Angiutenga near Cape Comari.

A Candil of Teka wood, which is the best in all the Asiatic countries for being manufactured, cost at Cochin, in my time, eight rupees; but as soon as it was carried to Madraspatnam, where none of it grows, it could be sold for sixteen or eighteen rupees. White cotton cloth is sold by the Mulam, or ell. Some pieces contain thirty-two Mulam, and others sixty-four. A piece of the former kind is worth from ten to fifteen rupees: one of the latter twice as much. For ten rupees, therefore, you may purchase sometimes in India eight or ten cotton shirts, which in Europe could scarcely be procured for twenty Roman Scudi.

A Dangàgi of raw white rice, called Arri, was worth at Cochin, in my time, four Panam or Fanon of that place. If this sum be reduced to Roman money, a Nagi or pint would cost about two and a half Roman Bajocchi. A Ciòdana of coco-nut oil was sold, at Cochin, for thirty-two and thirty-three or at most thirty-six Panam; but at Madraspatnam, on the coast of Ciòlamandala, where there are few coco-nut trees, this oil was much dearer.

A hundred weight of dry clean pepper is worth, at Allapushe, Porrocàda and Collam, on the coast of Malabar, between 60 and 70 rupees; but on the coast of Ciòlamandala it costs from 90 to 100.

The Vediuppu, or saltpetre, which comes from Bengal, brings only a low price at Madraspatnam; but if transported to Cochin on the Malabar coast, it becomes exceedingly dear on account of the carriage. If readers in general, therefore, do not pay particular attention to the distances of places, they will be often at a loss in regard to the price of merchandise; because the same article valued at fifty rupees by one traveller, is estimated by another at a hundred. The case here is the same as when one says: In the month of July it is winter in India, while another asserts that at that period it is summer. Both at bottom are right; for the one alludes to the coast of Coromandel, and the other to the coast of Malabar, where in July the rainy season commences, and consequently winter. These apparent contradictions disappear when people reflect on time, place and climate, and the particular circumstances under which the traveller or writer lived.

In Pegu a weight called Tical has been introduced. It weighs fourteen Roman Danari, twenty-four of which are equal to an ounce. In Siam the Tical weighs also fourteen Roman Danari. The Tical of Pegu contains four Tomat, or four Magnon, which is a piece of silver equivalent to about four Roman Julios[50]. Half a Tomat is called Tebe, and, to be standard, should be equal in weight to eight grains of rice. Sixteen of these grains make, therefore, a whole Tomat. A hundred Tical are equal to one Bisa; and the Bisa contains thirty-four ounces Italian weight. Two rupees of Madras weigh in Pegu seven Tomat. Such is the information given by Father Joseph de Amato, in his notes to the manuscript of the Peguan philosopher Maha Tabassi Dharma Rajah Guru, which is preserved in the Borgian Museum at Velitri. In the same museum there is also an original standard of the Peguan Tical, with all the weights belonging to it. They are of brass, have a cylindric form, and bear the impression of a four-footed dragon, with an elevated crest, and its tail doubled over its back. The Peguan coins are ugly shapeless pieces of pure silver, which have no mixture of alloy. They are weighed like other articles of merchandise by the Tical, Tomat, Tebe and Bisa.

The chief articles with which trade is carried on in India are: Paradise wood from Malacca; Copra, that is, the kernel of the coco-nut, from which oil is made; excellent copper from Japan; coco-nut oil; Palma Christi; calamine; storax; cassia bark from Malabar; yellow wax from Malabar and Madura; assa fœtida; Armenian bole; borax; sweet cosius root; myrrh from Mascate; sal-ammoniac from Arabia and Persia; Arabian and Persian dates; cummin from Madura and Bengal; cuncuma (not curcuma) or yellow saffron, called also Terra merita Malabarica; white and yellow pulverised sugar-candy from China, Batavia, and Bengal; Chinese rhubarb; turbith; Arabian frankincense from Mascate; purging aloes; prunes from Malabar; ginger from Malabar and Madura; gum lac from Bengal and Malabar; lac, gold, and precious stones from Pegu; ivory from Ceylon and Pegu; apes from Malabar and Ceylon; benzoin from the Maldivan islands; black amber from the same; musk from Thibet and Bengal; opium from Bengal; sweet flag, mirrors, porcelain, tortoise-shell and tea from China; spikenard from Thibet and Bengal; gum sandarac; long pepper from Bengal; black-grained pepper from the same; red and white sandal wood, and dried fish from Malabar; Chinese varnish; China ink; pearls from Cape Comari and the island of Ceylon; cinnamon from Ceylon; nutmegs and cloves; canes from Malacca; purging cassia from Malabar; tamarinds from Malabar and other parts of India; silk from China and Bengal; saltpetre from Bengal; rice from the same and from Mangalor; different kinds of wood from Malabar, such as Teka, Bitti, Ayani, Benga, and coco-tree wood; male and female slaves from the coast of Ciòlamandala and Malabar; Cafre slaves from the coast of Africa; horses from Arabia; precious stones from Ceylon and Pegu; white and coloured cotton stuffs, Tapissendis, and other kinds of cloth, from Bengal, Paliacate, Madras, Sadras, Puduceri, Naur, Nagapatnam, Tutucuri, Manapar, Coleci, and other places on the coasts of Malabar and Ciòlamandala; coarse stuffs and woollen cloth from Arabia; gold and silver from Bengal; horns of the rhinoceros, from which are made rings wore on the fingers; Indian tyger skins; crucifixes, small figures, and other toys of ivory from Goa; rose-water from Persia, and wine from the Cape of Good Hope. Among these articles I have not included those brought from Europe and America to be sold in India. Were I to give the prices of all these articles, and to relate in what manner they are bartered and sold, I should be obliged to write a whole volume. The slaves are treated exactly like cattle. A youth in full health and without blemish costs, according to his age and make, twenty, thirty, or forty rupees. The females are sold cheaper. An ass from Mascate costs two or three scudi, and an Arabian horse from thirty to fifty.

A Persian mile, Angatsch, contains 16,878 Roman feet. The Indian mile, Casam or Cas (not Cosse) is different in different places: in general it consists of 2400 geometrical paces. The large Malabar mile is equal to from two to three leagues; the smaller, however, is equal only to one. The same difference is observed in the miles in other provinces of India. The smaller Indian mile has three divisions: viz. Casara vagi, three quarters of a mile; Aracasam, half a mile; and Cuvida, or Vilipada, a distance at which one can hear the voice of a man calling out as loud as he is able. This distance is commonly reckoned to be equal to a quarter of a mile.

The coins current in India consist of the following:

I. The Rupee of Bengal, Arrucate, Puduceri, Madras, Bombay, Tippoo Sultan, or Hayder Aly Khan, and Surat. Rupya is properly a Samscred word, and signifies in general silver, without distinguishing any particular denomination of silver coin. I am therefore inclined to think, that the rupees current in India, which are worth five Roman Paoli, were not originally Indian coins. This piece of silver has inscribed on it, in Persian characters, the place where and the name of the prince under whom coined; which confirms me in my opinion, that it belongs properly to the inventions of the Persians. The oldest Indian coins have no inscription, but only the representation of a cow, an elephant, the lingam, or some Indian deity. Anquetil du Perron, however, asserts that he saw some with writing on them, which, as he pretends, were coined before the period of king Vitramàditya[51]; but I never had an opportunity of seeing any of this kind. A rupee is not worth more in Europe than two livres eight sous, or, according to the Roman method of reckoning, four Paoli and eight Bajocchi.

II. The silver Fanon, called by the Indians Panam, is a small round coin like the rupee. The rupee of Arrucate is equal to six large or twelve small Panam; that of Puduceri, to eight Panam. When rupees of Surat, Puduceri, and Arrucate are exchanged at Cochin, you receive for each, according to the course of exchange, only twenty or at most twenty-four Panam, though they are worth thirty-two Cochinese Panam. The rupee of Madras is worth in Bengal 3040 Cauris.

The Dudu of Madras or Bombay, a small coin of copper, tin, or other metal, according to the nature of the country, is equal in value to a Roman Bajocco.

The Cochinese Panam, a very small round coin, made of tin or lead, which has on one side a horn, is called Ciangupanam, the horn-fanon. This horn represents the arms of the king of Cochin. Six Cochinese Cembu Casha, a copper coin bearing the stamp of the Dutch East India Company, are equal to one Cochinese Panam. There are also small coins of tin called Jyacàsha. The silver Ciacram, a small coin of the king of Travancor, is equal to the twenty-sixth part of a rupee. The Spanish Piastre, or Roman Scudi, is worth in India two rupees. The Dutch Rupee, current in the island of Ceylon, consists of silver alloyed with tin.

A kind of small shells, brought from the Maldivan islands, and to which the French give the name of Pucellage, are current in Bengal. These shells are called by the Indians Cori or Cauri, and 350 of them make a rupee. A Cauri is the sixtieth part of a Pesha, a Bengal coin equal in value to six French deniers. In Ethiopia small laminæ of salt, about a foot in length, are used instead of money. Ten of these laminæ are equal in value to a drachm of gold. The king of Candy has introduced in the island of Ceylon a kind of money, which consists of a piece of silver wire rolled up like a wax taper. When a person wishes to make a purchase, he cuts off as much of this silver wire as is equal in value to the price of the article. The relative value of gold and silver in India is as ten or eleven to one. The proportion, however, does not always continue the same. When a great number of Venetian sequins are brought to India from Egypt or Arabia, through the Red Sea, the value of them, or rather the course of exchange, falls on the coast of Malabar, and they are worth no more than three and three-fourths or at most four rupees; but if there be a scarcity of them, their value rises, and they become worth four rupees and a quarter. The case is the same with Spanish piastres, which are sometimes worth two rupees, and sometimes two and a quarter. This happens in order that there may be an equilibrium between gold and silver in the different places of trade; but at the same time it may arise from necessity, when there is a scarcity of gold and silver coin. It is also not unfrequently owing to the fraudulent arts of some governor, in conjunction with the bankers, who devise that scheme to answer their own private purposes. As the gold and silver exchanged by the Indians and the Chinese is exceedingly pure, they gain considerably by the exchange, as they can raise the course of it at pleasure, which cannot be done in regard to coin of small value. There is no proportion, however, in the influx and efflux of money among the Indians and foreigners. The Indians sell a great deal and purchase little, consequently the balance is always in their favour. Little luxury and few wants render the inhabitants of a country opulent.

III. The Bhagavadi, a gold coin with the figure of the goddess Bhagavadi, called by the Europeans very improperly Pagodi or Pagoda, is round, and on one side a little convex. The so called star pagoda of Madraspatnam, the reverse of which bears the impression of an Indian idol, is worth, according to the Roman method of reckoning, seventeen Paoli[52] and eight Bajocchi. The gold pagoda of Hayder Aly Khan, called Aydernaik, and that of Mangalor, are worth four silver rupees, or nine livres twelve sous. The latter have on one side a half moon, and on the other two idols who hold a trident. They represent Shiva, together with his wife Parvadi. The gold pagoda of Portonovo is worth three silver rupees.

The gold Panam of Palicate is equal in value to nine French sous; that of Calcutta and Tanjaur, to one quarter of a silver rupee, or twelve and a half Bajocchi. The gold Panam of Madura is worth seven sous, or seven Roman Bajocchi and six French deniers.

The gold rupee of Bengal, Surat and Bombay, is worth sixteen silver rupees, or eight Roman scudi.

The Golmor of Bengal, a gold coin ornamented on one side with flowers and Hindostan characters, and on the other with a sword and some characters, is equal in value to eight Roman Scudi. This coin came originally from Nepal in India; for it bears the arms of the king of that place.

The Kalien from Travancor is worth the fourth part of a silver rupee.

The Uilkàshya, or Venetian sequin, is worth, in common, about four silver rupees.—All these coins are struck with the hammer. On those which are alloyed, that is, which have a mixture of other metals, the government gains nearly a hundred per cent. Thus, if a thousand rupees are melted down in order to be converted into other alloyed coins, such for example as Panams, five hundred rupees only, according to their intrinsic value, come into circulation: the other five hundred go to government, to defray the expence of coinage; and if any thing remains over, it is clear gain. This method of adulterating gold and silver was first introduced into these countries by the Europeans. The natives of India always suffered their gold and silver to remain pure; never added to it the least alloy; and to this day they observe the same practice. This is the true method of increasing the opulence of a country, whatever short sighted politicians may say to the contrary. Bills of exchange are totally unknown in India. When money-changers conclude any bargain with each other, it is ratified by an oath before the door of some temple, and in view of the idol; and in such cases they seldom or never deduct any thing from the payment[53].

Having finished my business at Madraspatnam, I continued my journey with as much expedition as possible, for the whole colony was in the utmost confusion. Mohamed Aly Khan had under various pretences, as already mentioned, taken possession of the city and kingdom of Tanjaur, on the 17th of September 1773. Lord Pigot, however, by the express command of the court of London, restored to the throne Tullasuragia, the lawful sovereign, in the month of April 1776, amidst the thunder of cannon and the acclamations of an immense concourse of people; but he and that prince became the sacrifices of this measure, as wise as it was just, and Mohamed Aly Khan again made himself master of the kingdom. The fortress of Arrucate, from which he takes the title of Nabob, lies west from Madraspatnam on the river Paler or Palarru, in the latitude of 13° North.

On my return to Maïlapuri I resolved to visit the small mountain in that district on which the apostle St. Thomas suffered martyrdom. I placed myself, therefore, in my Dooly, and after two hours arrived at the bottom of this steep hill. It consists of several rocks, which altogether form only one group. Having clambered up to the top, not without considerable difficulty, I came to a small church, formed according to the modern plan, but, like many ancient Indian temples, of which I shall speak hereafter, hewn out in the solid rock. In an adjacent apartment I found an English Catholic, who resided there from devotion. The surrounding district abounds with coco-nut trees, and a number of beautiful houses belonging to the English, who retire hither to enjoy the pleasures of a rural life. Below these trees several cotton-weavers and spinners had erected their low hovels of the leaves and branches of the palm-tree plaited through each other; and I here had an opportunity of seeing every thing that belongs to a cotton manufactory. All the Indians, Christians as well as Pagans, unanimously assured me, that this was really the mountain on which the apostle Thomas (not that Thomas who was a disciple of Manes, and who is entirely unknown to them,) had been martyred. The Christians who reside on the coast of Malabar, and even the Christians of St. Thomas, though Nestorians, make many pilgrimages to the grave of this apostle, and, through religious zeal, carry home with them small bits of earth which they pick up near it, and which they afterwards use for preparing their holy water. This has been done since the earliest periods, not by a few, but by many thousands; so that the question whether St. Thomas actually lost his life on this mountain, cannot any longer be a subject of the smallest doubt. The event took place under the government of the Indian king Salivahan or Salbahan, who, according to the Indian tradition, died in the sixty-eighth year of the Christian æra. On Mont Grand, also, there is a church, much frequented by pilgrims, and where the Catholics from Bengal, Pegu, Siam, Ceylon, Malabar, and every part of Hindustan, as well as the Nestorian and Armenian Jacobites, perform their devotions. Even Pagans and Mahometans resort thither, and carry with them, as offerings, butter, milk, cheese, candles, oil, goats, and cows. In a word, every person in India is convinced that this was actually the place where St. Thomas suffered martyrdom[54].

In the interior part of the provinces of Carnate and Madura, where the Indians, under the protection of their kings, enjoy more extensive religious liberty, the custom of widows burning themselves, three days after the death of their husbands, still prevails, though it is less common than formerly. This horrid scene I never had an opportunity of witnessing myself; but I am able to confirm the accounts given of it by other travellers, and to add a few particulars which may serve to throw more light upon them. Immediately after the death of the husband, the widow rubs her whole body over, as far as the girdle, with a kind of Indian saffron called Magnel. This saffron is a symbol of fire, which the Indians honour as a deity. The widow then goes about through the streets, and with the greatest politeness takes leave of all those whom she meets. Three days after, a round or a square hole is dug in the open fields, which is filled with a large quantity of dry wood and cow-dung placed above each other. The latter is dedicated to the goddess Lakshmi, who represents the earth under the symbol of a cow. Some also pour coco-nut oil over the funeral pile, in order that it may be sooner consumed by the flames. When every thing is completely ready, the widow proceeds from her habitation, clothed in white, crowned with flowers, and ornamented with all her trinkets and jewels. She is accompanied by a numerous train of women and her nearest relations, who, as I have been assured, give her opium, and certain kinds of acids, by which she is stupified and prepared for contempt of death. As soon as she approaches the burning pile, before which a carpet is suspended, she throws some butter and Magnel, or Indian saffron, into the fire; but over the carpet, which it is unlawful for her to touch. This is a libation or offering which she brings to the fire as a divinity. She then retires to the distance of about forty steps from the pile, and divides her trinkets among her relations and acquaintances. A confused noise is heard of drums, fifes, and basons beat upon with sticks; the hanging is removed; the widow advances with courage and coolness towards the burning pile, throws herself into the flames, and in a few minutes is converted into ashes. According to the doctrine of the Brahmans, her soul passes immediately into the glory of Vishnu and Shiva, and her name is preserved, to the latest ages, in the annals of her country[55].

We are told by Diodorus Siculus, in the nineteenth book of his history, that there was once a time when the Indian women were accustomed to desert their husbands in the most capricious manner, and when they would not hesitate to dispatch them by poison. It is not improbable that, to put a stop to these practices, a law was introduced that widows should burn themselves along with the bodies of their husbands. Plutarch, however, is of opinion, that they did so as a proof of their purity of conduct and conjugal fidelity. But, be that as it may, it is certain that the origin of this singular custom is to be sought for in principles of religion and policy. When a woman is fully convinced that the death of her husband must occasion her own at the same time, she will be more anxious for his preservation. A woman who has children, or who is under certain other circumstances, is not permitted to burn herself; and this is a sign that she loved her husband, and that she may still enjoy the society of the male sex. Widows who refuse to die with their husbands are considered afterwards as disgraced, and must devote themselves, as public prostitutes, to the service of some deity who favours prostitution. Such for example is the goddess Bhavani, or the Venus of the Indians. All Indian widows, however, do not burn themselves with the bodies of their husbands, but those only who belong to the cast of Kshetria and Rajahputra. These are the casts of royal personages and warriors, who have most to fear from the infidelity of their wives. When a king, therefore, dies in India, all his wives and concubines must mount the funeral pile, in order to shew that they had no hand in his death. There are, nevertheless, widows belonging to the cast of the Vaishya or farmers, who also burn themselves in the like manner.

From Pondamala, that is, Mont Grand, I proceeded to Covalàm, where I had the pleasure of conversing with Father John Maria a Santo Thoma, upon different philological subjects. To this learned man, who had resided twenty-five years in India, I am indebted for various corrections in different parts of my journal, which I employed as my guide in the present work. Gladly would I have remained some time longer with this worthy man; but, to my great regret, I was obliged to leave him after a stay of fourteen days. I now pursued my way back to Puduceri, but by a different route, in order that I might see the seven pagodas which are situated on the seacoast between Covalàm and Sadras. But how shall I describe this master-piece of ancient Indian architecture? It consists of seven temples, cut out by art in a rock of the hardest stone, in a mountain covered with trees. Never in my life did I behold a work of the like kind. The entrance fronts the sea, from which it is not far distant, and consists of a passage cut out in the solid rock, forming part of the summit of the mountain. The sides of this passage, which is about twenty Roman palms in breadth, and fifteen in height, is covered with the figures of different sacred animals cut out, of their natural size. Here I saw the elephant of Rama and Gannesha; the tortoise of Vishnu; the ape of Rama; the wild sow, into which Vishnu metamorphosed himself; the cow of the goddess Parvadi and Lakshmi; the fish, as a symbol of water; the snake, as the symbol of life and death; and other animals, the names of which I do not at present remember[56]. The external appearance of the walls of this temple, which were totally black, clearly shews that it is no modern work, and that several centuries must have been necessary, in such a pure, serene, dry and mild climate as that of India, to cover the surface of them, as well as the sculptured figures, with a black crust. Having got to the end of the above-mentioned passage, you arrive at a final round place in the same rock, where you observe on the left a few stone steps, and on the right two passages hewn out also in the rock, each of which appeared to me to be seven palms in breadth and twelve in height. These steps and passages conduct to the temple itself, which consists of large vaulted apartments or grottos, separated from each other by walls cut out of the solid rock, but in such a manner that you can go from the one into the other. The largest are below, and the smaller above. They are all cut out in the rock, and are supported by pillars of the same. Around the walls stand a great number of very large statues, representing heathen deities, formed of stone masses, which have been also cut from the rock. Among these I observed, of Colossal size, the gods Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Rama, Krishna, Devendra, Kartiguna, and Gannesha; also the goddesses Parvadi, Sarasvadi, and Lakshmi; and the various figures into which Vishnu transformed himself while he remained on earth. When I visited this place, I was attended by five Brahmans, who all spoke Portuguese, and gave me an explanation of every thing I saw. The information I received from them I immediately wrote down, and paid them five rupees for their trouble. In the seventh and tenth chapter of the second book I shall give a farther account of this temple[57].

At the bottom of the mountain, not far from the above-mentioned temple, is a sacred pond, in which, since the earliest ages, all those who visit the temple have been accustomed to wash themselves. Near it stands a tree, with a thick shady top, which is surrounded by a low stone wall. The internal space is filled with earth, which is well watered; and by these means the tree is supplied with nourishment. In the Tamulic language it is called Arasu; in that of Malabar, Arayal or Arashu; and in corrupted Portuguese, Pimpolu. If the bark of this tree be bruised, it yields a juice which is an excellent remedy for schirrous tumours in the liver and diseases of the spleen. This juice taken inwardly, to the quantity of two ounces, stops spitting of blood; and, used as an ointment, it cures the itch. The dried fruit of the tree pulverised, and taken in water for fourteen days, removes asthmatic complaints; and it is said also that it promotes fruitfulness in women. This Arashu tree is held in great veneration by the Indians, chiefly because it represents the deities Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, who are supposed to reside in it. On this account a white cloth, intended as a representation of the robe or covering of these deities, is suspended round its trunk on certain days of solemnity.

On the 16th of October 1776 I proceeded from Maïlapuri to Sadras, where I passed the night. The weather at that time was more tempestuous than I had ever seen it on the coast of Coromandel; because, as I have already observed, the winter commences there about the 20th of October. The rain then pours down in torrents; the rivers and streams precipitate themselves from the Gauts with prodigious noise, inundate the highways, and swell up to such a degree that they overflow their banks, sweep away houses, trees, men and animals, and carry them along with them into the sea. This was exactly the case on the 17th of October, in the morning, when I arrived at the river Paler or Palarru, which discharges itself into the sea on the south of Madras. It was nearly half a mile in breadth, and flowed along with the utmost violence and impetuosity. All the travellers from Sadras were obliged to stop here, because there were no boats to carry them over; and even if there had been any, it was much to be apprehended that they would be driven out to sea by the force of the stream. Besides others, there was an English gentleman from Madras who intended to go to Gudelur; but when he saw the great number of people stopped by the river, and how dangerous it would be to attempt to pass it, he caused himself to be immediately carried back in his palanquin to Sadras. I was extremely curious to see how the Indians would proceed in order to get over. There were about a hundred of us who all wished to cross the river; and I thought that if others effected a passage I might do the same. The Indians pulled off all their clothes, kneeled down on the sand, and raised their eyes and hands towards heaven. Under such circumstances mankind are taught to reverence the supreme Being; for, in cases of life or death, even an atheist or materialist can hardly remain indifferent. After offering up a prayer, some of the best swimmers threw themselves into the stream, while the remaining part of the company stood gazing with anxious expectation to see whether they would succeed in getting over. In less than half an hour these intrepid swimmers had reached the opposite shore. When my Coolies saw this, they stripped in the like manner, and having sought out two pieces of wood, bound them fast together, and putting my Dooly upon them, pushed it into the water. They then desired me to place myself in the Dooly; to draw up my feet, and to hold fast with both my hands. I was so terrified at this proposal, that my heart began to palpitate. They, however, repeated it; and as I clearly saw that it would be impossible to get over in any other manner, I promised my Coolies a rupee; contracted myself in my Dooly as much as I could; held fast by the pole, and, rather dead than alive, sat as it were in the water, which every now and then forced itself in around me. The Coolies began to swim, and from time to time gave the Dooly a smart push, in order that it might advance also: Four of them swam on the right side, and four on the left; all taking care that it should not deviate from its proper direction. When we reached the middle of the river, where the force and velocity of the stream were greatest, they began all together to push and exert themselves, bawling out as loud as they could. My Dooly now seemed to dance with me on the waves, which tossed us up and down; but by incessant labour and exertion I was pushed to the shore without any misfortune. I then gave my Coolies the rupee I had promised them; changed my clothes, and continued my journey to Puduceri[58].

I found there Father Medardus, a Capuchin missionary from Madraspatnam, who intended to proceed to Surat in the Portuguese vessel the captain of which had promised to give me a passage. I was extremely happy to have such a worthy man for the companion of my voyage; but unfortunately my joy was soon embittered by a very melancholy accident. The ship Nossa Senhora de Luz was to sail on the 22d of October; for this is the fixed time when all vessels leave Puduceri, because if they remain they must be exposed to the attack of most tremendous storms, as the winter then sets in on the coast of Coromandel. In order that our departure might not be delayed, we got every thing ready to go on board on the 21st, at a time when there was a very hollow sea. In that neighbourhood the waves are sometimes so furious that they tear up trees on the shore, and hurry them along with them into the harbour of Puduceri: we employed therefore a shilinga to convey us to the ship. Besides such articles as were necessary for my voyage, I carried with me a small packet containing two thousand scudi sent from Rome for the missionary establishment on the coast of Malabar, and which was entrusted to my care. When Father Medardus, who was fond of a joke, saw this packet, he observed that I had done a very imprudent thing in taking it with me, as the Capuchins generally experienced some misfortune when they carried money with them. “And as that is the case,” said he, “I would rather dispense with your company and pursue my voyage alone.” We rallied each other on this subject, and got on board about five in the afternoon. The crew, who seemed to be expert seamen, avoided with great dexterity the first wave that dashed itself against the mast: but the sea raged with the utmost fury; and as these people were obliged to row in an opposite direction, their strength was soon exhausted. We, however, got over the second billow, after great labour and exertion; but the third and most dangerous beat with such impetuosity against our shilinga, that it was thrown on its end, and stood almost in a perpendicular direction. Just as this happened we were all in the forepart of the vessel. Every thing in the shilinga, therefore, rolled over us; the waves forced themselves into it, and we were surrounded by chests, casks, and bales all in confusion, so that we could not stir. As if struck by lightning we stood pale and motionless, staring at each other, without being able to utter a single word. Our rowers, who had been thrown into the sea, clung to their oars, or endeavoured by swimming to overcome the waves, while we almost gave ourselves up as lost. The third wave at length disappeared; our shilinga again recovered its proper position; our rowers got back to their places; and being all gradually freed from our terror, we returned thanks to God for having rescued us from the jaws of death. This dreadful accident, however, had made such an impression upon me, that I was seized with a violent fever, which lasted ten days; and for some time after I could never hear people relate any danger of the like kind without being ready to faint. This weakness continued almost three years; and I was not able to get rid of it but by using bark and the cold bath. The worthy Father Medardus died some months after this event at Surat. So dear did my missionary expedition cost me! I had wandered all over Italy, Portugal, England and France, and travelled more than a thousand leagues by water before I arrived on the coast of Malabar. On the 23d of October, early in the morning, we left the road of Puduceri; and after passing the island of Ceylon, and doubling Cape Comari, came to anchor on the 14th of November at Cochin, on the Malabar coast, which Providence had assigned me as the theatre of my missionary labours.

Topographical Description of Malabar.

IN describing Malabar I can speak from experience and without trusting to the information of others, as in the course of my travels I had an opportunity of being better acquainted with that country than with my own. The business of my mission; temporal as well as spiritual concerns; visits of state, which, on account of the affairs of Christianity, I was obliged to pay to kings and their ministers; the visitation of churches; continual intercourse with Pagans and Christians; journeys into the interior districts; the settling of disputes which it was my duty to terminate; epistolatory correspondence with the inhabitants, and many unlucky accidents which occurred to me, have all contributed to enable me to give an accurate, clear, and full account of this part of India.

The original and proper Indian name of Malabar is Malayalam. Mala signifies a mountain, Alam a habitation, district or country. Malayalam, therefore, signifies the mountainous land, which indeed Malabar really is; for, except towards the west, where it is bounded by the sea, it is every where surrounded by high mountains: Malanàda and Malangàra have the same signification; and from the latter has been formed, by various contortions, the word Malabar. The opinion of Father Raulin, who contends that Malabar is of Arabic extraction, being compounded of Mala and Barr, has no foundation whatever. The old Samscred name of this country is Kerulara, the kingdom of Kerula. I shall have occasion hereafter to offer some conjectures respecting this appellation. The inhabitants of Malabar call themselves Malayalese, and not Maleatese; as Sonnerat says, the inhabitants of the Gauts, a kind of people who have little intercourse with those who reside in the towns, are called Malays, that is, inhabitants of the mountains.

This kingdom commences in the south at Tovàla, a castle situated on Cape Comari, towards the east, in latitude 8° 6′, and borders on the kingdom of Madura, as well as the coast of Pescaria. On the west it is bounded by the sea, and on the east by the Gauts, the latter of which separate it from Madura and Maïssur. Towards the north it borders on Canara and the mountain Illi, which, according to J. Hamilton Moore, lies in 12° 5′ north latitude, and 75° east longitude. According to the same author, Cochin lies in the latitude of 10° and the longitude of 75° 52′; Calicut in the latitude of 11° 21′; and Cape Comari in the latitude of 7° 55′, and the longitude of 77° 20′. From the Gauts to the sea, that is from east to west, this country is sometimes thirty, forty, thirty-five, or twenty leagues in breadth, according as these mountains extend themselves more or less into the interior parts. Its whole length amounts to more than 120 leagues. It is intersected by a great many rivers, which, falling down from these mountains, pursue their winding courses in different directions, and at last proceed westwards towards the sea. The most remarkable of these rivers are: the Cariapatnam, the Coleci, the Valavaley, and the Modelaposha, which run past Attinga, Ceringa, and Angenga; also the Paru, which flows past Chidàcolam, Paru and Mainàda, and, uniting itself with several other rivers, forms, from Cochin to Codungalur, towards the north, a kind of stagnant lake; so that people can travel through the greater part of Malabar by water. The rivers of less note are: the Vaypur and Porotta; the Feira d’Alva, which in its course washes Maleatur, Cognur, Ciovare, Varapole, Angicaimal and Cochin; the Alangata, which after running past Alangata, Cenotta and Codungalur, discharges itself into the sea at Aycotta; also the Cettuva, the Paniani, the Calicut, the Mahe, the Baliapatnam, and several others, which extend a great way into the country, and form an innumerable multitude of small islands. As this country, besides being intersected by so many rivers, is surrounded also by the sea and by mountains, not only is its interior trade much promoted, because merchandise can be transported in boats and other vessels from the most remote districts to all the towns and places of trade on the sea coast, but it is almost impregnable, because the marching of troops would be rendered extremely difficult, and be much retarded by having so many streams to cross; because cavalry could scarcely any where act in a land so intersected; and because a hostile army, if its commander were not perfectly acquainted with the nature of the interior parts, would every moment have to apprehend an attack from the inhabitants. These are the true reasons why this country has never yet been subjected to a foreign power. The Greeks, Tatars, Moguls and Arabs, who penetrated hither, were merely merchants; and the original Malabar sovereigns still retain peaceful possession of this kingdom, which they have enjoyed for three thousand years. Tippoo Sultan once attempted to subdue it; but his troops were beat, and again driven from the country[59]. It is here, therefore, that the original manners, customs, laws, arts and sciences of the Indians must be studied; for if not quite free from mixture, they have at any rate been preserved much purer than in any other of the provinces or countries of India. Besides, it is highly worthy of notice on account of the trade which it formerly carried on with the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Persians and the Armenians, and of its giving birth to the Christians of St. Thomas, who existed here in the earliest ages of the Church. In the last place, it deserves to be better known, because the Portuguese carried on war for a long time with one of the kings of Calicut, named Samuri, who makes a shining figure in the history of Persia, and because Several Christian congregations were founded here by St. Francis Xavier.

The climate of Malabar is healthful, warm, and somewhat moist, except during the hot months of April and May, a little before the commencement of the rainy season, which begins on the 15th of June, and ends about the 20th of August. In the two former months the atmosphere is so much rarified by the violent heat, that the inhabitants would be in danger of perishing, were there not such a number of rivers in the country, and if, at the periods when the heat has attained to its highest degree, a fresh breeze did not blow from the ocean, by which the air is purified and cooled—A daily proof that Providence has dispensed to all countries and all nations of the earth a certain measure of inconveniences and enjoyments.

Malabar is inhabited not only by Pagan Indians, who are aborigines there, but also by Mahometans, Christians and Jews. The Mahometans and Jews both came from other countries; but the Christians are in part the original inhabitants of India.

The different tribes of people still existing in India are:

1. The original Pagan Indians. They live in a state of oppression from foreigners, and form the greater part of the inhabitants.

2. The Mahometan Arabs. These came to India under the Caliph Valid, in the ninetieth year of the Hegira, or the year 710 of the Christian æra: their descendants are called Afguans or Aghuans; in the Indian language Patans: they are a brave warlike people, and once made themselves masters of the city of Delhi[60].

3. The Mappulians. These are the descendants of Arabian merchants, who, in the eighth century established themselves on the coasts of Malabar and Coromandel, and married native Indians.

4. The Tatars, or Tartars, who came to this country in 1398, with the conqueror Timur Bec. From these are descended the Mogul emperors, and in general all the Moguls who have existed to the present time in India.

5. The Christians. These are partly the descendants of those original inhabitants of the land who were converted to the Christian faith by the apostle Thomas, and partly other Christians who went from Mesopotamia and Chaldea to India, and with whom the whole coast of Malabar is at present filled.

6. The Ghaurs, Gebers, or worshippers of Fire, who, being expelled from Persia, emigrated to India about the year 630 of the Christian æra, and settled at Surat, Tatta, Bombay, and other parts of Malabar.

7. The Seiks. These worship the only true God, and acknowledge as their chief a Patriarch of their own nation, who has made himself master of the city of Lahur or Laor.

8. The Jews. These people came to India from Persia, after they had been freed from their servitude by Cyrus, about 540 years before the birth of Christ. So at least we are told by a tradition of the Jews who reside at Cochin on the coast of Malabar. It is, however, more probable that they belong to the remainder of those Jewish people who continued in Persia; who were consequently separated from the rest of the tribes, and who, after the downfall of the Persian empire, about 500 years before Christ, fled to India[61].

9. The Portuguese. They went to India in the year 1498, under the reign of the Mogul emperor Akbar, and are still in possession of Goa, and some small places belonging to it.

10. The Dutch. In 1603 they established themselves in the island of Ceylon, and about the year 1658 began gradually to make themselves masters of the Portuguese settlements.

11. The English. They were at first merchants; but became warriors, and subdued the kingdom of Bengal[62].

Idolatry is the oldest and most prevailing religion in India; but toleration is granted to the Jews, Christians and Mahometans, who are all allowed to perform public worship without being in the least interrupted, provided they do not interfere with the established religion or the government of the country; the former of which is Paganism, and the latter unlimited monarchy. The Christians of St. Thomas, who are considered as noble, make a part of the states; attain to public offices and dignified rank, and form among themselves a kind of Christian republic. The king now on the throne is a Pagan by birth, and named Rama Varmer. The king of Cochin is descended from the family of Perumpadapil, which is one of the oldest in Malabar. The English are in possession of the town of Angenga, together with the city and fortress of Talicera. Cochin and the fortress of Collam belong to the Dutch; and the Danes have a factory at Coleci. King Samuri reigns at Calicut; and the city of Cananur, with the district around it, is under the dominion of queen Còlatiri.

After this general view I shall proceed to a description of particular places on the Malabar coast, and begin with Cape Comari; which, according to John Hamilton Moore, lies in lat. 7° 55′, and according to astronomical observations made on board the Calypso frigate, in which I returned to Europe, in the longitude of 80°.

On the western side of Cape Comari lies Covàlam, the Colis or Colias of the ancients, at present a town of very little importance. Advancing farther into the country, you arrive at Arampalli, the Arguropolis of the Greeks, who from the name of this city called the bay of Manar Sinus Argaricus. It was formerly in high repute on account of its cotton stuffs, which were partly manufactured on the spot, and partly brought thither for sale. The next place is Tovàla, a fortress belonging to the king of Travancor. It protects the frontiers of the country, and the king maintains in it a strong garrison to prevent any hostile incursion on the side of Madura, which begins there, and extends towards the north-east. Malabar ladies of rank dare not go to Tovàla, for the natives of Malabar believe themselves to be descended of the noblest families, and are unwilling that their wives and daughters should have any intercourse with the female inhabitants of Madura, or of any of the other cities on the coast of Coromandel. Malefactors, who have been banished by government, are carried beyond the boundaries of Tovàla; and such cases frequently occur on the coast of Malabar.

We next come to Cape Canymuri, or Comari, lying towards the west, where there is a small harbour, and a Christian church founded by St. Francis Xavier, which stands upon a hill. On another hill, a few miles farther up the country, is a monastery inhabited by Pagan philosophers, known under the name of Gymnosophists, or Yoqui[63].

Following the sea-coast we then find the cities of Mannacudi and Rajahcollamangalam, where there are still to be seen the ruins of the celebrated palace of the family of the present king of Travancor, who was born in the latter. Higher up the country lies the town of Sushindram, together with a celebrated temple of the god Kàmadèva. Farther towards the west stands the celebrated city of Còttate, or Cottàram; the Cottona, or Cottiara, of the ancient Greeks and Romans. This city, a considerable place of trade, is upwards of 2000 years old; and is much frequented by merchants from the island of Ceylon, the provinces of Madura, Marava, Tanjaur, and the coast of Coromandel. A river, which flows through the middle of it, divides it into two parts. It contains abundance of merchandise, and is inhabited by a great number of weavers, money-changers, silver-smiths, jugglers, comedians, quacks, dancing-girls, conjurers, and black artists.

Farther towards the north, on the sea-coast, in the longitude of 8°, lie Pullatopo, Cariapatnam, Coleci, Curumpana, Patnam and Valavaley. The city of Coleci has a small harbour, where the largest ships are secured from the stormy winds under the protection of some large rocks. This harbour is the general place of shelter resorted to by all the small vessels on the coast of Malabar; and was known to the Egyptians, Romans, Greeks and Persians. Beyond these lie Tiruvancòda, or Tiruvancor, from which the king of Travancor takes his title. As this place was the residence of the court, the Portuguese, who gave themselves very little trouble respecting the proper orthography of Indian titles, called the sovereign king of Travancor, His real title properly is Tripapu, or Bennàti Sorùbam, that is, king of the white earth; for, around this city, the soil to a considerable distance is white, sandy, and dry. Padmanàburam is a considerable castle not far from Tiruvancoda, where the king resides and keeps his treasure. Odeaquiri is also a place of strength, and the king’s principal magazine of arms and warlike stores. There is a garrison in it of European soldiers; and it contains an arsenal, and a cannon foundery.

On the sea-coast, and under the latitude of 8° N. lies also Pulluvalley Bingiam, a town, cape, and small harbour which has the form of a half moon; Valiatora, a town; Puntora, a town, with an entirely new harbour, which the reigning king of Travancor caused to be constructed, and where the European and Chinese ships lie at anchor in order to take in pepper; and Veli and Canantora, two towns inhabited by Christian and Mahometan fishermen. Then follows Tiruvandaram or Tiruvandaburam, the summer residence of the king of Travancor. The garrison of this place consists of four hundred Patan cavalry; about a thousand Nayris, or noble Malabar warriors; and nearly ten thousand seapoys, a corps composed of all kinds of people, but instructed in military discipline according to the English manner. The remainder of the troops are distributed here and there in the country. The castle of Tiruvandaram is exceedingly ill-built. The royal palace is ornamented with a great number of paintings, clocks, and other European pieces of furniture. It is large, exceedingly beautiful, and built in the European taste; but is not inhabited by the king, who prefers residing in a mean edifice which stands in a palm-garden, where he is surrounded by Brahman priests, in whose company he performs his daily ablutions, prayers, and other religious duties. In the year 1787, M. Donaudi, a native of Turin, and a captain in the king’s service, was preparing to supply the castle with gates and cannon. This city is populous, and contains a great number of palm-gardens, each of which is surrounded by a wall eight feet in height. These walls are constructed either of bricks dried in the sun, or of red and yellow clay beat together.

The next places on the sea-coast are: Puttentopo, Caniarata, Puducurici, Perimatorà, Angiutenga—an English colony called by the Europeans Angenga, and the town of Mampulli. Farther on lies Attinga, the residence of the queen, a title always given to the king’s oldest sister, as his spouse cannot nor dare not become queen; also Ciranga, or Cirangapatnam, which is likewise a populous city. All merchandise exported from the country must be here deposited and weighed, after which it is sent to the English at Angenga, who transport it to Bombay and thence to Europe. The interior districts of the country are entirely inhabited by Pagans, whereas on the sea-coast the greater part of the inhabitants are Christians and Mahometans. The reason is, that the Pagan Indians, like the ancient Egyptians and Persians, have a certain aversion to the sea, and approach it only at particular times, when it is absolutely necessary on account of their purifications, which must be performed in it. The Christian congregation at Mampulli was founded by St. Francis Xavier; but at present it has assumed a quite different form.

The next place on the sea coast is Barcale, a town, mountain, and highly celebrated Brahman temple; in the neighbourhood of which is an uncommonly beautiful Colam, or sacred pond, where the king is accustomed to bathe once every year. A spring of very pure, healthful, purgative water has its source in the adjacent mountain. I could not learn why it possessed these qualities till I happened to be in company with Mr. Hutchinson, who informed me, that both the mountain of Barcale and that of Kidàcolam contain abundance of iron. After passing the Barcale you immediately arrive at a river which flows down from the district of Cottàracare, lying towards the west. On this river, which runs past the town of Paru, where it discharges itself into the sea, Vira Martanda, king of Travancor, a predecessor of the present king Rama Varmer, encamped ten years, because the king of Ciangacèri or Collam disputed with him the passage. In 1746 Vira Martanda at length found means to force his way over, and to take prisoner the king of Ciangacèri, as well as that of Ceràva or Porrocàda, together with several petty princes whose dominions extended as far as Cochin. Besides Mainàda there is no other place to be mentioned on this coast, as the eighth degree of northern latitude here ends.

Collam, called by the Europeans, very improperly, Coelan, Coilon, or Coulan, lies under the 9th degree of north latitude. It was built in the year 825 after the birth of Christ and formerly was a city of considerable note. The Christian as well as Pagan natives of Malabar begin their æra at the period of its foundation; for they say, Collam tollairata arravata a manda; that is, 965 years after the founding of Collam; which, according to our mode of computation, corresponds with the year 1789. I must not, however, forget to mention, that the months of the people on the Malabar coast end ten days later than ours; so that the tenth day of their month corresponds with the twentieth of ours. This they call Palè Cänuaca, or the old style. In this city there were formerly a great many weaving looms, as well as manufactories of cotton and stone-ware. Various articles of household furniture were also made here, of Ayani, Benga, Teka, and Biti wood, the last of which is perfectly black, and as highly esteemed as ebony. Even at present the most ingenious artists on the Malabar coast reside at Collam. Cotton, pepper, ginger, cardamoms, and other kinds of merchandise, are carried hither by water, and deposited in warehouses. The Christian congregation here have St. Thomas for their patron, and, though adjacent to the coast, belong to the diocese of the archbishop of Angamali, the true pastor of the Christians of St. Thomas. Alexius Menezes, the first archbishop of Goa, opened here his first conference with the Christians of St. Thomas, when he made them renounce the principles of Nestorius, and embrace the doctrines of the Romish church, to which they are in part united. The same prelate caused an excellent fortress to be built at Collam on the sea-coast; which, however, afterwards fell to ruin, because the Dutch neglected to keep it in repair. The Brahmans possess, in this city, a very ancient temple, which is dedicated to Shiva or Mahadèva; and the Catholics have three congregations. The latter were formerly under the care of the Jesuits, by whom they were founded; but since the destruction of that order, they have been entrusted to the Franciscans at Goa, who have the management there of every thing that relates to ecclesiastical establishments. Between Collam and Cape Comari there are reckoned to be altogether seventy-five Catholic congregations, some of which are large and some small, some poor and some rich, and of which some are on the sea-coast, and others higher up in the country. The climate at Collam is exceedingly mild and healthful. There is here abundance of excellent fish, tortoises, very good rice, bananas, pine-apples and other fruit, pulse, milk, butter, and in short every thing necessary for those who wish to live according to the manner of the Pythagoreans, which is indeed the case with all the Pagan inhabitants on the coast of Malabar.

On the east of Collam, and towards the interior part of the country, lie Perumnàda and Cirumuttu, two beautiful and uncommonly fertile districts, which belong to the ancient kingdom of Kòttaràcare, and which produce great quantities of pepper, ginger, cardamoms, gum-lack, cotton, and various kinds of valuable wood. The river on which these articles are transported takes its rise in the Gauts, and, proceeding past Callare, Tuyam, and on the north side of Collam, discharges itself into the sea, towards the south, not far from the town of Aybica. At the last-mentioned place the king of Travancor causes small ships to be built from time to time, and in general gives employment to a great number of seamen. Lime is burnt here also from oyster and muscle shells, immense quantities of which are found in the neighbouring lakes and between the small islands.

Farther towards the north, on the sea-coast, lies Coyttòta, together with the church of Madre de Deos; and towards the east, Krishnapuram, Puttencarà, Tumhanur, Carimbanàda, and Tevelacare. All these, which are of considerable size, and inhabited by Pagans and Christians, contain a great deal of riches, and carry on an extensive trade with pepper, cardamoms, and pacca, or areca nuts. The areca is an Indian fruit, which the natives wrap up in an aromatic leaf (betel) and chew in their mouths, after they have sprinkled over it fine chalk, which they call Ciunamba. Excellent sugar-canes grow also in this district, and in such abundance that a sugar manufactory might easily be established, were not the king afraid of entrusting the management of it to Europeans. There are found here, likewise in great plenty, all kinds of wood, pepper, cassia root, tamarinds, tyger and buffalo skins, officinal herbs, apes, papajays, virgin wax cotton, and other productions of the like kind. All these articles are conveyed to the two populous cities of Mabalicarè and Cayamcollam, where they are weighed, and preserved till they are transported to Porrocàda or Pòrca, and shipped on board Indian as well as foreign vessels. At Mabalicarè, or Mavelicarè, the king always keeps a civil officer, to settle such disputes as arise between the inhabitants, and to take care of the royal revenue.

Still following the sea-coast we find also Porrocàda or Pòrca, a very populous city, inhabited by a great number of Mahometan, Pagan, and Christian merchants. The Dutch East India Company has a factory here, for the purpose of receiving the pepper, and putting it on board the Dutch ships. Then follows Callurcàda, a district abounding in water, which produces large quantities of rice. It may be called the granary of Malabar.

Farther on, towards the east, lies Callupare, an ancient town of considerable note, inhabited by Schismatics, who were formerly Nestorians, but at present are Jacobites: also Vaypur, where there is a Catholic congregation; and Cagnarapalli, a town celebrated on account of its trade with the kingdom of Madura, and which transports its merchandise thither over the Gauts. In these mountains there are found diamonds, sapphires, opals, and rock crystal. We are informed by Ptolemy, that in his time beryls also were found near Pugnatil: but they must now be exceedingly scarce; for I was acquainted at Barcale with several Brahman families who had expended their whole fortunes in searching for such precious stones, and by these means had reduced themselves to poverty.

We next come to the celebrated temple of Ambalapusha, which lies also on the sea-coast, and is dedicated to Shiva or Mahadèva. This temple, which is exceedingly rich, has belonging to it particular districts and villages, and is under the direction of chiefs who are totally independent of the government of the country. The latter, however, keeps here a Cariacarer, whose business is to watch the conduct of these chiefs. The infamous festival, called Padèni, during which the statue of the god Shiva is carried round in the night time, and before him a lingam, or phallus, is celebrated at this temple. These diabolical nocturnal orgies are attended, not only by the Pagan Indians, but it is required that all the Christians residing in the territories dedicated to the god should be present also. On this occasion the Pagan Indians perform a dance, to which the Christian women are invited; and if they refuse to come voluntarily, they are dragged thither by force. I applied, therefore, at different times, both to Cumàren Cembaga Ràmapulla, a magistrate of distinction, and to his successor Padmanàbha Cembaga Ràmapulla, earnestly intreating that they would prevent the overseers of the temple from thus abusing their power, and no longer suffer them to compel the Christians to be partakers in so detestable a festival. The overseers, however, found means to make a thousand excuses, and always referred to ancient usage. But this did not discourage me from pursuing the accomplishment of my object; and as I was invested with full power by the above magistrate, I caused some Christian fishermen from Cattur and Tumbòli, who had taken a share in the celebration of this festival, to get a severe beating before the church-door, as a warning to other Christians not to participate in such abominations in future[64].

Still following the coast, we arrive at Alapushe, a town of considerable size, inhabited by a great number of Pagans, Mahometans, and Christians of St. Thomas. The king of Travancor caused a large canal to be dug here, in order that the inhabitants might send their merchandise by water, to be put on board foreign ships lying on the coast. In this town one of my friends, Manuel Fernandes, was established as factor for the king, and inspector of the warehouses. We have here a striking instance of the manner in which circumstances change in regard to harbours and places of trade. In the first century after the birth of Christ, the greatest trade was carried on at Covàlam, Arampalli, and Coleci. In the ninth century, when the Arabs settled on the sea coast, Collam was the most celebrated place of trade. After that period the cities of Cochin, Calicut, Porrocàda, and Cubungalur, held the next rank; and at present, by the wise regulations of the king of Travancor, Puntora and Alapushe enjoy the same advantages.

Towards the east, Cianganaceri, Pulingunne, and Nerenam, considerable towns surrounded by abundance of rice-fields, deserve also to be mentioned. Nerenam, which lies on a river, is the residence of Mar Thoma, the schismatic bishop of the Jacobites. He has under his direction thirty-two Jacobite congregations, which however adhere in part to the practices of the Nestorians, and, like the Pagans, admit various superstitious ceremonies. The new bishop, who lodged with me on the 22d of December 1785, called Mar Dionysio, was descended from the family of Palamattam at Corolongatta. I have still in my possession some of his letters, written in answer to a proposal which I made to him, of uniting himself with the Romish church.

Ettumanur is a celebrated temple of Vishnu, and the residence of a Pagan magistrate. The Brahmans here have a very considerable revenue.

Iratushe, a town inhabited by Christians and Pagans, lies at the bottom of the Gauts, and carries on trade with Madura.

Still proceeding along the coast, we arrive at the following places: Tumbòli, Cattur, Artunkel, Tanghi, Mannacodam, Mannacèri, Saude, and Cochin a city and fortress belonging to the Dutch.

Higher up the country lies Muttam, a town of great trade, and inhabited by Christians, black Jews descended from the white Jews of Cochin, Mahometans, and a great number of Pagan Canarians, called also Banyans or Cettis. The last mentioned have a great knowledge of trade, and are active, industrious, moderate, and opulent people.

At Certele, a town of considerable note, inhabited only by Pagans, is a celebrated temple dedicated to Bhagavadi, that is, the fortunate woman, the spouse of the god Shiva. In the month of March 1777 I had an opportunity of seeing the image of this deity during the celebration of her festival. It was exhibited to the populace, amidst the sound of various musical instruments, by a Brahman, who sat upon an elephant, and held an umbrella over it. Some Indian dancing girls preceded the statue; and the procession was closed by an immense multitude of people, who seemed frantic with joy, and who sung all kinds of indecent songs on the subject of generation, which they say is effected by the influence of this female deity, combined with that of her husband Shiva, or the sun. The statue was at last carried to a sacred pond, where it was washed and purified by the Brahmans; who, during the ceremony, repeated a great many prayers. The Pagans worship this deity as the ruler of all fluids, from which every earthly thing was produced by means of heat. Women in labour are under her protection; and the small-pox are the consequence of her pernicious influence. For these and such like reasons the above solemnity was instituted to her honour. A cock is sacrificed before the gate of her temple, and the door-posts are besprinkled with the blood. In the second book of this work, I shall give a more particular account of this divinity. She has several names, such as Parvàdi, Kàli, Umà, and Ishvari. An image of her, made of bronze, is preserved in the Borgian Museum at Velitri.

Vaikam, or Vaikatta, is also a Gràmam, or district belonging to the Brahmans, who are generally accustomed to establish themselves at a distance from the other casts. There is here likewise a celebrated temple of Shiva, together with a Brahman school or academy. The revenue of this temple is very considerable, and arises from rice fields, which are let, without any distinction, to Mahometans and Christians. One of the king’s civil officers resides here. In the years 1788 and 1789, when the cruel Tippoo Sultan Bahader, son of Hayder Aly Khan, persecuted the Brahmans, and caused them either to be unmercifully beat, or circumcised according to the Mahometan manner, a great many of them fled to Vaikatta, where they received every kind of protection possible from the king of Travancor.

Udiamper is the place where the celebrated synod was held, on the 26th of June 1599, at the conclusion of which the Christians of St. Thomas, who had before been Nestorians, returned to the bosom of the Romish Church[65]. The inhabitants of this town, which lies on a river, are at present exceedingly poor.

Farther towards the east lie Cadaturuti, a town with two churches; Badeati, formerly the residence of the court of the king of Travancor; and Muttiera and Corolongatta, where there are two considerable congregations of the Christians of St. Thomas. At the latter place they have a very beautiful church dedicated to St. Mary, in which service is performed by priests who are natives of the country. The Nestorians had formerly a monastery here, inhabited by people of their order from Persia and Chaldea, who were the spiritual guides of the Christians of St. Thomas. There were monasteries also of the like kind at Edapalli, Angamali, and at Maïlapuri on the coast of Coromandel; but they all fell into decline after the Portuguese had established themselves on the coast of Malabar[66]. This district produces a great deal of pepper; and a peculiar kind of potatoes, black on the outside, but exceedingly white internally, and which have a remarkably fine taste. They are called Kàtschil. There is also great abundance of round potatoes, such as ours; but they are of a much superior quality, and have really an aromatic taste[67]. In the forests at the bottom of the Gauts, near Corolongatta, Clagnil, Badagare, Aragoshe, Mailacomba, and Modelacodata, forming districts which I have twice travelled through, there are a great many elephants, buffaloes, parrots of all kinds, deer, and black and white apes. The last-mentioned animals go about in whole flocks of from two to three thousand, and climb up the trees in order to carry away the wild fruits. In these forests there are found also abundance of tygers, and particularly of the so called Royal Tyger, which is almost as large as a small cow[68]. Ràmapurata, Cuincam, and Mohatushe, are connected in commerce with Maïssur, which lies on the other side of the mountains, and send their merchandise to Cochin by water.

Cochin is situated on the sea-coast, and, according to J. Hamilton Moore, in the latitude of 10° N. but according to observations made on board the Calypso in 9° 57′. In the Malabar language it is called Cocci, and obtained that name from a small river which formerly discharged itself there into the sea. In the year 1341, however, when the sea threw up the small island of Vaypi on the north side of Cochin, the waters, which during the rainy season pour down from the Gauts, broke through the banks of the river Cocci, and overwhelmed the village of the same name with such violence that it swept it away, and formed in that district a very large river, a lake, and a harbour so spacious that the largest ships can now lie at anchor in safety on the north-east side of Cochin, where the river runs into the sea. In the months of August and September this river commonly washes away the sand hills, which the sea in the months of June and July, when it is most boisterous, throws up at its mouth. At that period nature always exhibits here a most magnificent spectacle, as a violent contest then arises between the sea and the rain water which falls down in torrents from the mountains. If the latter is sufficiently powerful, it forces its way through every thing that opposes it; cleanses its bed, and drives the sand before it into the sea; but if the sea proves victorious, the mouths of the river, the canal, and even the harbour, are choaked up with sand. The sea then overflows its banks, inundates the adjacent country, and, forming in one place an island, and in another a lake obliges the inhabitants to abandon their dwellings, and gives to many districts a totally different appearance. In this manner new towns and harbours gradually arise; and the old ones are so destroyed, that, at the end of four or five centuries, their former site can scarcely be discovered[69].

The before-mentioned island of Vaypi is thirteen miles long and one in breadth. The inhabitants, who have immured themselves there, begin their æra at the period of its origin, as the other natives of Malabar begin theirs at the building of the city of Collam. This æra is called Puduvepa; from Pudu, new; and Vepa, the foundation or introduction of any thing. I was assured by Mr. John Truyns, the sworn interpreter of the Dutch East India Company at Cochin, that the origin of this new period, and the epoch when it began, are registered in the chancery of the company. I saw also several Malabar letters, written by members of the Christian congregation at Nharakel, which were dated according to this new æra. The soil both in the island of Vaypi, and in most of the flat districts of Malayala, consists of sea sand and calcareous matter combined with various kinds of earth and clay, which, during the rainy season, are washed down from the Gauts. The Indians assert, that the sea formerly extended even to the bottom of these mountains. This tradition, as evidently appears, has, however, no foundation; but it is certain that some of the plains found in this country have been produced by conflicts between the waves of the sea and torrents of rain. The devastation occasioned by such inundations can hardly be described. Grandchildren sometimes can scarcely point out, with any certainty, the spot where their grandfather resided, because it has assumed a form totally different[70]. When I arrived in Malabar, a stream flowed so near our convent at Verapole, that the water touched the steps of the door of our garden; and in the course of eight years it washed up so much earth that we acquired an entirely new garden. As I saw that this spot always increased, and was already 300 paces in length, I waited on the king of Travancor, who at that time resided at Perur, and requested he would make a present of it to our church of St. Joseph at Verapole. The worthy prince complied with my request, and the letter of donation is still preserved among the archives of the place. Our sub-prior made it his business afterwards to get this spot planted with young coco-nut and banana trees. In like manner I saw an island, a mile long, produced, in the course of ten years, before our church at Cettiyatti, by the opposite effects of the rain and sea-water. Those changes, which are observed in all parts of the world on the sea-coasts and in the low lands, have been produced by the force of water; whereas those in the mountains have resulted from subterranean fires. The former is the case in India, in particular, where the ebbing and flowing of the sea succeed each other every six hours, and where the latter is so strong that in many of the streams and rivers it extends to the distance of six leagues up the country. The terrible and awfully grand scenes of nature which take place on such occasions are beyond description: those who have not seen them can hardly form any idea of them.

Navigation on these coasts is attended with great danger, on account of the currents. The ancients, therefore, were accustomed always to drop their anchors towards evening, and to remain in that state during the night, that they might not have the misfortune of being driven out by the violence of these currents into the open sea. This practice is still observed by the Portuguese seamen, when they sail along the coast of Malabar. It, however, sometimes happens, that an unexperienced captain, after doubling Cape Comari with great toil and labour, and just at the moment when he flatters himself with the hopes of reaching the Malabar coast, is driven to the Maldivia islands, which lie at the distance of nearly 300 sea miles. Such was the case with Father Louis Maria à Jesu, of the order of the barefooted Carmelites, apostolical vicar and bishop of Usula. He had taken his passage from Puduceri to Malabar in a small vessel commanded by an unexperienced navigator; and the vessel having got into one of these currents, was carried by it to the Maldivia islands, and thence to Mosambique on the eastern coast of Africa[71].

Cochin is a beautiful city, built by the Portuguese, in the tenth year after the arrival of Vasco de Gama at Calicut. In 1663 it was besieged by a Dutch fleet under the command of Peter Van Bitter and C. Valkenberg, who made themselves masters of it, and who carried off from it a great deal of riches. After that period the beautiful cathedral was converted into a warehouse for the Dutch East India Company. This edifice is now employed for preserving the sugar which the Company obtains from Batavia, and the cinnamon they receive from Ceylon, together with nutmegs, cloves, iron, copper, cordage, rice, pepper, and various other articles of merchandise, which they bring hither from foreign countries, and sell partly to the Indian princes, and partly to the Arabian as well as other native and foreign merchants. Cochin is intersected by beautiful streets: the arsenal is well provided with all kinds of military stores, and the citadel is strongly fortified. The latter, in the year 1778, was supplied with new ditches, bridges, batteries and bastions, under the direction of the governor Adrian Moens. It lies on the southern bank of the Coci, and commands the harbour, which is open to merchant vessels, but into which no ship of war is suffered to enter[72]. Mattanceri, a very populous town, lying a quarter of a league higher up on the same river, or rather lake, is a kind of magazine where merchandise of all kinds, both the production of India and of other countries, is deposited for sale.

The Jews, the Banians or Cettis, and the Mahometans, have here very considerable warehouses filled with goods. More than an hundred Arabian ships from Mascate and Mocha, which, besides Egyptian and Arabian merchandise, bring with them very large sums of money, come to anchor here every year. Venetian sequins brought from Grand Cairo are much more current at this place than in Europe. Many of the Arabian ships make two voyages hither in the course of the year. The first time, they arrive in September, and depart in October and November; the second time, they arrive in February, and return in April or May. The Arabs, who conduct these vessels, have a most horrid appearance. They are strongly built; wear their beards long; have nothing on their bodies but a shirt and a pair of wide trowsers made of white cotton cloth; are of a dark-brown complexion, and pay very little attention to cleanliness. They are active; never go but in companies, and well armed; sleep under tents, or a piece of cloth extended on poles; cook their victuals in the open streets; work at night by the light of the moon; have a great fondness for areca, or palm wine; are extremely faithful to each other while they are getting their goods on board, and unite to avenge themselves in common when any of them is injured. What a difference there is among nations! The Indians, for example, are agile, nimble and weak, but civil and polite; they act only after mature deliberation; are fond of temperance, and lead an honest and harmless life. The Arabs, on the other hand, are forward, rustic, robust and faithful; but pay very little attention to decency, or the dictates of reason. The latter devour without any scruple their Pillow, a dish which consists of boiled rice, with a fowl or piece of kid’s flesh; but the former eat only rice, herbs or roots; and consider it as a great crime to kill an animal. If an Indian is attacked by the small-pox, a disease which in that country occasions great devastation, all the neighbours employ every possible precaution to prevent themselves from being infected. In like cases, however, the Arabs spread out mats in the open streets; place on them the infected persons; give them palm-wine, which, as they pretend, will expel the poison; and before the pustules are ripe, or begin to dry, strew them over with ashes, under a firm conviction that the poison will by these means be dried up and dispersed. The Indians are always accustomed to perform their ablutions before and after meals, and to repair to their temples when they pray to their gods, or present offerings to them. The Arabs always kneel down in the evening in the open street; keep their eyes fixed on the moon; incline their bodies before it times without number; and repeat their prayers publicly and aloud. A like contrast is observed in the manners and customs of the other tribes who inhabit the coast of Malabar; and for that reason they are all tolerated by the government, which punishes only those who attempt to interrupt their neighbours in their public worship or private devotions.

Besides the Creoles, Mestise, and real Indian females, there are at Cochin a great many European women. These, as soon as they set a foot in India, are converted into ladies of the first rank, though at Paris, London or Amsterdam they had been only fruit-sellers or washer-women. The English, in consequence of an express law, dare not marry Indian women, in order that the race in their colonies may remain pure and unmixed. They indemnify themselves, however, by keeping several mistresses, without caring whether they are Mahometans or Christians. The Dutch are acquainted with no such law, and therefore can choose wives just as they please; but the state of celibacy is so much the mode in this country, that marriages are seldom heard of. Could any one believe that people who act according to such principles, should take the liberty to reprobate the celibacy of the Roman Catholic clergy[73]? Instances of this kind have occurred to myself; for I remember an unmarried tobacconist at Cochin, who kept a whole dozen of females, and yet asserted that it was improper in the Roman Catholic clergy not to marry. In Cochin there are every where houses inhabited by great numbers of male and female slaves, who are guilty of the most scandalous transactions. This kind of dissipation was tolerated as soon as the city fell into the hands of the Portuguese; and a very intelligent author thinks he can here discover the real cause why the Portuguese were driven from the city of Cochin, as well as their other possessions in India[74]. Avarice, insolence, dishonesty, infidelity and injustice will always bring kingdoms and states to destruction; and if there be any truth in this observation, some other colonies, perhaps, will not remain long in the hands of the Europeans. Monopolies, discord, and peculation have already greatly increased; and the Indians cannot be too much astonished at the villanies which they daily see committed by the Europeans.

The Dutch East India Company has often been in a state of variance with the king of Cochin, who, according to his surname, is called Perumpadapil, and resides at Terpunatre[75], a place lying east of Cochin, on the other side of the lake which separates the possessions of this prince from those of the Dutch. On the 18th of April, 1792, I received a letter from Father Francis a Sancto Elisæo, in which he gave me a circumstantial account of the last disputes between the Dutch and Viròlam Tamburàn, the present king of Cochin. King Mutta Tamburàn, of the family of Perumpadapil, a quiet peaceable man, with whom I had an interview at Ciovare, in the year 1787, died of the small-pox. He was succeeded by his younger brother Viròlam Tamburàn, of whom I had several times an audience at Mattincera, where he frequently sent for me to the palace, as he wished to be made acquainted with different particulars respecting the affairs of Europe. He spoke Dutch exceedingly well, and was desirous of learning English also. As he was a brave, enterprising man, possessed of considerable talents, and no little share of pride, he could not bear the idea of being satisfied with the income enjoyed by his predecessors. He, therefore, exercised every kind of oppression against the merchants; caused three of the overseers of the temple Tirumala Devossam to be put to death, because they would not resign to him any part of the treasure belonging to it; plundered the shops; carried away the merchants’ property, and asserted that he alone had a right to rule the Pagan Indians, as since the earliest periods they had always been under the dominion of his forefathers. This last claim was, without all doubt, agreeable to the principles of justice. The sovereigns of the country had by no means sold the district around Cochin to the Portuguese; they merely gave permission to Vasco de Gama and his followers to establish themselves there as merchants: and the Dutch, by whom the Portuguese were expelled, had made themselves masters by force of that city and neighbourhood. But what avails such rights against the power of cannon? In a word, the Dutch broke into the palace of Viròlam Tamburàn at Mattincera; took from him all the merchandise he had seized; and compelled him to retire to Terpunatre, where he is now so hemmed in that it is impossible for him to stir. The following places, and some other towns, belong to this prince: Nhàrica, Candenàda, Perimanùr, Angicaimal, Udiamper, Mullaventurutti, Pallicarè, Cenòtta, Ciovàre, Pucòtta, Arshtamiciare, and Puttencera.

King Perumpadapil, whom the Europeans call king of Cochin, is descended from the celebrated Malabar monarchs, Ceramperumal, who were formerly distinguished by the title of Maharàgia, that is, emperor, or great emperor; for all the petty Malabar kings were obliged to be obedient to his orders, when he had to defend the country against king Samuri, or any other enemy. But when these petty kings were gradually subdued, and deprived of their territories by the commander in chief of the king of Travancor, the celebrated Màrtandapulla, and his successor general Eustachius de Lanoy, by birth a Fleming, a treaty was concluded with king Perumpadapil, in consequence of which he was left in possession of the few places above mentioned, as the last remains of royal dignity. This happened in the year 1761.

Since the king of Travancor laid open the trade at Alapushe and Puntora to foreigners, the revenues of the Dutch East India Company have been considerably lessened[76]. The duties at Cochin brought them formerly every year 30,000 rupees; and they received a like sum from the rents of their palm-groves, gardens, and other lands which they let on lease. In the time of peace they generally maintain a body of 4000 men; but when a war breaks out, they must increase these troops to 10,000. It is, therefore, evident, that the expences of the Company far exceed their income. Formerly they had possession of the excellent fortress of Cudungalur, or Cranganor, five leagues towards the north of Cochin; but as they clearly foresaw that it would be difficult for them to defend it against the repeated attacks of Tippoo Sultan Bahader, they sold it to the king of Travancor. The latter would gladly have retained it as a valuable acquisition; but in the year 1790 it was taken from him, and dismantled by M. Lally, Tippoo Sultan’s general. The troops of Tippoo were, however, again driven from the country in 1791 and 1792; but I do not with certainty know whether the works were ever rebuilt[77].

On the sea-coast, beyond Cochin, farther to the north are: Badagare, or Vaypin, a populous town belonging to the district of Cochin; Nharica, a town together with a church belonging to the Christians of St. Thomas[78]; Palipuram, where there is a Christian congregation; and Aycotta, a fortified town, with a very ancient harbour, where, according to tradition, St. Thomas once landed. Higher up the country, towards the east, lie Paravur, formerly a very large and considerable town, which was, however, reduced to ashes by the troops of Tippoo Sultan[79]; Curiapalli, the military magazine and arsenal of the king of Travancor; and Verapole, the residence of the apostolic vicar, where there is a seminary, a catechumen house, and a convent of barefooted Carmelites, who have the care of the missionary establishments on the coast of Malabar. This monastery was founded in the year 860 after the building of Collam, or, according to the usual mode of reckoning, in 1673. The palm-grove in which it is situated, is called Tattàracèrri Paramba, and was given to the Carmelites by the king of Cochin.

A league farther towards the east lies Edapalli, called by the Europeans Rapolim. In this town there is a church, a mosque, and the palace of the king of the Brahmans, who is likewise their high-priest or pope. The district belonging to this sovereign may be about three leagues in circumference. This town, together with a few others, were given to him by the king of Travancor, out of respect for his high descent and sacerdotal dignity.

Towards the north-west lies the old city of Alangatta, called by the Portuguese, very improperly, Mangate. It is subject to a king of its own, and contains the largest church belonging to the Christians on the coast of Malabar.

On the north-east stands Angamàli, a very ancient city also, where there are three Christian congregations. It was formerly the residence of the bishop of the Christians of St. Thomas; but great part of it has been burnt or destroyed by the troops of Tippoo Sultan.

Ambalacòtta, was formerly a populous town, where the Jesuits had a convent and seminary; but at present it is falling to ruin.

Maleatur, is a celebrated church of the St. Thomas Christians, to which an immense multitude of people resort on Whitsunday.

The following places also lie on the sea-coast: Palur, Cettuva, Paniani or Ponàni, Ciavacàda, and Tannur.

Higher up, towards the east, lie Puttencera, and Vettiacòtta, a fortress belonging to the king of Travancor, and erected to prevent an enemy from entering the country over the Gauts, on the side of Maïssur, a kingdom which at present is under the dominion of Tippoo Sultan.

Farther towards the north, and at the distance of about ten leagues from Cranganor, lies Triciur, a town and district belonging to the Brahmans. They have here a celebrated academy, public and private schools; also an university, where young persons are instructed in their sciences, and the principles of their religion. This place was also destroyed by Tippoo Sultan; but rebuilt by the Brahmans, after Tippoo’s defeat. All these cities, towns and churches, are situated under the latitude of 10° north.

On the sea-coast, in the latitude of 11° north, lies Tannur, formerly a city of considerable note, but at present a miserable village; and Vaypur, Baypur, or Sultanpatnam, a noble harbour, which Tippoo Sultan Bahader spared as much as possible, because he intended to establish here a considerable foreign trade. Large quantities of pepper, cardamoms, and sandal wood, began indeed to be carried hither from the eastern parts of the country; but, in the year 1773, when war broke out, and the roads by these means were rendered unsafe, the above plan was abandoned.

On the east, towards the Gauts, lies the celebrated city and fortress of Pàlacaticeri. It is entirely built of hewn stone; has strong works, and in general is capable of making an obstinate defence. The garrison always consists of the flower of Tippoo Sultan’s troops. This fortress is situated on the borders of Conoam, and covers the passage to the coast of Malabar towards the mountains which separate Malayala and Maissur.

The well-known city of Calicut, which has experienced such a variegated fate, lies also on the sea-coast, and in the latitude of 11° 15′ north. It consists partly of houses constructed of teka wood, and partly of huts composed of palm branches interwoven through each other, and covered with palm leaves. Of stone buildings there are very few. The fortress of Calicut is of much greater antiquity than the city to which it has given its name. The natives of Malabar believe that it was built by king Ceramperumàl, from whom all the petty Malabar princes are descended. This city was rased almost to the ground by Tippoo Sultan, who destroyed its flourishing trade; expelled from the country the merchants and factors of the foreign commercial houses; caused all the coco-nut and sandal trees to be cut down; and ordered the pepper plants in the whole surrounding district to be torn up by the roots, and even to be hacked to pieces, because these plants, as he said, brought riches to the Europeans, and enabled them to carry on war against the Indians.

King Samuri, a very powerful prince, who is distinguished also by the name of Nediriparàgia or Tamulpada, took from king Ceramperumal, not only this city and district, but the whole kingdom of which it forms a part. In remembrance of this heroic exploit, he made the sword and the lamp of his conquered enemy to be always carried before him when he appeared in public. He was able to bring into the field 100,000 men, and was a sworn foe to the Portuguese, and Perumpadapil, or king of Cochin, who was descended from Ceramperumal, and who could also bring into the field an army equally numerous. These kings, Samuri and Perumpadapil, were the only two of all the Indian princes who had a right, as a token of their unlimited power, to have carried before them the branch of a coco-nut tree, bound round with a bandage at the lower end, and quite free at the top. The petty Malabar kings used indeed a branch of the same kind; but it was necessary that it should be bound round at the upper as well as the lower end, in order to shew that they were subject to both these emperors.

Samuri, whom the Mahometan merchants at Calicut support as the most powerful among all the petty princes, had given battle several times to Perumpadapil, and always came off victorious; but in the year 1760, his troops, being divided at Cranganor, Paravur, and Verapole, were attacked unexpectedly by Martandapulla, the commander in chief of the king of Travancor, and totally routed. In 1773, thirteen years after, Hayder Aly Khan, who had already made himself master of the kingdom of Maïssur, marched down from Palacataceri, fell upon the city of Calicut, and reduced to subjection the whole of Malayala, including the fortress of Cranganor or Cudungalur. King Samuri, who called himself Krishna Tamburàn, with five thousand of his Nayris, or armed nobles, fled to the mountain Koledimala, in the neighbourhood of the Gauts, from which they often descended to attack Hayder Aly’s out-posts, and harass his army. Hayder Aly’s son, Tippoo Sultan Bahader, was at length so incensed against the inhabitants of Calicut and the neighbouring district, because they assisted, by every possible means, their former sovereign, that he resolved to punish them; and for that purpose took the field in person. He was preceded by 30,000 barbarians, who butchered every person who came in their way; and by his heavy cannon under the command of general Lally, at the head of a regiment of artillery. Then followed Tippoo Sultan himself, riding on an elephant; and behind him marched another corps, consisting of 30,000 men also. The manner in which he behaved to the inhabitants of Calicut was horrid. A great part of them, both male and female, were hung. He first tied up the mothers, and then suspended the children from their necks. The cruel tyrant caused several Christians and Heathens to be brought out naked, and made fast to the feet of his elephants, which were then obliged to drag them about till their limbs fell in pieces from their bodies. At the same time he ordered all the churches and temples to be burned and pulled down or destroyed in some other manner. Christian and Pagan women were compelled to marry Mahometans; and Mahometan women were compelled to marry Heathens and Christians. The Pagans were deprived of the token of their nobility, which is a lock of hair called Cudumi; and every Christian who appeared in the streets, must either submit to be circumcised, or be hanged on the spot. This happened in the year 1789, at which time I resided at Verapole. I had then an opportunity of conversing with several Christians and Pagans, who had escaped from the fury of this merciless tyrant; and I assisted these fugitives to procure a boat to enable them to cross the river which runs past that city.

This persecution continued till the 15th of April 1790. I had then quitted the coast of Malabar; but I was informed by the bishop and apostolic vicar there, that, on the above day, Tippoo Sultan, having forced the king of Travancor’s lines, penetrated as far as Verapole, and had renewed the bloody scenes begun the year before. “The troops,” said the bishop in a letter dated May 23, 1791, “advanced to Verapole, and set some houses on fire, but did not enter the island. We were visited only by a few marauders, who converted our church, our seminary, and our convent into real dens of thieves. They plundered and destroyed whatever they could lay their hands on; for it had been almost impossible for us to remove any thing out of the way. By the peculiar providence of God, however, and of St. Joseph (the patron of the congregation), neither our church nor our convent fell a prey to the rapacity of the soldiery, or to the flames.” Soon after, the army of Tippoo Sultan was defeated by the English under the command of Lord Cornwallis, and totally routed. He himself was driven into the fortress of Ciringapatnam, in the kingdom of Maïssur, where he was obliged to enter into an engagement, to pay the expences of the war, to give back his conquests to their former possessors, and to deliver both his sons into the hands of the English as hostages[80].

The harbour of Calicut is at present far from being so capacious as formerly: a great part of it has been filled up with sand by the sea, and for that reason the trade at Calicut is now in a very languishing condition. As the Mahometan Arabs, however, have the superiority here, and are connected in business with other merchants at Mascate and Mocha, it is to be hoped that measures will be taken to remedy this evil.

Still farther, on the sea coast, lies Mahè or Mahi, a town and colony belonging to the French. When the European inhabitants of this place heard of the French revolution, they ran into the streets, bawling out in full jubilee, “Liberty and Equality!” The Pagans and the Mahometans did the same, calling out “Liberty and Equality for us also! As we are now all free and equal,” added they, “it is very evident that we can no longer acknowledge you for our masters.” This idea they indeed actually carried into execution, and expelled all the French from the town. The Carmelites had here a church, a catechumen house, and a missionary establishment.

A mile farther, towards the north, lies Talicèri, a city belonging to the English, where they have a considerable settlement, a council, and an arsenal. They employ this city as a military post, where they collect troops brought from Bombay, in order to keep in subjection the inhabitants of Malayala. King Samuri and the king of Travancor are at present in alliance with the English. A brisk trade is carried on at Taliceri, and foreign ships take on board here pepper, various cotton articles, biti and teka wood, cardamoms, rice, sandal wood, and other Malabar productions, which they transport to Bombay and thence to England. The palace in which the council sits, is one of the most beautiful buildings in India.

The next place, worthy of notice, is Baliapatnam, or Valiapatnam, formerly a large and considerable mart of trade, but at present a very obscure town. The harbour here is more than half filled up with sand.

Proceeding along the sea-coast you then arrive at Cannanur, a town with a castle, and subject to the government of queen Còllatiri, by the Europeans called Collastri. This city is of great antiquity, and the kings of Còllatiri belong to the first class of the Indian princes. The mother of the present king of Travancor, Rama Varmer, was descended from this family. She died in the year 1780, exactly at the time when I was at Angenga. I was shewn a letter written by the king to the commander of the English troops there, in which he requested that he would cause every mark of respect to be paid at Angenga to the memory of his deceased mother. In consequence of this request, all the shops were kept shut for three days; and no one during that time durst fish in the sea, because the Indians believe in the transmigration of souls, and are therefore afraid that the soul of a deceased person may be prevented from going into some fish or other. Niebuhr and Anquetil du Perron are, therefore, in an error when they assert that the king of Travancor is of mean extraction.

The capital of the kingdom of Cannanur, called also Còlanàda, lies in the latitude of 11° 50′, and is distinguished by the same name. The whole surrounding district, which towards the north extends as far as the mountain Illi, is inhabited by the Molandis, who live merely by piracy. These sea-robbers are mentioned by Pliny, Arrian, Ptolemy, and other ancient authors. They unite themselves to other pirates, who reside on the Angedib islands, near Goa, and capture all the small vessels which sail from Goa to Cochin. The huts in which their wives and children live stand on the eastern side of Mount Illi[81]. This mountain, which forms a cape or head-land, lies in the latitude of 12° 5′; and here Malabar, or Malayala properly so called, ends.

We now come to the kingdom of Canara, which is partly under the dominion of Tippoo Sultan, and partly divided under that of the Marattas and different petty princes, the latter of whom have maintained themselves here and there in the mountains. On the other side of mount Illi, the language, manner of life, and in a certain measure the legislation of the inhabitants of Malabar, begin gradually to cease, and to be succeeded by those of the natives of Canarà. Both nations, however, acknowledge one system of religion; worship the same deities; and in their liturgy employ the Samscred language. Anquetil du Perron is under a mistake, when he says, that the Tamulic language is generally used on the coast of Malabar. It may be easily perceived, that he never visited but a few maritime towns, where the merchants indeed speak both the Malabar language and the Tamulic. In the interior parts of the country, the inhabitants use only the former, which is totally different from the Tamulic, though both these dialects have been originally derived from the Samscred. In the second book I shall explain this subject farther[82].

HAVING now finished the topographical description of the most remarkable cities, towns and places in Malayala, I shall add the distances of some of them from Cochin; which, as I have already said, lies in the latitude of 10° north, and in the longitude of 75° 52′.

PLACES.

In this calculation the windings and turnings of the roads have been taken into account; for none of them proceed in a straight line. The post, called in the Malabar language Angela[83], travels indeed along the high road, in the interior part of the country, which is the shortest and straightest; but the Europeans dare not use it, lest the Brahmans should be polluted by them. For this reason the Europeans must pass along the sea-coast, which is inhabited only by fishermen, and people of the lowest casts. Hence it happens, that few Europeans have the least knowledge respecting the interior part of the country, though they talk a great deal of their travels in India. The European missionaries, however, besides other privileges and advantages, have a right to employ umbrellas of as large a size as those used by the Indian princes; and by means of this privilege they may go over the whole interior part of the country; only they must take care not to approach too near to a temple where a festival is celebrated in honour of any deity.

Population of Malayala—Manners, Customs and Industry of the Inhabitants—Political State of the Country.

THE inhabitants of Malayala, which, comprehending all its provinces from Cape Illi to Tovala, is 120 Indian miles in length; and from the Gauts to the sea, between twenty-five and thirty in breadth, consist, besides the native Indians, who are partly Pagans and partly Christians, of Arabs, black and white Jews, Canarians, and Europeans of different nations, who have there formed establishments. In the year 1771, the Christians of St. Thomas, according to M. Florentius à Jesu, the bishop and apostolic vicar on the coast of Malabar, amounted to 94,600. In the year 1787, when a poll-tax was about to be imposed on them by the king of Travancor, they estimated their number themselves at 100,000 persons. Ten thousand of them, I confess, lost their lives during the war against Tippoo Sultan; but still there will remain 90,000 Catholic Christians, who follow the Syrio-Chaldaic ritual. They have in their possession sixty four churches, some of which however were destroyed by Tippoo. The Jacobites have thirty-two churches, to which belong 50,000 Schismatics. These, therefore, form all together 140,000 Christians, who adhere to the Syrio-Chaldaic rites. There are likewise seventy-five churches of the Mucoas and Paravas on the coast of Travancor; and twenty churches belonging to the Latin ritual, which lie in the district between Porrocada and Cape Illi. All these churches can muster more than 100,000 Christians, newly converted to the Romish faith. The number of the Jews who reside at Mattincera, Muttam, and Cayamcolla, may be about from 15 to 20,000. To these must be added 100,000 Arabs, established there since the ninth century; also the Canarians, Banians, Cettis, and Cumuttis, who together amount to 30,000 souls; and, lastly, 15,000 Europeans, Creoles, Mestises, and Topazis, who are partly Catholics, partly Lutherans and Calvinists. But far greater than the sum-total of all these foreigners, is the number of the original inhabitants of the country. The former may be estimated at 400,000, the latter at 1,600,000, so that Malayala contains above two millions of inhabitants. This calculation was made too at a time when the population of the country had greatly suffered by the wars with Hayder Ali Khan and Tippoo Sultan. If we reflect, therefore, that this district is not very large, that it is intersected by a great number of streams, and that on the east it is bounded by high mountains and impenetrable forests, it is evident that, in proportion to its cultivated surface, it is extremely well peopled[84]. This is to be ascribed chiefly to the simple and temperate manner in which the Indians live, as they eat nothing but rice, milk, fruit, herbs, butter, coco-nut oil, fish, and other kinds of food which are easy of digestion, and promote the generative powers[85]. Monogamy, which prevails among the Christians and Pagans, though among the latter it is not general, contributes also to increase the population; for, by these means, the affection between parents and children is preserved, and that also between husband and wife. Another circumstance which tends to promote population is, that all young women, without exception, must marry. One of the chief objects of every father, whether Christian or Pagan, is to procure husbands for his daughters; and when he is not able to give them portions, he is assisted either by the cast to which he belongs, or by the Christian congregation of which he is a member. There are here neither convents, nor any other establishments, in which young women can be immured; but they are obliged, as already said, to enter into the state of matrimony, and to gain their livelihood by the labour of their hands. The Indians are not fond of celibacy, and the state of widowhood is held in the utmost contempt. The women in Malabar, indeed, bring forth few children; but the loss occasioned to population by this natural deficiency is fully supplied by the great number of marriages. The expence of rearing children is also rendered extremely easy, as they require very little for their nourishment and clothing[86]. In the second book I shall give a fuller account of these and other causes which contribute to increase the population of India. I must, however, not omit here to observe, that it is impeded also by very great obstacles. Among these are:

1. The small-pox, which, in India, are extremely malignant, and which every year sweep off many thousands[87].

2. Polygamy, and the celibacy of a great number of persons who cannot resolve to confine their affections to one object[88].

3. The continual wars and revolutions in India, by which a great number of men are destroyed.

4. The oppression of sovereign princes, who impose on their subjects excessive labour, and by these means ruin many persons both married and unmarried.

5. The slave trade, by which several thousands of men are sold annually, like cattle, and sent out of the country.

The complexion of the natives of Malabar is brown, but much brighter than that of the Tamulians, who inhabit the coast of Ciòlamandala. The Mucoas or fishermen, the Paravas or people who manufacture and dye the cotton articles with which they carry on trade, and all those who reside on the sea-coast, are totally black; because, by the nature of their employments, they are always exposed to the heat of the sun, and to the sea air. The nobler casts, and other families who live in palm-gardens and enclosures[89], are much fairer; because they spend the greater part of their time under the shade of trees, and are surrounded by a milder atmosphere, which moderates the heat of the sun. I have seen Brahman women, both married and unmarried, who were uncommonly beautiful. The most of the female Indians have fine long hair, black eyes, extended ears which are pierced, and straight delicate persons. They are accustomed to wash themselves twice a day; to anoint their bodies every week with coco-nut oil, or the white of an egg; and to rub their skin with a plant called Incia, the rind of which has the property of removing all filth. This ablution and friction strengthen the body, and at the same time prevent too violent perspiration. Till their thirtieth year they are stout and vigorous; but after that period they alter much faster than the women in any of the nations of Europe[90]. Early marriage, labour and diseases exhaust their constitutions before the regular time of decay. They are lively, active and tractable; possess great acuteness; are fond of conversation; employ florid expressions, and a phraseology abundant in images; never carry any thing into effect till after mature deliberation; are inquisitive and prying, yet modest in discourse; have a fickle inconstant disposition; make promises with great readiness, yet seldom perform them; are importunate in their requests, but ungrateful when they have obtained their end; behave in a cringing obsequious manner when they fear any one, but are haughty and insolent when they gain the superiority; and assume an air of calmness and composure when they can acquire no satisfaction for an injury, but are malicious and irreconcileable when they find an opportunity of being revenged. I was acquainted with many families who had ruined themselves with law-suits, because they preferred the gratification of revenge to every consideration of prudence. The men, both of the higher and lower classes, bind a piece of cotton cloth round their loins, and for the most part leave the remainder of the body uncovered. The women of the inferior casts go about almost in the same manner. The wives and daughters of the Brahmans, on the other hand, conceal the upper part of the body with a piece of fine cotton cloth, the extremity of which is thrown over the shoulder. They go bare-footed; but wear a great many ornaments, which generally consist of three or four bracelets of brass, a necklace of gold or precious stones, and ear-rings of gold or of diamonds. They bind their hair together in a roll on the top of the head, and paint on the forehead some sacred mark. They bear in their hand an umbrella of palm-leaves, which they always hold before their face when they meet any of the male sex. They, however, turn speedily round, in general, when a man has passed them, and seem to cast a wistful look towards him. This is a plain proof that in every country of the globe the daughters of Eve are subject to the like weaknesses.

The houses of the nobility and opulent persons consist of two storeys. Before the lowest there is generally a small hall, supported by thin pillars of Teka wood, which is of a yellow colour, and exceedingly hard. This hall is called Varanda, and supplies the place of a parlour. The upper storey is called Malaga; and in this the Indians are accustomed to sleep, to study, or to perform any business in which they do not wish to be interrupted. A building, which consists of seven storeys, is called Elàmmaliga, that is, a tower; and is considered as a habitation which none but a king or reigning prince dare inhabit. The huts of the poor people are constructed of the branches of the coco-nut tree interwoven through each other; and are covered with its leaves, or with rushes or straw. The entrance into these huts is low, and the interior part of them is dark. Their whole furniture consists of a Kattila, or bed-frame, on which a mat is placed; a few flat dishes of copper or brass; a Kindi, or brass drinking vessel with a spout; a pot or kettle, in which they boil their rice; a Vilacca, or round lamp of iron or brass, fastened to a chain, by which it can be suspended in the middle of the hut; and a large wooden mortar, in which they pound their Nella, or unshelled rice. Though the Indians see daily before them the furniture and cooking utensils of the Europeans, they have never yet thought proper to make use of them. The customs prevalent among them above three thousand years ago still remain unchanged[91]. We must, however, do the Indians the justice to confess, that they are very well acquainted with agriculture, botany, gardening, hunting, fishing, and architecture[92]. Their style and taste are indeed extremely wretched; but they possess a wonderful aptitude for imitating the arts and inventions of the Europeans, as soon as the method has been pointed out to them. The greater part of the houses in Malabar are built of Teka wood, which is much harder and heavier than oak, and which withstands corruption for a very great length of time. I have seen several houses more than 400 years old, which during that period had suffered little or no decay. The palm-leaves with which they are covered, and the above wood, have the property of attracting the moisture, and of suffering it again to escape, as soon as a breath of air begins to stir, of the sun to shine. Hence it happens, that these houses are much healthier than those of stone and lime; which, if not allowed to dry properly, evaporate, for a long time after they are built, a great many calcareous and highly pernicious particles[93].

The Indians, after the manner of all the oriental nations, never eat at noon. In the morning, before they go out to labour, they generally take their Cagni, or beverage consisting of water in which a certain quantity of rice has been boiled till all its mealy, nourishing, and cooling particles are dissolved. After this breakfast they proceed to their labour, and continue it without interruption till about four o’clock. An hour after, or sometimes later, they take their evening meal; go to sleep at sun-set, and rise next morning at break of day. This mode of life is perfectly agreeable to the nature of man, for whom the elements and heavenly bodies were created. It not only saves the Indians a great deal of oil, but secures to them agreeable repose, and preserves their bodies healthful. The day and the night are almost always of the same length near the equator, and therefore they seldom or never depart from the above regular course. The women are obliged to cook, and to place the dishes on the table. The husband and wife never eat together; for the Indians consider it as indecent, and contrary to that respect which is due to the former. The consequence is, that their meals are very short; and that nothing takes place, in the presence of the rest of the family, which can offend against decency or good manners. At table they use merely the right hand; for the left, with which they wash the lower part of the body, &c. they look upon as unclean. The rice is served up on a broad banana leaf, which supplies the place of a dish; and near it is placed the Karil, that is, soup which consists of herbs, fruit, pepper and cardamoms. It is exceedingly well prepared; has a delicious smell, and a pungent taste. This soup they pour, at different times, over the rice, which in very small morsels they put into their mouth with the right hand. If they have no Kail, or spoon, they employ in its stead a Mava leaf rolled together. When their meal is finished, they throw away their dish and spoon, because leaves of the like kind may be every where found. Persons of condition, however, employ at their meals vessels of copper and brass, which they keep remarkably clean, and which are always washed after they have been used. They eat, along with their rice, sour milk and butter, or herbs which have been baked in butter or oil. The king of Travancor has generally at his table fifteen different kinds of soup, which are varied from time to time. He eats also preserved nutmegs with his rice, which of itself has an excellent and aromatic taste.

During their meals the Indians sit down on a mat spread out on the floor, and, according to the oriental custom, place their legs across each other under them. They drink nothing but water; and when they wish to quench their thirst, they pour it from their Kindi, or drinking vessel, directly into their throat, without letting it touch their lips. When the men have ended their meal, it is then the women’s turn; and as soon as these have finished, they repair altogether to a river or pond, where they wash themselves, and mutter over various forms of prayer[94]. This ablution is called Sandhivanana, that is, the evening’s devotion; and is directed either to Shiva or Vishnu, Bhagavadi or Bhavani, to the goddess of nature and her children, the stars and the elements. They are convinced that the whole world, with every thing in it, had a beginning; that it will endure for a certain period, and at last have an end: and this belief conducts them to exalted ideas respecting their present and future destination. Never are they heard to pronounce an indecent word, except on the festival of Shiva, or Bhagavadi, in honour of which deities they always sing obscene songs. As for love letters, they are totally unknown to them. No young man dare venture to visit the object of his affection at her home; for the parents, on whose will the marrying of the girl depends, would consider this as an infringement on their right. This observation, however, is applicable only to the nobility and families of distinction; for people of the lower casts have manners and customs peculiar to themselves. Thus, for example, when they address themselves to a prince, brahman, magistrate or superior, they salute him by folding the hands together, raising them above their head, letting them then fall down, turning the fingers of both hands three times outwards, and raising up their folded hands again. They then place the left hand on their breast, the right on the mouth, and in that posture wait for permission to speak. This ceremony is called Tolunu. When a scholar wishes to address his preceptor, he must first prostrate himself at full length before him. This method of shewing respect is called Shashtanga. A scholar never dares to sit down in the presence of his Guru or teacher[95].

The industry of the Indians does not arise so much from their ingenuity, as from the fertility of the soil which they cultivate. They plant rice, pepper, the areca tree, millet, ginger, sugar-canes, magnel or saffron, beans, pease, and mudira, a kind of corn which they use for feeding horses. From the sesamum, of which they raise also great quantities, they procure an oil, employed either for burning in their lamps, or for anointing their bodies during their lustrations. Prunes, tamarinds, cardamoms, wild cinnamon or Cassia lignea, Cassia fistula, long pepper, Ciaca, Teka, Biti, Ayani, Mava, and Sandal wood, grow here without any nursing or care. Of the so called Nella, or rice in the shell, there are three kinds, viz. Virippa, Mundaven, and Puncia. The first kind is reaped in September, the second in December or January, and the third in March or April. These three crops, however, are not procured from the same field; and the last, during the summer, is brought forward by strong and often repeated watering. The water is drawn from the rivers in buckets, and conducted to the rice-fields by channels between them. The Nella is reaped in such a manner that the straw is left standing on the ground: it is then threshed; scalded in hot water; spread out on mats, where it is left to dry in the sun; and afterwards preserved in Patajas, or granaries, built of Teka wood. Those people who in the course of the year use only a small quantity of Nella, hoard it up without scalding it, and subject it to that operation as they consume it. The scalding and pounding, as well as every other preparation of the Nella, are left entirely to the women. When it is dried, pounded, and perfectly white, though still raw, it is called Ciorra, and in the Samscred language Annam or Odanam. The straw, as already mentioned, is left standing on the ground in order that it may rot and serve as manure. If it be not sufficient for that purpose, they make small pits here and there in the ground, fill them with leaves and tender twigs, which they cover with earth; and in this manner prepare whatever quantity of manure may be necessary. As the Indians consider cow-dung to be sacred, and daub it over their houses, it may be readily conceived that they never carry it out to their fields. All the lands, without exception, belong to the king, who sells them at pleasure, or lets them on lease. The Olà, or deed, in virtue of which the sovereign disposes of any piece of ground, and puts a person in full and free possession of it, is called Attipèra or Attiperòla Caranam. If the Olà relates only to the lease of such a piece of ground, it is named Pàttòla. The case is the same in regard to the sale or lease of a palm-garden.

That fruit, called in the Malabar language Tenga, and in the Samscred Sasyaga, is a large nut produced by the real palm-tree, or Tengamaram. When the young trees are carefully watered, they bear a number of such nuts at the end of five years. This tree and its fruit supply almost every thing necessary for the wants of man. Small ships, houses and roofs are formed of the trunk. Of the husk of the nut ropes are made; and the shell is employed for dishes and spoons. If the fruit be not quite ripe, the milk in it affords an excellent, cooling, and very wholesome beverage. When the milk is converted into a kernel, an oil is expressed from it. The sap which flows from the branches, gives the agreeable well-tasted Sura; and, when distilled, becomes a kind of brandy. If it be placed in the sun, with the addition of a little Nella, it is converted into strong vinegar. Of the tender bark of the tree, a sort of coarse linen is prepared. If the kernel be bruised while young, a kind of sweet cream will be obtained; and the pith extracted from the upper young shoots of the tree is employed for preparing the so called Aciara, a kind of confection which is eaten with rice. The substance which remains after the oil has been expressed from the kernel, and which is known by the name of Pinàca, supplies food for swine, ducks and poultry. In a word, I have reckoned up forty different properties which this tree possesses, and which are all useful to man.

Ginger grows at Cadaturutti, Adirampushe, Codamalur, and, in general, in districts to which the seawater cannot penetrate. The small black pepper is a kind of ivy, planted for the most part at the bottom of trees, the trunks of which are tall. Large forests of it may be found at Aragoshe, Poròtta, Valaya, Vaypur, and every where at the foot of the Gauts, where the soil is black, rich, argillaceous, and hot. The wild cinnamon grows in gardens as well as in the woods; and it is not improbable that it would equal in goodness that produced in the island of Ceylon, were it treated with proper care. The coffee plant propagates readily in the gardens and groves, and is not easily extirpated where it has once taken root; but it is not cultivated by the natives of Malabar, who bestow their attention on other productions of more utility.

The different kinds of wood known under the names of Teka, Viti, Ayani, and Ciaca or Plava, all grow on the mountains. The Teka wood is employed chiefly for building houses and ships. Of the Viti commodes, small tables, side-boards and bureaus are made. The forests are let upon lease by the king. The principal lessee of these kinds of wood, during my stay in India, was Mattu Taraguen, a Christian native, possessed of great property.

The cardamom is an aromatic production of a triangular form, and a hot fiery taste. This plant is about three or four feet in height, and has at the top a few broad, green, prickly leaves. Its stem, which is smooth, has neither leaves nor branches. From its root, concealed by the earth, there arise a few fibres, which bend backwards in a parabolic direction, and bear some small pods, that contain the seeds inclosed in four different small capsulæ. This production is stronger than pepper, and of more value. It is found at the bottom of the Gauts, at Maleatur, Codomangalam, Vaypur, and various other places. It is fond of growing under the shade of large thick-leaved trees, through which the sun cannot penetrate, and where the soil is manured by the fallen leaves that have rotted in the moisture. Pepper and cardamoms belong to the Bhandàraga, that is, the royal revenues; and no private person is permitted to trade with either of these articles. The king makes a real monopoly of them. Formerly those who smuggled them out of the country had their nose and ears cut off; but at present they are punished only with imprisonment. In regard to all the other productions of India trade is free; because the kings, in ancient times, were of opinion that it was contrary to their dignity to cause them to be sold on their own account. The modern kings, however, are not ashamed to act the part of merchants; but from this conduct their dominions derive very little benefit.

It appears, from what has been here said, that the inhabitants of Malayala are supplied with every necessary which their climate or manner of life can require; that the country produces much more than is annually consumed; and consequently that the inhabitants sell a great deal to foreigners, and receive in return every year considerable sums of money. Besides what they use themselves, they annually sell 10,000 bags of rice, and 1000 candil of pepper, to the English alone; who, in my time, paid for each candil, of 500 pounds, ninety rupees. The English also gave to the king of Travancor, for each candil of Malabar cinnamon (called of the old Cassia lignea), eighty rupees; and Malabar supplied at least 500 candil[96]. To this may be added 1000 candil of pepper sold every year to the Dutch; and 1000 candil more which the king delivered to the Chinese, Arabs, and other merchants, who sold it again on their own account.

I shall say nothing of the sale of Teka wood, which the Arabs and Persians employ for building their ships; nor of the trade carried on with cardamoms, as well as Copra, large quantities of which are every year sent to Persia, Arabia, and other eastern countries. Anandacetti, a merchant at Mattincera, always kept by him, for sale, Teka wood to the value of five lacks of rupees[97]. The stuffs and different articles of cotton which he had in his warehouses, without reckoning other merchandise, were worth four lacks more. This man purchased and sold, sometimes in a quarter of an hour, a whole ship’s cargo valued at five millions of rupees. Such instances are not uncommon in India. The merchants show to each other catalogues of their goods; select the principal articles by which they think they can acquire profit; mark and erase, sell, exchange and purchase, according as they find it for their advantage; and in this manner gain often in a single hour incredible sums. The king of Travancor purchases every year, from the Europeans, iron, cannon, and cloth for the use of his soldiers; but as the merchandise which he gives in return amounts to much more than the value of these articles, the English and Dutch are always in his debt. This in general is the result in regard to the balance of the Malabar trade; and we here see where the French crowns, the Dutch ducats, the Venetian sequins, the Spanish piastres, and the Portuguese lisabonines at last remain.

The king lets the lands on lease, four different ways:

1. Instead of money which he has to pay for military service performed; so that in time of peace a portion of land is assigned to each soldier. This land he must cultivate, and is obliged to live on its produce.

2. As Canam, or in lieu of a certain capital equivalent in value to such a piece of ground, and which is lent to the king as proprietor for a certain period mentioned in the lease or deed. The capital lent in this manner yields six per cent. annually in Nella or rice.

3. As Panam, that is, on mortgage, in virtue of which the person put in possession can use and cultivate such a piece of land.

4. As Pattam, that is, for a certain rent which must be paid to the lessee or possessor of the land, in case he lets it again.

In the contract, a copy of which, written on an ola, or palm leaf, is kept by each person, it is said: “I let a Parra of Candam, lying in such a place, under such conditions, and for such a length of time.” A Parra contains eight Dangaszi; one Dangaszi makes four Nali, and a Nali is equal to a bushel of rice. Candam is a field: a Parra of Candam is, therefore, a piece of land of such an extent that a Parra of rice can be sown in it. All lands, whether let on lease or not, must bring to the king the Muppara, that is, three Parra per cent. They are subject also to another tax called Nilavari, which must be paid every ten years for the first evaluation and measuring of them. The ground and soil, cultivated by the people, belong every where to the king. But the pagodas or temples have around them certain districts, their peculiar property, which belonged to them before this feudal system was introduced. The nobility alone can possess rice-fields or palm gardens; but this is applicable only to the Pagans. The rents must be paid in natura; and amount to a fourth part of the income which remains after all the taxes and imposts have been deducted.

It is unfortunately too true, that there are ministers who exercise the severest and most cruel oppression; by which means sovereigns are rendered odious or contemptible to their subjects, and whole countries and kingdoms brought to ruin. That this is sometimes the case on the coast of Malabar will appear from what follows:—Ceramperumal, who reigned in the tenth century, had a great many sons and grandsons, among whom he divided his dominions at his death. Each of them acquired a particular portion of land, or at least fief[98]. This was a great violation of the maxims of political prudence. It is well known how soon the conquests of Alexander the Great were lost after they had been divided among his generals. It was impossible for so many princes to unite in one common object, because each had his own private interest, and none of them placed confidence in another. The consequence of their weakness was, that they became contemptible to their subjects, and seldom or never were able to carry any measure into execution. Samuri, who by the Europeans is very improperly called Samorin, endeavoured to acquire a superiority over the neighbouring princes, by entering into an alliance with the Arabs of Calicut, who had established themselves in his dominions. He might, however, have foreseen, that these Arabs would one day become his most implacable enemies. He was so fortunate as to defeat the king of Cochin in several battles; and the latter found himself at length obliged to solicit the assistance, first of the Portuguese, and then of the Dutch: but neither of these nations could be sincere in their engagements to this prince; for, being foreigners, their views were directed merely to their own interest. By their help he was able to reduce his opponent Samuri to subjection; but, on the other hand, he was under the necessity of giving up a part of his revenues to the Portuguese.

For some time before, the Christians of St. Thomas had observed, to their great sorrow, that their mortal enemies the Arabs were always acquiring more influence, and that they were gradually endeavouring to get the chief power into their hands. On that account they retired from Canara and various other provinces belonging to Samuri, and established themselves in the territories of the king of Cochin. This event took place several years before the arrival of the Portuguese at Calicut. They chose from among their own number a king, who was called Beliarte, and who was obliged to engage that he would defend them from the Mahometans as well as the Pagans. He resided at Udiampera, a city belonging to the king of Cochin. The joy of the Christians of St. Thomas, when the Portuguese first arrived at Calicut, on the 18th of May 1498, may be readily conceived. They now expected not only to receive support in regard to the affairs of their religion, but also to recover those rights and privileges which they had enjoyed in the times of the Perumpadapil. They likewise flattered themselves that the Portuguese would assist their king, who was in a state of ruin.

Such a variety of circumstances, directly contrary to each other, were, according to their nature, inconsistent with public tranquillity. The war between Samuri and the king of Cochin continued. The faction of the former, distinguished by the name of Panircurra, was supported by all the princes and tribes in the northern parts of Malayala. The other party, at the head of which stood the king of Cochin, was called Ciovarecurra, and to it belonged all the petty princes in the south. Samuri was supplied by the Arabs with arms, money, and in short every necessary; and his safety depended entirely on the continuance of the war. If he made peace, he had to fear that the Arabs would revolt against him, as they only waited for a favourable opportunity to drive him from the throne; and this indeed actually took place in the year 1773, when he was stripped of his territories by Hayder Aly Khan, the king of Maïssur. The Mahometans now publicly called Hayder Aly their protector; and believed, as he professed the same religion, that he would treat them much better than Samuri, who was very much hated, not only on account of his acknowledging a different faith, but on account of his avarice, the oppression which he exercised against various merchants, and the luxury and licentiousness which prevailed at his court. In the above year Hayder Aly took Calicut, and deprived Samuri of the greater part of his territories. Thus ended the arbitrary government of one of the mightiest kings in all India; who was able to bring into the field more than 100,000 men, and who had in his hands almost the whole of the Malabar trade.

The king of Cochin was able to withstand his enemies till the year 1760; and perhaps would have gained the superiority, had he been in a condition to overawe the petty princes who were dependent on his government. These princes, who were not unanimous among themselves, attacked each other’s territories; carried away their subjects as captives; excited the chief men against one another; deprived several families of their property; and, as they were too weak to subdue an opulent and high-spirited people, gave to some private individuals full freedom to revenge the injuries which they had suffered. Scarcely a week now passed in which some murder was not committed. Children massacred their parents; and even the sovereign was no longer safe in his palace. Such crimes could not remain unpunished; and the inhabitants soon experienced that chastisement which their cruelty deserved.

The kings of Travancor had hitherto been insignificant princes, whose territories extended only about fifteen or twenty miles up the country from Cape Comari; and were, besides, not very fruitful. The sovereign of this district, at that time Vira Martanda Pala, was uncle to the present king Rama Varmer. He was a man of great pride, courage and talents; capable of undertaking grand enterprises, and from his youth had been accustomed to warlike operations. As he had concluded an alliance with the king of Madura, it needs excite no wonder, that, agreeably to his character, he should conceive the idea of making conquests, and of enlarging his unproductive dominions by the acquisition of new provinces. For this purpose he crossed the river Palur in the year 1764; fought a decisive battle with king Ciangaceri, and, having entirely subdued him, laid waste his territories with fire and sword; caused all the palaces, and even some of the Pagan temples, to be demolished; and took prisoners the neighbouring petty princes. The latter had been called in by Ciangaceri to his assistance; but they were at open variance with each other, and too much occupied with their own feuds to unite in one common cause against Vira Martanda Pala, who advanced to Airucutti, which is only three leagues distant towards the south from Cochin. His commander in chief, Martandapulla, laid siege to the place, and continued his conquests, which were completed by M. Eustatius de Lanoy, with whom I formed an acquaintance at Curriapalli in the year 1777. He drove Samuri on the other side of the river from Alangatta and Codungalur; assigned a small spot to the king of Cochin for his support; made himself master of all the fortresses; put the king’s troops on the same footing as the European; divided among them the conquered lands; caused them frequently to march through the country with full military parade, in order to keep the people in subjection to their rulers; and after Vira Martanda’s death, gave the kingdom, in which perfect tranquillity was now restored, to the present sovereign Rama Varmer, who had just entered the twenty-fourth year of his age. Thus ended the dominion of the petty Malabar sovereigns and princes: thus was humanity avenged; and thus were the crimes punished, and the licentiousness suppressed, by which this country had been distracted ever since the tenth century.

Before Vira Martanda undertook this expedition, he celebrated, at Tiruwandaburam, a horrid festival, which I have described in my Systema Brahmanicum. He caused several of the Pagan temples to be burnt; and this crime, one of the most heinous according to the principles of the Indians, could no otherwise be atoned for than by a very peculiar kind of purification. He was obliged by the Brahmans to get a cow made of gold, under which he was forced to creep in order to be freed from his sins. Niebuhr and Anquetil du Perron are therefore in a great error when they assert, that the object of this ceremony was to raise the king to the degree of nobility. Both these authors ought to have reflected, that this tale was invented by the conquered people, to whom the king behaved with great severity, merely for the purpose of ridiculing him. The above golden cow was preserved, in the year 1787, in the royal treasury at Padmanaburam. I was at least told so by M. Donaudi, a captain in the king’s service, who had seen it.

Of a great part of the above events I was myself an eye-witness: the account given of the rest is taken from the information of persons worthy of credit, and in particular from the valuable manuscripts of Father Cruz Fernandez, a Malabar priest, which contain a minute relation of the war carried on by Vira Martanda Pala. I had an opportunity also of consulting a great many original documents, quoted in this work, which were preserved among the archives of the missionary establishment at Verapole. I conversed likewise on this subject with the present king and his generals Martandapulla and M. de Lanoy, who all three often came to Verapole, and to whom we were indebted, besides other marks of kindness, for freeing our convent, church, and surrounding district, from the payment of all taxes.

The military forces of the present king of Travancor consist of 50,000 men, disciplined according to the European manner; and 100,000 Malabar Nayris and Cegos, armed with bows and arrows, spears, swords, and battle-axes. He keeps two Valia Sarvadicàriacàrer, the Vadakemugham and the Tekmugham, one of whom is established in the north and the other in the south. Each of these has under him four other officers, called only Sarvadicàriacàrer. These have inspection over four subalterns or Cariacàrer; and these subalterns have under them Pravarticàrer, Ciandracarer, and Torracarer; or collectors of the taxes, overseers and judges. The troops are always marching up and down through the country, to change their cantonments, to enforce the collection of the taxes, and to preserve peace and tranquillity. Public security is again restored throughout the whole country; robbery and murder are no longer heard of; no one has occasion to be afraid on the highways; religious worship is never interrupted; and people may rest assured, that on every occasion justice will be speedily administered. The present king has caused several canals to be constructed, in order to unite different rivers with each other and with the sea. By his desire also a very beautiful road has been completed between Cape Comari and Cudungalur; so that in the course of twenty-four hours he can be informed of every thing that takes place throughout his whole kingdom. After deducting the expences of government, his yearly income may amount to half a million of rupees, arising from trade, duties, and various kinds of fines. One half of this revenue is deposited in the royal treasury, and never touched but in cases of the utmost necessity. The king, as well as all the other Pagan Indians, the chief men even not excepted, live according to the manner of the Pythagoreans, and use no other food than rice, milk, fruit and herbs. He generally wears a turban of dark blue silk; a long white robe, fastened at the breast with a string of diamonds; long wide drawers, of red silk; and shoes, the points of which are bent backwards like those of the Chinese. A sabre is suspended from his shoulders; and in the blue girdle bound round his loins is stuck a poniard or Persian dagger, which can be used either for attack or defence. When he shews himself to the people in full state, he is attended by 5000 or 6000 men, together with a great number of palanquins and elephants. At the head of the procession is a band of musicians, and two court-poets, who celebrate in songs his great achievements. He is borne in a palanquin; and the principal gentlemen of his court must walk on each side of it. In my time he was very much attached to the Catholic missionaries. As often as he passed by the parsonage house at Angenga, where I resided two years, he always sent two of the gentlemen of his bed-chamber to enquire after my health.

This sovereign had two powerful enemies: one in the north, Tippoo Sultan, now prince of Maïssur and Concam; and another in the south-east, the prince of Arrucate, Mohamed Aly Khan, of whom I have already spoken in the preceding chapter. The latter has it in his power to make an attack, by Tovala, one of the fortresses which lie near Cape Comari, towards the east; and the former can attempt the same thing in the district of Palacaticeri, the last city in the kingdom of Concam, towards the west. Through a dread of these two dangerous neighbours, the king of Travancor found himself obliged to conclude a treaty of alliance with the English, and to make a common cause with them both in peace and war. As long as he enjoys the friendship of these allies, from whom he purchases freedom and security at a sufficiently dear rate, and as long as he pays regularly what is due on that account, his dominions will be protected and defended; but if ever a quarrel should arise between him and the governor of Madras, he is one of the first Indian princes that will fall a sacrifice. The annual tribute which he is obliged to pay to the English, amounts to half a lack of rupees, or 25,000 Roman scudi. In the time of war he must supply them, over and above, with horses, cannon, soldiers, and rice. He is an affable, polite, contented, prudent, and friendly man. On account of the integrity of his character, and his many good moral qualities, it is the more to be lamented that he is so zealously attached to idolatry, and is so much blinded as not to perceive the value of the Christian religion. It cannot, however, be denied, that nothing tends so much to rivet the affection of subjects, as when the sovereign adheres to the established religion, and worships the deity in the same manner as his people. Rama Varmer never omits being present at the ceremonies and devotional exercises of the Pagans, as will be seen in the following chapter[99].

Missionary Affairs—Audience of the King of Travancor.

POPE Clement XIV. by an apostolical letter had recommended, in a particular manner, the Christians of Malabar to the protection of the king of Travancor. This letter, dated July 2d. 1774, arrived at Verapole just at the time when the Pravaticarer of that place took possession of our rice-fields and gardens, under a pretence that the missionaries, as well as the bishop, ought to pay the usual imposts and taxes, which all other subjects were obliged to pay for their lands. We insisted, however, on our immunity, and represented to him, that Martandapulla, the commander in chief and prime minister of the former king Vira Martanda Pala, had declared us free from all public burdens whatever: but the Pravaticarer paid no regard to our remonstrances; endeavoured to enforce payment by violent means, and for that purpose caused our convent and church to be beset by fifty Mahometans, who suffered no person to go out or to enter. These people, who at all times are sworn enemies of the Christians, behaved in so indecent a manner, and made so much noise, that our bishop and apostolic vicar, Carolus à Sancto Conrado, was half dead with fear. I tried to compose his mind as much as possible; and as I knew that the deed by which immunity from all imposts was secured to us, as well as the pope’s letter, were to be found among our papers, I sent for the Pravaticarer, and, in the presence of more than thirty Christians, protested against his conduct, and summoned him to appear before the king. At the same time I wrote to Father Clemens à Jesu, requesting that he would repair to Verapole as soon as he could. When he arrived, we submitted the whole affair to mature discussion, and at length resolved to appeal immediately to the king.

We therefore purchased without delay two European paintings, a large mirror, fifteen pounds of red sandal wood, and twelve bottles of Persian rose water; articles which, according to the established etiquette, must be presented to the king by those who wish to obtain an audience. On the 20th of June 1780, we proceeded to Tiruvandaburam, and immediately made the prime minister acquainted with our intention. As M. Adrian Moens governor of Cochin, and M. John Torless governor of Angenga, had both written letters to the king in our favour, the minister embraced the earliest opportunity of gratifying our wishes; and the more so as we had taken the precaution to announce ourselves as delegates from the pope, and procurators of the missionary establishment.

As soon as we made our appearance before the gate of the castle, the guard presented his arms, and the minister sent a guide to conduct the persons who bore our palanquin to the door of the palm-garden in which the king resided. Here our coolies, or palanquin-bearers, were obliged to remain behind us, lest, being people of the lowest cast, they might contaminate the royal palace. At this door we were received by the king’s commander in chief, who conducted us through the palm-garden to a second door, where the king was waiting for us. He received us standing, and surrounded by a great number of princes and officers. Near him stood his son, with a drawn sabre in his hand; and, in a shady place were three chairs, one of which was destined for the king, and the other two for me and my colleague. When we had all three taken our seats, the attendants formed a circle around us. I then produced the pope’s letter, which I had hitherto carried in a pocket-book richly embroidered according to the eastern manner; raised it aloft; applied it to my forehead in order to shew my respect for the personage in whose name I presented it; and then delivered it to Sampradi Keshavapulla, the secretary of state. The latter handed it to the king, who also raised it up, and held it to his forehead as a token of respect for his holiness. At the moment when the pope’s letter was delivered there was a general discharge of the cannon of the castle. After the king had asked us some common questions respecting the naval war between the English and the French he enquired of me, in particular, how long I had been in Malabar; and how I had learned to speak the language of the country with so much fluency. “I have often observed,” added he, “that other Europeans are either unacquainted with it, or, for want of the proper pronunciation, express themselves so badly that they can scarcely be understood.” I immediately replied, that I had carefully studied the Brahman book Amarasinha. The king, on this answer, seemed highly pleased. “What!” said he, “do you read our books?”—This is the real and principal cause why the king, during the whole time of my residence in Malabar, behaved to me with so much kindness. He entertained the utmost reverence for the writings and religion of his people; and as he saw that they were studied by the Europeans, this paved the way for my obtaining from him afterwards many favours, which were of the greatest benefit to the Christian religion.

When the king had conversed for some time on various topics, he ordered his minister and secretary to give such an answer to our petition, and such relief to our grievances, which we had specified on an Ola, that we might return home perfectly satisfied and easy. For my part, I could not help admiring the goodness of heart, affability, and humanity of this prince, as well as the simplicity of his household establishment and way of life. At that time he and all the persons of his court, according to the Malabar mode, had nothing on their bodies but a small piece of cloth fastened round the loins; and the only mark of distinction by which his royal dignity could be discovered, was a red velvet cap with gold fringes. At our departure he accompanied us as far as the door. Next morning the prime minister, Cumàren Cembaga Ramapulla, sent for us to his apartments, and enquired very minutely respecting the behaviour of the Pravaticarer at Verapole. Being informed that this officer, with the assistance of the Mahometans, had prevented the Christians from frequenting our church, he was highly displeased; and immediately wrote to the Cariacarer at Parur to remove him from his office as an inconsiderate man, who was little acquainted with the king’s interest. A new instrument was expedited in our presence, by which immunity from all imposts whatever was secured to our convent in future. The king then sent to us by a Brahman, who acted the part of household steward, and who was accompanied by another officer, a service of dishes prepared after the Malabar manner, and which were paid for out of the royal treasury. These particular marks of favour are shewn only to such persons as give the king distinguished proofs of their respect.

The king had learned English for several months, and spoke it exceedingly well. As he observed that the English was as familiar to me as the Malabar, he sent to me in the evening his chamberlain, Payampalli Curipu, to request that I would explain to him, in the Malabar language, the parts of speech of the English grammar, because he was always at a loss respecting them. He had indeed an English master; but he was not able to give him a proper explanation, in the Malabar language, of the precise meaning of these technological terms. I immediately wrote them down on a piece of paper, and arranged them in two opposite columns, the one in English and the other in the Malabar language. The king found my explanation perfectly clear, and ever after called me always his Guru or preceptor. He was extremely desirous to retain me at his court; but the crafty Brahmans found means to dissuade him from his design. My companion and I therefore returned home; the Pravaticarer was displaced; and our convent, as well as the missionary establishment, was suffered to remain in peace and tranquillity. The Christians of Alapushe and Muttam were so rejoiced at the deposition of the Pravaticarer, that they came to meet us, as we returned, with drums and other musical instruments.

Some time before I sailed for Europe, being desirous to obtain an answer from the king to the letter which had been written to him by Clement XIV. I at length received one by means of Payampalli Curipu, before mentioned. It was addressed to the present pope Pius VI. and contained, besides other things, an assurance from the king that he would take under his protection the missionaries and Christians in general, who had been recommended to him by his holiness. M. Pietro de Vegas, who instructed the king in English, and who had the care of the correspondence with foreign courts, translated it into Portuguese. The king subscribed it with his own hand, and, according to the oriental custom, caused it to be inclosed in a bag, in which I transmitted it to M. Antonelli, the director of the Propaganda. The present pope returned an answer in an apostolic letter dated February 24th 1790, and at the same time sent him his portrait, which arrived safely on the coast of Malabar, and was delivered to his majesty in the month of March 1793, by my agent Franciscus à Sancto Elisæo, a barefooted Carmelite. This ecclesiastic, in a letter dated Verapole May 13th 1793, informed me that the king had received him in the politest manner, and had testified the utmost satisfaction on account of the letter, as well as the pope’s portrait; so that he expected the best consequences from them. The king, indeed, soon after, took such measures that all the grievances of the Malabar Christians were redressed in the kindest manner; and he presented Father Franciscus with a gold bracelet worth 100 rupees. There is reason, therefore, to hope that Christianity on the Malabar coast will acquire new strength, and be again raised to its former state of respectability.

In the year 1783 some of the clergy on the coast of Travancor thought proper to impose certain fines on the Christian fishermen belonging to their congregations. The fishermen complained to the king, who was then at Padmanaburam, and requested he would expel these ecclesiastics from the kingdom. The king, in consequence of this application, sent a letter to the bishop and apostolic vicar, Carolus à Sancto Conrado, in which he informed him that he had resolved to separate totally seventy-five congregations from the diocese of Cochin, and to place them under the inspection of the apostolic vicar, that he might commit the charge of them to his missionaries belonging to the Propaganda. He therefore desired that the bishop would immediately repair to Patnam, to examine into the conduct of the above Portuguese clergy; and that he would dismiss those found culpable, and take possession of the before-mentioned churches.

The bishop being at that time sick, I was obliged to supply his place, and to proceed to Padmanaburam. At Tiruvandaburam my coolies or palanquin-bearers ran away; so that I was obliged to travel twelve miles on foot on the king’s high road, named Madacava, which none but the Brahmans and nobility dare to tread. As soon as I approached Padmanaburam, I repaired to a very small church on the south side of the castle; for the gates were shut, and no person belonging to the inferior casts, in which the Europeans are commonly included, was suffered to enter the city. This took place on the 23d of September 1783. Scarcely, however, had the king heard of my arrival, when he resolved to make an exception in my favour from the severity of this law. He therefore sent to me, next morning, four of the nobility of his court to conduct me into the city. They accompanied me to the habitation of the king’s secretary, where his majesty was waiting to receive me; for on that day he could not give me audience in his own palace, lest it should be defiled.

When I approached the place, the king’s guard of honour, consisting of 500 men, came under arms to meet me; and formed themselves into two lines, between which I was obliged to pass. The king, who was sitting in an European arm-chair, received me with great friendship, and addressed me as follows: “I have sent for you, Father, that you may settle the disputes between my Christian subjects and your clergy. It is my will that the clergy have a sufficient maintenance, and a proper income for their support; but I will not suffer them to oppress my subjects by the imposition of fines. Look,” added he, “here stands my minister (the Sarvadicariacàrer Nagampulla), and there my secretary (Sampradi Keshavapulla), devise with them what is best to be done, and then let me know the result.” We did as the king desired; and as I had no great inclination to undertake the very difficult and burthensome administration of seventy-five congregations, I endeavoured to prevail on the ministers to write to the archbishop of Goa, and accommodate the matter in an amicable manner. Some of the clergy complained of were obliged to pay a certain sum of money, by way of punishment; and a new Padiòla, or tarif, was established, to settle once more the fees which the Christians should pay to the clergy for discharging their sacred functions, and which the latter should be authorised to exact.

As the king would not suffer me to depart till this business was completely settled, I was obliged to remain sixteen days at Padmanaburam. During that period his majesty sent to me every day the Kopu, which is a certain dish prepared in the Malabar manner. As the festival of the goddess Sarasvadi was then celebrating, (on which account, as I have already said, the gates of the city were shut,) I employed a part of my time in observing the religious practices of the Brahmans.

Sarasvadi is the wife of Brahma, the creator of the universe; and the harmony, proportion, and order observed in it, are, according to the doctrine of the Brahmans, to be ascribed to her influence alone. Her opponent is the goddess of disorder and contention, named Mudevi. A tabernacle had been constructed for Sarasvadi under a large tent, and a great number of Brahmans were busily employed in waiting upon her. After many libations, the statue of the goddess was at length carried round in procession, strewed over with flowers, and then placed upon an altar. After this the king approached in great magnificence, and with the most devout respect presented to her his dagger as an offering. During this time all the gates of the city were beset with soldiers, and no one was suffered to go out or to enter. The festival continued eight days; and when it was finished, the king distributed presents to the Brahmans. Each received a rupee, though more than 4000 were sometimes assembled. The high-priest presented to the king a Vastram, that is, a piece of silk or cotton stuff; a Viraghen, or piece of gold, worth about three scudi; and a cow, as the support of life, because these people live chiefly upon milk and butter. Such a present is called Godànam. It has been usual in India since the earliest ages; and no greater favour can be shewn to a Brahman by the king than to give him a cow.

At the end of sixteen days I at length obtained leave to depart; but before I set out, I wrote to the bishop and apostolic vicar, to inform him in what manner I had settled the business. This letter has been printed at full length in my India Christiana. As the Cassanar or clergyman of the Christians of St. Thomas at Callurcada, whose name was Ciandi, had applied to me to get some abuses reformed which had crept into his congregation, I conversed on that subject with the prime minister Cumàren Cembaga Ràmapulla, and procured from him a letter to the officer at Ambalapùshe, to whose jurisdiction Callurcada was subject. I shall here subjoin a copy of it, translated word for word from the Malabar language:

“The business respecting which I write is this: Father Paolino appeared before his majesty at Padmanaburam, and informed him that some Mappulians (so the Christian women are commonly called) in the parish of Callurcàda, which is subject to the jurisdiction of the governor of Cembacolam, indulge in criminal intercourse with various Shuddras (Pagan nobility of the fourth cast), and condescend to live with them as concubines. Now, as this is the case, continued the Father in name of the bishop of Verapole, the distinction between the casts will be destroyed, and nothing but confusion will prevail among the different classes of the inhabitants; which gives him great uneasiness.

“Some person in the neighbourhood, and particularly the governor, ought certainly to have communicated by letter an account of these irregularities, of so much importance to be known. When the Father transmits to you a list of those who keep concubines, you will immediately cause them to be arrested and imprisoned. If they are convicted of the crime, send them hither under a military guard, that they may be banished from the country, and transported beyond the boundaries of Tovàla. The effects of the Mappulians, who condescend to be kept as concubines, shall be seized and confiscated; and an account of their immoveable goods shall be delivered in to his majesty’s exchequer[100]. Such is the will of his majesty.

“The Father states farther, that when the Mappulians (Christians of St. Thomas) assemble to attend divine service, the Pravaticarer (receiver of the king’s revenue) seizes the boat in which they arrive, drags the people by force from the church doors, and compels them to serve his majesty. In the last place, the Father has complained to his majesty, that some magistrates at Ambalapushe borrowed money, a long time ago, from the church, and have paid neither principal nor interest; and also that a large copper kettle borrowed from them had received considerable damage, and that no compensation had been made for it.

“In consequence of these complaints, his majesty has ordered, and commands by the present letter, that all money borrowed from the church shall be repaid as speedily as possible, with the usual legal interest; and it is at the same time expressly forbidden to borrow any thing from it in future. Those who took possession of the boat shall be condemned to pay a fine, and to give the proprietors of the boat a proper compensation for the use of it. Those who employed the kettle shall make good the damage, and be over and above punished. The kettle shall be immediately returned, and never again taken from the church for any profane purpose.

“That all these commands of his majesty may be strictly attended to, and immediately put in execution, his majesty transmits to you, at Ambalapushe, the present letter, by a Velkaren (one of his guards of honour, armed with a pike and staff), who has orders not to suffer you to quit your house till every thing be punctually done as here desired. Should you, however, be indisposed, his majesty will not enforce his orders with severity; but requests that you immediately write to the Cariacarer (inferior magistrate), and charge him with the execution of these commands. The Velkaren will confine him in his own house under a proper guard till every thing is done to your satisfaction. His majesty also requests, that he may be informed by the Velkaren when this business is brought to the wished-for conclusion. This rescript shall be transmitted by the clerk and secretary of the criminal court to the Sarvadicariacarer at Alampushe, and be registered among the royal rescripts. This was written, in consequence of his majesty’s orders, by Cumaren Cembaga Ramàpulla Ramen.”—On the back of it were the following words; “Ambalapusha mughatta Sarvàdicàriacarerka varuna Sadhànam;” that is, Letter to be transmitted to the chief magistrate at Ambalapushe.

This letter of a Pagan minister may serve as a proof how much power the light of sound reason has among a people whom the Europeans call barbarous. It affords a specimen also of the policy and attention to the executive part of government which prevail at the court of this Malabar monarch. He has only to command, and his orders are immediately executed with the utmost punctuality. His ministers neither can nor dare have recourse to such subterfuges as those of the European courts. An oath from the king, a small twig suspended at the door in his name, or mere confinement at one’s own house, is a check upon the conduct of the minister, as well as upon that of the other subjects. When such mild measures, however, do not produce the intended effect, the offenders are subjected to a fine, or to corporal punishment; to imprisonment, banishment from the country, or perpetual slavery in chains.

As soon as I had received the two letters before-mentioned, I departed from Padmanaburam. The minister paid me 100 Kalis, to defray the expences of my journey; and gave orders that the coolies who carried my palanquin along the sea-coast, from one place to another, should be paid from the royal treasury. When I arrived at Parur, the Mahometans there protested against the king’s order, and would not carry me farther, under the pretence that, being a Tanguel, or Christian priest, I was an enemy to their religion. I was obliged, therefore, to stop five whole hours till the king’s Pravaticarer appeared, who caused the refractory coolies to be soundly beaten, and commanded them to again take up my palanquin.

At Callurcada the Christians came to meet me in procession with musical instruments; and as soon as they learned that I was bearer of the above-mentioned letter from the minister, and had brought the Valkaren with me merely on their account, they made the intelligence every where known; so that many of the dissolute females, who were to have been called to an account, immediately absconded. Some of them, however, were punished; but the order for confiscating their property was not carried into execution. In every other respect the injunctions contained in the minister’s letter were strictly obeyed. In the course of this journey one of those worthy priests, against whom complaints had been made to the king, attempted to destroy me at Tiruvancada, by putting poison in my drink. As soon as I observed it, I took three doses of a medicine known under the name of the Antidote of Madura, and in great tribulation and distress sought shelter in the Danish factory at Coleci. Here I was confined to bed; but, being well nursed and attended, I was able in a few days to continue my journey.

In the month of April 1784 the overseers of the temple of Shiva at Mattincera would not permit the missionaries to sow the rice-fields which they had on lease from them. As no other piece of land could be procured at that time, the missionaries complained to M. Van Angelbec, governor of Cochin. This gentleman, finding that the fields lay in the dominions of the king of Travancor, and that he could do nothing in the business, advised me to take a second journey to Padmanaburam, in order to procure another rescript from the king; and he at the same time furnished me with some letters of recommendation. On the 21st of April I reached Padmanaburam in safety. I carried along with me the Malabar, English, and Portuguese grammar, which I had composed at Ciattiyàti, and which the king had required from me, that the ministers of his court might learn English and Portuguese by the assistance of the Malabar language. Scarcely had the king heard of my arrival when he sent two young noblemen, Padmanàbhenpulla and Payampalli Curipu, to welcome me in his name, and to attend me to an audience. I found the king in the Varanda, that is, the portico of his palace, sitting on a Persian carpet, and leaning with one arm on a large velvet cushion ornamented with gold fringes. When I delivered to him the grammar, his joy seemed to be beyond all description. In my presence he sent for the two lords of his bed chamber, before mentioned; shewed them the grammar; advised them to study it diligently; and represented to them how necessary it was that princes as well as statesmen, on account of their continual intercourse with the Europeans, should make themselves acquainted with these languages. On this occasion the king presented me with a gold bracelet, a gold style for writing on palm-leaves, and a small knife for cutting these leaves to the proper size. I received from him also a letter to the civil officer at Parur, in consequence of which he was to announce publicly that the king had done me the honour to appoint me one of the gentlemen of his court. The intrinsic value of the above presents was indeed not very considerable, for it was equal only to about twelve sequins; but in other respects they were of the highest importance, as the king gives such articles to those only who have merited his favour. No person in Malabar dare use any of them without the king’s express permission. They are marks of honour, which he distributes in the same manner as our European princes do ribbons of different orders. Those also who receive them enjoy certain privileges and advantages; such, for example, as that they cannot be carried before any magistrate till the king is previously informed; that they can travel every where along the highways; that they are not obliged to wait in the minister’s antichamber, and that they are not required to give place to any person whatever; with other things of the like kind.

The king made no hesitation to cause a rescript to be prepared, in virtue of which we were authorised to sow our fields with rice. Having thus accomplished the object of my journey, I set out to return; and, proceeding along the sea-coast, arrived in five days at Verapole. Here I was obliged to supply the place of vicar-general; for our bishop, Carolus à Sancto Conrado, had gone to Bombay, where he fell ill, and died on the 6th of January 1785.

On the 8th of September 1786 I again had an audience of the king Rama Varmer at Parur, where I obtained another rescript, by which he granted to the congregation at Verapole a small piece of land, that had been gradually thrown up, and formed by the river before our convent.

In the year 1787 I remained at his court at Tiruvandaram during the whole month of April, and defended there the privileges of the missionaries against the rebellious Christians, who refused any longer obedience to the European bishop of that district.

In the year 1788 I paid a visit to the king of Travancor near Canigia, at the country seat of the before-mentioned governor of Cochin, M. Van Angelbec, a man of great talents and integrity. Though a Lutheran, he rendered us essential service upon many important occasions, and particularly during the disputes which the Pagan governors began with the missionaries and bishops. The prime minister Cumàren Cembaga Ràmapulla had died, and was succeeded by the king’s secretary Sampràdi Kèshavapulla. This ambitious young man assumed the name of the Indian Bacchus, Devanishi, and exacted from the subjects exorbitant taxes, in order to increase the public revenue, and ingratiate himself with the king. During the contest, in which we were involved with the rebellious Christians of St. Thomas, in the year 1787, he imposed on the missionary establishment at Verapole a tribute of 500 crowns. The king, however, had long before remitted this tax; but we had no written document to adduce as a proof. Devanishi, just at this time, took it into his head to send to Verapole six soldiers, under a petty officer, with orders to confine the apostolic vicar, Louis Maria à Jesu, to his apartment, and to guard him there till the 500 crowns were paid. The bishop having informed me, by a note, of his arrest, I immediately repaired to the king, who at that time was at Perimannùr, not far from Angicaimal. As Devanishi knew too well that I was in great favour with the king, he refused me the letter of introduction necessary to obtain an audience, lest his majesty should be made acquainted with his bad conduct. The bishop had been already two days in arrest, with two muskets placed across each other before the door of his chamber. In this state of distress I applied to M. Van Angelbec, and informed him of every thing that had happened. He sent for me to his house; and the king, as soon as I appeared, saluted me with great civility, and we immediately entered into conversation. All the magistrates and members of the council at Cochin, who were there assembled to pay their respects to the king, and to settle some business respecting the Dutch East India Company, were struck with astonishment. When I told him that our bishop was in confinement, he seemed quite surprised; turned instantly round to the minister, and asked who had given such orders. The minister endeavoured to exculpate himself; but M. Van Angelbec, interrupting him, said, that bishops ought not to be treated in that manner. The king then caused a letter to be written to the petty officer commanding the party by whom the bishop was guarded, which contained an order for him to withdraw his men; and the minister, who heard all this, seemed greatly ashamed.

Of such disagreeable disputes, in which I was involved with the subaltern magistrates, I could relate various instances. The cause of them was the oppression and extortion which these people were always exercising against some of the Christian congregations. I was constantly employed, by day as well as by night, either in accommodating quarrels between congregations, or putting a stop to the irregularities of the Christians, and the rapacity of the officers of government, who endeavoured to procure money, both from individuals and congregations, sometimes by cunning and sometimes by open force. It may with truth be asserted, that nothing is the cause of the eternal disputes between the Indian Christians and the Pagans, but hatred on the part of the inhabitants, and avarice on the part of the sovereign and his ministers, I must, however, render homage to truth, by acknowledging that the latter do not go unpunished, when their knavery is made known, and communicated to the king.

It is probable that a great part of the Christians of St. Thomas in India came from Persia or Chaldea. I conclude so from the following circumstances: 1st, because the Arabs established in India are also foreigners; 2d, because the Jews there were originally from Persia; 3d, because the Christians of St. Thomas, as well as those of the same sect in Persia, follow the Syrio-Chaldaic ritual; 4th, because their bishops formerly were ordained in Persia; and, 5th, because the Christians of St. Thomas in India, like those of Persia, were in the earliest periods Nestorians; and because, on accurate examination, a great similarity is observed in the worship and religious practices of both. The rites, liturgy, ceremonies and books of these Christians, bear evident marks of a Chaldaic or Persian extraction. Though the Malabar dialect is at present the mother tongue of the Christians of St. Thomas in India, they, however, employ Chaldaic phrases when they speak of sacred and religious objects. Thus, for example, they call God Alaha; the Holy Ghost, Ruha; the grace of God, Taibusa; baptism, Mamodisa; the cross, Shliva; and mass, Curubana. Had they been originally Indians, why should they make use of such Chaldaic expressions, and not much rather of words peculiar to the Malabar or Samscred languages? It is, therefore, not improbable, that a considerable number of Christians went from Persia and Chaldea to India, and united themselves to the small body of the original Indian Christians, whose ancestors were formerly converted to the Christian faith by the apostle Thomas at Mailapuri, which they unanimously consider as the place that first gave birth to Christianity in India. This much is certain, that all these Christians, in the year 1502, at which period Vasco de Gama came a second time to Malabar, were Nestorians. Some of them denied the divinity of Christ, and could not endure images; but, on the other hand, they shewed a greater reverence for the holy cross. They had no other sacraments than Baptism, the Last Supper, and the Consecration of Priests. They believed that the souls of the just were not admitted into the presence of God before the final judgement, and that till that period they were to remain in Eden. They employed a kind of baptism quite different from ours; and their priests all practised simony, as they dispensed the sacrament merely for money. Many of the poor people were not baptised, because they were not able to pay the fees. The sacrifice of the Mass was established according to the manner of the Nestorians. The wine which they consecrated was palm-wine, called by the Indians Tàgaram or Aracca. The Host consisted of some wheaten flour mixed with salt and oil; and it was always let down from a hole above the altar, when the priest was to bless it. Mass was read every Sunday, but no person was obliged to attend it. On Sunday evening every one might eat flesh; on Wednesdays and Fridays they ate fish or herbs; and on Shrove-Sunday there was a general fast. Their holy water, the preparation of which was left to the sacristan, consisted of common river water, in which a few particles of earth, brought from the grave of St. Thomas at Mailapuri, were dissolved. Their festivals always began the preceding evening, and ended towards evening the day following. During that time the shops were shut, and all labour ceased. Their priests were accustomed to employ excommunication, known under the name of Maharon, and which is very severe against offenders[101].

In the year 1599, these Christians, by the exertions of Alexis Menesez, archbishop of Goa, were united to the Catholic church. As some customs of the oriental churches were, however, introduced among them in the council at Udiamper, and as they by degrees found the arbitrary conduct of the Portuguese insupportable, they raised a violent outcry against them; and in a tumultuary congress, held on the 22d of May 1653, at Alangatta, at length formally separated from the Catholic church[102]. A re-union was, however, effected by the barefooted Carmelites; and at present there are, on the coast of Malabar, as I have already observed, eighty-four Roman Catholic, and thirty-five Schismatic congregations, the latter of which adhere to the errors of the Jacobites. These congregations support each other, and form a kind of Christian republic. If any one of them is injured, they all make a common cause of it. The clergy and elders settle all quarrels and disputes which arise among the members of their different congregations; excommunicate the contumacious, but with the consent of the bishop or missionary, and exclude them from the society of the faithful. Confession and the holy sacrament are denied to such persons; no priest dare enter their habitations; they can be married neither publicly nor privately; and are not allowed to be present at the Ciata, or festival of commemoration, which is celebrated every year in their houses in remembrance of deceased relations. This sentence of excommunication is never recalled till those who lie under it have made sufficient atonement for their sins, which must always be done before the judgement-seat of the congregation. If the offender wishes to be again received into the bosom of the Church, he must crave mercy on his knees at the church-door, on a Sunday or Festival, when all the people are assembled to public worship. The Cassanaris or priests, the Cariacarer or overseers, and the Muppenmar or elders, then assemble and examine the conduct of the penitent, together with every concomitant circumstance, and likewise the state of his property and goods. If he is rich, he is with one voice required to pay a Pràcittam, that is, a public fine; so that he must present to the church a Ciodana of lamp-oil, a large umbrella covered with red cloth, a covering for the altar, or some other thing of the like kind which can be used in divine service. If he has no property, a large wooden cross is placed on his shoulders while he is kneeling at the church-door; a human skull is put into his hand, and in that manner he is made to creep round the church; or he is sent to Maleatur, where he must do penance at the foot of the holy cross, which is said to have been erected there by the apostle Thomas himself. Women must bear a death’s head, or a wax-candle. When the penance is over, the bishop, missionary, or priest gives the offender absolution in the presence of the whole congregation by means of a whip or rod, that the scandal which he brought on his Christian brethren may thereby be removed[103].

The Christians of St. Thomas still celebrate their Agapæ, or love-feasts, as was usual in former times. They give them the name of Nercia, public vows. On such occasions they collect and store up a great quantity of sugar-canes, rice, bananas, honey, and rice-flour, of which they bake a certain kind of small cakes called Appam. These Appam, or rice-cakes, are prepared publicly in an apartment adjoining to the church. On the day of the solemnity all the people assemble in the church-yard; and the priest, placing himself in the door, distributes to them his blessing. They then arrange themselves in rows, and each spreads before him a banana leaf, to supply the place of a trencher. When this is done, the priest commands silence; and the overseers of the church, walking through between the rows, give to each his portion of Appam and a few slices of banana. No Christian departs without having had a share. What is left is given to the Pagans, that they also may participate in this love-feast, and be incited to embrace the doctrines of the Christian religion. It is certainly an affecting scene, and capable of elevating the heart, to behold six or seven thousand persons of both sexes and all ages assembled, and receiving together, with the utmost reverence and devotion, their Appam, the pledge of mutual union and love[104].

Christian young women, who have no property, always receive a dowery, either from the congregation or the treasury of the church, or the fines imposed on the rich. In general, it amounts to a thousand Panam, or twenty-five scudi; but according to their circumstances they receive sometimes no more than ten or twelve scudi, because they are never destitute of work. Such of the clergy as do their duty, must always keep a list of the female orphans who belong to their parish; and they and the overseers of the church are bound to provide them with husbands. This is never done by lot, but according to their age; and in choosing the husbands no regard is paid to property, but whether they lead regular lives, and are in a condition to maintain a wife by their industry. Vanity, sensuality, and indolence are too often characteristic properties of the European women; but those of Malabar distinguish themselves by simplicity of manners, diligence, and contentment[105]. I should never have done were I here to delineate a picture of the harmless inoffensive manners of the Christians and Pagans who live retired among the distant mountains and forests, where they seldom have an opportunity of becoming acquainted with the vices and shameful practices of the Europeans. With these, however, the inhabitants of the maritime towns are unfortunately too much infected. Many centuries ago Plato expressed a wish, that people of virtuous morals might never settle on the sea-coast, because it was always to be apprehended that their good morals would be corrupted by the vices of the strangers who arrived there. In this he was right; for we are taught by experience that the inhabitants of a country are no where so worthless and debauched as in places lying near the sea. In Malabar it is much easier to keep in order fifty congregations in the interior part of the country, than two on the sea-coast, where the inhabitants have intercourse with the Europeans. Disturbances prevail there without end, and break out anew at least every three years. They are to be ascribed chiefly to their Cassanaris or priests; for these men, who are both ignorant and proud, incite the people and encourage them to rebel against the bishop and missionaries. Had these native priests sufficient learning; were they in any degree acquainted with their duty; and did they know how to procure from the Pagans the least respect, they might certainly be fit to be entrusted with the care of Christian congregations: but unfortunately they are strangers to these qualities, live like the irrational animals, and by these means are the cause that their parishes are converted into dens of thieves. The following instance will serve as a specimen of the way of thinking of these people. The Christians of St. Thomas are accustomed to abstain from their wives during Lent. A certain female Christian having asked her Cassanar why this custom had been introduced, the priest replied, “That it was established by the Church, in order that the wives of the Christians, during the above period, might sleep with the Cassanaris!”

These Cassanaris were the cause also of the schism which took place in 1653. In the year 1709 they had an intention of uniting themselves with the schismatic bishop. In 1773 they declared themselves under the jurisdiction of the bishops of the Latin or western church; but in 1777 they sent a request to Rome, that they might be allowed to have bishops of their own nation. In the year 1787 they made themselves independent of the apostolic vicar; but as I went to the court of the king of Travancor, as well as to Cochin, in favour of the bishops and missionaries, the rebels were punished, and again brought under subjection[106].

Pope Clement XIV. transmitted to me by the often before-mentioned bishop and apostolic vicar, Carolus à Sancto Conrado, full power to confirm newly-converted Christians, and caused it to be sanctioned by his successor M. Louis Maria. In consequence of this authority I confirmed, on the coast of Malabar, in the course of two years, viz. 1780 and 1781, above 20,000 persons. During that period I visited Angamali, Maleatur, Codomangalam, Molicolam, Puttenpalli, Mageapre, and other Christian congregations lying at a great distance in the forests; and I can say that I was resorted to by great numbers. The desire of obtaining confirmation went so far that sick people were brought to the church on beds, in order that I might administer to them the sacrament.

From what has been said, the reader may easily conceive what are the peculiar functions of a missionary in Malayala. He is obliged to instruct children; to preach, to confess, to visit churches, and to punish and absolve, in foro externo, Christians who have transgressed. He must also take care that the priests under his inspection read their Breviary in public; that they diligently visit their parishioners, and administer the sacraments properly: that the overseers lay out the church money with economy; that they embezzle none of it; and that they give a just account of it at the stated time: that the Christians regularly attend divine worship; follow no superstitious practices; and frequent neither the festivals nor public processions of the Pagans: that their wives and daughters do not lead unchaste lives; with various other things of the like kind. These missionaries have jurisdiction at the same time over the Christian congregations, to settle the disputes which arise among the members, and to punish all civil crimes committed by the Christians. Every thing that relates to marriage, family quarrels, offences of the clergy, irreligious conduct, and even the oppression which the Christians suffer from the Pagans, must be brought before the tribunal of the bishop and the missionaries. Their cognizance extends to every thing except murder and robbery. For this reason the king of Cochin grants them the privilege of causing a large umbrella of palm-leaves, and even sometimes a sword, to be borne before them, in order that both Christians and Pagans may know that they are entrusted with the power of administering justice among the former. When the missionaries are on good terms with their congregations, the Pagan magistrates, so far from interfering with, stand in awe of them.

The method and means employed to convert the Indians to the Catholic religion, are as follows: The missionaries go round among the congregations who adhere to the Latin and Syriac ritual; get acquainted with persons in whom they can place confidence, and desire them to give them immediate information when they hear of any Pagan who is inclined to become a Christian. When they find out any of this description, they give notice privately to the missionary, who then sends him a short introduction to the Christian religion, and perhaps a catechism, in order that he may read in it, make him self acquainted with its contents, and perhaps get some passages of it by heart. After this preparation he is conducted by the catechumen, with great privacy, to the missionary, who converses with him respecting his conduct, and endeavours to bring him over completely to the right faith. In Malabar there are some excellent manuscripts in verse, which on such occasions are of great service. Among these are Nishithaparvam, a poem by Giaco Mappulla, written, against the religion of the Pagans, and to ridicule their deities. There is also the Life of Christ by Ernest Hanxleden; and I myself wrote a poem under the title of Dèvasya shashta cinha gànam, that is, A Hymn on the six attributes of God; and converted into verse the Life of St. Theresa. Such works are highly gratifying to the Pagans, who are as fond of poetry as they are of moral subjects; and produce far more effect than the strongest persuasion and the most laboured arguments of the missionaries[107]. If the new converts are fully convinced of the truth of the doctrines which they have embraced, they return from time to time and bring with them their parents, sisters, and other relations. The missionary then baptises them in the church during the night, and only in the presence of some trusty persons, in order that it may be concealed, and to avoid giving any occasion to the Pagan magistrates to make complaints against the missionary. If he be afraid that the circumstance will not be concealed, he sends his catechumen to Verapole, or some other congregation under the Dutch government, where he will be exposed to no danger. There he is fully instructed by the clergyman, or some other Christian, and then baptised. It happens not unfrequently, that some of the Pagans go to Verapole of their own accord, and cause that ceremony to be performed. Their view on these occasions generally is to marry some Christian; to shun the persecution of some despotic ruler; to avoid a law-suit; or to live in a happier manner under the Dutch government. Such motives are, indeed, not pure and disinterested; but it often happens that they are sanctified by the blessing of God. Even if these people are not sincere in their conversion, their posterity at least abandon the Pagan vices, and strive to be real followers of Jesus Christ. In short, it is customary to place such new converts in some numerous Christian family, and to have a watchful eye over their conduct. Seldom do any of them return to Paganism; for, according to the laws of the Brahmans, they must be subjected to the severest punishment and purification before they can be again admitted among their former brethren. A Giàdi bhrshten, that is an apostate, who has been unfaithful to his cast, is detested by them; and it cannot be denied that this circumstance greatly contributes to the spreading of Christianity. At Verapole, however, it is not customary to baptise converts until they have gone through the severest probation[108].

In the two first years of my missionary charge, that is in 1777 and 1778, I had the good fortune to convert to the Catholic religion forty-six persons, among whom there were even some protestants[109]. These were afterwards followed by more than 300. I shall say nothing of what was done by other missionaries, who exert themselves in the business of conversion also; but I must not omit to mention, that a house has been built at Verapole for the particular use of the catechumens. It consists of two divisions; one destined for persons of the male sex, and the other exclusively for females. The former, in my time, were under the direction of Toma Mapulla, who had been once a Brahman; and the latter were committed to the care of Vittanda Umà, a matron of threescore. From this house 300 converts were sent out one year, and distributed among different Roman Catholic congregations, all consisting of such newly-converted Christians who by the Pagans are called Marggacarer, that is, people who have a law. I have already said, that the number of these Christians amounts to 100,000, without reckoning those who reside only in the neighbourhood of Cochin. The latter are called Mundocàrer, or people in white clothing, to distinguish them from the Tupasi[110], who wear indeed hats and drawers, but neither shoes nor stockings. Both these are under the protection of the Dutch East India Company, and belong to the government of Cochin. That they may be kept in proper order and subjection, two captains are appointed, one of whom is placed over the Mundocarer, and the other over the Tupasi. These captains have the right of commanding them; but are accountable for their conduct to the governor of Cochin. Among these people there are some very rich families; for, at present, they are generally in better circumstances than the Christians of St. Thomas. The cause is, that the latter employ themselves only in agriculture, and receive very little support from the government; whereas the former are merchants, and carry on a considerable trade with copra, oil, pepper, mats, and other productions of the country. The newly-converted Christians on the coast of Malabar are the chief support of the Dutch East India Company at Cochin; for, as they are protected by the government of that place, they consider it their duty to assist it by every possible means, and are always ready to take up arms in its defence. These Christians are all natives of the country, and therefore have many adherents. They not only possess palm-gardens, which are hereditary property, but procure a great deal also by their own industry. If they should ever undertake to effect a revolution in favour of the king of Cochin, or the king of Travancor, they would soon bring matters to such a state as to oblige the Dutch to leave Cochin. But I will here repeat, that the native Indians are the strongest support of the Europeans. The Pagans and Mahometans are naturally enemies to the Whites, as they call the Europeans; because they have no similarity to them, either in their external appearance, or in regard to their manners, their religion, or their interest. If the English and Dutch, therefore, do not endeavour to secure the friendship of the Christians in India, on whom can they depend? How can they hope to preserve their possessions in that remote country[111]?

The king of Cochin sends every year to the bishop of Verapole a letter, in which he expressly forbids him to receive any of his subjects into the catechumen house at that place, or to baptise them. The king of Travancor threatens with imprisonment and death every nobleman who shall quit his court to become a Christian, and who shall afterwards fall into his hands; and indeed Nilampulla, an officer of a noble family, was shot at Arampalli because he refused to renounce the religion of Jesus Christ[112]. In the year 1787 I saw four Nayris, or noble Shudris, thrown into prison at Tiruvandaburam, because they would not apostatise from the Catholic Church. Sampradi Keshavapulla, at that time, entered with me into a long conversation on Fatalism, in which he endeavoured to prove, that embracing Christianity was of no use, as the destiny of the spiritual part of man has been determined from all eternity. He did every thing in his power to make the above four Shudris abjure Christianity; even paid them a visit himself, and, to gain his point, employed every possible art of persuasion. As these were not attended with success, his substitute proceeded to coercive means, and not only tortured the prisoners with hunger and thirst, but even caused them to be scourged twice a-day. These heroic souls, however, were not to be shaken, and acknowledged openly in prison the word of God; so that Sampradi Keshavapulla was at length afraid they might make proselytes. The king was unwilling to punish them with death, because he had been informed, several years before, by a Catholic master of languages, who taught him English, that he never would thrive if he executed any person for having embraced Christianity. The king was much struck with this observation; and he had made a principle of it which he ever after followed. As he wished still to adhere to it, the four captive Shudris, after every thing had been tried to make them alter their opinion, were at last transported beyond the boundaries of Tovala.

In the year 1786 the civil magistrate at Parur sent a party of six soldiers to bring me before him, in order that he might be informed why I had baptised a Pagan family, consisting of eleven persons. I, however, got rid of the soldiers, by making oath, and immediately writing to the king, that these persons had come to me of their own free will, and offered to embrace the Christian religion, and that consequently it was impossible for me to reject them. The king had already honoured me with the Viraciangala, by which the magistrate perceived that the business might involve him in more trouble than he expected; and for that reason he let it drop. These newly-converted Christians had by this time been sent away from Verapole, and therefore they were beyond his reach. From this it appears that too much precaution cannot be employed when attempts are made to convert the Indians to the Christian religion: and incidents of this kind give an able missionary a sufficient opportunity of displaying his talents.

Quadrupeds, Birds, and amphibious Animals on the Coast of Malabar.

THAT there is no want of oxen and cows in India appears from the second chapter of this work. Horses were brought hither from Arabia and Persia. They are of small size, but strong, exceedingly swift, and capable of enduring long fatigue[113]. I am of opinion, that all the horses here are of Arabian or Persian extraction; because there are none in the southern parts, and because horses of the like kind are still brought to Malabar in Arabian ships.

Buffaloes are found here in abundance. They are employed chiefly in cultivating the land instead of oxen, as the latter are used for drawing waggons, and, in particular, for transporting goods. Cheese from cow’s milk, as well as all kinds of cheese in general, is not common in Malabar; because the inhabitants employ as food the milk that would be required for making it. Some of the Malabar women have indeed lately begun to make cheese, but they sell it only to the Europeans. The assertion that the people of Malabar are unacquainted with the method of preserving butter, is entirely groundless. The inhabitants of the Gauts certainly understand this part of domestic economy; and, to preserve their butter, add to it a little salt, some aromatic herbs, and magnel, or Malabar saffron. This kind of butter, which contains the noblest parts of those nourishing herbs and plants on which the cattle feed on the mountains, has a singularly exquisite taste[114]. The Vaishaya, that is, those Indians who apply to agriculture and the breeding of cattle, are exceedingly well acquainted with the art of curing the diseases of animals by very simple means. This art they have learned partly from their own experience during the course of a great many years, partly from the Samanæi, and are instructed in it from their infancy[115].

Tame goats, called in the Malabar dialect Aada, in the Samscred Haga, Staba, and, when red, Menda, Mesza or Uranna, are found here in great numbers. These animals are under the care of certain shepherds named Idaya, who form a particular cast called Idayagiadi. The Menda, or red goats, belong to the sacred animals, for which the Indians entertain the utmost reverence. They make use of them chiefly in their great festivals, known under the appellation of Iaga, instituted in honour of the sun and the planets[116].

Sheep on the coast of Malabar are exceedingly rare; for, as they bear a great deal of wool, they cannot thrive in a climate so hot as that of India. Goats, on the other hand, thrive remarkably well, because they climb the steepest mountains, and every where find food. Their hair is uncommonly beautiful. In the northern part of India there is a kind of wild goats, from the hair of which the shawls are made. These excellent pieces of stuff, which are manufactured at Cachemir, excel not only the finest cloths of Persia, but even the silk stuffs of the Chinese[117]. The Europeans in India eat a great deal of goat’s flesh; but the native Indians, who in general have an aversion to flesh, eat only that of kids, and even the latter they never touch except in the time of war.

The flesh of the Malabar swine is very difficult of digestion, and has a disagreeable taste. This is owing to their being too much fed with pilchards, which are found on the Sea coast in the utmost abundance. The native Christians, however, eat sometimes pork; but they are almost always sick afterwards[118].

Of dogs there is only one kind in Malabar. They are of a large size, not unlike our butchers’ dogs; have little hair, and can be trained to hunting.—The ass is never reared in this country.

Elephants, which among the wild animals deserve the first rank, are found in great number in the forests of the Gauts. In the provinces of Aragoshe, Modelacodata, and Maleatur, they may be sometimes seen in herds of 200 or 300; and it happens not unfrequently that they destroy whole fields of rice. The inhabitants endeavour to frighten them away, by kindling large fires and beating drums. They are caught in pits, which are covered over with green boughs. When an elephant falls into one of these, it sends forth such a loud cry as astonishes all the inhabitants of the forest. Ropes and chains are then made fast around its legs, in a very ingenious manner, and, when drawn up, it is conveyed to a place where these animals are generally tamed. I had an opportunity of seeing one of these places at Magnapre. It consisted of three stalls: those on the right and left were destined for two tame elephants, and the wild animal intended to be broke was shut up in the middle one. Its food was let down to it through the roof; for no person durst approach it till it was completely tamed. When that was accomplished, it would drag, over the mountains, large logs of Teka wood, and throw them into the river which conveyed them to the place of their destination. By these means this useful animal saved us great expence, which would have been necessary, had we caused such large trunks to be transported to the sea-coast, through these frightful mountains, by the hands of men. Thus has the wise providence of God taken care, that in all countries, and under every climate, certain kinds of animals shall be subservient to the necessities of man!

Next to the elephant in this respect may be ranked the camel. It is found in the twenty third degree of north latitude; but it does not properly belong to the animals which are natives of India, though it is found there[119]. The case is the same with the lion, which is seldom seen in these countries.

The urus belongs properly to the genus of the wild ox, and never appears beyond the borders of the thick forests of the Gauts. It is about ten feet high, and proportionably thick; has large beautiful horns, and very fine hair of a silvery ash-grey colour. Its tongue is so rough and sharp that it can peel off with it the bark from the trees: a wonderful provision of nature, in order that it may not want a supply of food in the time of summer when a single blade of grass is not to be found. The urus is of such strength that it ventures to contend with the elephant and the tyger. Of its hide the Indians make soles to their shoes, and various other things. Its flesh, however, is coarse, fibrous, and hard; but exceedingly wholesome and nourishing. It has also an excellent taste; because the animal feeds only on aromatic herbs[120].

The case is the same with the wild swine, the flesh of which has a very agreeable aromatic taste. I here speak from experience, having often ate of both. A wild hog killed in hunting costs a rupee; sometimes it may be procured for two or three charges of gun-powder, by which the huntsman thinks himself sufficiently paid, as he can then kill another.

The above-mentioned forests serve also as a retreat for the wolf[121], and likewise for the mountain bear, which is even fiercer than the tyger, and more dreaded by the Malèr, or inhabitants of the Gauts. If the king of Travancor could resolve to hunt these wild animals, he would procure essential advantages both to himself and his subjects. But this is not done, because the Indians believe in the doctrine of transmigration. By these means, indeed, the heart of man is inspired with softer sensations, and a stop is put to the shedding of blood; but, on the other hand, such ideas are attended with this bad consequence, that the number of ravenous animals is prodigiously increased.

The rhinoceros is found here and there in India; but on the coast of Malabar it is never seen. Of the horn, from which it takes its name, the Indians make drinking cups and bracelets.

Of tygers I have seen three kinds in Malabar. The royal tyger, called in the Malabar language Caduva or Parienpuli, and in the Samscred Vyacra, or Duìbina, is of a yellowish colour, with long black horizontal stripes. It is as large as a two-year-old heifer; but long, and rather of low stature. It is much scarcer than the Malabar Puli or Cuguar, which is the real leopard, whatever may have been said to the contrary by Pliny and Linnæus. The Puli, or common Malabar tyger, is of a yellowish colour, inclining to black, and marked with a few perfectly black spots on the back: hence it takes its name Puli, that is, the spotted animal.

The panther, which frequents the Gauts, is a kind of royal tyger, but of a dark chestnut colour. Here and there it is marked with a few horizontal stripes, like the royal tyger; but with this difference, that they are considerably blacker. This animal is much fiercer than the tyger, and pursues its enemies with the most savage ferocity.

The above-mentioned Puli, or Malabar tyger, is often so bold as to enter the towns and villages. One day, in the year 1786, while I was in the church at Vaypur employed in examining the overseer’s accounts, a Puli entered the village at noon, and, in the sight of more than 200 persons, carried off a dog which was running about in the street, not fifteen paces from the church. After that period the people of Vaypur always took care to shut their houses at the time they were repeating the Ave Maria; but with trelliced doors, in order to admit the light. At Badagare, one of these Pulis took from the stall a calf belonging to the Cassanar, while I was sitting with him in his apartment. We, however, pursued the animal with muskets; but were not able to overtake him, for he had seized the calf by the throat, and, having strangled it, dragged it away with him, and soon disappeared. Some of these animals frequently paid me a visit at Magnapre, during the time of Ave Maria. The Christian women were generally the first who perceived them from their houses, and on such occasions they immediately ran into the streets, crying out: Acia, patti vannu, patti vannu! that is, Sir, the dog is there, the dog is there! This dog, however, was always a tyger, to which the common people give that appellation.

The animal called by Pliny a panther, by Zimmermann an ounce, and by Linnæus a leopard, has a white skin covered with black spots; but neither the Malabar leopard nor the panther is ever seen in the Gauts. Those who wish to destroy a tyger conceal themselves by night on the top of some tree, near a pond or ditch where the animal is accustomed to drink, and in that manner shoot him. The skin is given to the king, and the hunter always obtains a reward from the inhabitants of the district[122].

The flying cat I have several times seen in India, particularly at Vaypur, Puttenpalli, and Mohatushe. It is properly a kind of squirrel, but as large as a cat. It has two cartilaginous wings like the bat, and a large thick tail, which, in its flight, it uses by way of a rudder. Its hair is exceedingly fine, and of a silver colour. It is generally seen on the Mava tree, the fruit of which serves it as food[123].

Another animal, of a kind totally different, is the Malabar Marapatti, which the naturalists call Serval. It lives also on trees, but cannot fly like the former, and feeds only on the coco-nut. It is a sort of polecat, which destroys poultry, and sucks their eggs. It is also a mortal enemy to serpents; and its flesh has an offensive smell[124].

Of deer there are various kinds in Malabar. Kàla is the common stag; Man is the hind; Pulimàn, the white spotted axis of the ancients. The roe-buck, with crooked horns, twisted like a vine branch, is catted Krshnamrgam, and is a kind of antelope with black hair. Another kind, called in the Malabar language Kesza, and in the Samscred Rohida, is not larger than a goat, and has red hair. It is in all probability the Antelope cervicapra of Zimmermann[125].

In Malabar there is also a great number of bezoar goats. In the mountainous districts of the province of Maleatur they wander about in herds; and the largest and best bezoar stones are procured from them.

The Kuran is an antelope with hair entirely black, which I never saw but in this country[126].

The civet cat, by the Indians called Meruva, is found here also. I have seen great numbers of this animal in the forests of Cernì and Cidàcolam.

The Kirri appears to be the same animal as that which the ancients called the Ichneumon. It is found on the coast of Malabar, and in considerable numbers. It is a mortal enemy to the snakes, which it torments till they twist themselves together, and lie as if in a state of torpor, when it springs upon them, and, seizing them by the neck, soon dispatches them. During this contest the snake raises up half its body, erects its crest, hisses, and endeavours to wound its antagonist; but this little animal, which is exceedingly active and sharp-sighted, finds means to avoid the threatened blow with the utmost dexterity, till the snake at last loses its strength, and resigns the victory. This contest I have myself seen more than once. The Kirri has fine hair of an ash-grey colour, a thick tail, a sharp-pointed snout, keen eyes, small ears, and is not bigger than a large mouse. This pretty animal is very much attached to man; is fond of playing with him; and is not soon irritated. It creeps into every hole and corner; frequently steals eggs; lies in wait for the bats and other night birds, and never allows any of them to remain in the house where it resides. In Malabar there is also another kind of ichneumon, of a red colour, and much larger than that above described, but which can never be rendered tame[127].

The Annan, or small squirrel, which generally frequents the coco-nut trees, has hair of a whitish-brown colour, with beautiful black stripes, like the zebra, or Indian wild ass. The latter, however, is not found on the coast of Malabar.

The Maleannan is a black squirrel, which is found only on the highest trees[128].

The Perciali, or Periciaszi, is a large mouse, called by the Portuguese Fossador, because it digs every where, and occasions great devastation.

The Cundeli is another kind of mouse, which emits an agreeable smell[129]. The Pucia, or common house cat, never attacks the larger kind of mice[130]. The small hedge-hog I never saw in Malabar; but I have seen the porcupine, in the bowels of which bezoar is said to be found. The truth of this, however, I doubt. The flesh of this animal has a bad taste, and is difficult of digestion[131].

Of apes there are great multitudes in the forests of Maleatur, Codamangalam, Badagare, Codolur, and Vaypur. The small white ape is called Vellacuranga; and the large black ape, natibus calvis, cauda prælonga, Coringuranga. The latter has a large beard; and its head is entirely covered with hair. This ape is, in all probability, the Faunus or Silenus of Zimmermann. Another, with a small tail, I consider as the Silvanus of the same naturalist. The Rajah-keda, or royal ape, is of a black colour, and has a long black beard, with a ruddy countenance like a man. It is highly valued by the Pagans; because, according to their theology, it represents the deity Hanuman, the Pan of the ancients. Such apes run about in thousands, and defend themselves when attacked[132].

The Adibe, called in the Malabar Curuken, and in the Samscred Gembuga, or Kroshtàva, is a kind of fox or wild dog. These animals in Malabar are exceedingly numerous. If a dead body be buried without the walls of a church, it is in great danger of being torn by them and devoured[133].

The Malabar wolf is called Cenna, and has reddish hair. The wild cat is called Kokàn.

Besides the above-mentioned civet cat, or Meruva, there are two other kinds of that animal; viz. the Malaweruva, or mountain civet cat; and the Naypulla, which has a variegated skin covered with black spots[134].

The feathered tribe in Malabar, as in other countries, are partly wild and partly tame. Among the latter are poultry, ducks and turkeys. The house cock, according to the Indian mythology, is dedicated to the goddess Bhagàvadi, and is presented at the door of her temple as an offering. In the time of infectious diseases, which the Indians ascribe to that goddess, their priests and fortune-tellers sometimes slaughter a cock on the patient’s bed, rub his body with its blood, and mutter over certain forms of prayer; such, for example, as Om bhadracàli namà: that is, “Adoration to thee, O goddess! thou who art black and good, so be it!” or, Hum, varàhi namà: “Adoration to thee, thou offended, angry deity!” Om, panciamughi yumè: “Adoration and health to thee, O woman with the five visages!” Hum varàhi namà: “Adoration to thee, O goddess, who art formed like a wild swine, so be it!”

The Tarava, or tame duck, is found in great abundance in the neighbourhood of Cochin; because in that district there are a great many rivers, where they procure nourishment. Their flesh, however, is almost unfit for food, as they devour too many pilchards. On board ship these animals are kept a long time on different food before they are killed[135]. An immense trade is carried on with these fowls in the maritime towns of India. It gives employment, in particular, to the Christians, Mahometans, and black Jews.

The peacock is found also in Malabar. At Vaypur and Kidacolam I saw whole flocks of these fowls. They occasion great destruction in the gardens[136].

The wild cock, called Kattucoli, or Kikidiri, is a very beautiful animal. Its feathers are diversified with all sorts of colours, and have a shining appearance like gold[137].

The sparrow hawk, called in the Malabar language Paranda, and in the Samscred Garhuda, is, according to the Indian mythology, the vehicle on which Vishnu commonly rides. It is held in great veneration, particularly by the Malabar women; and if one of these animals snatches a fish from their hand, they consider it as a most fortunate omen.

The falcon affords the Indian warriors an agreeable diversion, for they train it to pursue game.

The raven, Kaka, is considered by the Indians as a symbol of the human spirit after death. It is not, therefore, surprising, that in Malabar there should be an immense number of these birds of prey, which are exceedingly troublesome to the Europeans.

The Cembòtta is as large as the raven; but has red feathers, and eats snakes.

The Vesbàmbel is a fowl not much inferior in size to the ostrich, which devours snakes also. Father Hanxleden and Viscoping call it, in Portuguese, Passaro de duos bicos; for it has two bills, one of which is always filled with water. This water it procures in the plains, and preserves for a long time; as nature has assigned for its place of residence very high mountains, where scarcely any water is to be found, and from which it seldom descends[138].

The Magnakli is one of the most beautiful birds in Malabar. It is entirely yellow, except the wings, which are black.

The bird of paradise has a very small body, but two exceedingly long feathers in its tail[139].

Pindàramcòli is the name of a water fowl, the feathers of which are blue[140].

The Umen is a kind of geir falcon, or vulture.

The Malabar bats are almost as big as chickens. They have large wings, terrible claws, and their whole bodies are covered with hair. Their head is shaped somewhat like that of a horse. The people of Malabar use them as food, and I myself have ate of them with pleasure. Their flesh is dry, and tastes almost like that of the hare[141].

Parrots, of all colours, forms and sizes, are found in Malabar in immense numbers. They and the apes are real plagues to the districts which they frequent; for they rob and steal wherever they come.

Càda is the name of the Indian quail.—The snipe is found in the marshy districts of Ciranga and Puducurici.

In the Gauts there is a kind of black-bird, the body of which is totally black; but its head is covered with a hood of a bright yellow colour, which represents a small crown. This bird, on account of the excellence of its song, is held in the highest estimation by the inhabitants[142].

Ciula is the wood-pigeon with greenish feathers; Ciangalli, the turtle-dove; Koca, the crane. The flat parts of India swarm, as one may say, with these animals.

The Gnara, or Garça real, is a kind of ibis, but larger than the crane. The Indians, however, entertain no particular respect for these birds; but they do not drive them away from their rice fields, which they frequent in large flocks, and destroy the insects and other vermin.

One of the most remarkable birds in India is that called in the Malabar language Olamàri, in the Hinduvee Bajà, and in the Samscred Berbera. It is of the size of the European sparrow, or at least not much larger. This bird constructs its nest in a very curious manner, with the long fibres of plants, or dry grass; and suspends it by means of a kind of cord, nearly half an ell in length, from the extremity of an exceedingly slender branch of some tree, in order that it may be inaccessible to snakes and other animals which might destroy its eggs or its young. This hanging nest, though agitated by the wind, is so strongly secured that it never sustains the least injury. The interior part of it consists of three neat apartments or divisions. The first, which forms the forepart, is occupied by the male; the second is destined for the female; and the third contains the young. In the first apartment, where the male always keeps watch while the female is hatching the eggs, a little tough clay is found stuck against one side of it, and in the top of this clay a glow-worm, which serves to afford light in the night-time. These birds feed upon insects. Their head and feet are yellowish; the body is of a dark yellow, and the breast is whitish. They chiefly frequent the coconut trees, in which I observed the greater part of their nests[143]. I had five of them in a chest, which I was desirous of carrying with me to Europe; but as they occupied too much room, I was obliged to leave them[144].

Among the amphibious animals of this country, are the Nirna, or Malabar otter; the Nirpucia, a kind of water-cat; and the Nìrudumba, a water salamander, called by the Portuguese Talagoya de agoa. The salamander properly so called, which is a large black lizard, from three to four palms in length, known by the natives of Malabar under the name of Udumba, is found only in the woods. Its flesh has an exquisite taste, forms a wholesome kind of food, and is much relished by the Indians. The water lizard is of a black colour also, but not so large.

The Cicanni, or Scinco, is a small crocodile, or rather large lizard, four or five palms in length. It is of a dark brown colour, and found for the most part in ponds or other stagnant water not far distant from palm-gardens and rice-fields: but it is sometimes seen on land, and consequently belongs to the class of amphibious animals.

The Mudela, or proper crocodile, which is also an amphibious quadruped, is of all colours. It eats not only fish, but also dogs, calves, and other animals; and even men, if they approach too near it. Almost all the rivers in Malabar are full of these monsters. I have seen several of them which were larger than a wild ox or buffalo. Some of them are of a brown and greenish colour; others brown and bright red; and the most of them are larger than the Egyptian crocodile, which appears to me to be longer, but not so thick. The crocodile belongs to the sacred animals of the Indians, and has particular temples erected to it. Formerly, a person accused of any crime was made to walk, in the presence of the Brahmans, through a river frequented by a Mudela. If he got through in safety, he was declared innocent. The Mudelas are caught by means of an iron hook, to which a piece of flesh is fastened. When the animal is hooked, it is dragged to the bank with a strong rope. Neither the crocodile nor the tyger ever attack man till pressed by hunger; but this is not often the case, as they are accustomed to eat a great deal at one time. In the head of the Mudela is found a yellow kind of musk, which emits a strong smell, and which is used by the Pagans for painting the sacred marks on their forehead. The following anecdote may serve as a proof how much these animals are to be dreaded. A woman in the eighth month of her pregnancy, being one day busily employed in washing at the river Edacoci, a crocodile approached her imperceptibly, which it could do with the greater ease, as these animals always swim with their head raised only a very little above the surface of the water. As soon as the monster got within reach, he made a sudden spring at the poor naked woman, and tore the unborn child from her body. She was immediately conveyed to a neighbouring church; but she soon after expired. The large crocodile is called, in the Samscred language, Shishumàra; the small one, Cumbhìra; the otter, Udru; the tortoise, Curma Camada, or Caciàba; and the salamander, Gòdha. Those who wish to study the natural history of India, must make themselves acquainted with these names[145].

Seas, Rivers, Vessels used for Navigation, Fish, Shellfish, and Serpents in India.

THE whole sea-coast from Surat to Cape Comari is inhabited by fishermen, who, because they belong to the despised or rather lowest casts, dare not settle in the interior part of the country, and are consequently obliged to construct habitations for themselves on the sea-coast, or in the neighbourhood of harbours, rivers, and other streams of water. These people are almost all Christians; a small number of them only are Pagans and Mahometans. The latter were induced to embrace Mahometanism by the Arabs, who established themselves there in the eighth and ninth centuries; the former were converted to the Christian faith by the Franciscans, Dominicans, Jesuits, and bare-footed Carmelites. As most foreigners who visit India travel along the sea-coast, and have no opportunity of going far into the interior parts, they form an opinion of the country and its inhabitants from the manners, customs, laws, peculiarities, and fabulous relations of these fishermen. Hence the unfounded, ridiculous, partial and insipid tales respecting the Indians, which have been spread throughout all Europe. The Mucarèr (fishermen, or, according to the literal meaning of the word, people who dive under water), Paravas, Ciànas, Tupasis, Mestizes, Creoles, and other inhabitants of the sea-coast, are certainly incapable of giving any authentic information respecting India; as they never saw the interior part of the country, and dare enter into conversation neither with the nobility nor the Brahmans. This regulation is founded on the religious system and political constitution of the Indians.

The sea, in the Samscred language, is called Samudra, Abdhi, Sàgara, Arnavà, Ambudhi, and Udadhi; but, in the Malabar, Cadel. According to the poetical fables of the Indians, there are in this world Sapta Sagara, that is, seven seas. The first, named in the Samscred Kshìròda, consists merely of milk; the Second, Lavonoda, of salt; the third, Suroda, or Sura, of coco-nut juice; the fourth, Dadhimaṅòda, of water which separates itself from the sour milk; the fifth, Ikshùda, of water from the sugar-cane; the sixth, Svavduda, of fresh water; and the seventh, Navanidàmbudhi, of fresh butter. In the centre of these seas lies the island Gembhu, that is, the globe which we inhabit. The English have promised to explain this allegorical system in the third volume of the Asiatic Researches; and I shall not, therefore, dispute with them that honour.

The Brahmans are not ignorant that the sea, under the equator, is much salter than towards the poles; but they explain this physical phenomenon by a very ridiculous fable, for they say that Cashyaba, one of their Munis (who is nothing else than the star which we call Canopus), lets his urine fall into the sea under the equator, which is never the case in the neighbourhood of the north pole. The real cause why it was established by the all-wise Creator of the world, that the sea at the equator should contain a greater quantity of salt than elsewhere, and that it should be exposed to greater agitation from its flux and reflux, and also from strong currents, winds and storms, was undoubtedly to prevent the atmosphere from being corrupted and impregnated with infectious vapours in so hot a climate, and to render that part of the world as agreeable a residence for man as either of the poles, where, on account of the severity of the cold, no corruption can take place.

The principal and most remarkable rivers in India are the Ganga or Ganges; the Sindhu, which the Europeans very improperly call the Indus; the Jamunà, called improperly also by the Greeks and the Romans the Jomanes, or Djemma; the Rèvà; the Sharavadi; the Vaitravadi; the Ciandrabbàga; the Sarayuvà; the Sarasuadi; the Devi or Deva; the Caveri, and the Collàru. All these Samscredo-Indian appellations have been corrupted by foreigners. Those not acquainted with the original languages of India must be much bewildered when they cast their eye on the maps of India. To be convinced that the above names have been totally disfigured, one needs only look at D’Anville’s Antiquités Géographiques de l’Inde, or Tiefenthaler’s and Rennel’s maps.

The importance of this point, which tends so much to throw light on the history of India, makes it necessary for me to correct the errors of these writers. The Brahman book, Amarasinha, which the Indians hold in high esteem, according to the testimony of Sir William Jones, Wilkins, Anquetil du Perron, and Davis, contains, besides other things, in the division entitled Samudravargga, a description of the principal rivers in India. The author begins with the Ganges, which in the Samscred language is distinguished by the following names: Ganga, Vishnuvadi, Gehnutanayà, Suranimnaga, Bhaguirathi, Tisròda, Bhishmasù. After these come the names of the river Jamunà; which are, Jamunà, Càlini, Suryatanayà, Shamanasuasà. Then those of the Rèvà; viz. Rèvà, Nammadà, Somolbbavà, Mèghala, Canyagà, Karatoyà, Sadanirà-bahudà, Saidavahini. These Samscred names are accompanied with the following Brahman observation, written in the common dialect of Malabar: Vindyattinguelnina purapetta Revajede per; that is, names of the river Rèvà, which has its source in, and springs from the mountain Vindhia. We next find the names of the river Sarajuvà; viz. Shududri, Shadrada, and Sarajevà, with the following gloss: Himavànguelnina purapetta Sarayùvinde per; that is, names of the river Sarayùvà, which has its source in, and flows from the Hima. And after these the names of the river Dèva; viz. Vipàshà, Vipal, and Dèva. On this occasion the Brahman glossographer says: Sanhjattinguelnina purapetta Dèvadajede per; that is, names of the river Dèva, which has its source in, and flows from the mountain Sanhya. The names of the next five most remarkable rivers are then mentioned; viz. Sharavadi, Vetravadi, Ciandrabhagà, Sarasvadi, and Caveri; but not a word is said in the gloss respecting their origin. All these different appellations are contained in three Indian manuscripts, which I have now before me. I must, however, observe, that there is no gloss in the Samscred text of the Amarasinha, which is written in Shlogas, or distinct paragraphs; but it is found in all the other Samscred manuscripts of this work, which the Brahman literati have explained word by word. I have in my possession a copy of this kind, written on palm-leaves; and that it is genuine, no one who understands the Brahman characters will entertain the least doubt. It is evident that the above passage, which I have quoted from the Amarasinha, is of the utmost importance; for it makes us acquainted with the sources of the three largest rivers in India, which have hitherto been confounded by geographers. This will appear from what follows:

I. Some consider the Ganges as the Sarayuvà, which Anquetil du Perron calls Sarjou. Instead, therefore, of distinguishing two large rivers, they mention only one, and give it the name of the Ganges. This great error is observed in all the maps of India. Father Tiefenthaler is the only author who has avoided it. De l’Isle, for example, in his Carte des Indes à Paris 1781, makes the Ganges and another river take their source from one lake, and says: Rivière qui fort du même lac que le Gange; elle arrose le Royaume de Thibet. He then shews how the Ganges directs its course through India; but does not speak a word of the Sarayuvà, which, however, is one of the large rivers of that country.

II. Father Tiefenthaler and Anquetil du Perron were the first who made a distinction between the Ganges and the Sarayuvà; who assigned to each of these rivers a different source, and traced out their proper courses. It is, however, here worthy of remark, that the Brahmaputra ridge of mountains, in which these two geographers make the Sarayuvà or Sardjou take its rise, is called, in the before-mentioned Amaràsinha, the mountain Himala. We thence find that the Ganges is quite a different river from the Sarayuvà; and we at the same time learn the real situation of the mountain Himala, the Imaus of the Greeks; for, according to Tiefenthaler’s map, the Sarayuvà has its source in the latitude of 35° north, and the longitude of 78°; but according to M. De l’Isle’s map, in the latitude of 34°, and the longitude of nearly 100°. We observe farther, that the two appellations of the same river, which the old Brahman catalogue in the Amarasinha calls in the Samscred language sometimes Sarajuvà, and sometimes Shadrada, have been changed into Sardjou and Gagra.

III. Tiefenthaler and Anquetil make, of the two streams Sarayuvà and Dèva, only one, as may be seen in the before-mentioned map. This is a very gross error; for, according to the book Amarasinha, the Dèva not only has a different name, but a totally different origin. This river takes its source in the mountain Sanhya, and in the Samscred language is called also Vipasha and Vipal; both which appellations belong to the Dèva alone, and consequently cannot be given to the Sarayuvà.

IV. We find likewise that the Rèva, which others very improperly call the Ravì or Revi, flows down from the ridge of mountains called Vindhya. These are the Vinidi Montes of Strabo and Ptolemy, which were seen at a distance by the troops of Alexander the Great. Hence there is reason to conjecture, with some degree of probability, that Alexander, though he crossed the Rèva, did not penetrate so far as the Jamunà. Had the case been otherwise, this river would have been mentioned, by historians, among those which Alexander’s army passed; for it was exceedingly well known to the ancients under the name of Jomanes. But, as they observe perfect silence in this respect, it may with certainty be admitted, that the Macedonian hero, whose deeds have been so highly extolled, saw and reduced to obedience only a very small part of India.

V. The word Sindhu, in the Samscred language, signifies the sea; from which it appears, that this appellation does not properly belong to the whole of the river called the Sindhu, Sandus, Indus, and Hendo; and that it can be applied to it only where it discharges itself into the sea. In the old Brahmanic writings this river is called the Rèva; for towards the north east, in the latitude of 30° north, and the longitude of 34°, the Rèva forms the principal stream of the Sindhu. It does not flow from Thibet, nor from the mountains Imau, Parvada, or Parapomiso, as some pretend, but from the Vindhya mountains, lying in the latitude of 34°, and the longitude of 94°. These mountains, however, are to be found neither on De l’Isle’s map, nor in that of D’Anville.

VI. In the last place, we here see that in the Samscred language the Rèva is distinguished by several names, which geographers have considered as belonging to so many different rivers, and therefore they have mentioned a considerable number which never existed. Thus M. De l’Isle speaks of a river in the latitude of 25°, to which he gives the name of Dimadee. He has been led into this mistake by the corrupted orthography of the word Namadà, an appellation given to the Rèva, and which means that river alone. Such is the case when writers do not understand the languages of India, and are not able to procure accurate information by reading Indian works! The Samscred names of the principal Indian rivers may be found, however, in Biscoping’s dictionary. The Rèva, Jamunà, Ganges, Sarayuvà, and Caveri, are considered by the Indians as sacred; and, according to their belief, purify from their sins all those who bathe in them.

The different kinds of vessels employed for navigation on the coast, and in the rivers of Malabar, are the following:

1st, Candimaram. It consists of two pieces of wood closely joined, and strongly fastened together. With this frail and simple vessel the Indians venture even out to sea. It is indeed often overset; but, as the person who directs it rows quite naked, and on his knees, he soon clambers back into his Candimaram, and escapes the fury of the waves[146].

2d, Toni, Mangi, or Vallam. These are canoes, which consist of the trunk of a tree made hollow.

3d, Ciangada. This is the name given to a certain number of planks joined together so as to form a kind of raft.

4th, Cemboca. Is a broad boat or wherry, perfectly flat at the bottom.

5th, Pàrram. This is also a kind of wherry, nearly of a square form, and so narrow at the top that the aperture through which people enter it is scarcely a foot in diameter. These vessels are built on this construction, because they are employed for transporting the nella and other articles, which would be infallibly spoiled if the sea-water should find admittance into them.

6th, Koppel or Padava. This is the name given in the Malabar language to large ships which have from two to three masts, and are furnished with anchors, ropes, and sails. In the Samscred language they are called Nau, Pòda, and Janapàtra.

The observation often repeated, that the Indians make little use of nails or iron-work in building their ships, is perfectly just. They can, indeed, dispense with both; for they join the planks together with the greatest ingenuity; pay the seams with different kinds of dissolved gum; and fill them up with the fine fibres of the coco-nut tree, so as to be impenetrable to the water. On the outside they daub them over with oil procured from pilchards and other fat substances, which render the wood smooth, and at the same time defend it from the saline particles of the sea-water, and from being destroyed by worms[147]. The properties of the magnet are at present as well known to the Indians as to other nations; but that they employed the compass in very early periods, is much to be doubted. It is probable that they then directed their course at sea by the monsoons, and the motion of the heavenly bodies. Many of the Arabs, however, still venture to cross the open sea to India without the help of the compass. And, indeed, when it is considered that the Indian sea during one half of the year is perfectly calm and still—that the sun remains only a short time below the horizon—that the nights are exceedingly serene, because the brightness of the stars is never obscured by thick vapours or clouds—that the wind blows invariably from one quarter, and that the currents never change their course, it will readily appear that such a passage may be attempted and happily effected without the help of that useful instrument.

The Indians are abundantly supplied with fish of all kinds. The whale, which they call Cadelàna, that is the sea elephant, is not uncommon in these seas. It may be frequently seen at Cape Comari, and on the neighbouring coast. Some years ago a whale was driven by the tide into the river at Cochin; and as it remained there till the ebb tide, it was not able to return. It, therefore, proceeded up the stream; but it soon got into shallow water, and was killed by the Indians.

The Souffleur, a large fish of the like kind, is called in the Malabar language Turàva. It received this name because it always spouts up water through its nostrils, so that it rises as if from two springs. It is said to be a great enemy of the whale. For farther particulars respecting it I shall refer the reader to a work of the celebrated Professor Schneider, published at Leipsic in the year 1795, under the title of Collections towards a Natural History of the different kinds of Whales. The author describes there all the species of this fish, together with their distinguishing characters and properties[148].

The Wallrus, the isinglass-fish, and the sturgeon, are not found in the Indian Seas.

The Cadapami, or sea-swine, is called so with great propriety, as it has really a snout like that of a swine. Its flesh is tough, oily, and difficult of digestion; and for that reason is not much used by the natives of Malabar.

The sea-horse, called in the Malabar language Cadelcudira, the hippopotamus of the ancients, is also seen sometimes in the Indian Seas.

The Tirada, is the well-known salmon, a delicate fish, which frequents the sea, as well as the streams and rivers. It is caught in such abundance in Malabar, that I have often purchased from four to six pound of it for two Cochinese Panam, which are equal in value to about four Roman Bajocchi. At this rate three men for a Paolo may procure a day’s maintenance, even including rice.

Pilchards are caught in such immense quantities on the coast of Malabar, that the Indians often do not know how to employ them. They feed their ducks, dogs, and swine with them; and even mix them among the dung used as manure for their coconut trees. Were not the Indians too lazy to salt these fish, they might carry on a very considerable trade with them[149].

Muri, or oysters, are exceedingly plenty in the rivers near Cochin and Collam. I have often purchased 300 of them for a Panam (about six-pence sterling). They are fished up in the same manner as the pearl muscles. The fishermen repair to a place where the sea is not too deep, and make fast their canoes to two posts. One of them then ties a rope round his body, and dives under the water with a basket. When he has filled his basket with oysters, he makes a signal to his companion, who remained in the canoe, to draw him up; and while he is doing so, the one who is bringing up the oysters assists him by clambering up one of the posts.

The Palagamim, or sea-bream, is of a shining colour like gold, but has a bad taste.

The Neymin, or oil-fish, is from three to four palms in length, and has an excellent taste, but is somewhat difficult of digestion. The Karimim, or stone-fish, appears to me to be the European sea-bream.

The Ayla, called in Portuguese Cavala, has a good taste when fresh; but, when salted, becomes like the herring.

The Indian eel is very delicious; but too fat, and consequently difficult of digestion.

The Tirandi, or roach, has an exceedingly good taste, though not nearly so large as the roaches sold at Rome.

The Anicannen and Kòlen are both small fish of a bad quality.

The tench, pike, and mackarel are also caught on the Malabar coast; but I do not find their names in Father Hanxleden’s dictionary.

The Ettamin is in all probability the red sea-bream.—Soles and flat fish are no where so good as at Collam and Angenga.

The tortoises, which inhabit the sea, as well as the rivers, are here of considerable size. I have seen some of them which weighed forty pounds. The people of Malabar, however, do not eat the tortoise; and if one of them enters a house, they consider it as a bad omen.

The Xiphias, or sword-fish, is caught in great abundance in the Indian seas.—The barbel is found only in rivers which the water of the sea never enters.

Crabs, called in the Malabar language Gnanda, and in the Samscred Carchidaga, are poisonous in October and November; for about that period the poisonous aquatic plants, such as the blue tithymal, or wolf’s milk, grow up; and as these animals feed upon them, they are rendered so poisonous as to occasion death to those who eat them. It would be therefore proper, that in Malabar, as is the case in the Isle of France, a law were made to prohibit crabs being caught during these two months. M. Passavant the Danish factor at Calicut, Father Louis Maria à Jesu, now a bishop, and myself, once happened to be in company, and to eat of these animals. The other two gentlemen each ate two of them; but I contented myself with one. Three hours after, M. Passavant became pale as death, and was seized with so violent a vomiting, that we absolutely thought he would have expired. Father Louis Maria was attacked with vertigo; all the veins in his body were swelled; his face, lips, and hands became blue, and he experienced an oppression at the heart which threatened to prove fatal. I immediately gave him some theriac, which the missionaries generally carry about with them, and sent for a barber to bleed him. In regard to myself I was seized with a giddiness and vomiting, the latter of which I endeavoured to provoke. This accident, and others of the like kind, which frequently happen in this country, ought to serve as a caution to those who travel through Malabar, not to eat crabs there during the summer months. The case is the same with some kinds of fish. At Cochin and the neighbouring districts the water also is exceedingly unwholesome. The natives of Malabar are not so fond of springs as they are of their Colam or ponds, from which they draw the water they use as drink. As it, however, contains too much marine salt and calcareous particles, if it be not properly filtred, it gradually produces such bad effects on the body, as to make the feet of those who drink it swell up in an extraordinary manner. I have seen some of these people whose legs were as thick as the body of a full-grown man. The most beautiful women at Cochin have sometimes feet like an elephant[150]. Rich people cause their water for drinking to be brought, for the most part, from the Feira d’Alva, which is very pure, and has an excellent taste.

When a Malabar king, prince, or great man dies, the Mucaver must for some time give over fishing; and, as a signal that it is then prohibited, branches of trees are always stuck up here and there on the banks of the rivers. They are generally suffered to remain eight or ten days, in order that the soul of the deceased during that time may choose for itself a new habitation in the body of some fish.

Shell-fish.—The sea hedge-hog is found at Collam, and other places on the coast; but it is much larger than at the Cape of Good Hope and the Isle of France. These animals adhere so fast to the rocks and stones, that it is almost impossible to detach them. On one side they are covered with black, sharp prickles, which serve them as a defence against their enemies; on the other is observed a round smooth aperture, which supplies the place of a mouth, and through which, by means of a few tender hollow fibres, they receive their nourishment. When they are sated with food, they attach themselves to the rocks with these fibres so fast that a knife is necessary to disengage them. When they are desirous of removing from one place to another, they use their prickles instead of oars, and swim along the surface of the sea with great ease, so that they almost have the appearance of black balls.

The sea-star is found in great abundance in the ocean to the east of Cochin. These animals, like other kinds of fish, form themselves into a sort of society; for it is very rare to see one of them alone. They swim in shoals at the surface of the water, and always direct their course according to the wind: their movement, however, is scarcely perceptible. They have a few small suckers, through which they receive their nourishment, and which they contract as soon as they are touched. Their stomach, from which the nourishing juices are conveyed to the smallest vessels, is probably in the centre of their body, where all their points are united. They have neither eyes nor mouth; but a most delicate sense of feeling, which supplies the place of sight.

On the rocks near the sea there are found also a kind of testaceous animals called in Italian Ballani, which are of a flesh colour, and have an excellent taste. Their shell has the form of a half-blown tulip.

The pipe coralline, Tubipora, has almost the appearance of a leaf covered with prickles.—At Collam there are found also various kinds of Turbinites.

Snakes.—The commonest, though not the most poisonous kind of these animals, found in Malabar, is the Nallapamba, that is, the beautiful snake. It is so called, because it has hanging round its neck two pieces of skin, which shine like a pair of spectacles, and which it can extend over its head like a hood or cap. Of this snake there are several varieties. One has a complete cap at both sides of the head, and is called Padamuliaven: another is furnished with this cap only on one side, and is called Ottapadaven. A third kind has a complete cap, but is much smaller than the other two, and is the most poisonous of all. When these snakes attack a man, or fight with the Kirri, they raise themselves up in a perpendicular direction; turn round on their tail, whistle, move the upper part of their body from side to side, and in that manner endeavour to wound their antagonist. Some of these snakes are from three to four, others from six to eight palms in length; but the smallest, which the Indians call Caytolacurungni, is, as already said, the most poisonous. A person bit by it dies generally in three or four hours; but this depends on the place where the wound has been inflicted, whether in any of the nobler parts of the body from which the poison is conveyed sooner to the heart. With theriac of Poictiers, and the antidote of Madura, I have cured more than fifty persons who had been bitten by serpents of this kind. When I took charge of such patients, I caused them, above all things, to be kept under a very warm covering, and both the doors and windows to be carefully shut, that no cool air might touch them. As I knew from experience that the poison communicates to the blood a deadly coldness, by which it is curdled, I made my patients frequently drink warm water, and gave them two or three doses of theriac or the Madura antidote. If a perspiration followed, and if their breathing became freer, I continued the same treatment, making them take theriac and warm water. If the whole mass of the blood, however, was already infected, my method of cure failed, and the patients infallibly died. The previous symptoms were blueness of the lips and around the eyes; the face became of a dark brown and white colour, and all the limbs turned rigid. The most effectual remedies which can be used in such cases are, eau de luce, and caustic alkali. These spirituous things, however, are difficult to be procured in India; because they soon evaporate, and cannot be preserved. The natives of Malabar generally employ the Alpam root, and pulverised Amelpori: they also bind up the wounded part, and cauterise the wound with a red-hot iron. The latter process is of little or no use; and for that reason this poison proves mortal to so many people, who might perhaps be saved by a different treatment.

The description given by the ancients, of the aspis, agrees exceedingly well with this serpent, and there is reason to conclude that it is the same animal[151]. The wild swine, and different kinds of fowls, however, eat them; but they always leave the head. It is not improbable, that the Kirri destroys this snake, because it sucks eggs in the same manner as it does, lies in wait for mice and bats, and consequently deprives it of its food; but, when killed, the Kirri is satisfied, and leaves it untouched. It may be rendered as tame as any domestic animal, if a little milk and sugar be daily placed before it, as is done in Malabar. It comes then every day at certain hours to eat its food; never offers the least injury to any one; and suffers itself to be taught various tricks. I saw this pastime several times, in the house of the Pennicare at Verapole, and was no longer astonished at the art of the ancient priests, who are said to have been acquainted with the method of taming snakes also. When these snakes arrive at any place where there are a great many poultry, they unite together, and range themselves in order of battle against the enemy. In this respect they seem to be guided by the same instinct which induces the buffaloes, as soon as they discover a tyger, to form themselves into a circle, with their hind parts squeezed close together, and thus to present their horns to the ravenous animal. This snake is fond of frequenting gardens where there are pineapples, by the smell of which it seems to be attracted. On the other hand, all snakes, without exception, fly from burning sulphur, and from all plants, roots, and vegetables which emit a strong smell.

Another poisonous snake is, by the natives of Malabar, called Velliketten, or Vallumi, and by some of the Europeans the ringed snake, because it has several white rings around its body. It is, however, only two palms in length, and as thick as the finger, but exceedingly poisonous. People, therefore, cannot be too much on their guard against this animal, for it enters sitting apartments, and creeps not only under tables and chairs, but even under the beds.

The spotted snake, called Maudali, is totally different from the Anelli, with which it is confounded by Father Vincentius à Sancta Catherina, who has given a description of it in the eighth chapter of the fourth book of his Voyage to the East Indies.

The snake Ettadimuken is called by the Portuguese Cobra de oitto passos, because it always contracts itself together, and then springs forwards eight paces.

The Cerattapàmba, that is, the springing snake, is of a small size, perfectly white; always holds its head erect, and, when it moves, forms its body into a bow. I found snakes of this kind on the mountains of Maleatur, where they conceal themselves under the fallen leaves.

Tevi is the name of a beautiful, small, striped snake, which hurts nobody. When one of this kind is killed, a great many of the same species resort to the place, and remain in the neighbourhood till their dead companion is removed. However incredible this circumstance may appear, it is certain that an instance of it occurred at the seminary of Ambalacatti, in the presence of at least thirty persons. I have several times been on the point of killing one of these snakes; but the Christians, as well as Pagans, always requested me for Heaven’s sake not to do it, else it would be impossible for them to remain in their houses, on account of the great number of snakes which would assemble from all quarters, and which they would not get rid of for several days. I shall leave it to naturalists to explain this singular phenomenon.

Malapàmba, or Perimpàmba, the mountain-snake, found in the Gauts, is altogether of a dark-brown colour; from thirty to forty feet in length, and as thick as a fed ox. It has no teeth; but it devours dogs, deer, cows and other animals, which it seizes by twisting itself round their bodies. The existence of this monstrous animal is beyond all doubt; for some of them have been seen at Vaypur, Cagnarapalli, and other places. Sometimes they are swept down from the mountains by the violence of the streams. I myself caused a snake of this kind to be caught, and sent it as a present to M. de l’Ormier. It was fifteen feet in length. If a person takes a spoonful of the fat of this snake, and drinks warm water afterwards, it expels the leprosy. I have in my possession a bottle filled with it.

The Irutalakuszali is a snake with two heads, whatever Charleton and others may say to the contrary. In Portuguese it is called Cobra de duas cabeças, and in Latin the Amphisbæna. M. Rosier, the commandant at Collam, shewed me two snakes of this kind, which he preserved in a glass jar. I saw one of them also in the mountains of Maleatur. It is a palm or a palm and a half in length; has the colour of withered leaves; and does not, like other snakes, creep straight forwards, but always rears one of its heads, and makes an arch with its body when it moves. Its bite always occasions a tumour filled with venom; but the poison acts very slowly, so that it is seldom or never too late to apply a remedy[152].

The most poisonous and most dangerous of all the Malabar serpents is called the Rudhiramandali. This Samscred word implies that it is spotted, and that its poison forces the blood from the bodies of those whom it wounds; for Rudhira signifies blood, and Mandali ornamented with spots. The dreadful effect of its poison is described by Lucan in the following lines:

In this horrid situation I once saw a young woman of about twenty years of age at Verapole. A great number of people earnestly requested that I would endeavour to mitigate the sufferings of this unfortunate girl; but neither theriac, volatile alkali, nor the antidote of Madura, could be of any service, and she died in the course of about three hours. The bite of this snake, therefore, produces an effect directly contrary to that produced by the bite of the asp. The latter causes the blood to coagulate, and to freeze as it were in the veins; but the former decomposes it entirely, and sets it in such a fermentation that it runs from the body, as one may say, in the same manner as boiling water from a kettle that stands over the fire. No remedy has ever yet been discovered for the bite of this animal.

No less dangerous is another snake called Polaven (not Polaga), the body of which is covered with tumours and pustules. Those unfortunate persons who are bit by it, sweat blood; but with this difference, that it oozes from the body in drops.

The Karuwaèla has on its head three knobs or excrescences, which form a comb; and three red rings round its neck. It is an ell in length, and of a shining black colour, as far as the eyes, which are of a fiery red, and sparkle with savage wildness. It is said that it can kill people merely by its look; and, if this be true, it may with propriety be called the Malabar basilisk. It is found no where but in the Gauts, from which it never descends unless when swept down by the rains.

The Cancutti is a small snake, which generally makes a spring at the eyes. I never had an opportunity of seeing this snake, or the preceding; but I was assured by the natives of Malabar, that both kinds are found in the country.

During my residence at Verapole I found snakes every where, not only in the gardens, but also in the houses, and even in the Patayas, or rice magazines. People, therefore, must be always on their guard, and keep every thing neat and clean. They must also burn frequently strong smelling substances, and such in particular as occasion a great deal of smoke and vapour; for these are the best means to drive away snakes, which generally take up their abode in places where little attention is paid to cleanliness.

It is well known, that the Indians are acquainted with a method of charming serpents, or of enticing them towards them by a certain kind of art. This operation I have several times seen, and I always observed that the whole process was perfectly natural. The people who charm the snakes rub their hands with various kinds of sweet smelling herbs, and employ at the same time the assistance of singing and music. As soon as the snake, which is acute of hearing as well as sharp-sighted, perceives what is doing, it creeps from its hole, becomes as it were inchanted, and twists itself round a slender stick which is presented to it. The charmer then takes out its poison, puts it into a basket, and carries it about through the streets, where it is made to amuse the populace with all kinds of tricks[154].

According to the Brahmanic mythology, there is a snake which surrounds the whole world. They give it the name of Sarparagia, the king of the snakes, or Vàsughi. Properly speaking it is nothing else than the Annulus Platonis, a symbol of life and death; the eternal revolution of every thing in the universe. It is well known that Plato was indebted for this idea to his preceptor Pythagoras[155], to whom it was first communicated by the Magi in India.

Among the zoophytes, or animal plants of Malabar, is the sea-nettle; called by some urtica marina, and by others flamma maris. It is a spongy body, with a hole in the middle, which is surrounded by a purple-coloured band, that forms as it were a sort of cap. In the sea, near Cochin, there are two kinds of this animal, which swim about in the same manner as the sea-star. When held in the hand it occasions a painful sensation, like that produced by the common nettles. In the Malabar language it is called Cioriunu.

Mother of pearl is employed by the Indians to make panes for their windows. They are prepared at Cape Comari, where there is a pearl fishery. The pearls themselves are not sold there by weight as in Europe, but merely by an estimation of their value. Twenty pearl-oysters may be bought for a rupee, and the purchaser is not allowed to open them till he has paid the money. If only one pearl is found in these twenty oysters, he has sufficient reason to be satisfied with his bargain; but if they contain none, he must put up with the loss.

VOYAGE
TO THE
EAST INDIES.

BOOK II.